Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966-1945

HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF POLAND, 966-1945

Foreword by Aleksander Gieysztor, Ph.D. Professor of History Warsaw University

The editors gratefully acknowledge the Alfred Jurzykowski Foundation, whose grant helped to make this book possible.

HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF POLAND, 966-1945 George I. Lerski

With special editing and emendations by Piotr Wrobel and Richard J. Kozicki

Greenwood Press Westport, Connecticut • London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lerski, Jerzy J. (Jerzy Jan). Historical dictionary of Poland, 966-1945 / George J. Lerski ; with special editing and emendations by Piotr Wrobel and Richard J. Kozicki ; [foreword by Aleksander Gieysztor]. p. cm. ISBN 0-313-26007-9 (alk. paper) 1. Poland—History—Dictionaries. I. Wrobel, Piotr. II. Kozicki, Richard J. III. Title. DK4123.L47 1996 943.8*003—dc20 94-46940 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 1996 by Halina T. Lerski All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 94-46940 ISBN: 0-313-26007-9 First published in 1996 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984). 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 In order to keep this title in print and available to the academic community, this edition was produced using digital reprint technology in a relatively short print run. This would not have been attainable using traditional methods. Although the cover has been changed from its original appearance, the text remains the same and all materials and methods used still conform to the highest book-making standards.

To Pope John Paul II The greatest Pole of our times

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CONTENTS Foreword by Aleksander Gieysztor

ix

Preface

xiii

Acknowledgments

xvii

Abbreviations

xix

Notes on the Polish Alphabet

xxi

Maps Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966-1945

xxiii 1

Bibliography

699

Index

707

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FOREWORD This encyclopedic presentation of Polish history and culture is competently and ably accomplished by the hand of George Lerski. The civilization of Poland, situated between the East and West of Europe, belongs to East-Central Europe and its main characteristic seems to be that it still generates its own culture. In Polish cultural history one also perceives the special value of its openness as a frequently realized and always vital model for social coexistence. Poland, like her southwestern and southern neighbors, acquired in the year of her baptism into the Latin rite (966) a hereditary antiquity and Mediterranean civilization basic to the political and social forms elaborated upon by early Western Europe. Preserving her traditional culture shared with the other IndoEuropean peoples as fundamental to national culture, Poland of the tenth and eleventh centuries assimilated Christianity as her universal religious and ethical system. This paved the way to the absorption and adaptation of state and social institutions of the West, and Poland drew from them cultural, literary and artistic models, creatively applying them to her own needs. During the fourteenth- and fifteenth-century political changes, Western Romanesque art reached the Wisla River, and Western Gothic art embraced the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which at first had been joined by a personal union, then reached the geographic line linking Vilna and Lvov. The next great cultural wave of the Renaissance and Baroque eras carried the forms and contents of European civilization as far as Vitebsk and Kiev, to the perimeters of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. Two special features of this federated state drew the attention of contemporaries. First was the supremacy of the law over the monarch, or the political rights and impact of the nobility or gentry (10 percent of the population) on the government, as well as the legal guarantees of the towns, including the autonomous Jewish settlements. Second was the absence of religious wars, as a result of official recognition of freedom of religions other

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FOREWORD

than the dominant Catholic one. Both these traits or features distinguished the Polish form of government from Western absolutism and Eastern despotism. The dynamism of the "Golden Age" of culture lasted up to the midseventeenth century, until the political and social crisis which caused the demise of the nobles' society, the narrowing of its horizons and the appearance of intolerance. But the century of Enlightenment opened Poland wide again to the influx of European values. Referring at the same time to national tradition, practical goals were proclaimed: "It is necessary to make the people Poles and to make the Poles citizens." The May 3 Constitution of 1791 became a manifesto of the civic society which opposed its foreign and domestic enemies in an era of national threat or menace. "Even a great nation can fall, but only the wretched can fail," was the saying after the last (1795) partition of Poland by greedy neighbors. Polish culture of the nineteenth century created values of national and universal scope. It modernized the life of a country divided into three partitions struggling for a national existence and justice in adverse circumstances. Along the paths of insurrectionist struggles at home, the European revolutions' rumblings were matched by the Poles of that period. The fates of political exiles led them to seek new homelands on several continents, as well as in the United States of America. Simultaneously, throughout the time of enslavement, Polish culture remained attractive to newcomers from Germany, Switzerland and France who settled in the Poznan region, Galicia and the Kingdom of Poland. It was also attractive to Jews, whose Polonization contributed much to the growth and development of a country adopted as their own. Independent Poland (1918-1939) was able to enrich its cultural achievements and to give them a European dimension in education, science, literature, music, and art, searching for expression of sometimes bitter knowledge of man and society. Losses inflicted on Polish culture in the 1939-1945 period in the territories of German and Soviet occupation proportionately exceeded any European magnitude. "A struggle with the Polish culture is a struggle without future." This had already been written with hope and determination in the underground press by 1940. Those years brought a firm determination for selfdefense. The time after World War II comprises the next dramatic chapter of Polish history. George Lerski's work stops on the first pages of that chapter. The reconstruction and renewal of cultural life after World War II occurred under conditions determined by the socioeconomic transformations imposed by political realities. The new territorial and social structure, very high degree of ethnic uniformity, extreme social and geographic mobility of the inhabitants, fast industrialization and urbanization all sped up cultural processes which were unable, as reflecting the entire life of the nation, to avoid numerous negative consequences. In the 1960s, the vast war damage was mostly repaired. However, while regaining the pre-war demographic level, comparable economic gains took

FOREWORD

xi

almost forty years. Meanwhile, dissemination of access to culture and mass media by the educational system produced a broad mass culture. It was not without painful intervention of ideas alien to the Polish national doctrine and politics that the creation, production and consumption of works of culture occurred. Totalitarian control by means of state patronage embraced, especially on the cusp of the 1940s and 1950s, vast areas, though in culture the socialist realism in the Polish case did not have the same sinister Sovietization consequences it had for some of Poland's neighbors. Nevertheless, ideological pressure (with the passing of years more in the form of censorship prohibitions than of orders) hampered native creativity as it did contact with Europe. The culture was sustained on various levels of activity and its creators contributed substantially to the ideological and intellectual resistance of the entire society and nation. Important and invigorating was the impact of Polish exiles in Europe and America. Once again the struggle against an open culture proved to be a struggle without a future. The 1980s brought a new time of trial and a new liberation. Open to mankind, attached to its 1,000-year-long tradition with a special position assumed by Christianity, busy with its own problems related to democratic freedom, Polish culture as an expression of the civic society at home and in the Diaspora still strives in art, literature, theater, movies and science to produce new values. It wishes to inscribe them as its own contribution to the cultural realities of a contemporary universe. It is an intensely symbolic culture creating, with the help of art, the national and creative community of Poles in the world. In the films of Andrzej Wajda and Krzysztof Zanussi, the poetry of Czeslaw Milosz, the theater of Tadeusz Kantor and Jerzy Grotowski, the music of Witold Lutoslawski and Krzysztof Penderecki, and in paintings, sculpture, and science, the uplifting of things Polish to a universal level is realized, as well as another phenomenon which characterizes any open culture, namely the assimilation of universal values as the daily bread of the Poles. For as expressed by T. S. Eliot of the universalization of any art, we discover there are three similar elements: the local tradition, the general European heritage, and the mutual influence of the art of one country on the art of another. Polish culture, seen from its millennium tradition, through its regained openness fulfills these three conditions for its existence, growth and development. The encyclopedic work of George Lerski on its truly monumental scale gives access to the ancient and recent men and women who created Polish history through its main phenomena of long and short duration, and to the crucial historical facts and the roots of present Polish culture. Prof. Dr. Aleksander Gieysztor President, Polish Academy of Science and Learning

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PREFACE In 1986, upon completion of a topical bibliography, Jewish-Polish Coexistence, I was approached by its publisher, Greenwood Press, to undertake another reference book project, namely a Historical Dictionary of Poland, with short bibliographical annotations of English language secondary sources to support some two thousand entries for the millennium of Polish history. Flattered by such a proposal, I immediately began to work on what will, I hope, become the magnum opus of my scholarly career, without realizing the immensity of the undertaking for a single author. But now, when the truly painstaking effort is over, it might be proper to explain the necessary stages and problems encountered throughout the five years devoted to the completion of this endeavor. At first I was encouraged by the kind gift of Dr. Maciej Siekierski of the Hoover Institution for War, Revolution and Peace of the sixth edition of Slownik Historii Polski, edited by seven Polish historians chaired by the late Professor Tadeusz Lepkowski and published in 1973 in then still Communist-controlled Warsaw. Unfortunately their work is seriously tinted by a Marxist-Leninist interpretation and party-oriented selection of presented personalities. While such great figures of Polish culture as Frederick Chopin or Maria Curie-Sklodowska are missing altogether, much space is allotted to third-rate Communist activists: T. Duracz, H. Grynwasser, F. Grzelszczak, W. Krajewski-Stein, B. Szapiro or his daughter, H. Szapiro-Sawicka. Therefore only a few of these source entries proved to be useful in my own selection, which, in view of the U.S. publication, had to be enlarged to include American-Polish and Jewish-Polish subject matter. I found less politically biased the thirteen volumes of Wielka Encyklopedia Powszechna (Warsaw: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1962-1970), but by far the most reliable of reference works published in Poland is definitely Polski Slownik Biograficzny, which has appeared regularly since 1935, with a six-year break during World War II. This was first published under the editorship of the late Prof. Waclaw Konopczyiiski and until 1989 under the equally competent

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PREFACE

leadership of the late Prof. Emanuel Rostworowski. Unfortunately at the moment of this writing it only covers the names up to letter R, which explains why my data concerning important personalities from letter S might be less detailed. The next problem was the time coverage. The fascinating and academically well developed field of pre-history had to be abandoned in view of the emphasis on written documentation. Greenwood Press suggested initially that the project cover Poland to the present, but as a rigid historian I agreed to take responsibility only for events till the end of World War II, lacking certainty that more than 50 percent of pertinent documents for the 1945-1990 period are available for research scholars. I prefer to leave the intriguing guesswork to the journalists and the political scientists, though I have expressed a willingness to help as a consultant anybody who will undertake the task of separate coverage of the post-World War II period. This should explain why such towering figures as the late Stefan Cardinal Wyszynski, Pope John Paul II (Karol Wojtyla) or the Nobel Prize Winners Czeslaw Milosz and Lech Walesa are not mentioned in this work, whereas the four WW II emissaries (T. Celt-Chciuk, J. Karski, J. Lerski and J. Nowak) are. The former, obviously more important, became known for their achievements only after WW II, while the latter, though lesser figures, took a significant part in Poland's struggle for independence prior to 1945. The first step in my work was careful selection of those two thousand entries. Next was the search for English-language sources to enable potential American or British scholars to learn more about the given topic than my capsulized version. I was not able, however, to supplement much more than one-half of my entries with such useful information, because the entire field of East-Central Europe remains rather terra incognita in Anglo-Saxon historiography. Moreover, the lowering of academic standards in recent decades, as far as humanities are concerned, decreased the number of solid monographic studies. Also the preponderance of Russian problems over those of other Slavic countries is increasingly evident in American academia including such important periodicals as Slavic Review, the organ of the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies (AAASS). More serious work was done on Polish history in American and British universities in the first half of this century. Most useful from that point of view proved to be The Polish Review, quarterly organ of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America, ably edited from 1956 till 1985 by the late Prof. Ludwik Krzyzanowski. Obviously some topics are better covered than others, and I decided in important cases to give more than one English

language secondary source, although many entries are only supported by Polish ones. Finally I wish to thank all those good people who helped me in the completion of the project. From this viewpoint, without the loving care and exemplary patience of my wife, Halinka, I doubt whether it would be possible to fulfill my commitment. Intelligent secretarial cum editorial work was provided up to letter S by Ksenya Zavarin, and graciously completed by the talented Marie-Alice DuMabeiller.

PREFACE

xv

I was fortunate to obtain friendly advice from a number of specialists, such as Majors Tadeusz Blichasz and Wladyslaw Chciuk for the Air Force, and S. M. Piaskowski for naval matters; Erwin Axer in performing arts, and Mrs. Zofia Machnowska in visual arts; Prof. Andrzej Brzeski and Prof. Jerzy Tomaszewski in the field of economics; the Reverend Prof. Andrzej Woznicki in philosophy; and last but not least Mr. Al Ross in generous technical care for my exhausted computer. Yes, they were all very helpful, but all shortcomings and possible inaccuracies are solely my own fault. A special debt of gratitude is owed to Poland's foremost medievalist and President of the country's Academy of Learning (PAN), Professor Aleksander Gieysztor, for his penetrating foreword. Dr. George J. Lerski Professor Emeritus of East-Central European History University of San Francisco Spring 1992

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I write this with a mixture of sadness and joy in lieu of my beloved late husband, Dr. George J. Lerski. He devoted five years of his life to completing the original manuscript of the Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966-1945, a project ordinarily undertaken by a team of scholars. But he died in September 1992, before its final editing and publication. It has fallen to others to complete his singular work. In addition to those fine persons noted in his Preface, I would like to add words of thanks to several others. First and foremost, I want to pay tribute to my dear husband, Dr. George J. Lerski. He was a generous and loving husband, in addition to being a renowned historian, a community leader and a Polish patriot. Dr. Lerski was a unique and dynamic personality who moved all those around him. I will always cherish my time with him. Let this book be a memorial to him and his contribution to Polish history. Also, special recognition and sincere thanks are due Dr. Piotr Wrobel, who is now with the Department of History at the University of Toronto. While in California during 1993-1994, and even after, he worked hard and skillfully for over one year to ensure that proper editing and emendations were made to the original manuscript. His profound knowledge of Polish history and genuine identity with his native Poland surely sustained him in this demanding task. Working closely with Dr. Wrobel and me throughout this period has been a dear friend and colleague of my late husband, Dr. Richard J. Kozicki, Professor Emeritus of Politics and Asian Studies at the University of San Francisco. He has diligently performed an essential dual role: project director and general polisher ("small /?," he always said) of the final English-language text. It would have been impossible without his expertise, guidance and friendship. Dr. Kozicki wishes to record his great appreciation of the splendid collaboration which he enjoyed with Dr. Wrobel, and of his rich command of the history of Poland.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Dr. Kozicki, Dr. Wrobel and I also express our thanks to Dr. Anna Cienciala, Professor of History, University of Kansas, for her informed comments on parts of the edited manuscript. For her patience, comments and encouragement, a real vote of thanks must be given to Cynthia Harris, Executive Editor, Reference Books, Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., and to its editorial staff. Various expenses were incurred during the final editing phase of the project. Happily, they were largely met by a generous grant received from the Alfred Jurzykowski Foundation, Inc., of New York. This is gratefully acknowledged. Related to this grant has been the full and kind support provided by the Dean's Office, College of Arts and Sciences, University of San Francisco. Finally, but certainly not least, quiet thanks to the considerate and helpful library staffs at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University, and the University of San Francisco. They know how important they are. Mrs. Halina T. Lerski San Francisco, California September 1994

ABBREVIATIONS CHP

Cambridge History of Poland, ed. by W. F. Reddaway et al., 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1941-1950).

EHGP

Encyklopedia Historii Gospodarczej Polski (Encyclopedia of Economic History of Poland), ed. by A. Maczak et al., 2 vols. (Warsaw, 1981).

PSB

Polski Slownik Biograficzny (Polish Biographical Dictionary), 33 vols. (Cracow, Warsaw, 1935-1994).

SBTP

Slownik Biograficzny Teatru Polskiego (Biographical Dictionary of Polish Theater) (Warsaw, 1973).

SHP

Slownik Historii Polski (Dictionary of Polish History), ed. by T. Lepkowski et al. (Warsaw, 1973). Wielka Encyklopedia Powszechna (Great Universal Encyclopedia), 13 vols. (Warsaw, 1962-1970).

WEP

An asterisk (*) indicates that an individual name, event, or term appears as an entry in this book.

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NOTES ON THE POLISH ALPHABET The Polish alphabet consists of thirty-two letters: a, a, b, c, c, d, e, e, f, g, h, i, j , k, 1, 1, m, n, ri, o, 6, p, r, s, s, t, u, w, y, z, z, z. The entries of this dictionary are arranged in the sequence of the Polish alphabet. Accordingly, letters with diacritical markings (for example, Lodz) follow the ordinary English alphabet letters. The Polish letters are pronounced in the following way: g and e are nasals and correspond, respectively, to the French on (=a) and ain (=e). The nearest English equivalents are the vowel sounds in don 7 and sand, without the n that follows being heard separately. a is pronounced like a in art c like ts in its e like ai in air g like g in good h and ch like h in hard i like ee in been j like y in you / like / in battle

6 and u like w in full w like v in never y like / in fin, tin, but guttural rz and z like zA in Brezhnev cz like tocA or ch in chalk sz like sh in shop c, n, s and z like soft c, n, s, and z followed by y

n like ng in singing Because of variations in the spelling of Polish names and terms, consultation of the index for helpful cross-references is advised.

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MAPS

All maps are courtesy of Norman J. G. Pounds.

Poland at the time of Boleslaw Chrobry (c. A.D. 1000)

Poland at the time of Kazimierz the Great (Wielki) c. 1350

xxiv

Poland and Lithuania in thefifteenthcentury: routes, ports, and commercial towns

The Partitions of Poland, 1772-95 xxv

The territory of Poland, 1815-1918

Poland after the Fourth Partition (main changes 1939-45)

HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF POLAND, 966-1945

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A ABRAHAM, ROMAN (1891-1976), General. A lieutenant of the Austrian Army during WW I, he joined the Polish Army and participated in the PolishUkrainian fighting in Lvov* in November 1918. He also fought in the PolishSoviet War of 1919-1921* and, then, served in the Polish Army throughout the entire interwar period. Taken prisoner of war during the September Campaign of 1939,* he spent the years 1939-1945 in a German POW camp. T. KryskaKarski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independ Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 71. ABRAMOWSKI, EDWARD (1868-1918), philosopher, sociologist, theorist and one of the founders of the cooperative movement in Poland. Active in the party known as the Second Proletariat* and various socialist organizations, he participated in the founding congress of the Polish Socialist Party* (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]). During 1894-1897, he changed his attitude toward Marxism and became interested in syndicalism, cooperativism, and anarchism. He advocated socialist reconstruction through voluntary cooperation associations and organized the "Association of Cooperativists" (Towarzystwo Kooperatystow) in Poland. He popularized a theory of a general strike as the best weapon against reactionary governments and claimed that the social revolution should be preceded by a "moral revolution." From 1915, Abramowski was a professor of psychology at Warsaw University. Author of many theoretical works, he attempted to create a psychological theory of the subconscious. Unlike S. Freud, Abramowski tried to support his theory with experimentation, avoiding metaphysical speculation on the subject. A. Ris, "Edward Abramowski's Social and Political Thought," Masters of Polish Sociology, ed. by P. Sztompka (Warsaw, 1984); PSB, I, 16-18; WEP, I, 11-12. ABSOLUTUM DOMINIUM (unlimited power), term used by gentry to refer to a ruler's striving for strengthening of his power in the Commonwealth, thus

4

ACADEMY OF LEARNING

limiting the gentry's "Golden Freedom." Under the banner of struggle against Absolutum Dominium, until the Partitions,* part of the nobility demonstrated against political reforms or growth of permanent armed forces. CHP, I, 250-272. ACADEMY OF LEARNING. See POLISH ACADEMY OF LEARNING. ACT OF NOVEMBER 5,1916, proclamation of an "independent" Polish state made by the German and Austrian Emperors during WW I. The Russians left about one million unmobilized men on the territory of the former Congress Kingdom of Poland,* occupied by Germany and Austria from the summer of 1915. The Central Powers, which had growing problems with recruiting new soldiers in their countries, decided to use the Polish resources. International law and practical matters did not allow them to organize a conscription in the occupied territories. Therefore, Berlin and Vienna tried to encourage the Poles to organize a volunteer army. The newly announced Kingdom of Poland was to be established on the territories of the former Congress Kingdom and allied with the Central Powers. It was described as a "hereditary and constitutional Monarchy" and its army was to be organized under the joint control of the German and Austrian Governors-General of occupied central Poland. On December 6, they announced the establishment of a Provisional Council of State, which was to be an advisory body helping the German and Austrian authorities. The future borders of that "independent" Kingdom were not described and the whole con-

cept was vague. A large section of the Polish public was disappointed. However,

activist politicians generally welcomed the proclamation. CHP, II, 467; The History

of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 120.

ACTIVISTS, Polish adherents to the Central Powers during WW I. They saw the opportunity for recreating the Polish state on the basis of the Act of Nov. 5, 1916.* Originally, activists included the leaders of the National Union of Workers (Narodowy Zwiazek Robotniczy), National Union of Peasants (Narodowy Zwiazek Chlopski), the Polish Socialist Party-Revolutionary Fraction (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna-Frakcja Rewolucyjna),* and part of the landowners. W. Sukiennicki, East Central Europe during WW I (Boulder, Colorado, 198 ADA SARI (original name Jadwiga Szayer) (1886-1968), soprano. She sang in Milan's La Scala, in Rome, Venice, Lvov and the operas of North and South America. In 1936, she accepted an engagement with the Warsaw Opera. During WW II, she devoted herself to teaching singers in Warsaw* and Cracow.* SBTP 233-234. ADALBERT, SAINT (original name Vojtech; in Polish: Wojciech) (956-997), the first Bishop of Prague of Czech origin (elected 982). Descended from the Slavik Princes, he left Prague because of a conflict between his family and Czech monarchs of the Pfemyslide dynasty. He lived as a Benedictine* friar in

ADAMSKI, STANISLAW

5

Rome and, after 994, invited by the Polish ruler Boleslaw Chrobry (the Brave),* he became a missionary among the pagan Prussians. He made converts in the Gdansk (Danzig)* area, but he also met with opposition, was regarded as a Polish spy and was told to leave. He was martyred when he refused to abandon his mission. St. Adalbert was canonized in 999 as the first "Polish saint," and his body was enshrined in 1000 in Gniezno,* but, in 1039, the relics were transferred by force to Prague. He was close to the German Emperor Otto III* and supported Otto's scheme for a major reform of the Holy Roman Empire. St. Adalbert's biography was written by his friend and disciple, St. Bruno of Querfurt. F. Dvornik, "The Role of Bohemia and St. Adalbert in the Spread of Christianity in Poland," Polish Review V/4 (1960), 15-28; L. Nemec, "The New Historical Portrait of St. Adalbert," Polish Review VII/2 (1962), 41-64. ADAM, ERNEST (1868-1926), civic activist. As a law student of Lvov University, he successfully chaired the secret National Youth Movement in Eastern Galicia* and was active also in the Falcon-Matrix Organization ("SokolMacierz"). In 1890, he moved to Cracow,* where he edited Nowa Reforma and worked as a secretary of the committee to celebrate the centennial of the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* He initiated the People's School Association (Towarzystwo Szkoly Ludowej). In 1896, he returned to Lvov,* where he worked for the Chamber of Commerce and Industry and founded the credit co-ops. In 1910, they developed into the Galician Bank of Credit, of which Adam became Director-in-Chief. From 1896, he belonged to the National League (Liga Narodowa),* edited its press organ, and was active in the National Treasury (Skarb Narodowy). In 1919, he became a member of the Constituent Diet. In interwar Poland, he presided over the Society for Commercial Schools and the Polish Loan Association. He was also involved in land reform,* and, in 1922, he was elected to the Senate,* where he served until his death in a commission on state debts. PSB, I, 21-23. ADAMPOL (Polonezkoy), Polish settlement near Istanbul, Turkey, established in 1835 with the idea of buying land for the exiles of the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. In 1945, there were still about five hundred Polish-speaking Catholics in Adampol. WEP, I, 29. ADAMSKI, STANISLAW (1875-1967), Bishop of Silesia* from 1926. Rightof-center political activist associated with the Christian Democratic Party ("Chadecja"), he was also involved in the co-op movement, serving as Patron Chairman of the Union of Income Partnerships (Zwiazek Spolek Zarobkowych). He vigorously opposed the class struggle approach. During WW II, he recommended that young men who had enlisted in the German Army in Silesia annexed to the Third Reich should not risk refusing to serve. His advice was condemned by the Underground State. WEP, I, 29.

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ADAMUS POLONUS

ADAMUS POLONUS (7-1514), physician and scholar, professor and Rector (1510-1511) of Cracow Academy, Court physician of King Zygmunt I Stary* (Sigismund I the Old). An early Renaissance thinker with anti-scholastic views, he belonged to a movement of the renewal of Platonic ideas. In his Dialogus di Quattro Statuum, Immortalitem Contentione (ca. 1505), he claimed that true immortality is humanity as a whole, and that married people are especially predestined to immortality, as they contribute to the immortality of humanity. PSB, I, 20. ADELAJDA (?-997), sister or daughter of Mieszko I.* Already Christian, she became the second wife of the Hungarian pagan ruler Gejza of the Arpad dynasty. According to later tradition, Adelajda was partly responsible for the baptism of Hungary. Her marriage marks the first Polish-Hungarian dynastic link. Her son, St Stephen, became King of Hungary and the founder of its Christianity. W. Hensel, The Beginnings of the Polish State (Warsaw, 1960); P. Jasienica, Piast Poland (Miami, 1985); PSB, I, 28. ADWENTOWICZ, KAROL (1871-1958), one of the greatest Polish actors. He began acting in 1894 in Radom,* and then performed in Cz^stochowa* and Warsaw.* In 1900, he was employed by Lvov* Theater and, in 1912, by Cracow's* Siowacki Theater. Active in the Polish Social-Democratic Party (Polska Partia Socjal-Demokratyczna [PPSD]),* he organized Workers' Theaters. In August 1914, he volunteered for the Polish Legions.* In 1915-1929, he played mainly in Warsaw, and then, directed several theaters in Lodz* and Warsaw. During WW II, he earned a living in the actors' cafe "Znachor" in Warsaw, also participating in the resistance and the 1944 Warsaw Uprising.* He was temporarily jailed by the Germans in Pawiak* prison. SBTP, I, 237. AGRARIAN REFORM, in interwar Poland defined by the Sejm* legislation of July 10, 1919. Its purpose was compulsory lotting out of big estates for remuneration. Maximal space of land property was limited from sixty to four hundred hectares, the rest to be divided among peasants. On July 15, 1920, the Sejm passed a bill that excessive land was to be sold for half of market price, and on July 20, 1925, it decided that at least 200,000 hectares of the land should be parceled yearly from private, state and Church estates, the buyers paying market value. In the 1918-1938 period, 2,654,800 hectares were lotted out. The main organizer of the Reform was a Minister of Agriculture, J. Poniatowski.* A total of 734,000 farm units were thus created, some 800,000 fragmented homesteads unified, and more than 550,000 hectares substantially improved. SHP, 402.

AGRARIANISM, social doctrine and related movement, originating in midnineteenth-century Germany and claiming that smallholders form the social and moral strength of a nation, capable of building a new social system. It became

AIR FORCE

7

known in Poland at the beginning of the twentieth century. Its main proponents were S. Milkowski, J. Niecko, and I. Solarz. Most radical concepts called for the division of large estates among small landholders without remuneration, together with nationalization of large industries. These ideas were first voiced by the "Zaranie" (Daybreak) movement, but in its most progressive form the doctrine was adopted as a platform of the peasant youth movement "Wici"* (call-to-arms). T. Cieplak, "Polish Agrarian Movement, 1875-1939," Polish Review XXII/2 (1977), 3-28. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY (Towarzystwo Rolnicze), established in Warsaw in 1856 with the permission of Tsar Alexander II* and headed by Count A. Zamoyski.* It opposed A. Wielopolski's* policy of close cooperation with Russia and attracted as members several thousand landowners, who were willing to improve agricultural techniques and to abolish labor services in a manner advantageous to the gentry. These goals could not be achieved without St. Petersburg's support. Therefore, Zamoyski and his advisers had no intention of antagonizing the government by presenting political demands, though the "Reds"* party tried to force the society to turn radical. CHP, II, 376. AGUDAT YISRAEL (League of Israel), Jewish conservative movement initiated in 1909 in Vienna and supporting the maintenance of the traditional religious way of life as a better solution than the creation of a secular Jewish state in the Holy Land, which, like the revival of Hebrew as a secular language, was considered sacrilegious. Agudat, popular among Hasidic and Orthodox believers, insisted that Jews* were primarily a religious people, not a modern nationality in need of political sovereignty or even secular national autonomy. In interwar Poland, Agudat became the strongest Jewish group in the Parliament, loyal to the Polish state and a type of umbrella federation of youth, women, labor and commercial organizations very influential in the Jewish communities. Encyclopedia Judaica (Jerusalem, 1971), II, 421-426. AIR FORCE, created after WW I, it took part in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. Later based on domestic production of airplanes and composed of six Regiments, it was commanded first by Gen. W. Zagorski,* then by Gen. L. Rayski* and, on the eve of WW II, by Gen. W. Kalkus. The main pilot school was in Deblin. The Air Force achieved international fame in gliding and freeflying balloons, but did not possess sufficient numbers of modern fighter or bomber planes. In September 1939, the Germans began the war with destruction of airports and railroad junctions. The Air Force resisted the Nazis, inflicting heavy losses (150 German planes shot down), but was overwhelmed. Reborn in France, it participated in a campaign in 1940 but played a major role in the Battle of Britain, destroying 13 percent (over 200) of German aircraft, when Great Britain had an acute shortage of pilots. It developed to sixteen squadrons and suffered heavy losses of more than 1,000 Polish airmen, especially in bomb-

8

AJDUKIEWICZ, KAZIMIERZ

ing expeditions. Altogether about 1,000 enemy planes were shot down by the Poles in WW II. J. Cynk, History of the Polish Air Force (London, 1972); E. Jablori Air War, 1939-1945: Outraged Skies; Wings of Fire (London, 1 AJDUKIEWICZ, KAZIMIERZ (1890-1963), philosopher, eminent representative of the Lvov-Warsaw school* of logicians. Interested in a wide range of subjects, he gave perhaps the earliest formulation of the deduction theorem for elementary logic (1920). He studied mathematics, physics and philosophy in Lvov* and Gottingen, and taught at Lvov (1922-1926; 1928-1940) and Warsaw* (1926-1928). His main interests were epistemology and methodology. The basis for his reasoning was the analysis of languages, in which he emphasized the existence of conventions in any given language. J. Bochenski, "On the Syntactical Categories," New Scholasticism XXIII (1949), 257-280; Z. Jordan, The Dev opment of Mathematical Logic and Logical Positivism in Poland between the Tw (London, 1945). AK (Armia Krajowa [Home Army]), world's largest underground movement during WW II (350,000 soldiers under oath), preceded by the Service to Poland's Victory (Sluzba Zwyci^stwu Polski [SZP]) and the Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ]).* The latter united with several other anti-German conspiracies and was renamed AK on February 14, 1942. Its first Commander, Gen. Stefan "Grot" Rowecki,* caught and killed by the Nazis, was succeeded by Gen. T. Bor-Komorowski,* who led the AK through the "Burza" (Tempest) operations against withdrawing German forces, which culminated in the sixty-three-day-long Warsaw Uprising* in the summer of 1944. Taken as prisoner of war, Bor was succeeded by Gen. L. Okulicki,* who had to dissolve AK in February 1945 and was kidnapped by the Soviet police for the Moscow trial of sixteen underground leaders in June 1945. J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland 1939-1947 (Leicester, 1986); T. "Bor" Komorowski, The Secret Army (London, 1950); S. Korboriski, Fighting Warsaw (New York, 1956); S. Korbonski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978).

AKCYZA (excise), indirect tax imposed by state authorities on certain articles of consumption, paid by producers and included in the price of the item. In prePartition Poland it had existed since 1459 for beer, wine and mead. Reorganized in 1629 and 1658, it was imposed on all goods in trade. After the Partitions,* it was adjusted to the fiscal systems of Russia, Prussia,* and Austria. In the interwar period, it was maintained for traditional goods plus gasoline, automobiles and yeast. CHP, I, 441-451. AL (Armia Ludowa [People's Army]), underground military organization created on January 1, 1944, by decree of the Communist Homeland National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa [KRN]). It received weapons by air from Russia and totaled 14,000 men at its peak. Its main component was the existing

ALEKSANDER JAGIELLONCZYK

9

People's Guard (Gwardia Ludowa [GL]) of the Polish Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza [PPR]).* The AL Staff Command were also members of the PPR. Its Commander-in-Chief was Gen. M. Zymierski ("Rola").* The AL was actively contested by the radical rightist National Armed Forces (Narodowe Sily Zbrojne [NSZ])* and opposed by the AK.* Full cooperation of the AL with the Red Army was established in August 1944 with the task of destroying German communications and magazines behind the front. The AL claims that in almost 900 of its operations, it killed 20,000 German soldiers, derailed 350 trains, and blew up seventy-nine bridges. The AL also took a minor part in the Warsaw Uprising.* By the KRN decree of July 21, 1944, together with the Polish Army organized in Russia, it became the foundation of the post-WW II Polish armed forces. J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland 1939-1947 (Leicester, 1986), 113-12 S. Korbonski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978), 110-113.

ALBERT (7-1317), Mayor of Cracow* during 1290-1312. In 1311, with German-speaking burghers, he organized a revolt against King Wladyslaw Lokietek,* attempting to establish in Poland the rule of the Luxembourg dynasty. He died in Czech exile. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 9 104; PSB, I, 43-44. ALBRECHT HOHENZOLLERN (1490-1568), Margrave of Brandenburg and the last Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights* (1511-1525). His mother Zofia was a daughter of King Kazimierz Jagiellonczyk (Casimir Jagiellon).* He struggled with Poland for the independence of the Knights. Advised by Luther, he became a Lutheran and reorganized Prussia* as a secular Principality with a hereditary ruler. This was accepted by Poland in the treaty signed on April 8, 1525, in Cracow.* Two days later he paid feudal homage to King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old)* on behalf of newly created Ducal Prussia.* A good administrator, he founded the University of Konigsberg in 1544. CHP, I, 300-322; P. Jasienica, Jagiellonian Poland (Miami, 1978); PSB, I, 48-52.

ALEKSANDER JAGIELLONCZYK (1461-1506), Grand Duke of Lithuania* from 1492, later King of Poland, the fourth son of King Kazimierz Jagiellonczyk (Casimir Jagiellon).* Losing the war that Lithuania* waged against Muscovy from 1500, Aleksander agreed to a joint Polish-Lithuanian election,* which deprived the Jagiellonian dynasty of automatic heritage in Lithuania. In 1501, he acquired the Polish throne after the death of his older brother, Jan Olbracht (John Albert).* He continued the war, but lost the Smolensk* territory. He showed good sense in his nominations of state officials and had the support of younger gentry leaders. Aleksander made further concessions to Polish magnates in the so-called Mielnicki Privilege, which caused opposition of the lower gentry, and, eventually, was not accepted. At the 1504 Piotrkow Diet, the nobles protested against holding more than one high-ranking position (Incompatibilia controversy) and against the distribution of Crown lands. At the 1505 Radom

10

ALEXANDER I ROMANOV

Diet, Aleksander was forced to accept a constitution called Nihil novi (Latin: nothing new),* which confirmed all the previous gentry privileges and stipulated, among other things, that neither the King nor his successors would be allowed to establish new laws without a consensus of the Polish Parliament. CHP, I, 250-273; P. Jasienica, Jagiellonian Poland (Miami, 1978); Poczet krolow ksiaiat polskich (The Register of Polish Kings"and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw 1978), 316-326; PSB, I, 58-61. ALEXANDER I ROMANOV (1777-1825), Tsar of Russia (1801-1825) and King of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* (1815-1825). During the Napoleonic wars, he was alternately an ally and an enemy of Napoleon, but eventually he helped defeat France and participated in the Congress of Vienna,* where he received three-fourths of the Duchy of Warsaw,* set it up as a kingdom with himself as a King, and authored its constitution. In his youth a liberal, Alexander was a close friend of Prince A. J. Czartoryski,* who served as his main adviser and as a Foreign Minister of Russia. After ascending to the Polish throne, Alexander gave amnesty to all Poles deported after the Partitions,* and created an educational district in Vilna* with Czartoryski as a curator. This was extended to the entire Russian part of Poland and helped the spread of Polish culture. Initially, Alexander was popular in Poland, but later he disregarded his own constitution and fought the Polish opposition. M. K. Dziewanowski, Alexander I:

Russia's Mysterious Tsar (New York, 1990); The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 1 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1976), 126-132; PSB, I, 61-63; F. Thackeray, Antecedents of Revolution: Alexander I and the Polish Kingdom, 1815-1825 (New York, 1980).

ALEXANDER II ROMANOV (1818-1881), Tsar of Russia and King of Poland (1855-1881). He started liberal reforms in Russia after the Crimean War, but on the occasion of his coronation in Warsaw* he warned the Poles against their freedom aspirations. Later, the 1863 January Insurrection* strongly affected his policies. The Poles were suppressed, but taking advantage of the uprising, the Tsar managed to force a wedge by emancipating the Polish peasantry from serfdom in 1863, as he did in Russia in 1861. He was assassinated by the Polish revolutionary I. Hryniewiecki.* E. Almedingen, The Emperor Alexander 11 (London, 1962); The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 1 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1976), 132-140. ALEXANDER III ROMANOV (1845-1894), Tsar of Russia and King of Poland (1881-1894), the second son of Alexander II.* Of limited intellectual abilities and interests, he was an opponent of representative government and a staunch supporter of Russian nationalism. In the history of Poland, the period of his reign was marked by intense Russification and persecution of all things Polish, and the name "Congress Kingdom of Poland"* was changed to "Pri-

ANCONA

11

vislansky Kray" (Vistula Land). The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and S History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 1 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1976), 140-148. ALTER, WIKTOR (1890-1942), socialist and leader of the Jewish Bund.* Born into a wealthy Hasidic* family and educated in Belgium, a gifted journalist and writer, he was elected a Warsaw* Alderman in 1927. After the occupation of Eastern Poland by the Red Army, Alter was arrested by the NKVD in Kowel, deported to Siberia, and released in the summer of 1941 as a Polish citizen after the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement.* Re-arrested together with his comrade H. Erlich* in December 1942 for "hostile activities" against the USSR, he was sentenced to capital punishment. The Case of Henryk Erlich and Victor Alter (Lond 1943); Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 2 (Jerusalem, 1971), 7 ALTMARK, a small town near Gdansk* (Danzig) where the six-years' truce between Sweden and Poland was signed on September 26, 1609. As a result, the Swedes retained the territories on the Vistula Lagoon up to Klajpeda and Pilawa together with Livonia* up to the River Dvina. They secured the right to collect custom taxes in Gdansk (Danzig), which hurt Polish trade. The towns of Hawa, Sztum and Malbork* passed in sequestration to the Brandenburg Elector. CHP, I, 475-488. ALVENSLEBEN CONVENTION, Prussian-Russian agreement of February 8, 1863, signed in St. Petersburg on Bismarck's initiative to suppress Polish insurrection in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* Prussia* was represented by Gen. G. Alvensleben. The agreement authorized Russian and Prussian Armies to transgress the frontiers freely while fighting the insurgents and was protested by France and England, which for a time treated the uprising as an international problem. CHP, II, 409-432. AMBER ROUTE, term referring to a yellow, sometimes reddish or brownish fossil resin of vegetable origin, translucent, brittle and capable of gaining a negative electrical charge by friction, used as an insulator but mainly appreciated by women as an attractive semi-precious stone. As such, it was sought on the south coast of the Baltic Sea from pre-historic days by traveling merchants who crossed Polish plains on their way from and to the Adriatic or Black Sea. The Amber Route is mentioned by the ancient writers Tacitus and Plinius. J. Grabowska, Polish Amber (Warsaw, 1983). AMERICAN POLONIA. See POLONIA. ANCONA, Italian port liberated from Nazi occupation by the Polish Armed Forces on July 18, 1944, as part of the clearing of the Adriatic coast by Allied Forces. The commanding officer of the battle was Col. K. Rudnicki.* W. Anders,

12

ANCZYC, WLADYSLAW

An Army in Exile: The Story of the Second Polish Corps (London, 1949); K. Rudn The Last of the War-Horses (London, 197 ANCZYC, WLADYSLAW (1823-1883), writer, chemistry and pharmacology professor of Jagiellonian University* in Cracow.* He took part in the 1848 Revolution and was jailed by the Austrians. He translated Robinson Crusoe into Polish, edited satirical magazines, and wrote comedies for children, libretti for operettas and the first Polish stage folk shows. He became involved in book selling and established his own printing shop in Cracow. His main works were a poem, Tyrteusz, and a spectacular play, Kosciuszko pod Raclawicami. PSB, I, 92-94. ANDERS, WLADYSLAW (1892-1970), Army officer and General, who commanded the Polish forces in Russia, the Middle East and Italy during WW II. From 1914 to 1917, he served in the Russian Army. After the February Revolution in Russia, he served in the Polish Army Corps in the East under Gen. J. Dowbor-Musnicki.* In interwar Poland, he was promoted to several important Army positions, and he studied at the Ecole Superieure de Guerre in Paris (1921-1923). He opposed the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat* and, as a consequence, his advancement was slowed. In September 1939, Anders was in charge of the operational Cavalry Group and fought both Nazis and Soviets. He was wounded, taken prisoner by the Red Army, and interned in Moscow's Lubianka Prison. Released after the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement* in September 1941, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Armed Forces in Russia with the rank of Lieutenant-General. After the 1942 evacuation via Iran, Iraq and Palestine, he became commander of the Polish Second Army Corps,* which took a decisive part in Hitler's defeat in Italy. His main achievement was the victory of Monte Cassino,* which opened the way to Rome for the Allies in May 1944. In the last stages of the war, Anders commanded all Polish Forces in the West. W. Anders, An Army in Exile (London, 1954); T. Kryska-Karski and S.

Zurakowski, Generatowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (W saw, 1991), 23.

ANDRIOLLI, MICHAL (1836-1893), illustrator. Born into a Polish-Italian family, he completed Art School in St. Petersburg and St. Luke's Academy in Rome. He participated in the January Insurrection* of 1863 and operated with his guerrilla unit in the Kowno region, but, chased by Tsarist authorities, he tried to hide in St. Petersburg and Moscow. Arrested, he escaped from prison and moved to Paris. In 1866, he was rearrested trying to return to Poland across the Prut River and sentenced to 15 years of forced labor in Viatka, but he was released in 1871. He returned to Warsaw,* where he became an illustrator for the magazines Klosy and Tygodnik Hustrowany. His illustrations are important in Polish national classic literature. PSB, I, 95-96.

ANIELEWICZ, MORDECHAI

13

ANDRUSZOW, a village near Smolensk* where a truce was signed on January 30, 1669. It terminated the Russian-Polish war which began in 1634. Russia regained the Smolensk and Chernigov-Seversky regions, the Ukrainian lands on the left bank of the Dnieper and the city of Kiev. The truce marked the end of Polish eastward expansion, the beginning of the shrinking of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth,* and the switch of Cossack* allegiance from the Polish King to the Tsar. CHP, I, 528. ANDRZEJ BOBOLA, SAINT (1591-1657), Jesuit* martyr canonized in 1938. He became a Jesuit in 1611 in Vilna* and was active in missionary education in the marshy region of Polesie.* Well versed in the teachings of the Church Fathers, he was involved in Pirisk* with Orthodox theologians. Captured by the Cossacks,* he died a martyr on May 16, 1657. His body was buried in a crypt in Pirisk. It was miraculously preserved undecayed, thereby triggering his cult in Poland, Austria and Germany. In 1808, the body was transported to Polotsk, desecrated by the Bolsheviks after the Revolution, and placed as a curiosity in the Museum of Medical Hygiene in Moscow. Recovered by Pope Pius XI, it was buried in II Gesu Church in Rome. Butler's Lives of the Saints, vol. II (Ne York, 1956), 363-364; PSB, I, 101-102. ANGERS, a city in the province of Anjou, France. Established in the twelfth century, it is a center of the textile and wine industries. The capital of the Valois rulers, it served as the seat of the Polish Government-in-Exile* till the debacle of France (October 1939-June 1940). J. Lerski, "Emigracyjny Rzad Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej, 1939-1945," Wysilek Zbrojny w II Wojnie Swiatowej, ed. by S. Biegariski (London, 1988). ANGLO-POLISH AGREEMENT (August 25, 1939), formal act of alliance and mutual military assistance signed in London by Count E. Raczynski,* Ambassador of Poland, and Lord Halifax, British Foreign Secretary, as an immediate reaction to the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact.* It implemented the secret agreement signed by the two governments on April 6, 1939, on the occasion of Poland's Foreign Minister J. Beck's* visit to London. This followed Prime Minister N. Chamberlain's March 31 Declaration concerning British military assistance for Poland in case of grave danger to its independence. The Agreement took Hitler by surprise. Though it became the initial cornerstone of the WW II Alliance, only the Polish side stood loyally by Great Britain, expecting reciprocity. Special addenda dealing with the use of the Polish Armed Forces* were signed during the war: on June 11, 1940, August 5, 1940, and April 6, 1944. W. Kulski, "The Anglo-Polish Agreement of Aug. 25,1939: Highlight of My Diplomatic Career," Polish Review XXI/1-2 (1976), 23-40. ANIELEWICZ, MORDECHAI (1919-1943), activist of the Hashomer Hazair (left-wing Zionist-Socialist youth organization), and, from November 1942,

14

ANNA JAGIELLONKA

Commander of the Jewish Fighting Organization (Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa [ZOB])* in Warsaw Ghetto.* He was killed in the bunker of ZOB headquarters at 18 Mila Street on May 8, 1943, during the Ghetto uprising. R. Ainsztein, The Warsaw Ghetto Revolt (New York, 1979); Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 1 (New York, London, 1990), 44-47; Y. Suhl, They Fought Back (New York, 1967). ANNA JAGIELLONKA (1523-1596), Queen of Poland as the wife of King Stefan Batory.* A sister of the last Jagiellonian King, Zygmunt August (Sigismund Augustus),* after his death, she was involved in the royal elections of 1574, 1576, and 1586 and provided an element of dynastic continuity during the chaotic Interregna. CHP, I, 297, passim; PSB, I, 128-133. ANTEMURALE, concept referring to Roman Catholic countries in Central Europe, such as Hungary and Poland, which—according to the concept—carried the main burden of defending Christian Europe against the onslaught of pagan Tatars* and Muslim Turks from the Middle Ages until the Battle of Vienna* in 1683. Partisans of the concept also claim that when Central Europe was forced to fight the infidels, the Western European countries were able to expand their colonial empires. O. Halecki, Borderlands of Western Civilization: A History of Central Europe (New York, 1952 ANTI-SEMITISM, a term coined in nineteenth-century Germany, although anti-Semitism has been practiced since the Middle Ages. Initially, it centered around alleged collective Jewish responsibility for the killing of Christ, and its forms were legal and economic discrimination against Jews.* The most vicious anti-Semitism was preached in late-nineteenth-century Germany by J. de Gobineau and H. S. Chamberlain. Polish anti-Semitism was related to religious motives and the gentry's disrespectful attitude toward Jews. The main theoretician of anti-Semitism in Poland was the founder of National Democracy (Endeks),* R. Dmowski.* He found a large following among students, artisans and shopkeepers. Frustrated by defeat in the 1912 elections to the fourth Russian Duma,* Dmowski proclaimed a boycott of Jewish business. During the interwar period his party and its semi-fascist splinter groups (ONR* and Falanga*) arranged assaults and riots and demanded Jewish enrollments be reduced at Polish universities. Polish peasant parties were also unfriendly or hostile toward Jews. The prewar regime embraced some of the anti-Semitic ideas of Dmowski, such as the demand for mass emigration from Poland and economic restrictions. During WW II, some underground political parties and numerous individuals remained indifferent to the Holocaust. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 1

(New York, London, 1990), 55-74; Y. Gutman and S. Krakowski, Unequal Victims:

Poles and Jews during World War II (New York, 1986); E. Mendelshon, "Interwar Poland: Good for the Jews or Bad for the Jews?" The Jews in Poland, ed. by Ch. Abramsky, M. Jachimczyk and A. Polonsky (Oxford, 1986).

ARCTOWSKI, HENRYK

15

ARA (American Relief Administration), established in 1919 by President Wilson and led by H. Hoover until its dissolution in 1923. This was a major humanitarian American operation in Europe, and the greatest American involvement in Polish affairs. Hundreds of American welfare workers distributed aid all over Poland, where over one million children were being fed each day for three years. H. Fisher and S. Brooks, America and the New Poland (New York, 1928); G. Lerski, Herbert Hoover and Poland: A Documentary History of a Friendship (Stan ford, California, 1977). ARCISZEWSKI, KRZYSZTOF (1592-1656), General of Artillery and Arian* Protestant. He completed military studies in England, Germany and Holland and served in the French and Dutch Army, where he was appointed Artillery General and Admiral. In 1646, Arciszewski became head of the Polish Royal Artillery, which reached its zenith in pre-Partition Poland under his command. PSB,1,151154. ARCISZEWSKI, TOMASZ (1877-1955), Socialist leader. He joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1896, became one of the leaders of its fighting squads in 1904-1907, and spent several years in Russian and Prussian prisons. During WW I, he fought in the First Brigade* of J. Pilsudski.* In the 1918 Lublin* Government of I. Daszyhski,* Arciszewski was a Minister of Social Welfare and, later, a Minister of Post and Telegraph in the Cabinet of J. Moraczewski.* In 1919-1935, he represented his party in the Sejm* (Parliament). From 1919, he served as a member of PPS's Central Executive Committee, and as its chair from 1931. He opposed the popular (united) front with the communists. Under the Nazis, he chaired the underground PPS. Sent to London, he appeared there in August 1944 and became a Prime Minister on November 29. He also presided over the Government of National Protest against the Yalta Agreement.* Recognition of his Government was withdrawn by the Anglo-Saxon powers on July 5, 1945. G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy, 1939-1945 (New York, 1988); WEP, I, 35 ARCTOWSKI, HENRYK (1871-1958), geophysicist. Educated in Liege, Paris and Zurich, he began his career as a geologist, oceanographer and meteorologist. He went with a Belgian expedition to the Antarctic region in 1897-1899, served in the Royal Observatory at Uccla in 1903-1910 and, in 1910, conducted scientific research on Spitzbergen. During 1911-1919, he organized the science division of the New York Public Library and helped the Wilsonian "Inquiry" Professors R. Lord and I. Bowman to present the demographic and statistical problems of reborn Poland. From 1920 to 1939, he was professor of geophysics and meteorology at Lvov University, then settled in Washington as an associate at the Smithsonian Institute in 1939. International Who's Who 1944-1945 (London), 26.

16

ARENDA

ARENDA, leasing of fixed assets or prerogatives, such as land, mills, inns, breweries, distilleries; or specific rights, such as collection of custom duties and taxes. The arenda system was widespread in Poland from the Middle Ages and had a special importance in Jewish-Polish relations. First leases to be held by Jews* were of royal revenues and functions: mint, salt mines, customs, and taxable farming. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Jews became predominant in the arenda system. A majority of the nobility* had neither much interest in the administration of their latifundia, nor sufficient capital or commercial skills. They turned thus to the capital, enterprise, and expertise of Jews, who became middlemen between the nobility and the peasants. The 1764 census showed that about 2 percent of Jews in Poland were lessees (usually tavern keepers). Encyklopedia Staropolska (Old Poland Encyclopedia), ed. by A. Bruckn vol. 1 (Warsaw, 1939), 37; M. Opalska, The Jewish Tavern Keeper and His Taver Nineteenth Century Polish Literature (Jerusalem, 1 ARIANS (Polish Brethren), a Protestant denomination. As Unitarians, they espoused the doctrine of denial of the Holy Trinity. The name derives from Arius of Alexandria, who, in the fourth century, questioned the eternal divinity of Christ, and thus the existence of the Holy Trinity. Polish Arians preferred to be called anti-Trinitarians, and in the West they were often referred to as Socinians, from one Faust Socyn. The movement started in the sixteenth century. Arians were a radical wing of the Reformation* in Poland. They split with Calvin's Church at the Synods of 1562-1565, and protested against the social-economic structure of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The most radical Arians attacked private property and class differences, proclaimed anarchistic and pacifist opposition to state authority and warfare, and fought against the corvee. Their centers were Rakow* and Pinczow. The 1658 Sejm* (Parliament) banished them from Poland. Some Arians returned to Catholicism, although most emigrated to Transylvania or to the West. Encyklopedia Staropolska (Old Poland Encycloped ed. by A. Bruckner, vol. 1 (Warsaw, 1939), 38-39; G. Williams (ed.), The Polish Brethren: Documentation of the History and Thought of Unitarianism in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and in the Diaspora, 1601-1685 (Cambridge, 1980).

ARMED FORCES. The basis of Poland's Army in the tenth and eleventh centuries were professional warriors serving the Piast* rulers. The warriors were maintained by the prince and completely subservient to him. Next to them there was a levee en masse of the peasantry whose fighting value was inferior to that of the Princely squads. The fragmentation of Poland in the thirteenth century made the combined defense of the country difficult, notably when fast-moving Mongolian Cavalry destroyed the heavily armed troops. Up to the mid-fifteenth century, the core of the Polish Armed Forces was the levee en masse of the gentry. The wars with the Teutonic Knights* and the Grunwald* victory (July 15, 1410) were the peak of the successful warfare of these forces. From the mid-fifteenth century, Polish military institutions entered a crisis.

ARMED FORCES

17

The Thirteen Years' War* with the Teutonic Knights (1454-1466) showed the weakening of discipline and decline in war value of the levee en masse. The use of firearms and the growing importance of infantry, mainly peasants recruited from the royal domains, changed warfare. Mercenary troops gradually became the basis of the Armed Forces up to the eighteenth century, as artillery and military engineering developed, and the Hetman* institution took shape. There were two hetmans (the Great Hetman and the Field Hetman) both in Poland and in Lithuania,* who acquired professional staffs with specialized functions. By 1683 the coordination of artillery, infantry and cavalry had improved, when King Jan III Sobieski* achieved a spectacular victory against the Turks in the Battle of Vienna.* However, the early eighteenth century saw the decline of Polish Armed Forces caused by the crisis of the Commonwealth. The Army's numbers fell to 16,000 soldiers, poorly trained and deprived of professional leadership, thereby easing the Partitions.* The Polish Army ceased to exist after the fall of the 1794 Kosciuszko Insurrection.* Military development in the late eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries was marked by uprisings which, from the military point of view, had different characteristics. T. Kosciuszko* learned a new type of warfare in America and abandoned linear tactics. After his insurrection failed, the armed struggle for Polish independence was continued by voluntary Polish Legions* in Italy. When Napoleon's Army entered Polish territory in 1806, the Polish Armed Forces were resurrected. In 1808-1812, Poles fought under Napoleon in Spain and, in 1812, they took part in the war with Russia. After the creation of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in 1815, the Polish Army was rebuilt on the pattern of the Russian models and was commanded by Grand Duke Constantine.* During the 1830-1831 November Insurrection,* this well-trained regular army was able to fight the much larger Russian forces for almost a year. During the 1863 January Insurrection,* guerrilla warfare was most appropriate. When Poland regained independence in 1918, its armed forces were restored, first by voluntary enlistment and, from 1919, by regular recruitment. Their Commander-in-Chief was Marshal J. Pilsudski,* and the cadres were former officers of various wartime formations and of the clandestine Polish Military Organization (POW).* From the outset of the Second Republic its armed forces had to be used in determining Poland's new borders, fighting Ukrainians in Eastern Galicia* and Czechs in Cieszyn Silesia and supporting the Poznari (Posen)* and Silesian Uprisings* against the Germans. Crucial was the Polish-Soviet War,* which practically ended after the Polish military victory in mid-summer 1920. The Armed Forces reached 900,000 troops and followed French organizational patterns. Later a key role was to be played by thirty Infantry Divisions and the use of mobile tactics, although the Armored Units were still in their beginning stages in 1939. In September 1939, the Polish Armed Forces had only one Armored Brigade; 430 planes, of which 150 were fighter planes; while the Navy possessed only four destroyers, five submarines and a few minor units. The Polish Army then

18

ARMENIANS

had about 300,000 soldiers and mobilized about one million reserves. The German Wehrmacht had almost double the manpower and was much superior in planes, tanks and naval units. During the September Campaign,* the Polish Army fought numerous defensive battles alone (without the expected support of the Western Allies). On September 17, 1939, the Red Army invaded and occupied the eastern half of Poland. Despite terror used by both Nazis and Soviets, the Poles at once initiated an armed resistance which became the largest underground movement of WW II. The parallel armed struggle on the side of the Western Allies was continued under Gen. W. Sikorski* in France and, after the French defeat, in Great Britain, where the Polish Army, Air Force and Navy grew to 200,000 volunteers. Two Polish Armies, one tied to the Polish Government-in-Exile and another controlled by Polish Communists, were organized in the USSR in 1941-1942 and 1943, respectively. All in all, the Polish units, although divided and controlled by different political orientations, constituted the fourth largest Allied force, after the American, British, and Soviet Armies. Polish Armed Forces participated in the Battle of Britain* and fought heroically on such battlefields as Narvik* in Norway, Tobruk* in Libya, Falaise* in Normandy, Monte Cassino* in Italy, Arnhem* in Holland, and the Battle of Berlin. M. Kukiel, Zarys Historii Wojsk wosci w Polsce (An Outline of Polish Military History) (London, 1949); A Republic of Nobles, ed. by J. K. Federowicz (Cambridge, 1982), 179-198.

ARMENIANS, people with an ancient culture who originally lived in Armenia, which comprised what is now northeastern Turkey and the former Soviet Armenia. Some six million Armenians live in the former Soviet Union and in diaspora. Despite a turbulent history, Armenians established a firm commercial position in the Levant, reaching from Asia Minor to Western Ruthenia* in the twelfth century. They found themselves within the Polish state borders in the mid-fourteenth century when Halicz* Ruthenia was incorporated. The main Armenian centers were Lvov,* Bar,* Kamieniec-Podolski, and Luck.* In 1356, King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great)* issued a privilege confirming their judicial autonomy and religious rights. This statute, confirmed and supplemented by later Kings, survived till the Partitions.* To some extent Armenian privileges paralleled those given by Polish rulers to Jews.* In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Armenians gained substantial importance in Poland and grew in number. In 1667, the Armenian Church entered into a union with the Roman Catholic Church. The special role of Armenians in Polish economic life depended on their commercial contacts with the Orient. Besides trade they were employed in crafts, embroidery, and jewelry and in the production of weapons, tents and harnesses. The progress of their Polonization lasted till the nineteenth century, though they still preserved their religious separateness and some of their customs. An Armenian Bishopric, later Archbishopric, was established in Lvov in 1626. The last Archbishop, J. Teodorowicz* (1901-1939), shepherded about

ASSIMILATION

19

5,000 faithful. But under Stalin's rule their Churches were closed. CHP,I, 159, 178; EHGP, 21. ARNHEM, town in Holland. It became a battlefield of combined Allied operations in September 17-26, 1944, when the Polish Airborne Brigade under Gen. S. Sosabowski* was sent "one bridge too far" by the British Command. After great losses, the Brigade withdrew, shielding British formations. M. Swiecicki, With the Red Devils at Arnhem (London, 1945). ASKENAZY, SZYMON (1866-1935), historian and diplomat, professor at the Universities of Lvov* (1897-1914) and Warsaw* (1923-1935), and member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU]).* During WW I, he was active in the Polish National Council in Switzerland. After the resurrection of independent Poland, he served to 1923 as its first Plenipotentiary Minister in the League of Nations.* Though a fully assimilated Jew, he was forced to resign because of an anti-Semitic campaign. His main scholarly interests were the 1772-1863 period and diplomatic history. He established his own school of historical research. J. Dutkiewicz, Szymon Askenazy i jego szkola (Warsaw, 1958); Great Historians of the Modern Age: An International Dictionary, ed. by L. Boia (New York, 1991), 475-576.

ASNYK, ADAM (1838-1897), post-Romantic poet and dramatist. He participated in the January Insurrection* of 1863 as a member of the radical "September Government" and a guerrilla. After the fall of the Uprising, he left Russian-occupied Poland, and, from 1870, he lived in Cracow,* then in Austrian Galicia.* There he belonged to the democratic movement, worked for it as a journalist, and was elected to the Galician Sejm* (Parliament) and the Cracow city council. He traveled to Africa and Asia, was a founding member of the Tatra* Mountains Association, and participated in the organization of rural education. One of the most popular poets of his era, he combined the Romantic tradition with a positivist social philosophy. He also published historical plays. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 317-318; PSB, I, 171-173. ASSIMILATION, process in which sense of association with one national group is replaced with identification with another group, so that individuals or entire groups may partially or totally lose their original national identity. In nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century Poland, the term "assimilation" was commonly used to describe a trend among Jews.* Acceptance of Polish nationality, through emancipation or through religious conversion to Christianity, was stronger among intelligentsia* and well-to-do businessmen. Assimilation was especially popular in Galicia.* In Cracow* and Lvov* outstanding intellectuals of Jewish background contributed to the sophistication of Polish culture. In the interwar period, a large group of Polish literati were of Jewish origin. G. Lerski

20

ASSOCIATION OF WORKERS' UNIVERSITIES

and H. Lerski, Assimilation and Emancipation: Jewish-Polish Coexistence, 1772-1939; A Topical Bibliography (New York, 1986). ASSOCIATION OF WORKERS' UNIVERSITIES (Towarzystwo Uniwer sytetow Robotniczych [TUR]), institution created by the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in January 1923 in Warsaw* in order to spread education and political instruction among the workers. Officially, a nonparty organization, it was closely associated with the PPS, was dominated by the Socialists, and counter-attacked National Democratic* influences among the workers. It ran libraries, artistic circles, drama sections, choirs, evening schools, summer camps, and "Red Scouting," and it published several periodicals. WEP, XI, 235. ATLANTIC CHARTER, document signed by President F. D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister W. Churchill in August 1941 at Placentia Bay in Newfoundland as a blueprint for the post-war world. Gradually, all the Allies subscribed to it, announcing their respective war aims. By the Charter, the heads of the Allied Powers renounced territorial aggrandizement, asserted the right of all peoples to choose their respective forms of government, condemned territorial changes contrary to the wishes of inhabitants of the country, and looked forward to an equitable distribution of raw materials, fair trading practices, freedom of the seas, disarmament, and an international security system. Though Stalin endorsed the document, he forced the Anglo-Americans to accept the new division of

Europe contrary to the principles of the Charter. W. Churchill, The Grand Alliance (Boston, 1950).

AUGUST II MOCNY (AUGUSTUS II THE STRONG) (1670-1733), Imperial Elector of Saxony of the Wettin dynasty, King of Poland (1697-1733). A proponent of absolutist monarchy, he was an ally of Tsar Peter I* and supported the latter in the Northern War* against Sweden. His main competitor for the Polish throne was S. Leszczynski.* Under August's rule Poland's international and domestic conditions greatly deteriorated. The Polish Crown served him as an object of risky experiments to increase the Wettins' dynastic power. August tried to reform the Polish government in the spirit of enlightened absolutism. To achieve this he was ready to purchase the assistance of Poland's neighbors by offering them parts of its territory. CHP, II, 1-25; History of Pola ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 272-290; Poczet krolow i ksiazat polskich ( Register of Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 411-422; PSB, I, 179-183. AUGUST III (1696-1763), Imperial Elector of Saxony and the son of August II.* He became King of Poland in 1733 with the help of Russian armed intervention against the candidacies of Portuguese Prince Emanuel and S. Leszczynski.* The "pacifying Sejm" of 1736 confirmed his election after August

AUTONOMISTS

21

conceded to respect freedoms of the gentry, including the liberum veto* His reign was marked by growing anarchy and further decline of Poland. August refused to learn the Polish language, disliked the country, and became an absentee ruler who spent only two of the twenty-seven years of his reign in Poland, leaving the country in the hands of his favorites. Cornerstone of his policy was the alliance with Russia, while Polish raison d'etat was subordinated to Wettin dynastic interests. But during those dark "Saxon times,"* the first signs of economic reforms and cultural revival emerged in Polish enlightened circles. CHP, II, 25-48; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 272-290; Poczet krolow i ksigzat polskich (The Register of Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 433-443; PSB, I, 183-185. AUSCHWITZ, German name for the Polish town Oswiedm, near Cracow,* established in the twelfth century. During WW II, the town became known as the largest Nazi concentration camp in Europe. Built in May 1940 on special order of H. Himmler, Auschwitz was filled first with Poles sent from prisons controlled by German occupiers. Early in 1941, German political prisoners were sent there from concentration camps in Germany. Originally planned for 10,000 inmates, the camp was enlarged in March 1941 to incarcerate 30,000 people. On October 1, 1941, the Nazis started to arrange another camp in neighboring Brzezinka (Birkenau) where 200,000 people were gradually placed. Thirty-nine affiliated transitional camps for Polish forced labor in German industry were established in the vicinity. Altogether 405,000 inmates of various nationalities were registered till 1945. Gas chambers were used from September 3, 1941, and systematic liquidation of the Jews* and Gypsies began in them on August 16, 1942. Auschwitz thus became the main center of mass extermination. From March 1943, numbers were tattooed on the left forearm of adults and left thigh of children, while Soviet inmates were tattooed on the chest. From 1940, between one and two million people, mostly Jews, perished in Auschwitz. The SS German crew of the extermination camp was 6,000 strong, successively under R. Hoess, A. Liebenhenschel, R. Baer and Maria Mandl, who was in charge of the women's division. A Polish resistance movement operated inside the camp, and, in spring 1943, it developed into an international organization. On January 18, 1945, the Germans ordered the evacuation ("March of Death") of the remaining fifty-eight thousand inmates to escape the Soviet offensive. The camp with its last seventy-five-hundred prisoners was liberated by the Red Army on January 27, 1945. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 1 (New York, London, 1990), 107-119; J. Garlinski, Fighting Auschwitz (London, 1979); J. Sehn, Oswiecim-Brzezinka Concentration Camp (Warsaw, 1957). AUTONOMISTS, moderate group of Polish politicians in Galicia* who, during 1867-1873, advocated autonomy of Galicia within the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy. Their main representatives were A. Goluchowski,* K. Grocholski, F. Ziemialkowski and M. Zyblikiewicz. The autonomists hoped to make Galicia a

22

AWEJDE, OSKAR

Polish Piedmont for national unification at the time when their compatriots in the Russian and Prussian parts of Poland suffered oppression after the unsuccessful January Insurrection* of 1863. CHP, II, 432-461; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 528-562. AWEJDE, OSKAR (1837-1890), reverend and politician. A member of the first Polish Insurgent Government during the January Insurrection* of 1863, he contributed to the operational alliance of clergy with the radical "Reds"* and edited the January 22, 1863, decree concerning land distribution among peasants and promising land grants as a reward for their participation in the Insurrection. Arrested during a secret mission to Lithuania,* he was deported to Viatka (Siberia). PSB, I, 190-191.

B BACCIARELLI, MARCELLO (1731-1818), Italian painter. In 1765, he was invited to Warsaw* by King Stanislaw August* to prepare a project for creating the Polish Academy of Fine Arts. Given Polish citizenship and nobility, he painted many portraits of the King and prominent families, became Director of Royal Buildings, a member of Warsaw Society of Friends of Learning, and, with the opening of the university, the first Dean of the Fine Arts Department. H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (London, 1942). BADENI, KAZIMIERZ (1846-1909), conservative politician. In 1888-95, he served as Austrian Vice-Regent for Galicia,* and in 1895-1897, as the Prime Minister of Austria. He campaigned vigorously against the Socialists and Populists, but adopted a conciliatory policy toward the Ukrainians. He carried out Emperor Francis Joseph's decision to reform the Austrian political system by increasing the electorate from 1.7 to 5 million voters. He also fought for equality of the Czech and German languages in Bohemia-Moravia. PSB, I, 205-207; E. Wiskeman, Czechs and Germans: A Study of Their Struggle in the Historic Pro of Bohemia and Moravia (London, 1938 BAGINSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1890-1966), politician. After being arrested in Warsaw* in 1905 for organizing a school strike against Russification, he left Russian-occupied Poland and joined the Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki*) at Lvov* Technical University in 1911. During WW I, he was one of the founders and leaders of the Polish Military Organization (POW)* and the Polish Peasant Party "Liberation" ([PSL] "Wyzwolenie").* In November 1918, he participated in the People's Government in Lublin* and was later a deputy in the three post-WW I Sejms.* An opponent of the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he was arrested in September 1930 together with twenty other leaders of the Centrolew* anti-authoritarian coalition, tried and sentenced to two years

24

BAJAN, JERZY

of prison. He went into exile from 1933 but, in 1935, was a co-founder of the united Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe).* In April 1939, in view of the grave international situation, he returned to Poland and took various leading positions in his party during the German occupation. In 1944, he became the Director of the Interior Department of the Underground State* and a Deputy Speaker of the Council of National Unity. On March 28, 1945, he was kidnapped by the Soviets with fifteen other underground leaders and sentenced in Moscow to one year in jail. K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, California, 1991); Trial of the Organizers, Leaders and Members of the Polish Diversionist Organizations in the Rear of the Red Army on the Territory of Poland, Lithuania, and the Western Regions of Belorussia and the Ukraine (Moscow, 1945). BAJAN, JERZY (1901-1967), pilot and sportsman. He fought in the Battle of Britain and was a Liaison Officer with the British Fighter Command. In the years 1943-1945, he commanded Polish fighter squadrons in Great Britain. J. B. Cynk, History of the Polish Air Force, 1918-1968 (Reading, Massachusetts, 19 BALICKI, ZYGMUNT (1858-1916), politician. During his studies in St. Petersburg he was active as a socialist, but after his return to Warsaw* in 1880, he became one of the founders and leaders of the "Zet"* youth conspiracy and the National League,* which was transformed into the National Democratic Party.* He was an Editor-in-Chief of its organ, Przeglgd Wszechpolski (AllPolish Review). PSB, I, 232-236. BALINSKI, STANISLAW (1899-1980), poet of the Skamander* group, author of lyrics and short stories. J. Krzyzanowski, History of Polish Literature (Warsa 1978), 576; WEP, I, 569. BALTIC SEA, eastern branch of the North Sea, with Poland's three-hundredmile-long Pomeranian* coastline extending from the mouth of the Oder (Odra)* River and the port of Szczecin* to the mouth of the Vistula* River and the Gulf of Gdansk.* J. Surdykowski, Poland's Baltic Coast (Warsaw, 1975). BALZER, OSWALD (1858-1933), law historian, expert on Polish constitutions, professor of Lvov* University from 1895. He initiated a series of monographs titled Studies on the History of Polish Law (started in 1900) and published two volumes of legal documents for the period 1506-1524 under the title Corpus Juris Polonici. He also wrote the monumental Genealogia Piastow and numerous other works on the constitutional problems of Poland and Austria. PSB, I, 245-248. BALABAN, MAJER (1877-1942), Jewish historian. He was a member of the editorial staff of the Zionist* weekly Wschod (The East). After WW I, he served as a military chaplain and, from 1932, he became the first professor of Jewish

BANDERA, STEFAN

25

Studies at Warsaw University.* Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. IV (Jerusalem, 19 126; Great Historians of the Modern Age, ed. by L. Boia (New York, 1991), 4 BALUCKI, MICHAL (1837-1901), playwright and novelist of Jewish origin. He participated in the 1863 January Insurrection,* was jailed in Austria, and then joined the positivist movement. His novels and plays are marked by lively action, precise plots and vivid characters. He also produced plays about Jewish life. Attacked by Socialists and "Young Polish"* critics for his views, he committed suicide. PSB, I, 252-254. BANACH, STEFAN (1892-1945), mathematician. A professor of Lvov* University and a pioneer of functional analysis, he was one of the main representatives of the Lvov-Warsaw School of Mathematics.* He co-initiated two periodicals: Studia Mathematica (which he edited in 1929-1945) and Mathematical Monographs. Biogramy Uczonych Polskich (Wroclaw, 1968), BANDERA, STEFAN (1909-1959), leader and ideologue of the extreme Ukrainian nationalist movement. Active in Ukrainian youth associations in high school and at Lvov Technical University (Politechnika), he became a member of the Ukrainian Military Organization in 1927, and of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN)* in 1929. From 1931, Chief of Anti-Polish Propaganda in the OUN Executive, he became its head in Galicia* in 1933. He expanded the OUN network, directed its struggle against both Poland and the USSR, organized OUN's attacks on Polish officials responsible for antiUkrainian policies, and developed campaigns against Polish tobacco and liquor monopolies and against the Polonization of Ukrainian youth. Arrested in 1934 for involvement in the assassination of Polish Minister B. Pieracki,* he was tried and sentenced to death, but the sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. Released on the outbreak of WW II, he started collaborating with the Germans. After breaking with the head of the OUN, Col. A. Melnyk,* Bandera commanded the most vigorous OUN faction (Banderites). On the eve of the Nazi-Soviet war, he initiated the formation of the Ukrainian National Committee and Ukrainian Military Legions and prepared the proclamation of a Ukrainian state in Lvov on June 30, 1941. For his refusal to rescind the proclamation, he was arrested and imprisoned in German concentration camps until September 1944. In July 1944, on Bandera's initiative, the Ukrainian Supreme Liberation Council was organized as the political leadership of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), which fought against the Poles, Germans and Soviets alike, with the goal of creating an independent Ukrainian state. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 1 (Toronto, 1984), 169; R. Torzecki, Polacy i Ukraincy. Spra ukrainska w czasie II wojny swiatowej na terenie II Rzeczpospolitej (Poles and ians: The Ukrainian Question during WW II on the Territories of the Second Polish Republic) (Warsaw, 1993).

26

BANDROWSKA-TURSKA, EWA

BANDROWSKA-TURSKA, EWA (1899-1979), singer. After 1920, she developed into a leading soprano in the Warsaw,* Lvov,* and Poznan (Posen)* operas and also performed in Western Europe and America. SBTP, 224. BANDURSKI, WLADYSLAW (1867-1932), Bishop. Ordained in 1887, he served as Auxiliary Bishop in the Lvov* Archdiocese from 1906. He supported the Polish national struggle in the Chelm* region, patronized the military training of Polish patriots in Austrian Galicia,* and, on the eve of WW I, became a close associate of J. Pilsudski.* He served as leading Chaplain of the Polish Legions.* PSB, I, 263-264 BANK EMISYJNY, Bank of Issue in the General Government,* with headquarters in Cracow.* It was established by a decree of H. Frank,* Nazi Governor of occupied Poland. Active between April 1940 and January 1945, it was totally dependent on German banking. It was to finance the Nazi administration by exploiting the Polish economy, and by printing currency—which had no backing. SHP, 1 BANK GOSPODARSTWA KRAJOWEGO (Bank of the National Economy [BGK]), a state institution established in 1924 by a fusion of three other banks. Its purpose was to finance state funds and enterprises. It mediated in obtaining foreign loans and decided on loans for private enterprises. The founding capital in 1924 was 35 million zlotys, raised in 1929 to 150 million. It was the most important Polish bank, and the main governmental instrument of financial intervention in the economy. SHP, 17.

BANK HANDLOWY W WARSZAWIE S.A. (Commercial Bank in Warsaw, a Shareholders Association), the oldest and largest shareholders' association in Russian-occupied Poland. Created in Warsaw* in 1870, it was based on the bank of L. Kronenberg.* It invested mainly in railroads and agriculture and also operated in Russia proper. It suffered losses during WW I and was dominated by foreign banks after 1927. The share capital in 1929 amounted to 30 million zlotys, making it one of the principal banks in interwar Poland. SHP, 17-18 BANK POLSKI (1924-1945), founded by W. Grabski* in April 1924 as the state monopoly for currency issue. Its initial capital was 100 million zlotys, and its task was to regulate money circulation and loan transactions. It performed the role of the "Bank of Banks" and was strictly supervised by the government. It controlled Polish gold reserves and continued in exile until 1945, first in France, then in the United Kingdom. SHP, 19. BANK ZWI^ZKU SPOLEK ZAROBKOWYCH (Bank of the Associations of Profit Sharing Institutions), a shareholders' bank established in Poznan (Po-

BARBARA RADZIWILL

27

sen)* in 1885, operating in Prussian-occupied Poland. By the end of WW I, it had expanded its operations to the rest of Poland. SHP, 19-20 BAPTISM OF POLAND, process of Christianizing of Polish lands, began in 966 with the personal baptism of the Piast* ruler, Mieszko I.* He wanted to strengthen his country culturally, stop pagan decentralizing tendencies, and secure for Poland a respected place in Christian Europe. He immediately started to build a Church organization, bypassing the German hierarchy, which claimed that Slavic lands should depend on it and constitute an object of German religious (and political) mission. Mieszko's policy was continued by his son, Boleslaw Chrobry (the Brave),* who sent the Czech Bishop Adalbert* on a Christianizing mission to the pagan Prussians. After Adalbert's martyrdom, Boleslaw created an independent Metropolitan Archbishopric in Gniezno* in 1000. This was done with the support of the broadminded Emperor Otto III.* Gradually Poland became the mainstay of Roman Catholicism in Central Europe. CHP, I, 16-43; T. Manteuffel, The Formation of the Polish State (Detroit, 1 BAR, CONFEDERATION OF (1768-1772), armed union of patriotic nobility proclaimed in the Podolian* town of Bar on February 29, 1768, under ultraCatholic and conservative slogans. The Confederation was directed against Russian domination, religious dissidence, King Stanislaw August,* and any reform of the Polish system of government. It was initiated and led by the Krasinski family, M. Pac,* K. Pulaski,* J. Potocki, J. Sapieha and K. Radziwitt and tried to take advantage of Russia's preoccupation with its war with Turkey. They found support among petty nobles, but their partisan units were gradually annihilated by Russian forces. The Confederates proclaimed non-recognition of the monarch, but failed in their attempt to kidnap him in Warsaw* on November 3, 1771. Their last stronghold was the holy monastery of Cz^stochowa,* which they defended till Aug. 1772. The Confederation was followed by the First Partition of Poland. H. H. Kaplan, The First Partition of Poland (New York, 19 CHP, II, 88-112 BARANOWSKI, WOJCIECH (1548-1615), Primate* of Poland. He played a major role during the interregnum after King Stefan Batory's* death, and he supported as Chancellor* J. Zamoyski.* PSB, I, 286-289. BARBARA RADZIWILL (1520-1551), Queen of Poland. Daughter of Great Hetman* of Lithuania* and widow of S. Gasztold, the Palatine of Nowogrodek, she became the second wife of King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August* in 1547. The marriage strengthened the Radziwitt* family and was envied by other magnates, who delayed her coronation until 1550. There is suspicion that Barbara was poisoned by her mother-in-law, Queen Bona Sforza.* P. Jasienica, Poland o the Jagiellons (Miami, 1986); PSB, I, 294-2

28

BARLICKI, NORBERT

BARLICKI, NORBERT (1880-1941), publicist and politician. From 1904 he was a member of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and belonged to its left wing from 1906. After the outbreak of WW I, he joined J. Pilsudski's* Revolutionary Fraction of PPS and, in 1918-1919, he served in J. Moraczewski's* government as Deputy Minister of Interior. During the interwar period, Barlicki occupied several positions in the PPS leadership and was a Sejm* Deputy. Arrested as a member of the Centrolew* anti-authoritarian coalition, he was deprived of his seat in the Parliament and sentenced to two and a half years in prison. Released in 1934, he favored a PPS coalition with the communists. Early in WW II, he participated.in the underground activities of left socialists. Arrested by the Nazis in April 1940, he died in Auschwitz.* SHP, 30 BARON, HENRYK (1887-1907), member of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]),* active in its fighting squads and involved in terrorist attacks on representatives of the Tsarist rule in Poland. Arrested and tortured, he was executed on the slopes of Warsaw* Citadel. SHP, 22. BAROQUE, literature and artistic style prevalent in seventeenth-century Europe. Poland was the easternmost extension of the Baroque. In contrast to that of Western Europe, Polish Baroque was characterized by Oriental influences on the artistic tastes and even garments of the nobility.* It was marked by the bragging and overconfidence in national tradition referred to as Sarmatism,* which often took the shape of intolerance toward other than Christian denominations. The Baroque period marks the beginnings of the Polish theater, but its main achievements were in Church and palatial architecture. M. Delaperriere (ed.), Le baroque en Pologne et en Europe (Paris, 1990); C. Milosz, The History of Pol Literature (London, 1969), 111-152 BARSS, FRANCISZEK (1760-1812), lawyer. He specialized in defending poor clients. During the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792, he struggled for greater rights for towns. He belonged to the Association of Friends of the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* and took part in preparations for the Kosciuszko Insurrection.* From February 1794, he represented it as a leader of the Polish Agency in Paris, which was planning the continuing struggle for independence with French help. SHP, 22-23 BARSZCZEWSKA, ELZBIETA (1913-1987), noted actress, who made her debut in 1934 and performed in Warsaw* in the Teatr Polski and Teatr Narodowy (National Theater), mainly playing lyrical heroines of the classical and Romantic repertoire. She also became a leading film actress. During WW II, she was active in the underground cultural movement. WEP, I, 618-61

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29

BARTEL, KAZIMIERZ (1882-1941), scholar and statesman, expert in analytical geometry and professor at Lvov* Polytechnic (1913-1941). In 1918— 1919, he was in charge of transportation in the Polish Army General Staff and, in 1919-1920, he served as Minister of Railroads. Elected to Parliament in 1922, he represented the Polish Peasant Party "Liberation" (PSL "Wyzwolenie")* and, from 1927, the Non-Party Bloc for Cooperation with the Government (BBWR).* After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he served as Premier in 1926 and again in 1928-1930. In 1926-27, he was a Minister of Education and, in 1937-1939, he represented the liberal wing of the Sanacja* camp in the Senate.* He was executed with other Polish scholars by the Nazis after they occupied Lvov in summer 1941. Biogramy Uczonych Polskich (Biographies of Polish Schol vol. 3 (Wroclaw, 1968); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 ( ford, 1972). BARYCZKOy family of Warsaw* burghers who became rich in the sixteenth century through trade in crops and timber. They served as Mayors of Warsaw, performed duties at the Royal Court, contributed to charitable foundations, and were ennobled in the mid-seventeenth century. M. Baruch, Baryczkowie. Dzie Rodu Patrycjuszowskiego Starej Warszawy (The Baryczkos: History of a Patrician Fa in Old Warsaw) (Warsaw, 1914). BATORY, transatlantic passenger liner built in 1936 in Italy for Polish Oceanic Lines. During WW II, she served under the Polish flag as a transport ship, taking part in the 1940 Norwegian campaign and the evacuation of Allied troops from France to England, in the 1942 invasion of North Africa, in the 1943 invasions of Sicily, and in the 1944 landings in Normandy and southern France. Batory was in service until 1969. WEP, I, 639. BATTLE OF BRITAIN (August-October 1940), crucial air struggle which prevented the Nazi invasion of England. Two Polish fighter squadrons (302 and 303) and two bomber squadrons (300 and 301) and numerous pilots fighting in RAF units participated in the battle. They accounted for one-seventh of the total Nazi losses. J. Cynk, History of the Polish Air Force, 1918-1966 (London, 1972); Newman, They Saved London (London, 195 BAUDOUIN DE COURTNEY, JAN (1845-1929), linguist. He taught in St. Petersburg and Warsaw* and initiated the science of structural linguistics. E. Stankiewicz (ed.), A Baudouin de Courtenay Anthology: The Beginnings of Struc Linguistics. (Bloomington, Indiana, 19 BAZAR, commercial share company established in Poznan (Posen)* in 1838 on the initiative of K. Marcinkowski.* It was one of the first major enterprises of "organic work"* in the Poznan region. The Bazar building contained a hotel, shops, trade offices and industrial enterprises and contributed greatly to strength-

30

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ening the Polish economic position in Prussian Poland. In December 1918, Bazar served as a headquarters of the Great Poland Insurrection* against the Germans. In the interwar period, it was a successful Polish business, strengthening the regional economy. EHGP, I, 3 BAZYNSKI, JAN (1390-1459), first Polish Governor of Royal Prussia from 1454 and a prominent representative of Pomeranian magnates. He headed the anti-Teutonic opposition and was one of the founders of the Prussian Union. PSB, I, 376-377 BBWR (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government]), umbrella organization for smaller groups supporting J. Pilsudski's* regime. Established in October 1927 by Col. W. Slawek,* BBWR had no clear program except for strengthening the government. In the 1928 elections, it gained only 122 seats in the Sejm* (27.6 percent). In 1930, in the rigged elections after jailing the opposition Centrolew,* it gained 247 seats (55.6 percent). BBWR quickly moved to the right, establishing working contact with aristocratic conservatives led by J. RadziwiH,* but its core consisted of the "Colonels," W. Slawek,* J. Beck,* A. Prystor,* B. Pieracki,* B. Miedzinski,* A. Koc,* and the two Jedrzejewicz* brothers. After Pilsudski's death, Slawek dissolved the BBWR on September 30, 1935. It was succeeded in 1937 by the more authoritarian Camp of National Unity (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego [OZN]).* A. Chojnowski, Pilsudczycy u Wladzy: Dzieje Bezpartyjnego Wspolpracy z Rzadem (Wroclaw, 1986); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972).

BECK, JOZEF (1894-1944), statesman. Beginning with his service in the First Brigade* of the Polish Legions,* he was always close to J. Pilsudski.* He headed the War Minister's office when Pilsudski held it during 1926-1930. He then became Deputy Foreign Minister, and succeeded A. Zaleski* as Foreign Minister in 1932, holding that office until September 30, 1939. Beck continued Pilsudski's policy of balancing between Germany and the USSR, based on nonaggression treaties* with both neighbors. When the Czechoslovak government accepted the Munich Conference decision that it cede the Sudetenland to Germany, Beck obtained the agreement of the Polish Cabinet to demand the return of part of western Cieszyn (Teschen) Silesia,* which had been seized and held by the Czechs since 1919. When Hitler demanded the return of Gdansk (Danzig)* and an extraterritorial highway through the "Corridor"* in 1939, Beck secured the Polish Cabinet's support for rejecting this demand. After accepting the British guarantee of Polish independence, he negotiated a provisional Agreement of Mutual Assistance with Britain in April, followed by a Treaty of Mutual Assistance signed on August 25, 1939. Despite this treaty, as well as the alliance and military convention with France and the Franco-Polish military protocols signed in May 1939, the Western Allies made no plans to help Poland on Sep-

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tember 2, 1939, and on September 17, Soviet Armies marched into eastern Poland, which was annexed to the USSR. On September 17-18, 1939, Beck and other leading government officials escaped to Romania with the goal of proceeding to France to set up a Government-in-Exile. However, they were interned by the Romanian government. After a futile attempt to escape in 1940, Beck died in Romania of tuberculosis in 1944. A. Cienciala, Poland and the West Powers, 1938-1939 (New York, 1968). H. Roberts, "The Diplomacy of Colonel B The Diplomats: 1919-1939, ed. by Craig and Gilbert (New York, 195 BEGIN, MENACHEM (1913-1993), Israeli statesman. A graduate of Warsaw University,* he became one of the leaders of the Revisionist-Zionist-Betar movement in interwar Poland. In 1939, he escaped to Vilna,* where he was arrested by the Soviets. As a Polish citizen, he was released in 1941, and discharged from the Polish Army of Gen. Anders* in 1942 in Palestine. Encyclo pedia Judaica, vol. IV (Jerusalem, 1971), 39 BELINA-PRAZMOWSKI, WLADYSLAW (1888-1938), Commander of the voluntary Cavalry Unit in J. Pilsudski's* Polish Legions.* He fought in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, served as Mayor of Cracow* (1929-1933), and was then appointed a Palatine (wojewoda) of Lvov* province. PSB, XXVII 393-395. BELORUSSIA (Belorus), country in Eastern-Central Europe. Until the eighteenth-century Partitions,* it was part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* Inhabited by Eastern Slavs, mostly of the Orthodox faith, Belorussia was part of Kievan Rus' in the tenth and eleventh centuries. In the twelfth century, independent Principalities were established and, during the next two centuries, Belorussia was conquered by Lithuania,* becoming the eastern part of the Grand Duchy. With the 1569 Union of Lublin,* it became part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and was incorporated into Russia during the Partitions.* As a result of the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, the western part of Belorussia belonged to Poland. According to the secret protocol to the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact,* it was occupied by the Red Army and was incorporated into the Belorussian Soviet Republic in November 1939, with Minsk as its capital and a population of eight million. In June 1941, Belorussia was invaded by the Germans and later "liberated" by the Soviets in 1944. I. S. Lubachko, Belorussia under Soviet Rule, 1917-1957 (Lexington, Massachusetts, 1972); J. Tomaszewsk lorussians in the Eyes of the Poles, 1918-1939," Acta Poloniae Historica LIII (19 101-122; N. Vakar, Belorussia: The Making of a Nation (Cambridge, 1951). BELWEDER, palace in Warsaw,* built in 1659, reconstructed in neo-classical style in 1812-1822. On the night of November 29, 1830, conspirators from the Cadet Officers School led by P. Wysocki* tried to kill its occupant, Grand Duke Constantine.* This ignited the November Insurrection.* Since 1918, the palace

Yh

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has been the official residence of the heads of Polish government. M. Kwiatkowski, Lazienki and Belweder (Warsaw, 198 BELZEC, village in the Lublin* region, which became the site of a Nazi labor and extermination camp in the fall of 1942. Over 600,000 people died there, mostly Jews* plus some 2,000 non-Jews. The first report on Belzec was given to world Jewry and the Western powers late in 1942 by the Polish Underground emissary J. Karski,* who visited the camp disguised as a Latvian policeman. Y. Arad, Operation Reinhardt: Death Camps Sobibor, Treblinka, and Belzec (Ne 1987); M. Tregenza, "Belzec Death Camp," The Wiener Library Bulletin (1977) 47. BEM, JOZEF (1794-1850), General. He distinguished himself in the November Uprising* at the Battle of Ostroleka.* While in French exile, he became a follower of A. J. Czartoryski* and a member of the Association of National Unity. In 1848, he commanded revolutionary troops in Vienna, and in 1849, during the Hungarian War of Independence, he became Commander-in-Chief of the Hungarian Army. After its defeat, he moved to Turkey and died as Murat Pasha. PSB, I, 416-419. BENCH GHETTO, established by students at Polish universities for Jewish students in 1936, marking the peak of pre-WW II anti-Semitism.* It antagonized not only Jews,* but also many Poles, and constituted an extension of the numerus clausus policy, which, following the Tsarist example, tried to limit Jewish enrollment according to population percentages. J. Lerski, "Lwowska Mlodziez Spoleczno-Demokratyczna, 1937-39," Zeszyty Historyczne XXXIV (1979), 149-1 BENEDICTINES, the first monastic order of the Roman Catholic Church established by St. Benedict on Monte Cassino,* Italy, in 529. Polish friars appeared in the eleventh century and built their monasteries in Tyniec,* Mogilno, and Lubin. Late in the eleventh century, a group of Benedictine friars established the Cistercian order. CHP, I, 31, 38, passim BENES, EDUARD (1884-1948), Czech statesman. In 1940 during his London exile, he signed an agreement with Gen. W. Sikorski* to establish a post-war Czech-Polish Confederation but rejected it when he switched to a pro-Soviet stand. T. Kisielewski, Federacja §rodkowo-Europejska. Pertraktacje polsko choslowackie 1939-43 (The Central European Federation: The Polish-Czechosl gotiations) (Warsaw, 1991); P. Wandycz, Czechoslovak-Polish Confederation an Great Powers, 1940-1943 (Bloomington, Indiana, 195 BENIAMINOW, German internment camp for officers of the Polish Legions* who refused to swear loyalty to the Austrian and German Empires in 1916. In 1920, a group of Polish officers of Jewish background, not trusted by the Polish

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33

command, was interned in the camp. W. Lipiriski, Walka zbrojna o niepodlegl Polski (The Armed Fight for Poland's Independence), (Warsaw, 1990), 174-176. BENIOWSKI, MAURYCY (17467-1786), traveler. He participated in the Bar Confederation.* Taken prisoner of war by Russians, he crossed Siberia* and sailed via Kuriles and Japan to France in 1772. As a French Colonel he was sent to colonize Madagascar, where he was killed. His memoirs inspired a number of poets and writers including J. Siowacki* and W. Sieroszewski.* PSB, I, 429-432. BER OF BOLECHOW (Birkenthal) (1723-1805), scholar and leader of the Jewish community in Galicia,* active in the wine trade between Lvov* and Hungary. He participated in a dispute with the Frankists and left interesting memoirs. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. IV (Jerusalem, 1971), 1036-1037; The of Ber of Bolechow (Lvov, 1922). BERECCI, BARTOLOMEO (1480-1537), Italian architect. He traveled to Poland in 1516 as an official royal artist of King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old)* and his Italian wife, Bona Sforza.* His main achievement is the Zygmunt Chapel at Wawel* Castle in Cracow* (1533). Encyclopedia of Wor Art, vol. I (New York, 1966), 381.

BEREK JOSELEWICZ. See JOSELEWICZ, BERE BERENT, WACLAW (1873-1941), writer, author of historical novels based on meticulous research. The most famous of them are Zywe Kamienie (Living Stones) and Prochno (Touchwood). S. Baer, "Waclaw Berent: Life and Work," Antemurale XVIII (1974), 75-239 BERESTECZKO, village in Volhynia,* which, on June 28-30, 1651, served as battlefield for almost 100,000 Cossacks* led by B. Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky*) and 20,000 Tatars* on one side, and the Polish army of 56,000 commanded by King Jan Kazimierz* on the other. The Poles won the battle, which was a turning point in the Chmielnicki Uprising. CHP, I, 502-518 BEREZA KARTUSKA, small town in Polesie,* site of the first battle in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921 and also the only Polish concentration camp for political prisoners (1934-1939). It served the Sanacja* regime to incarcerate its opponents (mostly left-wingers, activists of the National Radical Camp* and Ukrainian nationalists) through an administrative, non-judicial process. Originally, it was planned for three-month arrests, but under the command of Col. W. Kostek-Biernacki,* the terms were often extended. WEP, I, 708.

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BEREZINA, river in Belorussia* and site of the battle of November 28, 1812, between French and Russian troops, with Polish units under Prince J. Poniatowski* fighting on Napoleon's side. CHP, II, 233. BERG, FEODOR (1793-1874), Russian Field Marshal, a liquidator of the January Insurrection* of 1863, and the last Tsarist Viceroy of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* (1863-1866). CHP, II, 382; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieys (Warsaw, 1968), 525, 534. BERLING, ZYGMUNT (1896-1980). He served in J. Pilsudski's* Polish Legions,* then in the Polish Army until 1939. Interned by the Soviets in Starobielsk,* Ukraine,* he saved his life by volunteering to serve in the Red Army and then agreeing to work out plans for a Polish division in the Red Army. In 1941 he joined the Polish Army led by Gen. W. Anders* but refused to leave with it for Iran in 1942. In 1943, he was made a Commander of the Kosciuszko Division with promotion to General. This Division, led by Communist officers, later grew into the First Polish Army. In September 1944, he sent a battalion of this Army across the Vistula* River to help the Warsaw Uprising.* This led later to his removal from active service and several years of study at the Military Academy in Moscow. W. Anders, An Army in Exile (London, 1949 BERMAN, ADOLF (1906-1978), Marxist Zionist, activist of the Poalei-Zion* Party and editor of its organs. During WW II, he was the main liaison of Warsaw Ghetto leaders with the Polish authorities. He left the ghetto in summer 1942 and settled on the "Aryan" side to cooperate with the Polish Underground. He became a leader of the clandestine Jewish National Committee and fought in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising.* Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. IV (Jerusalem, 1971), 66 BERMAN, JAKUB (1909-1984), politician, brother of Adolf Berman.* He worked for the Jewish Telegraphic Agency in 1928-1939 and joined the Communist Party of Poland (KPP).* During WW II, he took refuge in the USSR. In 1943, he co-organized the Soviet-sponsored Union of Polish Patriots* and headed the Bureau of Polish Communists in the USSR. They controlled the Polish (Berling*) Army in the USSR and the Polish Committee of National Liberation* created in Lublin* in July 1944 as a de facto Polish government. Up to late 1949, Berman was Stalin's most trusted politician in Poland. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. IV (Jerusalem, 1971), 666-667; K. Kersten, The Establish Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, California, 19 BERNARDINES, splinter order of the Franciscans* with stricter discipline, established in Italy in the early fifteenth century. Their name derived from Bernard of Siena, under whose auspices a church with a convent was built in Cracow in 1454. They became popular among Polish nobility and contributed

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35

to the "Sarmatian" religiosity. Their influence declined in the nineteenth century. SHP, 27. BESELER, HANS VON (1850-1921), German General, Governor of Warsaw* district during the Austro-German occupation of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* (1915-1918). He supported Polish "activists"* who based their hopes on Russia's defeat by the Central Powers. W. Sukiennicki, East-Central Europe Duri World War I vol. 1, part II (Boulder, Colorado, 1984), ch. 14. BESHT (Israel Ben Eliezer) (1700-1760), founder of Hasidism.* Initially a kheder teacher and watchman in a synagogue in Podolia,* he went into hiding in the Carpathian* Mountains and, several years later, revealed himself as a healer and religious leader. As founder of the Pietist Hasidic Movement, he is known in Hebrew as Master of the Good Name (Ba'al Shem Tov), a title given in Jewish tradition, especially the cabalistic one, to one who possesses sacred knowledge and knows how to work miracles. Despite the opposition of Orthodox rabbis, he gained many followers, who founded numerous Hasidic dynasties, preaching direct contact with God through joy, ecstatic dancing and abstinence from politics. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. IX (Jerusalem, 1971), 1049-1058; M. Ra Yisrael Baalshemtov (New York, 196 BEZDANY, railroad station northeast of Vilna* where an attack on a Russian mail train carrying a substantial amount of money was carried out in 1908 by a Polish Socialist Party (PPS)* fighting squad led by J. Pilsudski.* The squad got away with two million roubles, used later in the struggle against Tsarism. J. Jedrzejewicz, Kronika zycia Jozefa Pilsudskiego, 1867-1935, vol. 1 (London, 216-217; J. Jedrzejewicz, Pilsudski: A Life for Poland (New York, 1990), 41-43 BEZPRYM (986-1031), Piast* duke, the first son of King Boleslaw Chrobry (the Brave)* and his second wife, who was chased out of Poland. By 999, Bezprym was exiled, too, and a younger son, Mieszko II,* became an heir. Bezprym was placed in a monastery in Italy, but after his father's death in 1025, he returned to Poland. Supported by the German Emperor Conrad III, he revolted against Mieszko II, who escaped to Bohemia. Dependent on the Emperor, Bezprym sent him Polish regalia together with a loyalty declaration. Bezprym tried to suppress his opponents and strengthen his rule but caused a strong reaction and was eventually poisoned. PSB, II, 2. B^DZIN, town in Silesia,* established in the thirteenth century. After the Partitions,* it was occupied by Prussia* in 1807-1815, then it belonged to the Duchy of Warsaw,* and later to the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In 1867 it became the county seat. In the nineteenth century, it was industrialized: zinc* works and coal mines were established there. In 1850, Bedzin had 4,000 inhabitants; in 1914, 25,000 and 51,000 in 1938. During WW II, the Nazis killed

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almost half of its population and destroyed 70 percent of the old town. Bedzin was incorporated into the Reich and became the site of a labor camp holding about 3,000 inmates. SHP, 2 BIALOWIEZA, the largest wilderness in Eastern-Central Europe, situated between the Narwa and Jasiolda Rivers (about 1,250 square kilometers of forests, meadows and peat bogs). Under King Wladyslaw Jagiello,* it became Royal property, and ever since has been the terrain of famous hunts. The largest of them were arranged by August III* in 1752. In the interwar and WW II periods it attracted such hunters as H. Goring. WEP, I, 76 BIALYSTOK, town in Podlasie* on the Biala River. In 1939, Bialystok had 170,000 inhabitants and was the second largest textile city of Poland after Lodz.* The town developed around the Branicki Palace, built in 1691-1697 by Tylman van Gameren. After the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit,* Bialystok remained under Russian rule, on the Eastern border of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* It grew as a center of wool production exported to Russia. During WW I, Bialystok was occupied by the Germans and, during the Polish-Soviet War,* it served as a temporary capital of the Polish Provisional Revolutionary Committee.* From November 1939 to June 1941, it was part of the Soviet Belorussian Republic, and then was occupied by the Nazis. They created a Jewish ghetto,* which rose up in August 1943 but was crushed after two days. EHGP, I, 36-37. BIBLIOTEKA NARODOWA (National Library), established in Warsaw* in 1919, and opened to the public in 1928. The bulk of its original collection were books returned by the USSR from what was taken to Russia after the Partitions of Poland*: that is, the old collections of Zaluski* Library, Warsaw University Library, and Warsaw Association of Friends of Learning. During WW II, the library lost most of its old prints, catalogs, inventories, and former exile collections, which had been transferred after WW I from Paris and Rapperswil, Switzerland. WEP, I, 773 BIBLIOTHEQUE POLONAISE (Polish Library), established in 1838 in Paris by leaders of the "Great Emigration."* It is the oldest and largest documentary center for Polish history abroad. In 1866 it was recognized by the French government as a public service institution. In 1940-1941, its collections were dispersed by the Nazis, but the library still has about 100,000 books, 1,000 manuscripts, 7,000 etchings, and 5,000 maps. It also shelters the A. Mickiewicz Museum, established in 1903 by the poet's son. I. Gal^zowska, Bibliotheque Po onaise de Paris, 1839-1939 (Paris, 194 BIDDLE, ANTHONY DREXEL, JR. (1897-1961), American diplomat, U.S. Envoy to Norway (1935-1937) and Ambassador to Poland (1937-1939). After

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37

the outbreak of WW II, he was also ambassador to other exiled governments in France and England until 1944. As a friend of President F. D. Roosevelt,* Biddle tried to convince him of the importance of Poland's struggle and resigned in protest against U.S. policy on Poland. P. Canistraro, E. Wynot, and T. Kovaleff, Poland and the Coming of the Second World War: The Diplomatic Papers of A. Biddle, Jr., U.S. Ambassador to Poland, 1937-1939 (Columbus, Ohio, 1 BIECZ, town in southern Poland established in the eleventh century. Through trade with Hungary, it developed into an important and rich town with numerous Gothic buildings, a Baroque town hall and burghers' lodgings—a virtual architectural museum. Biecz. Studia historyczne, B. Kaleta (Wroclaw, 19 BIELECKI, MARIAN (1879-1912), activist of the Polish Socialist Party (PPS),* and an editor of the illegal Robotnik (Worker)* and other party papers. He participated in the 1905 revolution, was arrested several times and deported to Siberia.* In 1911, he left for the United States, where he became an agitator among Polish workers. He committed suicide in Bremen on his way to Poland in August 1912. PSB, II, 42. BIELECKI, TADEUSZ (1901-1980), politician. In 1926, he joined R. Dmowski's* Camp for Greater Poland (OWP).* A deputy in the Sejm* of 1930— 1935, he also served as a member of the Warsaw* Municipal Council in 1938— 1939. As a leader of the "young" members of the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe),* he was elected Chairman in 1938. In 1940, he became Vice President of the National Council* in Exile. After the collapse of France, he moved to London and became a leader of the opposition to Gen. Sikorski's* agreement with the USSR. T. Bielecki, W Szkole Dmowskiego (London, 1968); W. PobogMalinowski, Najnowsza Historia Polityczna Polski, 1864-1945, vols. II and HI (London, 1956-1960).

BIELINSKI, FRANCISZEK (1683-1766), politician. He played an important role in the Saxon Times,* advancing to the position of Crown Marshal in 1742. Close to the Czartoryski Familia,* he campaigned for limiting of the liberum veto* and strengthening the army. Acting as a sort of premier of the Commonwealth, he tried to maintain good relations with all powers, but protested against the march of foreign troops through Poland during the Silesian and the Seven Years' Wars, and against Russian interference in internal Polish affairs. As Crown Marshal, Bielinski played a major role in modernizing Warsaw* and its main street, Marszalkowska, was named after him. I. Baranowski, Marszalek Fra ciszek Bielinski (Warsaw, 191 BIELOWSKI, AUGUST (1806-1876), historian and veteran of the November Insurrection,* and Director and Curator of the Ossolineum* Library in Lvov* in 1845-1876. In 1850, he began the systematic publication of historical primary

38

BIELSKI (WOLSKI), MARCIN

sources, the Monumenta Poloniae, which was probably the most important Polish publication endeavor in the nineteenth century. PSB, II, 58-59 BIELSKI (WOLSKI), MARCIN (14957-1575), poet, writer and veteran of the wars against the Tatars* and the Wallachians. Influenced by the ideas of humanism and the Reformation,* he published Lives of the Philosophers (1535) and, in 1554, Kronika Wszystkiego Swiata (The Chronicle of the Entire World)—the first historical work written in vernacular Polish. Bielski also wrote other smaller books and satires and belonged to the small group of those writers who even before M. Rey* managed to save Polish literature from the flood of Latin writings. J. Krzyzanowski, History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 47-5 BIELSKO-BIALA, industrial town in southeastern Silesia.* It was established in the thirteenth century and, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it developed into a center of wool and cloth manufacture. In the interwar period, its population—with a large German minority—grew to 100,000. In 1939, the town was incorporated into the Reich, and, in 1944, two branch camps of nearby Auschwitz* were established there. EHGP, I, 3 BIEN, ADAM (1900- ), politician, veteran of the Polish-Soviet War,* later a District Judge in Warsaw.* In 1928, he co-founded the radical peasant youth movement "Call to Arms" ("Wici")* and was its President in 1929-1931. During WW II, he joined the underground leadership of the Peasant Party and, in spring 1944, he was appointed a Deputy Delegate by the Government-inExile.* He participated in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising* and on March 28, 1945, was kidnapped with fifteen other leaders by the Soviet KGB and taken to Moscow for a show trial of the Polish resistance. He was sentenced to five years in Russian prison. A. Bien, Bog jeszcze wyzej—Dom jeszcze dale] (Warsaw, 1986); Bien, Bog wysoko—Dom daleko (Warsaw, 1984). BIERNACKI, KOSTEK W. (1884-1957), colonel. Member of the Polish Socialist Party (PPS)* before WW I, he was a chief of gendarmerie in the Polish Legions* after 1914. In 1930, he became Commander of Brest-Litovsk* Fortress, where opposition leaders were jailed. From 1932, he served as a Governor (wojewoda) of Polesie,* and, in 1934, he became Commander of the concentration camp at Bereza Kartuska.* In 1939, he was interned in Romania. WEP, I, 790. BIERNAT OF LUBLIN (14657-1530?), writer. He wrote the first Polish book, Raj Duszny (Paradise of the Soul), published in 1514. He was also an author of a biography of Aesop (Zywot Ezopa) and of the first collection of Polish proverbs, indicating his contempt for monks, priests, and foreigners. Together with M. Rej* and Bielski,* he belongs among the fathers of Polish literature. J.

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Freedman, "Biernat of Lublin: The First Polish Writer in the Vernacular," Polish Review XXX/3 (1985), 265-275.

BIERUT, BOLESLAW (1892-1956), communist leader. He joined the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) Left* in 1912. A year later, he moved to Warsaw,* where he became associated with the Social Democracy of the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania (SDKPiL).* In 1918, he participated in the organization of workers' councils; joined the Communist Workers' Party of Poland, which, in 1925, became the Communist Party of Poland (KPP)*; and became active in the cooperative movement. A member of the KPP leadership in the Dabrowa* coal basin in 1923-1924, he served in the Central Committee of the Party in 1925-1927, and then, after completing studies in Moscow, was sent by the Comintern to Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Austria. He returned to Poland in 1931 and, two years later, was arrested for illegal communist activity and sentenced to seven years in prison. Released in 1938, he spent most of the four years of WW II in Minsk, in German-occupied Belorussia.* In August 1943, he returned to Warsaw to join the Central Committee of the newly organized Polish Workers' Party (PPR).* He was a co-founder and the first Chair of the Homeland National Council (KRN),* the underground communist parliament called into being on December 31, 1943. He led the Polish Communist Delegation at the Potsdam Conference* and became the head of the Polish satellite state, as the First Secretary of the ruling Communist Party. M. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party Poland: An Outline of History (Cambridge, 1959).

BILCZEWSKI, JOZEF (1860-1923), Archbishop of Lvov* and Rector of Lvov University; expert on Christian archaeology. PSB, II, 94-95. BILINSKI, LEON (1846-1923), statesman, economist, professor and Rector of Lvov University; member of the Academy of Learning in Cracow.* A deputy to the Galician* Parliament in Lvov,* he was elected to the Austrian State Council in 1883, and later President of the Polish Club in the Austrian Parliament. During WW I, he was the main representative of the Polish pro-Austrian political orientation. He initiated the Supreme National Committee (NKN)* and supported the Polish Legions.* In interwar Poland, he became Minister of Finance in the cabinet of I. Paderewski,* serving until Nov. 1919. PSB, II, 97-98. BIP (Bureau of Information and Propaganda), the Sixth Department of the Home Army's (Armia Krajowa [AK])* General Staff during WW II. It was the intelligence unit of the Underground commanded by Col. J. Rzepecki ("Prezes").* S. Korbonski, The Polish Underground State (New Yo BISKUPIN, village in the Bydgoszcz* region and the excavation site of a settlement from the Lusatian Epoch (1300-400 B.C.). The archaeological works initiated in 1933 by J. Kostrzewski unearthed 105 huts located on a lake pen-

40

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insula and surrounded by wooden and earth defense walls. The discovery was important to the history of Slavic settlement in Central Europe. Z. Rajewski, Polish Excavations (Warsaw, 195 BLACK MADONNA, venerated Polish icon located in the monastery of the Pauline fathers in Czestochowa.* Its origins are not well documented, though most likely it was originally a Byzantine painting. After the victory over the Swedes in 1655, it became the main object of the Marian cult* with annual mid-August pilgrimages from all of Poland. J. Pasierb, The Shrine of the Blac Madonna (Warsaw, 1985); C. Peters, The Black Madonna: Our Lady of Czestoch (Paterson, New Jersey, 1962). BLOCH, JAN GOTLIEB (1830-1902), financier of Jewish origin. He converted to Christianity as a young man and moved to St. Petersburg, where he became an entrepreneur. He had good working relations with the Russian administration and was appointed a Councillor of State at the Finance Ministry, served as senior of the Association of Merchants, and became President of the Warsaw Stock Exchange Committee. He wrote on the role of railroads in the Russian economy and on other economic issues. His claim that Jews* played a positive role in Polish economic development caused much controversy. Bloch's most original work was his multi-volume Future War (Przyszla Wojna), contending that war between modern military powers is absurd for technical and economic reasons because it can only ruin all adversaries. Bloch founded the Museum of War and Peace in Luzerne. EHGP, I, 43. BLUE ARMY, Polish troops in France during WW I, so called because of the French blue uniforms they wore. Created under the patronage of the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP])* by the decree of French President R. Poincare on June 4, 1917, it was composed of Polish volunteers from America, Austrian and German POWs of Polish nationality, as well as former Polish soldiers of the Russian Army and Polish immigrants in France. In summer 1917, the First Division of the Blue Army marched to the front in Champagne. From October 1918, J. Haller* was Commander-in-Chief of the Army. In April 1919, its strength rose to 100,000 soldiers organized in six infantry Divisions. Because of its commander's name, the Blue Army was also referred to as "hallerczycy." Transported through defeated Germany to Poland, it took part in warfare on the Ukrainian front, where, aside from its fine military performance, it was also involved in some anti-Semitic actions. S. Pliska, "The Polish-American Army, 1917-1921," Polish Review X/3 (196 BLYSKAWICA (Lightning), Polish Navy destroyer built in Cowes, England, in 1936. It took part in WW II under British command after leaving the Baltic together with the destroyers Grom and Burza* on the eve of the hostilities to avoid being trapped there by the German Navy. It was mainly used in Atlantic

BOGUMIN

41

convoys, but it distinguished itself in the Norwegian campaign in spring 1940. S. Piaskowski, Kroniki Polskiej Marynarki Wojennej (Albany, New York, 19 BOBROWSKI, STEFAN (1841-1863), leader of the January Insurrection.* He believed that the outbreak of armed struggle in Poland would trigger a revolution in Russia. He participated in conspiracies leading to the January Insurrection* and, after its outbreak, became a member of the Central National Committee (Centralny Komitet Narodowy). Responsible for the Insurrection government in Warsaw* and a vigorous organizer, he was the actual leader of the Insurrection. He opposed the decision of the Committee to make Gen. L. Mieroslawski* a dictator of the Uprising, namely supported by the "whites,"* and died in a duel provoked by them. PSB, II, 161-163 BOBRZYNSKI, MICHAL (1849-1935), historian, professor of the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* and member of the Polish Academy of Learning (PAU).* He specialized in the history of Polish law and wrote numerous works on this subject, but his most important achievement was his three-volume Dzieje Polski w Zarysie (An Outline of Polish History). Bobrzynski was especially concerned with the causes of political development in Poland, leading either to its greatness or to its downfall. He particularly scored inefficient Polish government and evidence of domestic anarchy, and his work was attacked for alleged pessimism. Despite this it profoundly influenced both historical and political thinking in Poland, and Bobrzynski was considered the most outstanding personality of the Cracow School of History. In 1885-1901, he was a member of Galician Sejm* in Lvov* and of the State Council in Vienna. He supported the program of Cracow conservatives, advocated Polish cooperation with the Habsburgs,* and considered "organic work"* the most important means of improving Polish society. In 1891, Bobrzynski became Vice President of the School Council in Galicia, and was the Viceroy (Governor) of Galicia in 1902-1913. He improved the provincial government and contributed to a betterment of Polish-Ukrainian relations. On the eve of WW I, he sympathized with Pilsudski's movement for independence, and he supported the Polish Legions.* Great Historian of the Modern Age, ed. by L. Boia (New York, 1991), 477; A. Het "Bobrzynski—Historian and Statesman," Polish Review XXX/1 (1985), 99-10 BOCHNIA, town in southern Poland which developed in the twelfth century as an important center of salt production. Situated on the commercial routes from Cracow* to Hungary and Ruthenia,* it became a lively trade center. Kings Wladyslaw Lokietek* and Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* gave Bochnia numerous privileges in the fourteenth century to promote the salt-mining industry. EHGP, I, 45 BOGUMIN (Czech: Bohumin), town on the Upper Oder* River in Moravia, important railroad junction and industrial center. After the Munich Agreement, it was occupied by the Polish Army under Gen. W. Bortnowski. WEP, II, 3

42

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BOGURODZICA (Mother of God), Polish religious hymn, probably composed in the thirteenth century. The oldest part of the hymn retained traces of Slavonic liturgical language, which may reflect early links with Byzantium. To the end of the fifteenth century, Bogurodzica was the hymn of Polish knights, sung at the Battles of Grunwald* in 1410 and Varna* in 1444. C. Milosz, The History Polish Literature (London, 1969), 12-1 BOGUSLAWSKI, WOJCIECH (1757-1829), pioneer of the Polish theater. He made his debut in Warsaw* in 1778 and then organized, directed and performed in many theaters in Warsaw, Lvov,* Poznan,* Dubno, Grodno* and Vilna.* His activity as a theater enterpreneur in major cities of Poland was his main contribution to the performing arts. Boguslawski composed one of the first national operas, Krakowiacy i Gorale (Cracovians and Mountaineers), shown in 1794, and conceived as an artistic background to the Kosciuszko Insurrection.* SBTP, 47-49 BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, religious movement developed in Bohemia from the mid-fifteenth century as a continuation of the moderate branch of the Hussites. They struggled against the influx of German culture and rejected Church ceremonies and most sacraments, and their clergy was elected similarly to Presbyterian clergy. They were anti-feudal, propagated ascetic life and enjoined physical labor. Fought by Catholics and the Habsburgs,* they found refuge in Poland in the sixteenth century and after the White Mountain Battle of 1620, when their leader, J. Komenski,* moved to Leszno.* P. Brock, Political and Social Doctrines of the Unity of Czech Brothers (Mouton, 1957).

BOHOMOLEC, FRANCISZEK (1720-1784), Jesuit,* historian and writer, one of the leaders of an educational reform that aimed at national revival and tried to raise the general standards of learning in Poland. He emphasized use of the Polish language and initiated the publication of collective works by Polish historians and writers. He also was among the founding fathers of Polish comedy, but his most important contribution was his journalistic work. He established and edited Wiadomosci Warszawskie (Warsaw News), and Kurier Warszawski. In 1765-1784, he edited Monitor, which mobilized the intellectual elite of the Enlightenment era in Poland. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literat (London, 1969), 157-158, 169-170. BOHUN, IVAN (7-1664), Cossack* leader. He served under B. Chmielnicki* during his Uprising but opposed the Pereieslav Agreement,* refused to swear to the Tsar, and, eventually, joined the pro-Polish Ukrainian orientation. He gradually became one of the most romantic figures of the period, vividly described in H. Sienkiewicz's* classic By Fire and Sword. PSB, II, 227-229

BOLESLAW I CHROBRY

43

BOHUSZ-SZYSZKO, ZYGMUNT (1893-1981), General. He began his Army service as a Russian officer. In 1916-1918, he served in the Polish Legions.* In interwar Poland, he held several commanding positions and then fought in the September Campaign.* After Poland's defeat, he went to France, where he commanded the Independent Highlands Riflemen Brigade. He took part in the invasion of Norway and the Battle of Narvik.* After the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement,* he served as a Chief of the Polish Military Mission to the USSR, Chief of Staff of Polish Armed Forces in the USSR and, in 1943-1945, a Deputy Commander of the Second Army Corps in Italy. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Wars 1991), 32. BOJKO, JAKUB (1857-1943), pioneer and leader of the peasant movement. He was elected to the Galician* Diet in 1895, and to the Austrian Parliament in 1897. A co-founder of the Peasant Party in 1903, he became president of the Polish Peasant Party (PSL)* after the 1913 split. After WW I, he served as deputy speaker of the Sejm* (1919-1922) and of the Senate (1922-1928). In 1928, he crossed the floor to the Sanacja's* Non-Party Block of Cooperation with the Government (BBWR),* becoming a member of its presidium. WEP, I 42. BOJKOWIE (Ukrainian: boiky), West Ukrainian ethnic group. Before WW II, they lived in the Carpathian* Mountains from the San to the Lomnica Rivers. On the East they bordered with the Hutsuls, and with the Lemkos* in the West. They were engaged in primitive agriculture and the timber industry. Encyclopedi of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 1 (Toronto, 1984), 262-2 BOLESLAW (BOLKO) SWIDNICKI (1312-1368), Piast* Prince of Silesia.* He opposed the Czech expansion and sought alliances with his father-in-law, Wladyslaw Lokietek,* and later with Kazimierz Wielki (the Great).* Boleslaw established his control over nearby Silesian principalities, becoming the most powerful ruler in the area. PSB, II, 265-267. BOLESLAW I CHROBRY (THE BRAVE) (966-1025), King of Poland, son of Mieszko I* and the Czech Princess Dabrowka.* He chased his stepmother and siblings out of Poland to preserve the unity of the state. At first he cooperated with the Emperor Otto III* against the Western Slavs on the Baltic and the Elbe River. He gave shelter to St. Adalbert,* initiated his cult and, in the year 1000, established an independent archbishopric in Gniezno* with a network of Bishoprics in Cracow,* Wroclaw,* Kolobrzeg, and Poznan.* After the death of Otto III in 1002, the Polish-German alliance and missionary plans against the pagans were replaced with competition and war. Boleslaw managed to defend his country, and the peace of Budziszyn (Bautzen) in 1018 gave Poland Lusatia and the Meissen region in today's Saxony. Secure in the West, Boleslaw inter-

44

BOLESLAW II SMIALY

vened in Kiev, supporting his son-in-law, Prince Svatopluk, and acquired control of Red Ruthenia.* Finally, Boleslaw obtained a crown from Rome, was recognized as the first King of Poland, and was crowned in Gniezno in 1025, a few months before his death. Boleslaw was a co-founder of the Piast* monarchy, strengthened and enlarged the Polish Kingdom, and belongs among the greatest rulers of Poland. CHP, I, 18, 35, passim; O. Halecki, "Boleslaw Chrobry (the Brave 966-1025," Great Men and Women of Poland, ed. by S. Mizwa (New York, 1 Poczet Krolow i Ksigzgt Polskich (Register of Polish Kings and Princes) (Warsaw, 19 26-35; PSB, II, 248-253. BOLESLAW II SMIALY (THE BOLD) (1039-1081), King of Poland, son of Kazimierz I the Restorer (Odnowiciel).* Boleslaw became king after his father's death in 1058. He lost control of Eastern Pomerania* in 1066 as a result of a pagan revival among local Slavic tribes, but he intervened successfully in Kiev and gained control over part of Ruthenia.* He ruled during the early stage of the Investiture conflict. He wanted to strengthen the independence of Poland from the German Empire and therefore supported Pope Gregory VII against Emperor Henry IV, for which he obtained the crown in 1076, despite German protests. His success was tragically marred by a conflict with the Bishop of Cracow,* Stanislaw Szczepanowski,* who was suspected of plotting with the King's brother, Wladyslaw. The bishop was sentenced to death and killed in his church (he was canonized as a martyr in 1254), but the King was forced to leave Poland. He found refuge in Hungary, where he died. CHP, I, 94-96; T Grudzinski, Boleslaw the Bold and Bishop Stanislaw (New York, 1987); Poczet Kr i Ksigzgt Polskich (Register of Polish Kings and Princes) (Warsaw, 1978), 52-62 II, 254-256. BOLESLAW III KRZYWOUSTY (THE WRYMOUTH) (1086-1138), Piast* ruler, son of Wladyslaw Herman.* After his father's death, Boleslaw fought and killed his stepbrother Zbigniew to preserve the unity of the state. He regained Pomerania* and Christianized it in 1124-1128, but had to pay tribute for this province to the Holy Roman Emperor. Boleslaw secured peace along the borders of Poland, but strong German influence in Rome prevented his coronation. His death on October 28, 1138, marked the division of the Piast monarchy among his five sons. According to his last will, based on the principle of seniority, the oldest, Wladyslaw, was the senior prince, with his capital in Cracow.* Boleslaw's last will was supposed to prevent civil wars among the heirs, but it turned Poland from a relatively strong state into a conglomerate of weak Principalities. CHP, I, 43, 52, passim; Poczet Krolow i Ksigzgt Polskich (Reg of Polish Kings and Princes) (Warsaw, 1978), 80-89; PSB, II, 256-259. BOLESLAW K^DZIERZAWY (THE CURLY) (1125-1173), Piast* prince of Mazovia* and Kujavia* from 1138, and of Cracow* from 1146. Son of Boleslaw III the Wrymouth,* he obtained the title of Princeps, following the

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45

seniorate rule of his father's last will, after expulsion from Poland of his stepbrother, Wladyslaw II. Boleslaw tried to strengthen his control over Poland and united his provinces with Silesia.* But he was defeated in 1157 by the Emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa, paid him tribute, and had to return Silesia to his brother's heirs. His submission to the German Emperor signified the humiliation of the Piast dynasty and made it dependent on the Emperors. CHP, I, 50, 76; Pocz Krolow i Ksigzgt Polskich (Register of Polish Kings and Princes) (Warsaw, 197 104; PSB, II, 259-260. BOLESLAW POBOZNY (THE PIOUS) (1221-1279), Duke of Great Po land's (Wielkopolska)* Piast* line, son of Wladyslaw Odonic, Prince of Kalisz. Boleslaw issued the first privileges for Jews* in 1264. The edict, shaped by Austrian and Bohemian antecedents, promised Jews complete freedom and opportunities for a decent livelihood in Great Poland. Boleslaw expanded his domination over the Kujavia* provinces in 1268 and fought the Teutonic Knights* and Brandenburg several times. In 1272, he regained Gdansk (Danzig)* and made an alliance with the Pomeranian* Prince Msciwoj. Boleslaw's main accomplishment was beginning Pomeranian union with Great Poland. CHP, 94, 9 passim; Poczet Krolow i Ksigzgt Polskich (Register of Polish Kings and Princes) saw, 1978), 165-171; PSB, II, 26 BOLESLAW ROGATKA (ca. 1224-1278), Piast* Prince of Silesia,* son of Henryk the Pious.* Involved in civil wars among princes of Silesia, Boleslaw sought assistance from German feudal lords and gave the Lubusz territory to the Archbishop of Magdeburg. The province passed into the hands of Brandenburg Margraves, facilitating their conquests of the western borderlands of Poland. Poczet Krolow i Ksigzgt Polskich (Register of Polish Kings and Princes) (W 1978), 172-177.

BOLESLAW THE CHASTE (WSTYDLIWY) (1226-1279), Piast* Prince of Sandomierz* and, from 1243, of Cracow.* His provinces were devastated by the second Tatar* invasion of 1259-1260 and the frequent raids by Ruthenians and Lithuanians. During his reign, salt mines were first developed near Cracow* in Bochnia,* beginning an important industry and export of that commodity. PSB, II, 260-262; Poczet Krolow i Ksigzgt Polskich (Register of Polish Kings and Princes) (Warsaw, 1978), 186-195. "BOLSHEVIK WAR." See POLISH-SOVIET WAR. BONA SFORZA (1494-1557), Queen of Poland, daughter of Giangaleazzo, Duke of Milan. Brought up in Bari and Naples, and educated as a Renaissance* woman, she married the Polish King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old)* in 1517. Very active in politics, she supported the anti-Habsburg orientation, and favored friendly relations with Turkey and an alliance with France. In do-

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BONER, JAN

mestic politics, she tried to strengthen the Jagiellonian dynasty. Although she was a genuine patron of the arts and culture in Poland, her despotic behavior and nepotism antagonized Polish magnates. After the death of her husband in 1548, a conflict developed between Bona and her son, King Zygmunt (Sigimund) August,* when the latter decided to marry Barbara RadziwiH.* Removed from the decision-making process, Bona departed for Bari, where she died. C I, 292-294, passim; T. Ulewicz, "Polish Humanism and Its Italian Sources," The Polish Renaissance in Its European Context, ed. by S. Fiszman (Bloomington, Indiana, 1988).

BONER, JAN (7-1523), Cracow* banker of German origin. He established his leading financial position under Kings Jan Olbracht* and Zygmunt I Stary (the Old),* lending them money and dealing with customs collection and trade. For his services, he was ennobled in 1514. In 1532, he was appointed Treasurer of Cracow and in fact became State Treasurer. PSB, II, 299-300 BONER, SEWERYN (1486-1549), banker, nephew and heir of J. Boner.* He became the chief banker of King Zygmunt I Stary (the Old)* and the Court's purveyor. As the Castellan* of Sacz and Biecz and Burgrave of Cracow,* he was known as a patron of the arts and humanist scholar. PSB, II, 300-301. BORELOWSKI, MARCIN (1829-1863), revolutionary leader. He participated in revolutionary activities in Cracow* in 1846 and 1848, and in the January Insurrection* of 1863. He organized and commanded guerrilla units in Podlasie* and the Lublin* region. He was mortally wounded during the Battle of Batoch. WEP, II, 322-324. BOROWY, WACLAW (1890-1950), literary critic, professor of Warsaw University,* and a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (PAU).* His scholarly works were usually written in the form of precise summaries. Borowy also worked on versification and problems of literary translations and was involved in Anglo-Polish cultural relations. In his theoretical views Borowy was influenced by B. Croce. J. Kleiner, "Wactaw Borowy," Zycie i Mysl VII/82 (1950 BORUTA-SPIECHOWICZ, MIECZYSLAW (1894-1987), General. During WW I, he fought in the Polish Legions* and organized the Polish Military Organization (POW)* in Ukraine.* After 1918, he participated in the PolishUkrainian War* and in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. In interwar Poland, he commanded several units. He participated in the September Campaign* and, from 1939 to 1941, he was in a Soviet prison. After the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement,* he was released and appointed commander of the Fifth Infantry Division in the USSR. Later, he was in charge of evacuating the Polish Army to Iran. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej ( erals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 78.

B6R-K0M0R0WSKI, TADEUSZ

47

BORYSLAW, East Galician* town which developed in the nineteenth century as the main petroleum production center in Poland, reaching the peak of crude oil production in 1904. The population of the city grew to 41,500 in 1931. In the interwar period the reserves of petroleum greatly decreased, but Boryslaw was still the largest center of oil extraction and mineral wax mining. The other important product of the region was natural gas (about 59 percent of Poland's entire production). In September 1939, Boryslaw was occupied by the Red Army and incorporated into the Soviet Ukraine. J. Brantly, History of Oil Well Drilli (Houston, 1971); W. Klimkiewicz, "The Polish Petroleum Industry from Its Inception to 1939," Studies in Polish Civilization, ed. by D. Wandycz (New York, 19 BOYM, JERZY (1581-1641), patrician of Lvov,* wealthy merchant, physician, City Councillor and Mayor. He organized the transport by raft of grain and potassium from the estates of Prince J. Wisniowiecki* to the port of Gdansk.* EHGP, I, 48 BOZNANSKA, OLGA (1865-1940), painter, mostly appreciated as a portraitist. She was educated in Cracow* and Munich. In 1898, she moved to Paris. Her paintings are reminiscent of works by the French Impressionists, but her basic style has a unique technique, characterized by light brush strokes. Boznaiiska served as president of the Polish Artists' Society. W. Jaworska, Polis Painters (1850-1950) (Montreal, 19 BOZE COS POLSK? (Lord Who Protects Poland), religious-patriotic song, written in 1816 by A. Felifiski, and supplemented in 1828 by A. Gorecki. With its powerful refrain, "Ojczyzne wolna racz nam zwrocic Panie!" (A free fatherland return to us, Lord!), it became a substitute national anthem, emotionally sung on patriotic occasions. WEP, II, 9 BOR-KOMOROWSKI, TADEUSZ (1895-1966), General. Educated at the Franz Joseph Militarakademie in Vienna, he joined Polish troops in 1918, participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921 and served in the army in the interwar period. In the 1939 September Campaign,* he commanded the cavalry group "Garwolin." Immediately after the defeat of Poland, he joined the underground movement. On May 3, 1940, he was appointed Deputy Commander of the Home Army,* and, after the Gestapo's arrest of Gen. S. Rowecki* on July 17, 1943, Bor-Komorowski became Commander-in-Chief of the Home Army until the fall of the Warsaw Uprising.* From October 5, 1944, to May 5, 1945, he was a prisoner of war in Germany. After the war, he settled in London. T. Bor-Komorowski, The Secret Army (London, 1950); T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zura kowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (War 1991), 33.

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BRANDT, J6ZEF

BRANDT, JOZEF (1841-1915), painter and leader of the Munich school of Polish art. He studied in Paris and Munich, where he established a private school of painting. He was especially interested in battle scenes of seventeenth century Polish wars with Cossacks,* Tatars,* and Swedes. H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (London, 1942), 40, 46; W. Jaworska, Polish Painters (1850-1950) (Montreal, 1984), 34-35. BRANICKI, FRANCISZEK KSAWERY (1730-1819), magnate and friend of Catherine the Great.* He fought in the Seven Years War in the French Army, and, in 1764, became General of the Polish-Lithuanian Army. He was convinced that Prussia* would be the most dangerous enemy of Poland, which should seek Russian protection. He participated in the Russian military operations against the Bar Confederation.* In 1772, through Russian support, he was promoted to the position of Field Hetman and then Crown Hetman* of Poland. In 1787, he co-organized a Russophile confederation to provide Catherine with a large number of volunteers for her Turkish war. At the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792, Branicki opposed the reforms, then reluctantly approved the May 3, 1791, Constitution* but, at the same time, was plotting a counter-revolution. With a group of other magnates, he proclaimed the Targowica Confederation,* prepared previously in St. Petersburg, supported by the Russian Army, and directed against the King and the reform movement. In 1793, having assured for himself a Russian Generalship, Branicki resigned as Crown Hetman. During the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, he was sentenced in absentia to be hanged. PSB, II, 398-401. BRANICKI, JAN (1689-1771), magnate and Hetman.* An opponent of the Czartoryski "Family,"* he supported the Saxon dynasty in Poland, and, after the death of August III,* he was suggested by the Saxon camp for the throne of Poland. When Stanislaw August* was elected in 1764, Branicki protested the choice. Finally, Branicki decided to join the Bar Confederation,* and he improved relations with the King. He established a grand residence in Bialystok.* PSB, II, 403-404. BRANKA, selective compulsory enlistment into the Russian Army, ordered on A. Wielopolski's* initiative in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* on November 6, 1862. Instead of the balloting rule, in this case the old system of draftee lists was used. Branka was aimed at gaining eight thousand recruits designated by name from among political suspects. Wielopolski planned to stop the outbreak of the uprising, but news about his secret decision leaked out, and the January Insurrection* began to prevent the implementation of Branka. CHP, II, 365-387. BREDA, Dutch port and railroad junction. Occupied by the Germans during WW II, it was liberated on October 29, 1944, by the First Polish Armored Division. WEP, II, 131.

BRITISH GUARANTEE TO POLAND

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BREST-LITOVSK (Brzesc nad Bugiem), city on the right bank of the Bug* River, which served as the rallying point for Lithuanian and Polish leaders for the union of the Ukrainian and Belorussian Orthodox Church with Rome in 1595-1596, which established the Uniate* or Ukrainian Church, and in early 1918, as a place for Brest-Litovsk Peace* negotiations between the Central Powers and Lenin's Russia. In interwar Poland, Brest was the capital of Polesie* province and its fortress served as a jail for political prisoners. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 1 (Toronto, 1984), 294. BREST-LITOVSK PEACE, treaty between the Central Powers and Soviet Russia, signed on March 3, 1918. The negotiations began in December 1917 and were advanced by a German offensive. Lenin decided to sign the treaty at any price to save the revolution. As a result, Russia removed itself from the anti-German alliance and ceded to Germany western territories of the Tsarist empire, including the Ukraine,* Belorussia,* and Baltic countries. The treaty was annulled by the Bolsheviks on November 13, 1918. Polish public opinion opposed the inclusion of the Chelm* Region (on the left bank of the Bug River) into the Ukraine. J. Wheeler-Bennett, Brest-Litovsk: The Forgotten Peace, 1918 (London, 1938). BREST-LITOVSK TRIAL, staged by the Sanacja* regime against democratic parliamentary opposition. It began on October 26, 1931, in Warsaw* against the defendents, who were arraigned in the Fortress of Brest-Litovsk (Brzesc nad Bugiem).* Most were leaders of the Centrolew* Coalition, accused of preparing a coup d'etat and sentenced to two to three years in a prison. Accused were K. Baginski,* N. Barlicki,* A. Ciolkosz,* S. Dubois,* W. Kiernik, H. Lieberman,* M. Mastek, A. Pragier,* J. Putek, and W. Witos.* Before the verdict was implemented, some of them went into exile in Czechoslovakia. CHP, II, 503, 526; N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland vol. II (New York, 1984), 393-434; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972). BRITISH GUARANTEE TO POLAND, of March 31, 1939, was a guarantee not of Polish frontiers but of Polish independence. It was followed by the AngloPolish Declaration of mutual assistance of April 6, and finally by a Treaty of Mutual Assistance signed on August 25, two days after the signing of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact.* In the secret protocol of the Anglo-Polish Treaty of August 25, British aid was limited to the case of an attack on Poland by Germany, but there was also a stipulation that neither party would enter into an agreement with a third country which would prejudice the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the other. The British government hoped that the guarantee would deter Hitler from using force against Poland and persuade him to enter into negotiations. A. Cienciala, "Poland in British and French Policy in 1939: Determination to Fight—or Avoid War?" Polish Review XXXIV 3 (1989), 199-226; S. Newman, March 1939: The British Guarantee to Poland: A Study in the Continuity ofBritsh

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Foreign Policy (Oxford, 1976); W. Rock, "British Guarantee to Poland, March 1939: A Problem in Diplomatic Decisionmaking," South Atlantic Quarterly LXV (1966), 229240. BRODY, town in Eastern Galicia* established in 1584 by S. Zolkiewski* as a fortress to block Tatar* and Cossack* invasions. At the First Partition* of Poland, the town was occupied by the Austrians. In the eighteenth century, it became an important center of commerce and Jewish culture. Jews* constituted 72 percent of all residents of Brody in 1900. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. IV (Jerusalem, 1971), 1396-1399. BRODZINSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1791-1835), poet. A veteran of the Napoleonic Wars, he settled in Warsaw* in 1814 and worked as Secretary of the National Theater, professor of Warsaw University,* and co-editor of Pamietnik Warszawski (Warsaw Diary).* He translated poetry, scientific works and opera libretti of West European authors into Polish. He promoted the idea that literature should be classical in form, but romantic in spirit. Though skeptical of revolutionary methods, he joined the 1830 November Uprising.* He later contributed to the development of the ideology of Polish messianism.* C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 207. BRONIEWSKI, WLADYSLAW (1897-1962), poet. He joined the Polish Legions* in 1915 and participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. Later he became a leading representative of revolutionary lyrics. He worked for the leftist periodicals Nowa Kultura and Wiadomosci Literackie (Literary News).* In 1925, he co-authored the volume Trzy Salwy (Three Salvos), a poetic manifesto on behalf of the revolutionary proletariat. In 1940, he was arrested by Soviet authorities and released a year later as a result of the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement.* He served with the Polish Army under Gen. W. Anders* and returned to Poland after the war. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 399-400. BRONIKOWSKI, KSAWERY (1796-1852), politician, member of the clandestine Society of Free Poles and of the Patriotic Society.* Together with M. Mochnacki,* he edited Gazeta Polska and later Kurier Polski. He participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830, then emigrated to France, where he became a member of the Polish National Committee and editor of the conservative Kronika Emigracji Polskiej. PSB, II, 468-470. BROZEK (BROSCIUS), JAN (1588-1652), mathematician, physician and theologian; professor, librarian and Rector at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow.* He was the most prominent Polish mathematician of the seventeenth century and contributed to a greater knowledge of Copernican theories. PSB, III, 1-3.

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BRUCKNER, ALEKSANDER (1856-1939), philologist, professor of Vienna, Lvov,* Leipzig and Berlin Universities. His main interest was the history of Polish and other Slavic literatures and languages. He made numerous important archival discoveries, which led to noteworthy works on Polish culture and literature. WEP, II, 162. BRUHL, HEINRICH VON (1700-1763), Saxon statesman, powerful Councillor of Kings August II* and August III.* In 1746, he became the first Saxon Premier and had great influence on August III. Acting for Saxon rulers as a plenipotentiary during their frequent absence from Poland, he amassed a tremendous fortune and built an imposing palace in Warsaw,* which later became the seat of the Polish Foreign Ministry in the interwar period. CHP, II, 35-49; PSB, III, 16-19. BRZOZOWSKI, STANISLAW (1878-1911), writer. Active in clandestine student organizations at Warsaw University,* he was arrested in 1898. He denounced some of his associates, thereby laying the foundation of future accusations of cooperation with the Tsarist Okhrana police. From 1901, he began writing popular pamphlets and essays for Warsaw* periodicals. He attacked the intellectual authorities of the period, gradually embraced socialist ideas, and, during the 1905 Revolution, became known as a spellbinding orator. In April 1908, the socialist press listed him among the agents of Okhrana, together with the famous Azef, provoking a long-lasting controversy among Polish intellectuals. R. Syska-Lamparska, Stanislaw Brzozowski, A Polish Vichian (Florence, 1987); A. Walicki, Stanislaw Brzozowski and the Polish Beginnings of "Western" Marxism (Oxford, 1986).

BRZOSKA, STANISLAW (1834-1865), priest. He took part in the January Insurrection* as the chief chaplain with the rank of general. He became a commander of the last partisan unit, fought until December 1864, and was arrested and executed by public hanging in the market of Sokolow Podlaski. PSB, III, 69-70. BUCZACZ PEACE, treaty between Poland and Turkey signed in the small town of Buczacz in Tarnopol (Ternopil) district on October 16, 1672. The treaty confirmed the conquests of Sultan Mehmed IV, who took from Poland Kamieniec Podolski (Kamianec-Podilsky)* and most of Ukraine.* The Polish side also agreed to pay a tribute of twenty-two thousand zlotys yearly. The treaty was not ratified by the Polish Sejm,* and, in 1673, the Polish Army resumed the offensive, defeating Turks near Chocim in Bukowina. CHP, I, 532-556. BUDNY, SZYMON (1533-1595), theologian. At first a follower of Calvin, he later joined the Unitarians. He opposed the radical teachings of the Anabaptists and defended both private property and social hierarchy. He worked on a new

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translation of the Bible and published a critical exegesis of the New Testament. Budny's denial of Christ's divinity and emphasis on the Old Testament were criticized as returning to a Judaic position. Budny opposed the persecution of French Huguenots as a warning against the candidacy of Henryk Walezy* to the Polish Crown. S. Kot, Szymon Budny (Graz, 195 BUDZISZYN (Bautzen), town in Saxony. In the early Middle Ages it belonged to the Slavic territories of Lusatia. In the eleventh century, Budziszyn was taken by the Germans. From the mid-twelfth century, it belonged to Bohemia, and, from 1635, to Saxony. In April 1945, the Second Polish Army participated in a major battle there against the Germans. CHP, I, 24, 26. BUG, river, main eastern tributary of the Vistula* River, over 800 kilometers long. For most of its course, the Bug became a frontier between the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and Tsarist Russia; later in 1939, between the Nazi and Soviet zones of occupied Poland; and after 1945, the Eastern frontier with the USSR. EHGP, I, 76. BUJAK, FRANCISZEK (1875-1953), scholar; professor of Jagiellonian (1909-1919), Warsaw (1919-1921), and Lvov (1921-1941) Universities and from 1919 a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (PAU).* He specialized in the social and economic history of Poland. In his political activities, he supported the leader of the Peasant Party,* W. Witos,* and participated in the underground during W W II. EHGP, I, 77; A. Shelton, The Democratic Idea in Polish History and Historiography: Franciszek Bujak (1875-1953) (New York, 1989).

BUJWID, KAZIMIERA (1867-1932), feminist activist, especially interested in women's education. In 1903, she edited a book, Glos Kobiet w Kwestii Kobiecej (Women's Voice in the Women's Question), which was the platform of the Polish feminist movement. PSB, III, 111-112. BULHAK, JAN (1876-1951), founder of the Polish school of photography, director of the Institute of Artistic Photography at Vilna University (1919-1939), founder and chairman of Vilna Photo Club and other professional associations. He authored numerous textbooks on aesthetics and technique in photography. WEP, II, 225. BUND (Algemeiner Yiddisher Arbeterbund im Lite, Poilen un Russland), General Yiddish Workers' Union in Lithuania, Poland and Russia, a Jewish Marxist, anti-Zionist party created in 1897 in Vilna.* In the years 1898-1902 and 19061912, the Bund was an important part of the Social Democratic Party of Russia but refused to surrender to Lenin's demands for extreme centralization. The Bund insisted on use of the Yiddish* language and Jewish autonomy. In independent Poland, the Bund worked closely with the Polish Socialist Party (PPS)*

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and equally opposed Communism, the Sanacja* regime, Zionism,* and Jewish clericalism. The Bund developed an impressive network of associated organizations and was the strongest Jewish party in Poland. It also played a major role in the Ghetto Uprising* of 1943 and the underground Jewish movement outside Warsaw.* B. Johnpoll, The Politics of Futility: The General Jewish Workers' Bund of Poland: 1917-1943 (Ithaca, New York, 1967). BURZA. See OPERATION TEMPEST. BURZA, Polish destroyer, built in France in 1932. In summer 1939 bound for England, she took part in the struggle against the Germans, in the Norwegian operation, in the evacuation of Allied troops from France in 1940, and in transatlantic convoys till 1944. S. Piaskowski, Kroniki Polskiej Marynarki Wojennej, 19181946 (Albany, New York, 1987). BUTRYMOWICZ, MATEUSZ (1745-1814), politician. As a member of the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792, he proposed the fusion of the Polish and Lithuanian Treasuries and the construction of the Oginski Canal* linking the Vistula* River and Dnieper River basins, and supported the May 3 Constitution. He was involved in the financial affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* strongly advocated fundamental reforms of the Jewish legal position in Poland, and opposed anti-Semitic outbursts. PSB, III, 153-154. BUZEK, JOZEF (1873-1936), economist. Before WW I, he worked in the Statistical Office in Vienna and later as a professor of Lvov University. In 1919, he became a member of the Polish Constitutional Sejm* and during 1922-1927 was a member of the Senate.* In November 1918 he also became the first Director of the Central Statistical Office in Warsaw.* He published numerous works on statistics, economics and problems of national minorities. PSB, III, 155156. BYCZYNA, small town in Silesia* and a battleground in 1588, when Chancellor* J. Zamoyski* defeated the Habsburg* pretender to the Polish throne, Archduke Maximilian, and helped Zygmunt III Waza* to pacify the opposition. WEP, II, 248. BYDGOSZCZ, town on the Brda River. Established as a Polish border fort on the frontier with Pomerania,* it was seized by the Teutonic Knights* in the early fourteenth century and regained by Poland in 1466. An important commercial and crafts center, it became one of the larger towns of seventeenthcentury Poland but later was ruined by the wars with Sweden and Russia. After the First Partition* of 1772, Bydgoszcz was incorporated into Prussia* and was recovered by Poland in 1920. In 1939, the city had 141,000 inhabitants, including a strong German minority, which actively supported the Nazi invasion of

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1939. This provoked a reaction among Polish military authorities as well as German revenge, when the city was taken. Mass executions began on September 5, and within the next three months about 20,000 Poles were killed. Until the liberation of Bydgoszcz on Jan. 25, 1945, about 50,000 people were murdered, and 40 percent of the city was destroyed. EHGP, I, 80. BYSTRON, JAN (1892-1964), ethnologist and historian of culture, professor of Jagiellonian (1925-1934) and Warsaw Universities* (from 1934), member of the Polish Academy of Learning (PAU).* In his research on old Polish culture, he used sociological methods. His well-written works were widely read. SHP, 48. BYTOM, industrial town in Upper Silesia.* Established as a fort in the eleventh century, it developed into an important Polish commercial and industrial center (mining of lead, iron and silver) in the twelfth century. From 1355, Bytom was under Czech control; from 1526, under Brandenburg control; and, from 1697, under Austrian control. From 1741 until 1945, it belonged to Prussia.* The development of modern industry and coal mining in the nineteenth century caused the growth of the city. In 1800, it had only 1,500 inhabitants; in 1939, more than 100,000. Despite intensive Germanization, Bytom remained one of the strongest Polish centers in Upper Silesia, with a Polish press, Polish cultural associations, and a Polish bank. SHP, 48-49. BZURA, BATTLE OF, major Polish-German encounter between September 9 and September 20, 1939, on the Bzura River in central Poland, where the Polish armies "Poznan," "Pomorze," and "Lodz" attempted a counter-offensive. The superiority of German forces and a catastrophic military situation on other fronts decided that despite initial Polish success, the operation did not have the expected result. After September 18, the Polish offensive was stopped and defeated. Some of the Polish units reached Modlin* and Warsaw* to take part in the defense of those cities. S. Zaloga and V. Madej, The Polish Campaign 1939 (New York, 1985).

c CALVINISTS, religious denomination; followers of J. Calvin. They appeared in Poland in the mid-sixteenth century, and became popular mainly because of their opposition to the tax privileges and judicial power of the Catholic Church. Calvinists were more tolerant in Poland than in the West because of their minority status. Also, the predestination doctrine was not as strongly emphasized in Poland as in Switzerland, Scotland, or Holland. Calvinists, led by the Leszczynski family in Great Poland* and the RadziwiH family* in Lithuania,* established their schools and printing shops in Pinczow, Leszno,* Vilna,* Kiejdany, and Sluck. There they published a fine translation of the Bible in 1653 and the poetry of M. Rej.* In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, their number and influence visibly diminished. J. McNeil, The History and Characterof Calvinism (New York, 1954); J. Tazbir, A State without Stakes: Polish Religious Toleration in the 16th and 17th Centuries (New York, 1973).

CAMP FOR A GREATER POLAND (Oboz Wielkiej Polski [OWP]), radical right-wing political organization established in Dec. 1926 in Poznan (Posen)* by R. Dmowski* to revitalize National Democracy.* The 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat* and the consolidation of the Sanacja* regime constituted a serious defeat for the Popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy* [ZLN]).* Dmowski decided to utilize the energy of the "young" national democratic leaders, who were frustrated with the inactivity and inefficiency of the "old" national democrats as supporters of traditional parliamentary methods of politics. The OWP broke with those methods and started fighting in the streets outside the Parliament, organizing fighting squads, attacking Jews,* and propagandizing slogans akin to the Italian fascists. In 1928 the OWP merged with the ZLN into the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe)* but remained autonomous within the new party. In 1932, the OWP reached about 120,000 members and was still growing. The Sanacja started considering the Camp for a Greater Poland dan-

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gerous for the political establishment in Poland and, in early 1933, declared the OWP illegal. Most of its members remained in the National Party as its youth organization. The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 172, 181; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972),241, 369-371. CAMP OF NATIONAL UNITY (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego [OZN or Ozon]), political organization founded by the Sanacja* regime after the death of J. Pilsudski* to replace the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR]),* to consolidate the political groups supporting the government, and to reach an understanding with the younger nationalistic leaders close to National Democracy.* In May 1936, a successor of Pilsudski, E. Rydz-Smigly,* called for greater national unity and entrusted the organization of the new political movement to A. Koc* After long debates within the governing group, Koc announced the program of the new organization in February 1937. The OZN stressed the virtues of the Constitution of April 1935* and the special position of the Army, which was to unite all the citizens. The Camp used some slogans of the Italian fascists but also elements of conservative and National Democratic programs. Poland was to be a state of Polish Catholics, who would "defend their culture" and "economic selfsufficiency" against the Jews* and other national minorities. The OZN absorbed several Pilsudskiite organizations and grew rapidly. In 1938, it had about 100,000 members. However, its relationship to the government and its political role in the state were unclear. In addition, its leadership became inactive and divided, and the organization did not manage to initiate any significant changes in Poland before WW II. The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 193-197; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 419-436.

CANALETTO, (BELOTTO) BERNARDO (1721-1780), Italian painter. At first, he specialized in scenes of Venice, Padua and Florence, then of Dresden and Vienna. In 1776 he moved to Warsaw,* where he worked for King Stanislaw August,* concentrating on Warsaw views, scenes of everyday life and political events. He applied the camera obscura technique, so his paintings are an excellent source of historical information, and they made possible the reconstruction of the Old Town of Warsaw as it was in the eighteenth century. S. Kozakiewicz Bernardo Bellotto (London, 1972); M. Wallis, Canaletto Malarz Wa (Warsaw, 1960). CAR, STANISLAW (1882-1938), lawyer and associate of J. Pilsudski.* In interwar Poland Car served as a chief of office of the Chief-of-State (1918— 1923), an Attorney General for the Supreme Court (1925), a Chief of the Civil Office of the President of the Republic (1926), and a Minister of Justice (1929— 1930). In the years 1930-1935, he represented the Non-Party Bloc of Cooper-

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ation with the Government (BBWR)* in the Parliament, and, as a head of the Parliamentary Legal Commission, he was one of the co-authors of the April 1935 Constitution. During 1935-1938, he served as a Speaker of the Parliament. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), pas CARBONARI, nineteenth-century movement directed against absolutism. In organizational terms, it resembled Masonry. Its name was taken from Italian carbonari (charcoal burners), who hid political exiles in their huts. It began after 1806 in South Italy but later spread to most European countries. In the 1820s, it began in Poland, mainly among army officers preparing for the November Insurrection.* After its fall in 1831, the movement became strong among Polish exiles in France, contributed to subsequent secret activities in Poland, and became more radical, taking on Utopian characteristics. WEP, V, 46 CARPATHIAN BRIGADE, WW II unit of Polish volunteers. Most of them crossed the Carpathians* after the 1939 defeat of Poland. The Brigade was organized in 1940 in French-controlled Syria under Gen. S. Kopanski. After the French debacle, it moved to Egypt and took part in the Battle of Tobruk.* In 1944, it participated within Gen. Anders' II Corps in the liberation of Italy. Its melodious march Karpacka Brygada became a popular war song. Polskie Sif Zbrojne w Drugiej Wojnie Swiatowej (London, 1950 CARPATHIANS, geologically young mountains shared by Bohemia, Slovakia, Poland, and Romania, extending over 13,000 kilometers in length, and 100 to 350 kilometers in width. The Western Carpathians are located on the PolishSlovak border; the Eastern, in Western Ukraine and on the TransylvanianMoldavian border; the Southern, also called the Transylvanian Alps, reach the lower Danube. The highest granite peaks, known as Tatra Mountains,* reach over 2,400 meters above sea level and include the noted resort Zakopane.* The Carpathians divide the Baltic and Black sea basins, are rich in evergreen forests and wildlife, and have constituted the southern border of Poland throughout its entire history. WEP, V, 486-48 CARTELS, monopolistic form of capitalist organization. In interwar Poland their number grew from 9 in 1919 to 274 in 1926. International cartels controlled 98 percent of the coal and 100 percent of iron production in Poland and proved to be detrimental to the Polish enemy, especially during the Great Depression, because of the artificial maintenance of high prices for industrial production. They also influenced political life through their links with the authorities. EHGP I, 298; Z. Landau, "The Extent of Cartelization of Industries in Poland, 1918-1939," Acta Poloniae Historica XXXVIII (1978), 147-1 CASIMIR. See KAZIMIERZ.

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CASTELLAN (kasztelan), state office in early medieval Poland responsible for the administration and military control of a castle and a neighboring region, known as a kasztelania and constituting the basic administrative unit of the state. In mid-thirteenth-century Poland, there were about 100 kasztelanias. In the fourteenth century, after the introduction of the new administrative office of starosta (Foreman of a district), the Castellan's office lost its importance and turned into a titular provincial position. From the fifteenth century, Castellans had seats in the Senate,* and, in the ranking of Senate positions, they were placed directly under the Palatines (wojewoda), with the exception of the Castellan of Cracow, who was the most important lay Senator of pre-Partition Poland. The title of Castellan also existed in the Duchy of Warsaw* and in the Congress Kingdom of Poland (1807-1831). WEP, V, 513. CATHERINE II (1729-1796), German-born Empress of Russia (1762-1796), who made Russia a prosperous and powerful state and extended Russian territory by adding Crimea and much of Poland. In 1764 she installed one of her former lovers, Stanislaw August Poniatowski,* as King of Poland. She suppressed the Bar Confederation* and favored the growing anarchy in Poland by forcing the Polish Sejm* (Parliament) to guarantee the "old Polish Constitution" (i.e., the elective monarchy and the liberum veto).* She participated in all three Partitions* of the country. J. Alexander, Catherine The Great: Life and Legend (Oxford, 1989); G. Thompson, Catherine the Great and the Expansion of Russia (London, 1947); A. Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992); A. Zamoyski, The Polish Way: A Thousand Year History of the Poles and Their Culture (New York, 1993), ch. 14 and 15.

CATHOLIC ACTION, international political movement aimed at strengthening the influence of the Catholic Church, directed from Rome. In Poland, it was founded in 1930 by the Polish Episcopate. In 1938, Catholic Action had 600,000 members in Poland and was involved in a political campaign on behalf of a corporative system as envisaged by the Papal Encyclicals Rerum Novarum and Quadragesimo Anno. The movement tried to increase the impact of Catholicism on family life, culture, and learning. It fought leftist parties, the liberal wing of the Sanacja* regime, freemasonry, and freethinking in general. Catholic Action exercised its strongest influence in the countryside. Its monthly organ was Ruch Katolicki (Catholic Movement). A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland (Oxf 1972), 212. CATHOLIC CHURCH AND POLAND. Since the Baptism of Poland* in 966, the Catholic Church and Catholicism have been integral parts of Polish history and society. In 968, the first missionary bishopric was established in Poznan,* followed in 1000 by the archbishopric in Gniezno* and additional dioceses in Kolobrzeg (Kolberg),* Wroclaw (Breslau),* and Cracow.* Poland became a part of Christian Latin Europe. Mieszko I* placed his country under the protection of the Pope in 990, and the Church of Poland defended its independence against

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a crowding German religious hierarchy. After Mieszko II* died in 1034, Poland experienced a period of anarchy and pagan reaction but the ecclesiastical organization was soon rebuilt. During the era of feudal disintegration,* the Polish Church kept alive the idea of Polish cultural unity and national identity. Under the last Piast* rulers in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Polish clergy received numerous privileges, became a separate estate, and helped to unify Poland and to extend its territories eastwards. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* emerged as the bulwark of Christianity—the "Antemurale"* against the Tatars,* Muslim Turks, and Orthodox Muscovy. The Primate* of Poland already served as Interrex* in critical Royal elections,* and various Concordats* would be concluded by the Polish state with Rome. In the sixteenth century the rapid spread of the Reformation* threatened the position of the Catholic Church in Poland. Protestants, divided into several denominations, became very numerous and politically influential. In 1573 they united at the Warsaw Confederation* and received constitutional guarantees of religous freedom. The Catholic Church answered this major challenge with reforms and intense work by Papal nuncios* and Jesuits.* The Orthodox Church* in Poland was united with Rome through the Union of Brest-Litovsk* in 1596. During the seventeenth century, the Counter-Reformation* succeeded in Poland. King Jan Kazmierz* proclaimed the Virgin Mary to be Queen of Poland in 1666. Catholicism became the official religion of the state, the rights of Protestants were limited, tolerance of dissidents* in general diminished, and the words Pole and Catholic became virtually synonymous. After the Partitions* of Poland, its Catholic Church was seriously weakened by the partitioning powers. They abolished monasteries and religious societies and also confiscated Church property. Russia and Prussia (particularly the latter during the Kulturkampf*) implemented especially aggressive anti-Catholic policies. Orthodoxy and Protestantism were promoted as means of Russification and Germanization. In response, Polish Catholicism, with its Marian Cult* and mystical belief in a special relationship between the Resurrection of Christ and the restoration of Poland, functioned as an integral weapon against foreign oppression. Following the rebirth of Poland in 1918, the Polish Catholic Church was rebuilt. Two new archbishoprics (Cracow and Vilna)* and four new dioceses were organized. By 1931 Roman Catholics constituted almost 65% of the entire Polish population, and the Catholic Church enjoyed a privileged position in Poland. However, after 1939 the Nazi and Soviet oppressors conducted a systematic liquidation of Poles and the Church. Over 25% of the Polish clergy perished during World War II. J. Kloczowski (ed.), Chrzescijanstwo w Polsce: Zarys Przemian, 966-1945 (Lublin, 1980); New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 11 (New York, 1967), 471-486.

CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF LUBLIN. See KUL. CECORA (Tutora), village in Romania on the Prut River, where a battle took place from September 17 to October 6, 1620, between a Polish Army of 9,000

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led by Hetman* S. Zolkiewski,* and the 40,000-strong Turkish-Tatar forces. It ended with the Polish defeat and decapitation of Zolkiewski. The Tatars raided the country up to Volhynia,* taking many captives. WEP, II, 325. CEGIELSKI, HIPOLIT (1815-1868), industrialist. He received an excellent humanistic education in Berlin, but after his return to Poznan,* he embraced the program of "organic work"* and engaged in various commercial activities. His repair shop for agricultural implements developed into a large factory of agricultural and steam machines. In 1913, it moved to new buildings and increased its production threefold. In interwar Poland, Cegielski also produced steel construction, railroad cars, steam engines, and locomotives. After September 1939, the company was transformed into a major German armament factory with over 20,000 workers. Cegielski was among the first Polish contributors to the theory of industrialization. He also supported Polish cultural and patriotic activities in the Prussian part of Poland. PSB, III, 217-219; W. Radkiewicz, Dzieje Zakladow Cegielski w Poznaniu, 1845-1960: Studium Historyczno-Ekonomiczne (Pozna CELICHOWSKI, ZYGMUNT (1845-1923), Polish patriotic activist in the Grand Duchy of Poznan* and Director of the Kurnik Library. He modernized and enlarged its collection, supported by the Library's founder and protector, Count J. Dzialynski. After WW I, Celichowski was a Vice President of the Friends of Learning Society in Poznan and a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (PAU)*. PSB, III, 221-222. CENTRAL LITHUANIAN REPUBLIC (Litwa Srodkowa), small (13,000 square kilometers and about 500,000 inhabitants) semi-state organization including Vilna (Polish: Wilno; Lithuanian: Vilnius)* and four neighboring counties between October 1920 and January 1922. Vilna, an object of contention between interwar Poland and Lithuania,* was the historical Lithuanian capital, but, after WW I, only about 4 percent of Vilna's population were ethnically Lithuanian, while Poles and Jews* created a clear majority. The rural population of the region was also predominantly Polish. In December 1918, the German Army left the city, which was taken by the Red Army, freed by J. Pilsudski's* troops in April 1919, and re-taken by the Bolsheviks in July 1920. The Soviet authorities, planning a revolution in Europe and organizing the Polish Temporary Revolutionary Committee, gave the city to the Lithuanian Republic. After the turning point of the Battle of Warsaw,* the Red Army was pushed out of Poland and Belorussia,* and Lithuanian-controlled Vilna was located behind the lines of the Polish Army. One of its Divisions, led by Gen. L. Zeligowski* and consisting of volunteers from the Vilna region, "rebelled" and took the city from Lithuanian hands. The action was supported by the Polish authorities, but the "rebellion" was necessary because of the Polish international situation and the decision of the 1920 Spa Conference.* After the occupation of Vilna, on October 12, 1920, Zeligowski proclaimed an independent state, named the Cen-

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tral Lithuanian Republic. On November 30, 1921, Zeligowski issued a decree calling for elections to the Vilna Parliament, but only the Polish population participated in the elections of January 9, 1922. The new Parliament proclaimed the unification with Poland on February 20, 1922. W. Jedrzejewicz, "Litwa Srodkowa i jej zycie wewnetrzne, 1920-1922," Niepodleglosc, XVI (1983), 22-51; A. "On the State of Central Lithuania," Jahrbiicher fur Geschichte Osteuropas (Octo 1964). CENTRALIZACJA LWOWSKA, first national underground organization established in Austrian-controlled Lvov* in Jan. 1796 to fight for the restoration of Polish independence. Though conservative in character, it hoped for French support in its preparations for the Insurrection. Most of its activists were jailed by Austrian authorities in fall 1797. SHP, 51-5 CENTROLEW, electoral coalition of the left-of-center parties (Polish Socialist Party [PPS],* National Workers' Party [NPR],* Christian Democracy,* Polish Peasant Party "Piast"* and Polish Peasant Party "Wyzwolenie" [Liberation]). Centrolew was created in fall 1929 as an attempt to consolidate the anti-Sanacja* opposition, to obtain a parliamentary majority, and to replace the dictatorship of J. Pilsudski* with a democratic government. After the dissolution of the Sejm* by President I. Moscicki* in April 1930, Centrolew demanded an extraordinary parliamentary session to pass proper legislation to counteract the growing economic crisis. When the Sanacja government refused and threatened a new coup d'etat, Centrolew issued a declaration blaming the government and the President for irresponsibility. It organized a Congress for Defense of Law and Freedom of the People with two demands: resignation of the Pilsudski regime and creation of a constitutional government. The Congress, held in Cracow,* culminated in a meeting of 30,000 people and an appeal for other demonstrations in twenty-one localities to be held simultaneously on September 14, 1930. In response, on the night of September 10, the government arrested Centrolew's leaders, namely six socialists (N. Barlicki,* A. Ciolkosz,* S. Dubois,* H. Lieberman,* Z. Mastek, and A. Pragier*); two of "Piast" (W. Kiernik and W. Witos*); A. Sawicki from the "Wyzwolenie"; and K. Popiel from NPR. In addition, two deputies from the right-wing National Party (A. Debski and J. Kwiatkowski) and five Ukrainian deputies (W. Celewicz, O. Kohut, J. Leszczynski, D. Palijiw, and A. Wyslocki) were jailed. Some days later, the Christian Democrat W. Korfanty* was also jailed. They were placed in the fortress of Brest-Litovsk* and eleven Centrolew leaders were tried in 1931. Though the demonstrations planned for September 14 were prohibited, they took place in Warsaw, Torufi,* and Tarnow* and were violently dispersed by police. New parliamentary elections were organized, in which Centrolew parties were presented under the common list as the Association of the Defense of Law and Freedom of the People. Held on November 16, 1930, they were rigged: conducted under intimidation. Centrolew got only 17.7 percent of the votes, which

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gave it only 82 deputies out of a total of 444. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independe Poland (Oxford, 1972), 291-369; WEP, II, 3 CEYNOWA, FLORIAN (1817-1881), Kashub leader and ethnographer. He became involved in Slavic problems, especially Germanization of the Kashubs, during his medical studies in Wroclaw (Breslau).* In the years 1846-1848 he was imprisoned for his rebellion against Prussian military service. A radical democrat and Kashub separatist opposing both the Prussian authorities and Polish nobility and clergy, he published works in Kashub dialect and strove for a Slavic Federation under Russian patronage. He took part in the Pan-Slavic Conferences in Prague (1861) and in Moscow (1867). P. Brock, "Florjan Ceynowa and the Kashub Question," East European Quarterly XI/3 (196 CHALUBINSKI, TYTUS (1820-1889), Warsaw* physician. In 1848, he participated in the Hungarian uprising as a physician in charge of ambulances. Professor of the Medical-Surgical Academy (from 1857) and of the Szkola Glowna (Principal School)* in Warsaw, he resigned in 1869, when the school was transformed into the Russian University of Warsaw. He later became a Tatra* Mountains enthusiast and a student of Podhale* folklore, together with a famous local storyteller, J. Sabala.* He organized numerous mountain climbing expeditions and was a pioneer of Polish alpine activities. Discovering the therapeutic assets of Zakopane,* he established systematic tuberculosis sanatoria there. WEP, II, 377-378 CHANCELLOR (kanclerz), one of the most powerful state officials in prePartition Poland, beginning in the twelfth century. He was in charge of foreign policy, the Royal Chancery and the collection of the documents it issued (called Metryka Koronna). During the period of feudal divisions, each Principality had its own Chancellor. After the unification of the country in the fourteenth century, provincial Chancellors disappeared and the Chancellor of Cracow remained with the title of Crown Chancellor. After the 1569 Lublin Union* with Lithuania,* there was a Chancellor for each part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and two Vice Chancellors. All four were members of the Senate until 1795. WEP, V, 513.

CHARLES GUSTAVUS (1622-1660), Commander-in-Chief of the Swedish Army during the last stage of the Thirty Years War and Swedish King from 1654. He continued the policy of his father, Gustavus II Adolphus, to establish full control over the southern shores of the Baltic Sea. In 1655, Charles invaded Poland and occupied most of the country. This episode in Polish history is known as the "Deluge."* In fall 1656, after the spectacular defense of the Czestochowa* Monastery, the Swedes were forced to retreat. The war was continued in Ukraine* and ended after the death of Charles with the treaty of Oliwa,* signed in 1660. Endowed with tremendous energy and personal courage, Charles Gustavus was known as one of the greatest warriors of early mod-

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ern Europe. N. Da vies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1 (New 1982), ch. 14; R. Frost, After the Deluge: Poland-Lithuania and the Second Nort War 1655-1660 (Cambridge, 19 CHCIUK, TADEUSZ ("MAREK CELT") (1916- ), WW II underground courier. At first, he traveled between Soviet-occupied Eastern Poland and the Government-in-Exile* of Gen. W. Sikorski.* From 1940, he served in the Polish Army in France and Scotland and later was parachuted twice into Nazi-occupied Poland. In 1945 he returned to Poland and joined Mikolajczyk's Polish Peasant Party (PSL) but was imprisoned by the Communist police. M. Celt, By Parachu to Warsaw (London, 1945); M. Celt, Raport z Podziemia, 1942 (Munich, CHELM, town in the eastern part of the Lublin* region. In the mid-fourteenth century Chelm was briefly under Lithuanian and Hungarian rule, but in 1387, it was incorporated into Poland as a royal town. The change of trade routes in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and the Cossack* wars of the seventeenth century ruined the city. The Roman Catholic diocese, established there in 1359, was moved to Krasnystaw after 1480. Late in the sixteenth century the Orthodox diocese was taken over by the Uniates,* but in 1867 it returned to the Orthodox Church. In 1795 Chelm was occupied by the Austrians; in 1809 it became a part of the Duchy of Warsaw,* and from 1815 of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In 1912 it was made a capital of a Russian gubernia (province), designated for quick Russification. The Central Powers ceded the Chelm region (Chelmszczyzna) to the Ukraine in the peace treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Brzesc nad Bugiem).* Since 1918, Chelm has belonged to Poland. Economic growth of the city began at the end of the nineteenth century with the development of the agricultural industry and breweries. During the Nazi occupation, the Chelm region became a center of strong resistance. Thousands of its inhabitants were deported or killed by the Germans and either by Ukrainian underground forces or during battles between them and the Polish underground. The city was liberated by the Polish and Red Armies after a fierce battle on July 21, 1944. As the first Polish town freed from the Germans, Chelm became the provisional capital of a communist de facto government called the Polish Committee of National Liberation (PKWN).* The Committee, sponsored by the Soviets, issued its manifesto in Chelm on July 22, 1944. R. Blobaum, "Toleration and EthnoReligious Strife: The Struggle between Catholics and Orthodox Christians in the Chelm Region of Russian Poland, 1904-1906," Polish Review XXXV (1990), 111-124; E Chmielewski, "The Separation of Chelm from Poland," Polish Review XV/1 (1970 67-86; K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-1948 ( ley, California, 1991); A. Polonsky and B. Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist R in Poland: December 1943-June 1945 (London, 1 CHELMNO-ON-NER (Kulmhof), town near Kolo in the Poznan region.* In the Middle Ages it developed as an administrative center and a fort in the border region between Polish Mazovia* and the Prussian tribes. In 1228 Chelmno was

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given by Prince Konrad Mazowiecki to the Teutonic Knights.* Chelmno was the main town of the Teutonic Knights until 1250, when the Grand Master moved to Elblag (Elbing).* In the early fourteenth century Chelmno joined the Hanseatic League,* but the city's role began to decline late in the fourteenth century with the growing importance of Toruri.* In 1466, by the decisions of the Toruri Peace Treaty,* Chelmno returned to Poland, was Polonized, and became a small agricultural center. During the period of the Partitions,* the city was in Prussian hands. In the late nineteenth century the railroad linked Chelmno with larger towns of the region, and the city improved economically, reaching thirteen thousand inhabitants in the interwar period. During the Nazi occupation of 1939-1945, the town, incorporated into the Reich, became one of the earliest centers of the Holocaust.* The camp, opened on December 8, 1941, served as an extermination place for the Jews* of Great Poland (renamed Warthegau*), who were followed by Gypsies and the Jews from Lodz* Ghetto and Hungary. The total number of victims was about 360,000, of whom 25,000 were Jews from outside Poland. Dzieje Chelmna i jego regionu: Zarys monograficzny (T 1968); Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 1 (New York, 1990) 288. CHICAGO, a center of American Polonia,* with about half a million people of Polish origin who have settled there since the mid-nineteenth century. The world's fifth largest "Polish" city, Chicago serves as headquarters for the main Polish-American organizations. E. Kantowicz, Polish-American Politics in Chic (Chicago, 1975); J. Parot, "The Racial Dilemma in Chicago's Polish Neighborhoods, 1920-1970," Polish American Studies XXXII/2 (1975), 27-37.

CHIMERA (1901-1907), modernistic literary periodical edited by Z. ("Miriam") Przesmycki* in Warsaw,* which appeared irregularly. Chimera's artistic program was summarized in an aphorism: "All great art is symbolic in form and metaphysical in its content." A privileged place was given by the Editors of the periodical to the main representatives of Polish modernism: W. Berent,* T. Miciriski,* S. Przybyszewski,* J. Kasprowicz,* W. Reymont,* S. Wyspiariski,* and S. Zeromski.* Among Chimera's achievements were the rediscovery of the exiled poet C. Norwid* and the popularization of foreign writers in Poland. WEP, II, 42 CHJENO-PIAST, nickname of the coalition created in 1923 by the Polish Peasant Party "Piast"* and the organizations of the political right grouped in the Christian National Union, called by the left "Chjena" (Hyena) and formed previously for the electoral campaign of 1922. "Chjena" included Christian Democracy,* National Democracy,* and the National Christian Peasant Party; it won 160 of a total of 444 seats in the Parliament,* and 48 of 111 seats in the Senate.* The coalition with "Piast," also known as the Lanckorona Pact,* was signed on May 17, 1923, to act jointly against the radicalization of the

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peasant masses and leftist movements in general. Chjeno-Piast helped form W. Witos'* cabinet, which was in office only from May 28 to December 14, 1923, and fell as a result of workers' riots in Cracow.* On May 10, 1926, the ChjenoPiast coalition began to form a new government, which hastened the coup d'etat of J. Pilsudski.* A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxf 1972). CHLAPOWSKI, DEZYDERY (1788-1879), General and politician. At first, in the Prussian Army, he joined French forces in 1806 and served under Napoleon until 1812, when he resigned and returned to his family estates in Turew in the Poznari* region. He became a member of the provincial legislature of the Grand Duchy of Poznari and was elected its deputy speaker in 1830. After the outbreak of the November Insurrection,* he came to Warsaw.* He fought in the Battle of Grochow* and was sent to Lithuania* to attack Vilna* on June 20, 1831. After the fall of the Insurrection, he crossed the Prussian frontier as a Commander of the Lithuanian Army and was held for two years in a Prussian prison. After his return to Poznari, he joined K. Marcinkowski* in implementing the principles of "organic work."* PSB, III, 299. CHLEDOWSKI, KAZIMIERZ ("IGNOTUS") (1843-1920), writer, Austrian civil servant. His most important position was that of Minister for Galicia* in the Austrian government (1899-1900). As a writer, he represented democratic views. He wrote satirical works on Galicia, various kinds of novels, valuable memoirs and analytical works on Mediterranean civilization. PSB, III, 307-308. CHLOPICKI, JOZEF (1771-1854), General. In the years 1785-1794, he served alternately in the Polish and Russian Armies. After the outbreak of the 1794 Kosciuszko Insurrection,* he escaped to Warsaw* from the Russian Army and was promoted to Captain. After Kosciuszko's defeat, he served in the Polish Legions* of Gen. H. Dabrowski* under Napoleon. Twice wounded, he was promoted to Brigadier General and decorated with the French Legion of Honor. He retired in 1813, after being severely wounded during the 1812 Moscow campaign. After the fall of Napoleon, Chlopicki, on A. Czartoryski's* advice, was promoted by Tsar Alexander* to General in charge of the First Infantry Division of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* Chlopicki himself was definitely against armed conflict with powerful Russia. When the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 broke out, he initially opposed being drafted by the young officers as their commander, but, convinced by right-wing friends, declared himself a "Dictator" in charge of Polish forces on December 5, 1830, with the goal of terminating the conflict with Russia as soon as possible. Chlopicki started negotiations and in his delaying tactics rejected strategic plans for an active defense. Upon Tsar Nicholas's categorical demands for surrender, Chlopicki resigned in January 1831. His policy allowed the Russians to regroup forces and proved detrimental to the Insurrection, though he showed personal courage in

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defending Warsaw. Wounded in the Grochow Battle,* he was transferred to Cracow, where he resided till the end of his life. In 1849 he rejected Tsar Nicholas's proposal that he return to the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* PSB, III, 310-313. CHLOSTRA, abbreviation for Chlopska Straz (Peasants' Guard), a conspiratorial military organization of the Peasant Party* in the years 1940-1944. In 1942, the official name Bataliony Chlopskie (Peasant Batallions) was established. Commanded by F. Kamiriski,* they spread throughout the entire General Government,* and played a key role in defending the peasants of the Zamosc* region from forced resettlement by the Germans in the years 1942-1943. In 1943 Chlostra joined the Home Army (AK),* preserving its independent territorial units. In 1944, their numbers reached 160,000 soldiers under oath. WEP, II, 472. CHMIELEWSKI, IGNACY (1840-1870), revolutionary. He belonged to the left wing of Gen. L. Mieroslawski's* camp and advocated the idea of a national uprising among Warsaw's* artisans. From October 1861 he was a member of the Central National Committee, working closely with another radical, J. Dabrowski,* and viewing the uprising as a social revolution with the aims of distribution of land to peasants and equal rights for all citizens. Chmielewski favored terrorist methods and participated in the attempts on Grand Duke Constantine's life in 1863. During the January Insurrection,* he opposed the National Government of K. Majewski and led the new September Government as a military commander of Warsaw. After the fall of the Insurrection, he left for Dresden. WEP, II, 473 CHMIELNICKI (KHMELNITSKY), BOHDAN (1595-1657), Cossack leader who organized a rebellion against Polish rule in the Ukraine* which led ultimately to the transfer of the Ukrainian lands east of the Dnieper River from Poland to Russia. He belonged to the lesser Ukrainian nobility and was educated at a Jesuit* college. In the 1620s he joined the registered Cossacks,* was a military chancellor at the Zaporozhian* Host, and, when the Polish King revoked the autonomy of this region, was demoted to Captain of a Cossack Regiment in Czechryn. In 1646, he was among the Cossack envoys in Warsaw* who unsuccessfully tried to convince the King to start a war against Turkey, which would make the Cossack semi-autonomous region larger and safer. As a consequence of these political disappointments and a sharp personal conflict with the Czechryn assistant Vice-Regent, D. Czapliriski, Chmielnicki escaped to Zaporozhe with a small detachment and in 1648 started a new uprising against Poland. He won the support of the dissatisfied Orthodox peasants and clergy. With the help of Crimean Tatars,* Chmielnicki defeated Polish forces in the battles of Zolte Wody (Zhovti Vody),* Korsuri* and Pilawce (Pilavtsi)* and built a large Cossack state with a government system and military and civilian

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administration. The existence of this semi-independent state was recognized by Poland in the Zborow Compact (August 18, 1649). The agreement satisfied neither the Polish gentry nor its Ukrainian subjects, and the war was renewed. The Poles won the Battle of Beresteczko* in June 28-30, 1651, and, after several new agreements and conflicts, Chmielnicki asked Moscow for assistance. In 1654, in Pereiaslav,* the Cossacks signed a treaty with Russia and took an oath of allegiance to the Tsar. The treaty divided Ukraine, but its left bank (Dnieper) part remained an autonomous unit within Russia. Chmielnicki was planning to fight for full independence and was looking for Swedish support in 1657, but he died in the same year. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol (Toronto, 1984), 469-473; G. Vernadsky, Bohdan, Hetman of Ukraine (New Hav 1941). CHMIELNICKI UPRISING. See CHMIELNICKI (KHMELNITSKY), BOHDAN. CHMIELOWSKI, ADAM (BROTHER ALBERT) (1846-1916), painter, Franciscan monk, and humanitarian. Disabled during the January Insurrection,* he studied art in Warsaw* and Munich in the years 1865-1874 but abandoned painting, founded a shelter for the homeless in Cracow,* and created the Tertiary Association of the Franciscan* Convent of Albertines in 1888 and the Albertine Sisters in 1890, with emphasis on service to the poor and handicapped. He was canonized by Pope John Paul II in 1989. PSB, III, 338-340. CHMIELOWSKI, PIOTR (1848-1904), professor of Lvov* University and literary critic who participated in the formation of the positivist movement. He edited the monthly Athenaeum in the years 1891-1897 and was the first critic who recognized S. Wyspiariski's* talent. He authored a number of monographic biographies of nineteenth-century Polish writers; particularly popular was his book on the women of Mickiewicz,* Siowacki,* and Krasiriski* (1873). He also translated the classics of J. Goethe and I. Kant into Polish. PSB, III, 342-344 CHOCIM (Khotyn), town in Bukovina on the Dniester River with a population of 10,000 in 1939. The stronghold of Chocim, fortified first by the Poles in the fifteenth century and later by the Turks in the eighteenth century, witnessed two major battles between Polish and Turkish forces. Between September 2 and October 9, 1621, 35,000 soldiers led by Lithuanian Hetman* K. Chodkiewicz* and supported by 30,000 Cossacks* under Hetman P. KonaszewiczSachajdaczny* defended the city and defeated a Turkish Army 150,000 strong. The armistice signed after the battle established the Polish-Turkish border along the Dniester. The second battle of November 11, 1673, brought another victory for Polish forces under Hetman J. Sobieski* over a Turkish army commanded by Hussein Pasha. CHP, I, 472, 473, passi

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CHODKIEWICZ, JAN KAROL (1560-1621), Hetman.* He began his military career fighting against the Cossack* rebellion in Ukraine.* In 1599, he became a Governor of Zmudz (Samogitia)* and, in 1600, Field Hetman of Lithuania.* He participated in J. Zamoyski's* expedition to Vallachia and in wars against Sweden. His most spectacular success was the battle of Kircholm* of September 2, 1605, over the Swedes. Because of this victory he was promoted to Great Hetman of Lithuania. During the Zebrzydowski Rebellion,* he contributed to the royal victory over the seditious forces under J. RadziwiH.* Though opposed to the war with Moscow, Chodkiewicz participated in the expeditions to Smolensk* (1611) and to Moscow (1617-1618). After Hetman S. Zolkiewski's* defeat in Cecora, Chodkiewicz became Commander-in-Chief in the struggle for Chocim.* WEP, II, 47 CHODZKO, LEONARD (1800-1871), historian. During his studies in Vilna* during 1816-1817, he was a student of J. Lelewel* and belonged to the Filareci (Philaret)* conspiracy. From 1826 he resided in Paris and was active on behalf of Poland's freedom in the Committee of the Polish Emigration. He published the works of A. Mickiewicz* (1828) and Z. Krasiriski* (1830) and participated in the publication of diplomatic documents on Poland from the 1762-1862 period. He also collected emigre publications and other sources, which became the basis for the Polish Museum in Rapperswil,* Switzerland. PSB, III, 386-388 CHOMSOWA, LARYSSA (1891-1966), member of the Lvov Democratic Club and later of the Supreme Council of the Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Demokratyczne).* During WW II, she distinguished herself as an organizer of support for destitute Jews* and was one of the first to be decorated after the war as a Righteous Gentile in Jerusalem. W. Bartoszewski, The Samaritans: Hero of the Holocaust (New York, 1970); Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gu vol. 1 (London, 1990), 289-290. CHOPIN, FRYDERYK (1810-1849), outstanding Polish composer. He was a child prodigy as a pianist in 1816. From 1817, he began composing, and from 1818 he performed publicly. In the years 1822-1829 Chopin studied composition under J. Eisner in the Warsaw Main School of Music. From 1829, he gave concerts in Prague, Dresden, and Vienna. On November 2, 1830, immediately after the outbreak of the November Insurrection,* he left Warsaw,* and, in September 1831, he settled in Paris, performing throughout Europe. In 1837, he befriended the French writer and feminist G. Sand and produced his best works at her residence in Nohant. During his early years in Paris, he gave many concerts, but he later concentrated on innovative musical creation. From his early years Chopin suffered from acute tuberculosis, and in the last two years of his life he was forced to limit his contacts. Nevertheless he went on a concert tour of England, performing for the last time on Nov. 16, 1848, in London, where he also wrote his last compositions. As a young man he became familiar with

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the folklore and music of Central Poland, reflected later in his exquisite mazurkas (dances of the Mazowsze region). Chopin influenced F. Liszt and R. Schumann, was involved with the avant garde of Romanticism, and, together with Schubert, represented the clearest example of this trend in music. Chopin is buried in the Pere Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, but his heart is enshrined in the Holy Cross Church, Warsaw. W. Atwood, Fryderyk Chopin: Pianist from War (New York, 1987); M. Tomaszewski and B. Weber, Chopin: A Diary in Images (Wars 1990); K. Wierzyriski, The Life and Death of Chopin (New York, 19 CHORZOW, industrial town near Katowice,* Upper Silesia,* known until 1934 as Krolewska Huta (Konigshutte). Mentioned for the first time as a village in the twelfth century, it developed gradually into a mining center for lead, silver, and iron ores. In 1791 a coal mine was opened, and, in 1802, the Prussian government founded an iron mill there. It produced 1,400,000 tons of crude iron in 1819 and developed rapidly after 1871, when state ownership passed into private hands. In the nineteenth century other coal mines and steel and zinc mills were established there. In 1846 a railroad linked Krolewska Huta with major towns of Upper Silesia. The city population grew from 19,500 in 1870 to 110,000 in 1939. In 1922, Krolewska Huta with its neighborhood returned to Poland; in 1934, it was consolidated with Chorzow and Nowe Hajduki and they were collectively named Chorzow. At the beginning of WW II, Chorzow was incorporated into the German Reich, and five Nazi labor camps were established there. EHGP, I, 99-100; N. J. G. Pounds, The Upper Silesian Indust Region (Bloomington, Indiana, 1956 CHOYNOWICZ, PIOTR (1885-1935), writer. He began his literary career in 1911 with a short story awarded first prize in the Tygodnik Ilustrowany (Illustrated Weekly) competition. In 1914, he joined the Polish Legions,* and, in 1916, he settled in Warsaw,* where he became editor of Tygodnik Ilustrowany. His novels usually concerned heroes of noble origin, but Choynowicz achieved his main claim to fame in short stories. WEP, II, 49 CHREPTOWICZ, JOACHIM (1729-1812), politician. In 1754 he was elected a Sejm* Deputy, and, in 1765, he became Marshal of the Tribunal for the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.* Later, he served as a Deputy Chancellor* of the Duchy from 1773, and Chancellor from 1793. He was a co-founder and one of the most active members of the Committee of National Education,* supervising Lithuanian schools and reorganizing the Vilna Academy. Related to the last King of Poland, Chreptowicz was the leader of the Royal Party in Lithuania. After the passing of the May 3 Constitution,* he became Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Cabinet known as the Guardians of Laws (Straz Praw). A convinced physiocrat, he translated A. Turgot and published on related economic subjects. In 1772, he abolished serfdom in his Lithuanian estates and established glass works, foundries and smithies, where he employed poor peasants. EHGP I, 100.

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CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY ("Chadecja"), Catholic party founded in the Prussian part of Poland in 1902. One of its goals was to counteract Germanization. The party was supported by the clergy, lower middle class, and religiously oriented workers. As its ideological platform, it accepted Pope Leo XIII's Rerum Novarum and Pius XI's Quadregesimo Anno Encyclicals, proclaiming the principle of social brotherhood. At the beginning of the interwar period, Christian Democracy gained a fairly strong position in all parts of Poland and had forty Deputies in the first two Parliaments of the Republic. It tried to organize Christian labor unions and in 1922 entered into a coalition with the Peasant Party ("Chjeno-Piast"*). In 1929 "Chadecja," opposing J. Pilsudski's* dictatorship, joined the "Centrolew"* (Left-of-Center) coalition. In 1937 its mainstream affiliated with the National Workers' Party (NPR)* to create the Labor Party (Stronnictwo Pracy)* with K. Popiel and W. Korfanty* as leaders. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972); SHP CHRUSCIEL, ANTONI ("MONTER") (1895-1960), General. During WW I, he served in the Polish Legions* and in the Austrian Army. In the interwar period he taught in the General Staff College in Warsaw.* He participated in the 1939 September Campaign* as an officer of the Lodz Army Group. During the Nazi occupation, he commanded the Warsaw District of the Union of Armed Struggle (ZWZ),* later termed the Home Army (AK).* From August 1, 1944, he commanded Polish forces during the Warsaw Uprising* and distinguished himself by personal bravery. Because of faulty intelligence, he was responsible for the premature outbreak of the Uprising, believing that Soviet units were about to enter Warsaw. In September 1944 he was promoted to Brigadier General. After the fall of the Uprising on October 3, he was taken prisoner of war. Liberated in May 1945, he moved to London. T. Bor-Komorowski, The Secret Arm (London, 1950); J. Zawodny, Nothing but Honor: The Story of the Warsaw Upri 1944 (Stanford, California, 1978 CHRZANOWSKI, IGNACY (1866-1940), historian of literature, member of the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejetnosci [AU])* and professor of the Jagiellonian University.* An outstanding teacher, he had many students, whose dissertations were published in the fifty-volume series Prace HistorycznoLiterackie (Historical-Literary Works) in 1911-1939. In November 1939 he was arrested in Cracow* with other professors of the Jagiellonian University and later held with them in the concentration camp of Sachsenhausen,* where he died. His main works dealt with sixteenth-century Polish literature and with the Romantic period. W. Folkierski and A. Ordega, "Ignacy Chrzanowski," Straty Kultury Polskiej, ed. by A. Ordega and T. Terlecki (Glasgow, 1 CHRZANOWSKI, WOJCIECH (1793-1861), General. He began his career in 1810 in the army of the Duchy of Warsaw.* During the 1812 campaign against Russia, he was taken prisoner of war. In 1815 he joined the Army of

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the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* As a Quartermaster officer he co-authored a map of the Kingdom and participated in the demarcation of its borders. He distinguished himself during the Russian-Turkish War of 1828. After the outbreak of the November Insurrection,* he volunteered for the Polish Army and was one of the best staff officers. He authored a number of operational plans, and after Gen. Skrzynecki became Commander-in-Chief of the Insurgent Army, Chrzanowski was made Chief of the General Staff. Frustrated with the lack of success in the long war, he favored negotiations with the enemy. After the fall of the uprising, he swore allegiance to Tsar Nicholas I, but, in 1831, he emigrated to Paris, where he joined A. Czartoryski's* party. Chrzanowski published a number of pamphlets on military subjects and a detailed map of Poland. H Graniewski, "The Mission of General Chrzanowski to Turkey," Antemurale XII (1968), 115-264; PSB, 111,463 CHWISTEK, LEON (1884-1944), logician, mathematician, philosopher, and painter. He belonged to the formist* painters' movement and co-edited its theoretical periodical, The Formists. In the years 1930-1940 he taught logic at Lvov University, and he spent WW II in the Soviet Union. He expanded his hypothesis on aesthetics into a general philosophical theory of four "realities." Chwistek was an outspoken opponent of fascism, evolved toward the radical left and joined the Communist-dominated Homeland National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa [KRN]).* In art, he stressed the primacy of form and the artist's independence of outside reality. L. Chwistek, The Limits of Science: Outline of Lo and of the Methodology of Exact Science (London, 1948); WEP, II, CICHOCIEMNI (Unseen and silent), nickname given to Polish paratroopers of WW II who were parachuted into Nazi occupied Poland. Three hundred sixteen of them, trained by the British Special Operations Executive (SOE), were flown in from English and later Italian bases. Cichociemni were an important component of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* guerrilla and intelligence activities. One-third of them were killed in action. J. Garliriski, Poland, SOE a the Allies (London, 1966); Unseen and Silent: Adventures from the Underground ment Narrated by Paratroops of the Polish Home Army (London, 1 CIECHANOWSKI, JAN (1887-1958), diplomat. He began his career as a member of the Polish Delegation's staff at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. Appointed a Councillor to the London Embassy in 1925, he moved to the Polish embassy in Washington that same year. In 1939 he became Undersecretary of State of the Polish Foreign Ministry in Exile in France. From 1941 to the end of WW II, he served as Poland's Ambassador in Washington, ending his assignment with a protest against the Yalta Agreement.* J. Ciechanowski, Defeat in Victory (Garden City, New York, 1947 CIECHOCINEK, resort town near Bydgoszcz.* In the nineteenth century rich salt deposits were discovered there. Ciechocinek became an important center of

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salt production, and its saline springs were used for medical purposes. In 1867 Ciechocinek was linked by railroad with other cities. Before WW I, the town had about 2,000 inhabitants but was visited by 10,000 to 12,000 patients yearly. In the interwar period Ciechocinek developed further and became a well-known center for cure of pulmonary diseases, high blood pressure, and nervous disorders. EHGP, I, 101 CIESZKOWSKI, AUGUST (1814-1894), philosopher and economist. He graduated from the philosophy department at Heidelberg, spent several years in Russian Poland and France and, in 1847, settled on his estate near Poznari (Posen)*. He was involved in Polish political life in Prussia and was a member of the Prussian Diet (1848-1861) and leader of its Polish Club. In his philosophical works, he was influenced by Hegel and Fichte, and by French Utopian socialists. Cieszkowski tried to reconcile Christian dogmas with Hegelian dialectics and presented his philosophy of history in Ojcze Nasz (Our Father) and other works. He described the history of humanity as a gradual growth of brotherhood and an increasingly closer approach to God. He believed that the Slavic nations, especially the Poles, would play the leading role in the future. A. Liebich Between Ideology and Utopia: Politics and Philosophy of August Cieszkowski (Boston, 1979).

CIESZYN (Czech: Tesin, German: Teshen), town on the Olza River, divided into Czech and Polish parts, the latter with 23,000 inhabitants in 1939. It was mentioned for the first time in the twelfth century as a Castellan's* seat. After the division of the Piast* state in 1138 by Boleslaw the Wrymouth,* Cieszyn belonged to the Silesian* Piast* Princes; after the extinction of the Piast dynasties, it became a part of the Habsburg* Empire (1625-1918) as a separate administrative unit of Cieszyn Silesia. The region retained its Polish character and, from the mid-nineteenth century, it was a center of Polish cultural and political life. In November 1918 the Polish and Czech National Councils divided Cieszyn Silesia along ethnic lines, but, in January 1919, during the Polish-Ukrainian War,* the Czechs seized the predominantly Polish-speaking, rich industrial area west of the Olza River (Polish: Zaolzie*), including the western part of Cieszyn town. In late July 1920, when the Red Army was approaching Warsaw,* the Conference of Ambassadors awarded the whole area to Czechoslovakia. Twelve hours after the Munich Agreement of September 29, 1938, in which France and Britain handed the Czech Sudetenland to Hitler, Poland demanded and obtained Zaolzie from Prague, incurring general opprobrium for cooperating with Hitler. Z. Gasiorowski, "Polish-Czechoslovak Relations, 1918-1922," Slavonic and East Eu opean Review XXXV/84 (1956), 172-193; M. Latyriski (ed.), Reappraising the Mu Pact: Continental Perspectives (Baltimore and London, 1992); R. Woytak, "Pol itary Intervention into Czechoslovakian Teschen and Western Slovakia in Sept.-Nov. 1938," Eastern European Quarterly VI/3 (September 1972), 376-387.

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CIOLKOSZ, ADAM (1901-1978), Socialist leader. As a young man, he took an active part in the Polish Scouting movement and fought in the Third Silesian Uprising.* He joined the Polish Socialist Party (PPS)* in 1921 and became known as a fiery orator and outstanding publicist. In the years 1928-1935, he served as a Parliament Deputy and was one of the leaders of the Centrolew* coalition. Jailed and tried in the Brest-Litovsk trial* of 1931, he was sentenced to three years in prison. As a member of the PPS Supreme Council (19311939), and of its Central Executive Committee (from 1937), he opposed the popular front coalition proposed by the communists. After the outbreak of WW II, he moved to Paris and London, where he represented the PPS in the National Council and edited the PPS press organ Robotnik (Worker). J. Zmigrodzki (ed.), Adam Ciolkosz: Polityk. Pisarz, Historyk Socjalizmu (Adam Ciolkosz: Writer, Pol Historian of Socialism) (London, 1972). CISTERCIANS, religious order which split off from the Benedictines* in the early twelfth century. Their network spread throughout Europe, and their first Polish monastery was founded in 1140 in Brzeznica (present-day Jedrzejow). Five more were built later in the twelfth century. The Cistercians' rules included special instructions dealing with the architecture of their monasteries: to be of simple construction but technically perfect. They used early Gothic forms, and their monasteries were built far from major settlements. WEP, II, 674. COATS OF ARMS (Herby), recognition signs designed according to certain rules for individuals, families, towns, provinces, and states. In medieval Europe, coats of arms were placed on flags and various parts of armor. The use of coats of arms developed during the High Middle Ages, acquiring hereditary heraldic forms used by the nobility and symbolizing the privileged status of that social class. Basic elements of the coats of arms were the shield, helmet, and colored jewelry in so-called heraldic tints. H. Paszkiewicz and J. Kulczycki, Polish Coats of Arms (London, 1990). COETQUIDAN, town in Brittany, where a military training camp of the French Army was located. In fall 1939, the French government put it at the disposal of the Polish Army in exile. By the end of September 1939, a school for cadet officers was organized in nearby Guer; the First Grenadiers' Division under Gen. B. Duch* and the Highland Rifleman Brigade under Gen. Z. Bohusz-Szyszko* were also organized and equipped in Coetquidan. Several Polish Infantry units trained there took part in the last stage of the 1940 French Campaign. WEP, II, 580. COLLEGIUM NOBILIUM, institution of higher education established in Warsaw* as a boarding school in 1740 by a Piarist,* the priest S. Konarski,* to train aristocratic youth in a civic and patriotic spirit as future leaders of Poland. The Collegium was a modern school, experimenting with new methods and

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programs to prepare major reforms in Polish education. For the first time, mathematics and scientific subjects were introduced on a major scale in the Polish educational system, together with economics and foreign languages. Latin remained the language of instruction except for Polish language and literature, with required readings. Students of the Collegium had to learn manners, proper conversation, and fencing. The school functioned until 1832. W. J. Rose, Stanislaw Konarski: Reformer of Education in Eighteenth Century Poland (London, COLONELS' REGIMES, popular name for Polish governments from late 1926 to 1939. The name derived from the fact that several Premiers and other Ministers were, or had been, Colonels or Lieutenant Colonels, having served in the Polish Legions* in WW I or in the Polish Army in 1919-1920. J. Pilsudski* chose some for their ability, others mainly for their loyalty, but all were trusted followers of the Marshal. The outstanding personalities were J. Beck,* Foreign Minister 1932-1939; J. Jedrzejewicz,* Minister of Education 1931-1934, Premier 1933-1934; W. Jedrzejewicz,* Minister of Education 1934-1935, later historian; A. Prystor,* military career to 1925, then Minister of Industry and Trade 1931-1933, Premier 1931-1935, Speaker of the Senate 1935-1939; and W. Slawek,* Premier 1935. H. Wereszycki, "Towards Total Dictatorship (19311939)," History of Poland (Warsaw, 1968), 689-709. COMMENDONE, GIOVANNI (1528-1584), Cardinal and Papal Nuncio* in Poland (1563-1565 and 1571-1573). In 1564 he convinced King Zygmunt August (Sigismund Augustus)* to accept the decisions of the Council of Trent (1545-1564). Together with Cardinals Hosius* and Karnkowski, he fought the Reformation and helped to prevent the creation of a national Church. New Cath olic Encyclopedia, vol. IV (New York, 1967), COMMISSION OF NATIONAL EDUCATION (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), first European Ministry of Education, established in 1773 on King Stanislaw August's* initiative. The Commission took over the Jesuits* possessions after the Order's dissolution by the Papacy. The Commission reorganized the high school system, secularizing it and introducing a new educational program to a total of seventy-eight schools that followed the ideas of the Enlightenment.* Latin instruction was reduced in favor of Polish as the major language, together with modern foreign languages, especially French. Other subjects taught were Polish history, economics, mathematics, physics, chemistry, geography, physical education, and ethics, dealing with duties of man and citizen towards society and state. The Commission reformed the Cracow* and Vilna* Universities, in decline since the sixteenth century. The Commission also tried to establish a university in Warsaw* and a network of elementary schools accessible to peasant children. The first Teachers' Colleges independent of the Church and a special association for elementary textbooks were organized. Its members also served as school inspectors on behalf of the Commission. In 1781 it issued rules

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for educational purposes, formulating the rights and duties of teachers and school administrators. The Commission was presided over by I. Massalski until 1776 and later by M. Poniatowski.* Altogether, there were thirty-one members of the Commission throughout its existence until 1794, most of them Sejm* Deputies or Senators. Main officials and consultants were G. Piramowicz,* H. Kollataj,* K. Narbutt and N. Poplawski. Most of their educational reforms preceded those of the French Revolution. They were opposed by conservative elements among the gentry and clergy and suffered from insufficient funds. The Commission was followed by two similar organizations, established in 1807 and 1812 in the Duchy of Warsaw.* W. J. Rose, Stanislaw Konarski, Reformer of Education in Eight eenth Century Poland (London, 1929); E. Rostworowski, "The Most Durable Achieve ment," Poland 8 (August 1966), 22-25; G. L. Seidler, The Reform of the Polish Scho l System in the Era of Enlightenment (Lublin, 1973). COMMONWEALTH OF BOTH NATIONS (Rzeczpospolita Obojga Naroddw), state established by the Union of Lublin* in 1569, which united the territories of the Polish Crown with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania* until the Third Partition of 1795. The link between Poland and Lithuania began with the Union of Krewo,* 1385, followed by the marriage of Polish Queen Jadwiga* to Grand Duke Wladyslaw Jagiello* in 1386. The numerical and cultural domination of the Poles led to the Polonization of the Lithuanian upper classes. In the nineteenth century, this caused Polish-Lithuanian national animosity, the creation of two separate states after WW I and deep-rooted Lithuanian resentment against Poles. CHP, I, 232-249, 348-368; N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1 (New York, 1982); P. Jasienica, The Commonwealth of Both Nations: The Silver Age (New York, 1987). COMMUNIST PARTY OF POLAND (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP]), political party established on December 16, 1918, as the Communist Workers' Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Robotnicza Partia Polski [KRPP]) through the merger of the Social Democracy of the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania (Socjaldemokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL])* and the Polish Socialist Party-Left (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna-Lewica [PPS-Lewica]).* The party aimed at the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat and a communist system in Poland. From the beginning of its existence, the party participated in the building of the Councils of Workers' Deputies, modeled on the Bolshevik Soviets, and the Red Guard. From January 1919 the party was illegal in Poland and many of its members were imprisoned by the Polish authorities during the interwar period. In March 1919 the party co-founded the Comintern and followed its policy. In the late 1920s and 1930s, it was totally dependent on Stalin, who removed the "majority" leadership of the KPP, dominated by such activists as A. Warski-Warszawski,* M. Koszutska,* and M. Horwitz, and replaced them with an ultra-leftist "minority" leadership of J. Leszczyriski,* H. Stein, and Z. Unszlicht. From 1925, the party used the name KPP. It had several affiliated

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organizations, among which the most important were the Communist Party of Western Belorussia and the Communist Party of Western Ukraine. The KPP had never had more than 10,000 members and, with its autonomous affiliates, it reached about 16,000 members in 1933. Stalin did not trust the Polish communist leaders (even though he selected them himself), and the entire Central Committee of the KPP was annihilated during the Great Purge of 1937-1939. In 1938, the Comintern, which meant Stalin, dissolved KPP. M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1959); WEP, V, 772-7 5. COMMUNIST WORKERS' PARTY OF POLAND. See COMMUNIST PARTY OF POLAND. CONCORDAT (from Latin concordatum: agreement), diplomatic agreement between the Pope as head of the Catholic Church and a given state, normalizing mutual relations between secular and Church authorities. Such agreements became necessary when certain rights became a bone of contention between the Church and a state, especially in the case of appointments of Bishops. The first Polish Concordats were signed by King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old)* with Pope Leo X in 1519, and with Clement VII in 1525. They dealt mainly with decisions concerning the selection of Bishops. Later, August III* signed a Concordat with Pope Clement XII in 1736 with regard to abbeys in Poland. The interwar Concordat was signed by Poland on March 10, 1925. It reserved the nomination of Bishops for the Holy See and gave extensive privileges for the clergy. Simultaneously, Article IX declared that no part of Poland would remain under the jurisdiction of a Bishop whose See was beyond Polish borders, while Article X stipulated that no foreigner could serve as a parish priest. During WW II, Pope Pius XII broke the Concordat by conceding that western parts of the Czestochowa,* Katowice,* and Cracow* Dioceses would be transferred to jurisdiction of the Wroclaw (Breslau)* Archdiocese. He bowed to Nazi pressure to nominate the German Bishop of Gdarisk (Danzig),* K. Splett, as Administrator of the Polish Chelmno* Diocese, while Fr. Breitinger was appointed Administrator of the Gniezno-Poznari Archdiocese with jurisdiction over the local German minority population. WEP, V, 11. CONFEDERATION, political union created by several estates, entities or municipalities to accomplish a particular goal, to replace state authority, or to force it into some concessions. Confederations began in the late thirteenth century, originally involving towns. In the fourteenth century, the first confederations of gentry were formed. In the sixteenth century, they developed into political associations with the ruler or were formed against him as "rokosz."* Confederations were also formed to secure peace during the interregna, and in Parliament to counter the destructive liberum veto* There were also confederations of armed forces aimed at extracting payments in arrears. Confederations were abolished by the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* which was opposed by the Targow-

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ica Confederation.* N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1 (New York, 1982), 321-372. CONGRESS KINGDOM OF POLAND, rump Polish state established by the Congress of Vienna* in 1815, with an area of 128,500 square kilometers and population of 3.3 million (10 million in 1900), mainly from the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw* diminished by the Poznari (Posen)* area (assigned by the victorious anti-Napoleonic coalition to Prussia*) and by the tiny Cracow* region (declared a free state). The Congress Kingdom was a monarchy in personal union with Russia with Tsar Alexander I* as its first King. The Kingdom's Constitution* was one of the most liberal European constitutions of the period. Polish was the only language in the administration and the Army. The Grand Duke Constantine,* the brother of Alexander, was made commander of the Kingdom's Army and the troops in Lithuania.* This was considered the first step toward the reunification of the Kingdom with the former Eastern territories of the Commonwealth and the reconstruction of the Polish state under Russian rule. In 1816 Warsaw University* was opened and a modern educational network, based on the work of the Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej),* was re-established. On the one hand, under K. LubeckiDrucki* as Finance Minister, the Kingdom went through a period of economic development. On the other hand, however, the Imperial Lieutenant-Governor, Gen. J. Zajaczek,* became an instrument in the hands of the arrogant Grand Duke Constantine, who governed the Kingdom as a despot without regard for the Constitution. In 1819 censorship was introduced, people were imprisoned without trial, the meetings of the Sejm* were "delayed," and the authoritarian Imperial Commissioner, N. Novosiltzev,* organized the secret police. After the death of Alexander I in 1825, violations of constitutional rights were more and more frequent, and the defense of national rights was taken up by secret organizations. One of them, brewing in the Cadet Corps, decided to start a revolt, when the rumor spread that Polish troops would be sent to suppress the revolution in Belgium. However, the leadership of the November Insurrection,* which broke out on Nov. 29, 1830, was assumed by moderates. Instead of conducting a vigorous offensive against the Russians, it started negotiations with the Tsarist government. The latter managed to regroup Russian forces, which, in spite of initial defeats, crushed the Insurrection and took Warsaw in September 1831. The fall of the uprising was followed by severe reprisals. The national Army, the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, Warsaw University and the Society of the Friends of Science were dissolved. The 1815 Constitution was replaced with the Organic Statute, which was never put into effect. Thousands of Polish soldiers were conscripted into the Russian Army, and thousands of Polish patriots were deported or emigrated and their property confiscated. The Administrative Council and then the provisional government were re-organized, but in fact it was the "Prince of Erevan and Warsaw," Commander-in-Chief Gen. I. Pas-

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kevich,* who ruled the country in the years 1832-1856. Intense Russification started: the frontiers were shut, the old voivodeships were reorganized into gubernias governed by the central administration of the empire, and Russian laws, currency, and system of weights and measures replaced Polish ones. The educational structures were disorganized. The Russian defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) brought some positive consequences for Poland, but the awaited reforms and genuine autonomy were never realized. The Polish policy of Tsar Alexander II* was inconsistent. The chief of the Administration Council, A. Wielopolski,* tried to disarm growing conspiracies and organized the "branka,"* sudden compulsory conscription to the Tsarist Army, but it sparked the outbreak of the January Insurrection* on January 22, 1863. This guerrilla war lasted until summer 1864 and was followed by the next wave of repression. The remnants of the Kingdom's autonomy were totally liquidated. The Catholic Church in Poland was put under the authority of the ecclesiastical College of St. Petersburg, Church property was confiscated, all the convents and monasteries were closed, the Russian language was introduced into primary schools, and the use of Polish was forbidden in public places. The Tsarist ukase of March 2, 1864, announced the emancipation of the peasants. The reform was designed to create a barrier between the nobility* and their former subjects, but it also triggered important social changes. Masses of peasants moved to the cities, which went through a process of rapid expansion in the second half of the nineteenth century. The Congress Kingdom became one of the most important industrial centers of the Russian Empire. The growing industry and working class were accompanied by the creation of mass political movements. In 1881 the "Proletariat"* was founded; in 1892, the Polish Socialist Party (PPS)*; in 1893, the Social Democracy of the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania.* The National Democratic Party* was created in 1897. The Russian upheaval of 1905-1907 was followed by the last period of reaction. The Russian government promised "Order first, reforms after," and continued the campaign of Russification and centralization in the Congress Kingdom. In 1912 the Chelm* region was excluded from the "Vistula* country" and incorporated into Russia "proper," but in 1915 the entire former Congress Kingdom of Poland was occupied by German and Austrian forces, marking the end of its

shadow existence. CHP, II, 275-294, 387-408; N. Davies, God's Playground: A His-

tory of Poland, vol. II (New York, 1984), 306-378; A. Pienkos, The Imperfect Auto Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich and the Polish Congress Kingdom (New York, 1987); Polish Encyclopaedia (Geneva, 1926), 533-551; F. W. Theckeray, Antecedents of Revolution. Alexander I and the Polish Kingdom, 1815-1825 (Boulder, Colora 1980).

CONGRESS OF VIENNA (September 1814-June 1815), international conference called on the initiative of the victorious anti-Napoleonic coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia*) and attended by representatives of sixteen European states to make territorial and constitutional changes in Europe. The

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Congress was attended by over 200 legations, but actual debate and decisions were controlled by five powers (the victorious coalition and the restored French monarchy). Most of the time was devoted to the complicated problems of Poland and Saxony, incorporated in the final act of June 9, 1815. Other important issues were a loose union of German states under Austrian leadership, a linkage of Belgium with Holland, guarantees of eternal neutrality of Switzerland, and return to power of the French monarchy and certain Italian and German princes ousted by Napoleon. Prussia, which gained the greatest territorial advantages, obtained North Saxony, parts of the Rheinland, Westphalia, and Swedish Western Pomerania. Austria obtained Northern Italy except for the Piedmont, small territories on the Rhine, and the Tarnopol region in Eastern Galicia.* Most of the Duchy of Warsaw* was turned into the Russian-controlled Congress Kingdom of Poland,* after giving Prussia the Grand Duchy of Poznari (Posen)* and the Bydgoszcz* region, and the Wieliczka* salt mines to Austria. Cracow was made a semi-independent Republic. The Congress marked the triumph of reactionary forces in Europe and opened the Metternich era (after the ultra-conservative Austrian statesman). To strengthen the outcomes of the Congress, the "Holy Alliance" of the conservative monarchs (the Russian Tsar's inspiration) was created. H. Nicolson, The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity 1812-1822 (New York, 1961). CONRAD, JOSEPH (Jozef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski) (1857-1924), Polish-born English novelist, son of the Polish writer and freedom fighter Apollo Nal^cz Korzeniowski. In 1862 his family was exiled to northern Russia, where Conrad's mother died. The years 1867-1874 Conrad spent at schools in Cracow* and Switzerland, then he left for Marseilles to go to sea and, in 1878, he went to England. He spent sixteen years in the British Merchant Navy, sailing many times to the Far East, Australia, South America, India and Africa. In 1895 he published his first novel, Almayer's Folly, and settled in England to work on his next works, notably devoted to man in extreme situations and man's inner battle with good and evil. Conrad, considered one of the world's best marine writers, profoundly influenced numerous later novelists. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 3 (Chicago, 1990), 547-54 CONSTANTINE (1779-1831), Grand Duke, son of the Russian Emperor Paul I, younger brother of Alexander I* and elder brother of Nicholas I.* Constantine participated in the Napoleonic Wars, and, after the Congress of Vienna,* Alexander appointed him Commander-in-Chief of the Army of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* Constantine became an actual viceroy of the Kingdom and ruled it in an autocratic and harsh way. A strict disciplinarian, he was very unpopular among Polish officers. After his morganatic marriage to a Polish noblewoman, Joanna Grudziriska,* in 1820, he renounced his claims to the Russian throne. Constantine sympathized with the idea of autonomy for the Congress Kingdom, but he brutally fought the Polish independence movement. He

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was taken completely by surprise when the November Insurrection* broke out, showed himself an incompetent commander, and left Poland in December 1830. A. Pienkos, The Imperfect Autocrat: Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich and the Polish Congress Kingdom (New York, 198 CONSTITUTION OF APRIL 23, 1935, the third constitution of the interwar Polish Second Republic, known as the April Constitution. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* the Polish political system was based on the authority and will of J. Pilsudski,* although the Constitution of March 17, 1921,* was theoretically still in force. As Pilsudski's health deteriorated, the leading members of his regime decided to enact a new constitution, which would ensure the maintenance of power by the Sanacja* after the Marshal's death, and which would "ensure the permanence of his life's work." However, the revision of the Constitution appeared impossible, since the election of 1930 had failed to give the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (BBWR)* the necessary two-thirds majority. Moreover, the opposition groups declared that they would contest the change and boycotted the constitutional debate on January 26, 1934. Therefore, the BBWR adopted the new constitution by an illegal trick: the sixty-three "constitutional theses" were voted in individually as if they were not a new Constitution. Even Pilsudski was not happy about this procedure, and the new Constitution was finally approved by the Sejm* on March 23, 1935, and by the President on April 23, 1935. The new constitution gave the President the key position in the state. He was to appoint the Premier, and, on the latter's advice, the other Ministers, the President of the Supreme Court, the General Inspector of the Armed Forces, the Supreme Commander, the members of the Tribunal of State, and one-third of the members of the Senate.* These and numerous other prerogatives of the President gave him the same power J. Pilsudski had exercised since 1926. The President, elected by the united chambers of the Sejm* and the Senate for seven years, could not be held personally responsible for his official acts. He could demand the resignation of the Ministers at any time and could dissolve the Sejm, which was elected by universal, secret, equal, and direct (but not proportional) suffrage for five years. The April Constitution was planned as a compromise between a parliamentary democracy and a strong government, but the successors of Pilsudski exploited the Constitution far beyond its legal limits. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (London, 1972), 386-390. CONSTITUTION OF FEBRUARY 20, 1919, nicknamed the "Little Const tution" (Mala Konstytucja) and passed by the Constitutional Sejm* as a temporary supreme law, which was to remain in force until the passage of the new Constitution. The "Little Constitution" authorized J. Pilsudski* to continue his service as the Chief of State. The legislative powers were placed in the Consti-

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tutional Assembly, while the Chief of State was to organize Cabinets with the Sejm's agreement, and, together with such governments, to be responsible to the Sejm for performance of their duties. His acts were to be counter-signed by the respective Ministers. CHP, II, 567-588. CONSTITUTION OF MARCH 17,1921, supreme law of reborn Poland after WW I, passed by the Constitutional Sejm* on March 17, 1921, and known as the March Constitution (Konstytucja Marcowa). Prepared by a group of distinguished lawyers, it was modeled on that of the Third French Republic and declared Poland a democratic republic, in which the supreme power belonged to the nation. The latter was to be represented by a bicameral Parliament of a Sejm* and a Senate,* elected by all citizens over twenty-one and thirty years of age, respectively, for five years in "universal, secret, direct, equal, and proportional" election. The Sejm could be dissolved before this period only by a vote of two-thirds of its members, or three-fifths of the members of the Senate acting with the approval of the President. The Sejm was to approve the budget, the taxes, and the size of the Army, it had the right to initiate legislation, to inspect accounts of the state, and to question Ministers, who were responsible to the Sejm and could be forced to resign, either individually or as a Cabinet. The Senate, a review body, could suggest amendments within thirty days of the passing of a law. The Sejm and the Senate together constituted the National Assembly, which elected the President by an absolute majority. A Tribunal of State, elected for the entire duration of the Parliament, could impeach a minister. The country was divided into seventeen provinces (wojewodztwa), and these consisted of districts (powiaty). The Constitution recognized private property as a fundamental element of social structure and guaranteed civil rights to every citizen without distinction of ethnic background, language, race, or religion, but did indicate that Catholicism had a special position as the state religion. The Constitution was prepared and passed in a period when politics was dominated by J. Pilsudski.* His political enemies, particularly the National Democracy,* were afraid that he would be elected President and managed to limit the powers of that office. The President, elected for seven years, had no veto over legislation and could issue decrees, but they were not valid without the counter-signatures of the Premier and a Minister responsible for a particular matter. The President was head of the Armed Forces, but in time of war he could not be a Supreme Commander. Numerous critics of the Constitution claimed that it gave too much power to the legislature and too little to the executive, causing chaos and inefficiency of the whole administration. The 1926 coup d'etat of J. Pilsudski was to change this situation. The Constitution was amended, the executive was strengthened at the expense of legislative and civic rights, and eventually the March Constitution was replaced by the new authoritarian Constitution of April 1935.* Konstytucja 17 Marca 1921 r. (Warsaw, 1921); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 45-

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CONSTITUTION OF MAY 3, 1791, passed by the Great Sejm* of 17881792, the first codified constitution in Europe since antiquity and the second in the world after that of the United States. The shock of the First Partition* gave a strong impetus to reform. The taxation system and the Army were reorganized, a central government based on the separation of powers was introduced, and there was a revival of the economy, literature, science, and education. In the late 1780s, the international situation of Poland improved: Russia started a war against Turkey, and antagonism momentarily separated Berlin from St. Petersburg and Vienna. The Polish supporters of the reform plans decided to take advantage of the situation, in which Catharine the Great* could not intervene in Warsaw,* and proclaimed the Sejm, opened in October 1788, a confederation.* This made the use of the liberum veto* impossible, and the Great Sejm was able to accept several reforms. In September 1789 a Deputation was appointed to prepare a draft Constitution. King Stanislaw August* prepared his own draft, then discussed it with a group of deputies of a patriotic party. They staged circumstances in which most opposition deputies were out of Warsaw, and the rest were confused and intimidated by popular demonstrations and parading troops. The text of the Constitution, a compromise between the monarchical and the Deputation's versions, was read and voted on at the same session. The Constitution abolished the liberum veto and other obstructive elements of the Golden Freedom* political system. The precept of a "people's sovereignty," including the nobility as well as burghers, was introduced. The constitutional separation of powers among the executive, legislature, and judiciary, and the responsibility of the cabinet to the Parliament was proclaimed. The succession to the Polish throne was made hereditary within the Saxon dynasty. The Sejm was proclaimed to be permanent, a committee of five Ministers constituted the first Polish modern government, and the King became Commander-in-Chief of the Army and regained the right to appoint public officers. The royal cities were granted autonomous municipal organization and the right to send Deputies to the Parliament. The peasants were promised the protection of the law. The Constitution was a breakthrough in terms of the Polish political system and was considered a major threat by the Russian, Austrian and Prussian rulers. In January 1792 Russia signed a peace with Turkey, improved its relations with Prussia,* and started an intervention, which brought the Second Partition* of Poland. Constitutions That Made History, ed. by A. P. Blaustein and J. A. Sigler (New York, 19 70-80; W. Czerwiriski, "A Gentle Evolution: The Polish Constitution of 3rd May 1791," Antemurale XXIV (1980), 303-310; J. Kasparek-Obst, The Constitutions of Poland and of the United States: Kinships and Genealogy (Miami, 1980). CONSTITUTION OF THE CONGRESS KINGDOM OF POLAND, drafted by A. Czartoryski* in Vienna, signed by the Emperor Alexander I* on November 27, 1815, and granted by him on December 24, 1815. The Constitution was formally more liberal than the Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw* and was

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designed to maintain the formal continuity of the arrangements from Napoleonic times, but in practice it revived the semi-absolutism of the King, namely the Tsar, and replaced the independent statehood of the Duchy of Warsaw with a national autonomy, clearly limited in political matters. The Congress Kingdom of Poland* was to be a hereditary monarchy under the Tsars, and the "relations of external policy" were to be managed together with those of the Russian Empire. The people were to be represented in the two chambers of Parliament, and the Constitution declared the freedom of speech, religion, language and personal liberty of the citizens, but these were never really respected, and the Jews* and the peasants lost the rights they had received under the Duchy of Warsaw. The Kingdom had its own Army, administration, official (Polish) language, and government, but the Constitution designedly left several gaps, which made possible further heavy-handed Russian influence in the Kingdom's affairs. CHP, II, 275-276. CONSTITUTION OF THE DUCHY OF WARSAW, signed by Napoleon in Dresden on July 22, 1807, followed the principles of the French Constitution of 1800, together with the Napoleonic Code of Civil Law. The Constitution destroyed the remnants of feudalism, stressing principles of personal freedom and abolishing peasant servitude, though without giving the peasants land. Its main idea was equality before law but within a system of strong monarchical rule and a centralized modern administration patterned upon the French model. The Parliament, composed of two chambers, had only limited power, compared with that of the King, who was to rule with the help of the Council of State and government consisting of six Ministers, and the Secretary of State, who was to reside with the King in Saxony. The novelty was the introduction of the supreme accounting chamber. The Constitution guaranteed independence of the judicial branch, and the judges were to be appointed for life by the King. The Constitution served the Duchy till 1815 and was replaced by the Constitution of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* CHP, II, 236-256 CONSTITUTIONAL SEJM (Sejm Ustawodawczy), Polish Parliament elected on January 26, 1919, with the task of preparing the Supreme Law of Poland, liberated and united after 123 years of foreign occupation. In January 1919 only the former Congress Kingdom of Poland* and Western Galicia* were under actual Polish control, and the Constitutional Sejm consisted of 340 Deputies (44 of whom were not elected, but joined the Parliament as former representatives of the Polish population in the German Reichstag and the Austrian Reichsrat). Eventually, after the further elections in parts of Austrian Silesia,* Prussian Poland and the Vilna* and Suwalki areas, 432 Deputies had seats in the Constitutional Sejm. They belonged to over thirteen parties, but the right-wing and center parties had a clear majority in the Parliament. It gathered for the first time on February 10, 1919, and, on February 20 it passed the provisional "Little Constitution."* It confirmed J. Pilsudski* as a temporary Head of the State

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accountable to the Parliament. On March 17, 1921, the Constitutional Sejm passed the Constitution of the Polish Republic and dissolved itself on November 27, 1922. CHP, II, 567-589; The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 130-132. CONVOCATION SEJM, special Parliament called by the Primate* of Poland in his capacity as an interrex* to select the place and time for the free election of a King, to issue the necessary legislation during the interregnum, and to prepare proposals for pacta conventa* with prospective candidates. The first Convocation Sejm took place during the interregnum of 1572-1573 after the death of Zygmunt (Sigismund) August* and was composed of deputies elected by local provincial Parliaments. CHP, I, 5 COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT (Spoldzielczosc), movement developed in the United States and Western Europe in the nineteenth century, supporting organizations owned by and operated for the benefit of those using their services. S. Staszic,* who established the Hrubieszow Agricultural Association in 1816, is thought to be the precursor of the Polish cooperatives. The first real cooperatives grew, however, in Prussian Poland among the wealthier peasants and the petite bourgeoisie. In 1861 the credit cooperative association was founded in Poznari (Posen)* by A. Szamarzewski and P. Wawrzyniak,* who were pioneers of agricultural co-ops. In Galicia,* they developed later with the first cooperative established by F. Stefczyk* in 1890. In the Russian part of Poland, consumer co-ops began to operate on a large scale among the workers of Plock* and Warsaw* after the 1905 revolution. They were based on the theoretical foundations of E. Abramowski.* In interwar Poland, two currents of the cooperative movement coexisted: the politically neutral current, mobilized by the "Spolem"* movement, and the class-oriented current, organized in a workers' union of cooperative societies. The strongest among them were savings and loan co-ops. S. Inglot, Zarys Historii polskiego ruchu spoldzielczego (An Outline of Polish Cooperatives' History) (Warsaw, 1966); S. Thugutt, Spoldzielczosc: Zarys Ideologii (Cooperatives, an Outline of Ideology) (Warsaw, 1937). COP, Central Industrial Region (Centralny Okre.g Przemyslowy), one of the principal economic achievements of interwar Poland. The organization of the Region was a part of the government initiative launched in March 1936 by the Vice Premier and Finance Minister, E. Kwiatkowski.* The plan, matching Poland's economic needs with her strategic requirements, was assisted by an important loan from France. The construction of the COP was initiated in February 1937. The Region was established in the so-called Security Triangle, relatively far from Poland's eastern and western borders. It included thirty-four districts (powiaty) of the Lublin,* Kielce,* Cracow,* and Lvov* provinces (wojewodztwa); altogether 15.4 percent of the state area and 18 percent (5.6 million) of its population. The main industrial objects of the COP, a hydroelectric dam in Roznow, a steel forge in Stalowa Wola, a synthetic rubber factory in Debica,

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cellulose production facilities in Niedomice, and weapons factories in Starachowice,* were well advanced by the outbreak of WW II. N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. II (New York, 1982), 393-434; EHGP, I,90-1. COPERNICUS, NICOLAUS (Mikolaj Kopernik) (1473-1543), an outstanding Polish astronomer, who developed the theory that Earth and other planets move around the sun. He received his university education at Cracow,* Bologna, and Padua. In 1503 he returned to Poland, and, in 1512, he settled permanently in Frombork (Frauenburg), where he was appointed in absentia a canon of the cathedral in 1497. He made his first recorded observation of the heavens in Bologna in 1497, and later he continued his research in Poland. In 1510 he wrote the Commentariolus, a manuscript summary of his theory, but he did not decide to publish his complete work until 1540. The finished copy of De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) is believed to have been presented to Copernicus on the last day of his life. He also served as a physician, translated Greek Byzantine poetry, and worked on the principles of currency reform for certain Polish provinces. His astronomical discoveries became a watershed in our knowledge of the universe. "The Copernican Revolution" also challenged man's entire philosophical conception; no longer could the Earth be considered the center of the universe and the epitome of creation. It became only a planet like numerous others. A. Armitage, The World of Copernicus (London, 1956); S. Mizwa, Nicholas Copernicus, 1543-1943 (New York, 1943); W. Stachiewicz, Copernicus and the Changing World (Montreal, 1973). CORDON SANITAIRE, (French: sanitary line) for the first time the term applied to the chain of states created along the borders of France after the fall of Napoleon to provide a zone in which any recurrence of revolution or aggression by France would be contained. After WW I, the same term was used by the French Premier, G. Clemenceau, for Central European countries located on the western Soviet border. According to the French political scenario, they were to buffer Western Europe from the threat of Soviet expansion. It implied special French agreements with Poland, Czechoslovakia and Romania. P. Wandycz, Prance and Her Eastern Allies, 1919-1925 (Minneapolis, 1962). CORONA REGNI POLONIAE, term indicating sovereignty of the Polish state, its homogeneity and authority over certain territories independently of the person of a given ruler. It was used since the fourteenth century in connection with the unification of Poland after two centuries of fragmentation. The term "Crown" (Polish: Korona) also applied to the Polish part of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.* P. Jasienica, "Corona Regni Poloniae," Piast Poland (Miami, 1985), 205-256. CORRAZZI, ANTONIO (1792-1877), Italian architect invited by the government of the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* where he worked from 1818 to 1847. He was particularly involved in the urban planning of Warsaw,* designed

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a number of monumental classicist public buildings, including the Great Theater, and became the main architect of the Polish capital in the early nineteenth century. PSB, IV, 95. CORRIDOR, name tailored by German anti-Polish propaganda for Eastern Pomerania,* suggesting that this region, located on the left bank of the lower Vistula* River between East Prussia* and Western (German) Pomerania, was an unnatural creation and part of the unfair persecution of Germany after WW I. Eastern Pomerania, populated by Slavic tribes, was incorporated by Poland before the year 1000. In 1308, the region and its capital, Gdarisk (Danzig),* were conquered by the Teutonic Knights,* but, after the Thirteen Years' War* of 1454-1466, it was taken by Poland and remained within its borders until the First Partition* of 1772. In 1919 the Paris Peace Conference* assigned the region to Poland (without Gdarisk), following the thirteenth point of President Wilson* about Polish access to the Baltic Sea.* The region, ethnically mixed from the Middle Ages, had a strong German minority and constituted a bone of contention between Poland and revisionist Germans. The "Corridor" and the Free City of Gdarisk issues were among the main pretexts for Nazi aggression against Poland on September 1, 1939. A. Cienciala, "German Propaganda for the Revision of the Polish-German Frontier in Danzig and the Corridor," Antemurale XX (1977), 77-129. CORVEE (Pariszczyzna), unpaid labor that peasants owed their lords in exchange for use of small farms. In Poland, this feudal obligation grew from several days per year in the thirteenth century up to ten working days per week per family in some regions in the eighteenth century. Corvee, frequently criticized because it caused low productivity and a growing burden on the peasants, was gradually replaced with rent payment in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Corvee was eventually abolished in the Prussian part of Poland between 1811 and 1850, in Austrian-controlled Galicia* in 1848, and in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* by the 1864 decree of Alexander II.* Some forms of feudal servitude survived until the end of the nineteenth century, such as enforced payment of peasant debt or the forced hiring of manpower. Corvee was one of the most detrimental elements of the Polish social-economic system, delaying the national awakening of the peasants until the end of the nineteenth century. B. Kiraly, "The Emancipation of the Serfs in East Central Europe," Antemurale XV (1971), 63-86; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1969), 399-562; S 307. COSSACKS, members of communities established in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in the steppes of the northern hinterlands of the Black and Caspian Seas, depopulated after the Tatar* invasions of the thirteenth century. The word Cossack (Ukrainian kozak) derives from the Turkic kazak ("free man" or "adventurer") and referred to anyone who went into the steppes and did not ac-

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knowledge any authority. The first Cossack groups, consisting of the peasants who fled from serfdom in Poland, Lithuania* and Muscovy, were established by the end of the fifteenth century. The term Cossack existed even earlier, meaning mercenaries engaged to protect Italian colonies on the Black Sea coast, but the history of the Ukrainian Cossacks is usually divided into three periods. The first period (1550-1648) was influenced by two main historical factors: the defense of the southern Polish border against Tatars and Turks and the consequences of the so-called second serfdom. The Tatar raids forced Lithuania and Poland to establish a chain of fortresses and military colonies in the Southern Ukraine. These forts were defended by the Cossacks, who also organized raids against Tatar and Turkish towns in the Black Sea littoral. Gradually, the Cossacks acquired military strength and became more numerous. Favorable conditions for selling grain in Western Europe encouraged the Polish nobility* to introduce the manorial system of agriculture and to extend the corvee.* The fugitive peasants joined the growing Cossack communities, which in some regions, especially in the Zaporoze (Zaporizhia),* created semi-independent units. The Polish state tried to control this process: it introduced registration of the Cossacks, appointed their elders, limited the autonomy of Zaporizhia, and attempted to introduce Catholicism into Orthodox Ukraine. The Polish and Ruthenian* magnates created new latifundia there and tried to impose feudal dependency on the local population. The Cossacks answered with a series of uprisings. The largest, the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising,* marked the beginning of the second period in the history of the Cossacks (1648-1775). B. Chmielnicki* created an independent state but was not able to defend it against the Poles and asked Muscovy for protection. The Pereiaslav Treaty* of 1654 divided the Ukraine into two parts. In the Russian Left-Bank (of the Dnieper River) Ukraine, the Cossacks received some privileges in return for military service, but their situation, as in the Polish Right-Bank part, deteriorated. During the third period of Cossack history (1775-1917), after the Partitions* of Poland, the autonomy of the Cossacks was abolished, some of them faced enserfment, and several Cossack uprisings were brutally suppressed. The Cossack estate survived, however, until the revolution of 1917, and the Ukrainian Cossacks served as a model for the establishment of Cossack structures in Russia, Turkey and other states. A. Kaminski, "Ruthenia, Cossack Don, the Ukraine, and the Commonwealth of Two Nations," Polish Review XXXII/1 (1987), 93-110; P. Langworth, The Cossacks (New York, 1969); W. Serczyk, "The Commonwealth and the Cossacks in the First Quarter of the Seventeenth Century," Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 2 no. 1 (1978), 73-93; O. Subtelny, The Mazepists: Ukrainian Separatism in the Early Eighteenth Century (Boulder, Colorado, 1981).

COUNCIL OF NATIONAL UNITY (Rada Jednosci Narodowej), underground representation of political parties active in wartime conspiracy and supporting the Polish Government-in-Exile* in London during WW II. The Council, created

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in Warsaw* in January 1944 as a surrogate, clandestine Parliament, was a continuation of the Political Liaison Committee (Polityczny Komitet Porozumiewawczy [PKP]), which was established in 1940 and in August 1943 renamed the Home Political Representation (Krajowa Reprezentacja Polityczna [KRP]). The Council was composed of three representatives for each of the four parties of the ruling coalition, namely, the Peasant, National, Labor, and Socialist Parties, and one representative for each of the following organizations and institutions: Ojczyzna (Motherland), Raclawice,* the Democratic Union, the Catholic Church, and the Cooperative Movement. On March 15, 1945, the Council formulated its program "What Is the Polish Nation Fighting For?" The Council was dissolved on July 1, 1945, after the establishment of the Provisional Government of National Unity. S. Korboriski, Fighting Warsaw (New York, 1968); Stypulkowski, Invitation to Moscow (New York, 196 COUNCIL OF THE FOUR LANDS, the central institution of Jewish selfgovernment in Poland and Lithuania* during the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries. The Council represented the highest form of autonomy ever granted the Jews* in Europe. It started to develop in the first years of the sixteenth century and initially comprised representatives of four provinces: Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* (with the most important community in Poznari*), Little Poland (Malopolska)* (with the capital in Cracow*), the "Lvov* Land" and Volhynia.* Later, representatives of "The Council of Lithuania" were added. The smaller regions within these provinces had their own councils, which resembled the Polish regional Dietines (Sejmiki*). The representatives of the regional councils were sent to the Council of the Four Lands (like the representatives of the Dietines to the Sejm). In 1717, the Council comprised eighteen entities, and its plenary sessions were attended by fifty to seventy delegates. The Council met twice yearly at the fairs of Lublin* and Jaroslaw.* It represented the Jewish population in its relations with the Polish authorities, administered the collection of Jewish taxes, supervised the organization of religious education, and guided the economic affairs of the communities. The Council was dissolved in 1764, when the Sejm established a new system for collecting Jewish taxes, but it became a symbol of Jewish freedom in pre-Partition Poland and an ideal model of Jewish autonomy. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 5 (Jerusalem, 1917), 995-1003; and H. Lerski, "Autonomy (Kehillots)," Jewish-Polish Coexistence: A Topical B ography (New York, 1986 COUNTER-REFORMATION, the Catholic Church's response to the challenge of the Reformation.* The name was coined by the nineteenth-century historian L. von Ranke. The movement comprised the spiritual revival and administrative renovation of Roman Catholicism, and some of its reforms anteceded the Reformation. The doctrinal basis of the movement was created at the Council of Trent (1545-1561), which made any agreement with Protestants impossible by insisting on the supreme role of the Pope. Under Paul IV (15551559), the Roman Inquisition was revived, and the Index of Forbidden Books

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was instituted. The main instrument of the Counter-Reformation was the Society of Jesus, created by Ignatius Loyola in 1540. The doctrinal centers of the movement remained in Italy and Spain, but the main terrains of struggle with the Protestant Reformation were Bavaria, the Netherlands, France, and Poland. The Counter-Reformation's principles of the primacy of the faith and religious intolerance resulted in the Thirty Years' War, which ended in 1648 with the victory of political absolutism under the slogan cuius regio eius religio. The Counter-Reformation in Poland began with the establishment of the Papal Nunciature in 1555, with the coming of the Jesuits* in 1564, and with the acceptance of the Decrees of Trent by the Synod of Piotrkow* in 1577. The year 1768, when the legal discrimination against religious dissidents was abolished, might be accepted as the end of the Polish Counter-Reformation. Until the early seventeenth century, it used persuasion rather than coercion. The Church in Poland tried to subordinate the followers of Orthodoxy and settled the Union of Brest-Litovsk.* The leaders of the Counter-Reformation tried to strengthen the Royal power and spoke for the introduction of basic reforms, including granting greater privileges to the burghers and easing the lot of the peasants. The Jesuits organized a network of excellent schools. The austere chapels of the dissidents contrasted with dazzling Baroque* churches, and the rationalist Protestant religion, with liturgical splendor. In the seventeenth century, the Counter-Reformation changed its character and became increasingly fanatic and intolerant. Censorship and the Index of Forbidden Books were introduced in Poland, religious considerations began to play an important role in Polish foreign policy, Protestant churches were totally destroyed in several parts of the country, and some denominations were banned. Catholicism became an important element of the system of the "Golden Freedom," which marked Poland off from its Protestant, Orthodox and Muslim neighbors and became the basis of a mystical concept of Poland as the Antemurale* of Christianity. Catholicism consolidated the unity of the gentry, and the acceptance of the Catholic faith constituted the last stage of Polonization of Ruthenian nobility. CHP, I, 392-415; P. Jasienica, The Commonwealth of Both Nations: The Silver Age (Miami, 1987); History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 227-234; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (Berkeley, California, 1983), 111-152.

COURLAND, country on the Baltic Sea, the southern part of present-day Latvia. From the thirteenth century it was a part of the state of the Knights of the Sword, who conquered the Baltic tribes of Cours and Latvians. The last Master of the Order, G. Kettler, secularized his state, surrendered it to Zygmunt (Sigismund) August* in 1561, and obtained the land as hereditary fief. Courland remained within the Polish borders until the Third Partition* in 1795. CHP, 475-488. CRACOW (Krakow), city in southern Poland on the upper Vistula* River. The area of Cracow was inhabited by peoples of the Lusatian Culture* from the ancient times to the fifth century A.D. In the seventh century, the region became

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the center of the Wislanie (Vistulians)* tribe, which built a powerful stronghold at Wawel.* In the ninth century, the territory of the Vistulians was incorporated into the Great Moravian State. The settlement, which developed around Wawel and was already called Cracow, located on important trade routes from Bohemia to Kievian Rus', became an important town. In the tenth century it belonged to the Czech Kingdom, and, in the 990s, it was conquered by the first Polish monarchs. Boleslaw I Chrobry (the Brave)* made Cracow the seat of a Polish Bishopric. After the crisis of the young Polish state in the 1030s, Kazimierz Odnowiciel (Casimir the Restorer)* moved the capital of Poland from devastated Gniezno* and Poznari (Posen)* to Cracow. According to the 1138 testament of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wry mouth), Cracow became the seat of the senior Polish Duke during the feudal disintegration* of Poland. In 1241 the town was destroyed by the Tatars,* but it recovered quickly, received the Magdeburg city rights* in 1257, and expanded rapidly as a commercial and cultural center. In 1306 Cracow was taken by Wladyslaw Lokietek (the Short),* who was crowned King of Poland in 1320 in Cracow and made it the capital of Poland. In 1364 Wladyslaw's son, Kazimierz Wielki (the Great),* founded the Cracow Academy, the second oldest university in Central Europe (later called Jagiellonian University),* and contributed greatly to the remarkable architectural and economic development of the town. Under the Jagiellonian dynasty, Cracow became one of the largest and liveliest cities east of the Elbe River and north of the Alps. However, when Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa)* moved the capital of Poland to Warsaw* in 1609-1611, and the Swedes devastated Cracow in 1655, the town began to decline. It did not play any significant role in Polish history until 1794, when the Kosciuszko Insurrection* started there. At the Third Partition* of Poland in 1795, the town was taken by Austria. During 1809-1815, Cracow belonged to the Duchy of Warsaw* and, during 1815-1846, it was the "free" Republic of Cracow.* Eventually, it was merged into Austrian-controlled Galicia* and was returned to Poland in 1918. Already by the late nineteenth century, a revival of the city had started. Cracow developed economically and, most importantly, became one of the main centers of Polish cultural life. This development continued in the interwar period. During WW II, Cracow became the headquarters of the German occupation authorities, which executed or imprisoned the faculty of the Jagiellonian University,* killed thousands of local Poles and totally exterminated the Jewish community. In January 1945, a surprise attack of the Red Army ejected the Germans from Cracow and prevented destruction of the city. J. Adamczewski, In Cracow (Warsaw, 1973); L. Lepszy, Cracow, The Royal Capit Ancient Poland (London, 1912); WEP, VI, 147-153. Encyclopedia of World Art, vo (New York, 1966), 410-412. CRACOW UPRISING OF 1846, a brief and unsuccessful insurrection in the "free" Republic of Cracow.* The Republic of Cracow (Rzeczpospolita Krakowska) established during the Congress of Vienna* as a tiny state between the

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Polish territories occupied by Russia, Austria, and Prussia, became a symbol of Poland's independent existence and a forum for secret activities against the great powers partitioning Poland. Emissaries of Polish emigre organizations were active in Cracow from the 1830s. On the night of February 20, 1846, a group of insurrectionists attacked Austrian troops in Cracow. The Austrians withdrew on February 22 and, on the same day, a national government was formed in Cracow, led by a lawyer, Jan Tyssowski,* and an extreme radical of aristocratic descent, E. Dembowski.* The government announced its "Manifesto to the Polish Nation," which ordered the landlords to abolish the corvee and rents and declared universal suffrage, creation of national workshops and several concepts of the French Revolution. The insurrection, welcomed enthusiastically in Cracow, lacked any support outside the city. Small units sent to the countryside were destroyed by Austrian troops and the peasant uprising in Galicia.* J. Tyssowski fled and E. Dembowski was shot to death by the Austrians. On March 3, the Russians occupied the city, and, several days later, it was incorporated into Austria. CHP, II, 353-354; S. Kieniewicz, Historia Polski 1795-1918 (War 1975), 163-165. CURIE-SKLODOWSKA, MARIA (1867-1934), physicist, twice a winner of the Nobel Prize. She graduated in 1883 with a gold medal from the Women's Gymnasium in Warsaw* and continued her studies at the illegal "Flying University," working at the same time as a teacher or a governess. In 1891 she left for Paris and began her studies at the Sorbonne. In 1895 she married a French physicist, Pierre Curie, and working with him she discovered radioactive polonium and radium in 1898. In 1903 she received her doctorate at the Sorbonne and, together with her husband and H. Becquerel, she was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics, the first woman to do so. In 1906, after her husband's death, she became the first woman professor of the Sorbonne. She continued her research, and, in 1911, she received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for the isolation of pure radium. During WW I, together with her daughter, Irene, she concentrated on the development of the use of X-radiography. She helped to establish the Radium Institute in Warsaw in 1932. Two years later she died as a result of leukemia caused by radiation. E. Curie, Madame Curie: A Biography (New York, 1986); E. Doorley, The Radium Woman: A Life of Marie Curie (New York, 1955); R. Woznicki, Madame Curie: Daughter of Poland (Miami, 1983).

CURZON LINE, armistice line and potential boundary between Poland and Soviet Russia proposed during the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. After the Red Army pushed Polish troops out of Ukraine* and Belorussia* and approached Warsaw* in summer 1920, the Polish Premier, W. Grabski,* appealed to the Allies for assistance. On July 11, 1920, British Foreign Secretary Lord G. Curzon sent a dispatch to Soviet Foreign Commissar G. Chicherin, suggesting an armistice line, one proposed to the Poles a day earlier. That line was originally designated by the Allied Supreme Council in December 1919 as a tern-

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porary boundary marking the minimum eastern frontier of Poland and authorized a Polish administration to be formed on the lands west of it. The line went southward from Grodno,* through Brest-Litovsk (Brzesc nad Bugiem),* and followed the Bug* River to the former frontier between Austria and Russia. Lord Curzon's dispatch extended the line to the south, dividing Galicia along the San River with the city of Przemysl* on the Polish side. Neither the Poles nor the Soviets accepted this line, and, after continued fighting, the interwar Polish-Soviet border was determined by the Peace Treaty of Riga* on March 18, 1921. Soviet propaganda claimed, however, that all the territories east of the Curzon Line (extending roughly 320 kilometers) were occupied by Poland. After WW II, a slightly modified Curzon Line became the Polish-Soviet border, controversially recognized by the United States and Great Britain as a consequence of the Yalta Agreement.* L. Kirken, Russia, Poland and the Curzon L (London, 1945); S. Grabski, The Polish-Soviet Frontier (London, 19 CYBIS, JAN (1897-1972), painter. He studied in Wroclaw (Breslau)* Academy in the years 1919-1921, in Cracow* with J. Mehoffer* and J. Pankiewicz* from 1921, and, from 1924, in Paris, where he was known as a "Kapist"* leader. In 1934 he settled in Cracow, and, in the years 1937-1939, he taught drawing in Krzemieniec Liceum. His style was influenced by Courbet, Cezanne, and the post-Impressionist Bonnard. H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (London, 1942), 69-7 CYRULIK WARSZAWSKI, weekly dedicated to political satire published in Warsaw* in the years 1926-1934 on the initiative of the literary Skamander* group. Edited by J. Lechori,* and, in 1932, J. Paczkowski, it had such outstanding contributors as M. Hemar,* J. Iwaszkiewicz,* A. Slonimski,* and J. Tuwim.* WEP, II, 642 CZACKI, TADEUSZ (1765-1813), economist, historian, educational worker. Engaged in economic and educational reforms under the last King of Poland, he tried to improve commerce with Moldavia and Turkey and prepared a hydrographic map of Poland and Lithuania* as a basis for riparian regulation. He was also very active after the Partitions.* He co-founded the Association of Friends of Learning in Warsaw* (1800); became an inspector of the school system in Volhynia,* Podolia,* and Kievan Ukraine (1803); and established the famous Lyceum in Krzemieniec* (1805), where he organized the first Polish school of geometricians and mechanics. He authored several works on history and education. WEP, II, 681-68 CZAJKOWSKI, MICHAL (1804-1886), politician and writer. He participated in the November Insurrection,* and, after its fall, he emigrated to France. Active in the Polish community in Paris, he belonged to the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie),* but later he moved to the right and joined the Confederation of the Polish Nation (Konfederacja Narodu Polskiego). He supported the policy of A. J. Czartoryski,* on whose instruction he estab-

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lished a Polish diplomatic agency in Istanbul in 1841 to organize an anti-Russian campaign in the Balkans, Ukraine* and the Caucasus. In 1850 he joined the Turkish service and became a Muslim as Sadyk Pasha. During the Crimean War, he organized and commanded six units of the Ottoman Cossacks,* but then he severed his relations with Hotel Lambert,* maintained a neutral position during the January Insurrection,* and was dismissed by the Turks and returned to Ukraine. He published several popular novels which idealized Cossack history. WEP, II, 683-68 CZAPINSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1882-1941), politician and Socialist close to Austro-Marxism. Active in the Polish Social Democratic Party (PPSD) in the years 1908-1919, he joined the Polish Socialist Party (PPS)* in 1919 and was among its most important leaders and Sejm* representatives throughout the interwar period. Arrested by the Germans in 1940, he died in Auschwitz.* WEP II, 688. CZAPSKI, JOZEF (1896-1993), painter. He participated in WW I and in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. Later he was among the founding members of the "Kapists"* group. After several years in Paris, where he was influenced by Cezanne, Czapski returned to Warsaw.* He participated in the 1939 September Campaign* and was taken as a POW by the Red Army. He survived the Starobielsk* camp and was released after the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement.* Then he served in the Polish Army under Gen. W. Anders* and was assigned to search for 15,000 Polish officers missing in the Soviet camps. Czapski's book The Inhuman Land became a classic description of the Stalinist Soviet Union, with emphasis on the Gulag. H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (London, 1942), 67-7 CZARNIECKI, STEFAN (1599-1665), governor of Ruthenia* (1657-1665) and Crown Field Hetman* (from 1657). He participated in the wars against Sweden (1626-1629) and Muscovy (1633) and constant battles against the Cossacks* and the Tatars.* Taken prisoner of war at the beginning of the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising,* he was freed and contributed greatly to the victory of Beresteczko.* During the Swedish invasion of 1655, he remained loyal to the King, became Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army, and encouraged peasants and burghers to fight against the Swedes. Mainly using guerrilla tactics, he forced the Swedes to withdraw from Poland. He also defeated the Swedish ally, J. Rakoczy of Transylvania, in 1657, and, in 1658, he successfully led Polish troops to help the Polish ally Denmark. After the Peace Treaty of Oliwa,* he turned against Moscow. Czarniecki, whose name is mentioned in the Polish national anthem, became a symbol of patriot and soldier, who devoted all his life to his fatherland. CHP, I, 520, 522, passi CZARNOWSKI, STEFAN (1879-1937), sociologist and historian of culture. Educated in Leipzig, Berlin and Paris, he had among his professors such scholars as G. Simmel, E. Durkheim, and M. Maus. During WW I, he served with the

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Polish Legions,* then he fought in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921 and remained in the Army until 1923. From 1926 he taught at Warsaw University,* where he held a chair of sociology and history of culture. His works on the theory of culture and religion, especially on Celtic culture, are regarded as classics. During his life, Czarnowski's ideology evolved from sympathy for National Democracy,* to support for J. Pilsudski,* and eventually to active engagement in the Polish Socialist Party (PPS). Masters of Polish Sociology, ed. by P. Sztom (Wroclaw, 1980), 85-101. CZARTORYSKA, IZABELLA (1746-1835), descendant of the Saxon Flemming family naturalized in Poland, she married A. K. Czartoryski* in 1761. She was very active in the political and cultural life of Poland, participating in numerous activities of the Czartoryski political "Family."* In 1774 she established a residence in the Powazki suburb of Warsaw,* patterned on the French Trianon. Powazki, and even more so the estate in Pulawy,* became an important center of culture competing with the Royal patronage. During the 1794 Kosciuszko Insurrection,* the properties in Pulawy were ruined and confiscated by the Russians but, after 1795, the residence was recovered by the Czartoryskis. It was rebuilt and became one of the cultural capitals and historical shrines of the partitioned Poland. The so-called Gothic House, erected in Pulawy in 1809, was one of the first Polish museums. PSB, IV, 241-246 CZARTORYSKI, magnate family of Ruthenian* origin, which became prominent in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, especially during the reign of Stanislaw August.* In 1393 a boyar known as Vasyl received the Chartoriiske estate in Volhynia.* His sons, Ivan, Aleksei, and Mykhailo, took an active part in the politics of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania,* occupied important state positions, and are considered the founders of the family. In 1433, the Czartoryskis received the title of Princes from the Holy Roman Emperor. In the sixteenth century, the family converted from the Eastern Orthodox Church to Roman Catholicism and became totally Polonized. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovid, vol. 1 (Toronto, 19 CZARTORYSKI, ADAM JERZY (1770-1861), statesman, descendant of one of the most powerful Polish-Lithuanian aristocratic families, son of Adam Kazimierz and Izabella Czartoryski.* After years of studies and travels in Western Europe, he returned to Poland in 1791, and participated in the 1792 war against Russia. After the fall of the 1794 Kosciuszko Insurrection,* his family estates were confiscated by the Russians. In 1795 Czartoryski went to St. Petersburg seeking the recovery of his property. He befriended Grand Duke Alexander, sharing with him liberal political views, and joined the Russian government service. In 1801, when Grand Duke Alexander became Tsar, Czartoryski was nominated a member of the so-called Secret Committee. In the years 1802-1804 he served as a Deputy and in 1804-1806 as a Foreign Minister of Russia. During

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1805-1831 he was a member of the Senate and the State Council; he also worked until 1821 as a Curator of the educational region of Vilna,* which included the eastern provinces of Poland. Czartoryski believed that Alexander would restore the Polish state in the union with Russia. In 1815 Czartoryski represented Russia and, at the same time, was Poland's spokesman at the Congress of Vienna.* He drafted the Constitution of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and became a member of its government. In the 1820s, Czartoryski withdrew temporarily from public life, disillusioned with Alexander's new conservative policies. Czartoryski did not support the idea of an uprising against Russia, but after the outbreak of the November Insurrection,* he became one of its most important leaders. After the fall of the Insurrection, sentenced to death by the Russians, he went into exile. His Paris residence, the Hotel Lambert,* became a center of Polish emigre political activities. Czartoryski was unofficially acknowledged as "Polish King in exile," and he organized numerous diplomatic and secret undertakings to undermine the Russian position. He also participated in the preparation of the January Insurrection.* In France, Czartoryski supported Polish cultural and scientific activities, and, among other achievements, he co-founded the Polish Library in Paris. His repeated efforts to raise the Polish question through international contacts were notable but hardly successful. A. J. Czartoryski, Memoirs o Prince Adam Czartoryski (New York, 1971); M. Handelsman, Adam Czartoryski ( saw, 1948-1950); M. Kukiel, Czartoryski and European Unity, 1770-1861 (Prin New Jersey, 1955); PSB, IV, 257-269; W. H. Zawadzki, A Man of Honour: Ada Czartoryski as a Statesman of Russia and Poland, 1795-1831 (New York, CZARTORYSKI, ADAM KAZIMIERZ (1734-1823), head of the Czartoryski "Family,"* the most influential aristocratic clan of eighteenth-century Poland. Educated in Western Europe, mostly in England, he was prepared to take over the Polish crown but, under pressure from Catherine the Great,* he resigned in favor of Stanislaw August.* Czartoryski was elected several times to the Sejm* and, like his father, August, was a Provincial Governor (starosta generalny) of Podolia.* He became one of the leaders of the reform movement, which resulted in the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* His real interests were mainly literary and pedagogical. He contributed greatly to the creation of the Cadet Corps School in 1765, and in 1768, he was appointed Head of the School of Knights. In 1773 he joined the Commission of National Education* and wrote several textbooks and educational treaties. He strongly opposed the Confederation of Targowica.* After the fall of Poland, he had to escape from Russianoccupied territories, and his Pulawy estates were ruined and confiscated by the Russians. He would recover his property through his son's intervention in St. Petersburg. In 1812 he was elected speaker of an extraordinary Sejm and called the Poles to support Napoleon, but then he quickly retired from political life. PSB, IV, 249-257.

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CZARTORYSKI, WLADYSLAW (1828-1894), conservative emigre politician, unofficial representative of the Polish independence movement in the West, son of A. J. Czartoryski.* As a child he left with his parents for exile, was educated in France, and worked closely with his father. In 1855 together with A. Mickiewicz* he organized in Istanbul two Polish Cossack* regiments for a possible campaign against Russia. In 1860 he became a head of the newly established Bureau des Affaires Polonaises, which maintained its agents in occupied Poland. In 1861, after his father's death, Wladyslaw took over the leadership of the Hotel Lambert.* Initially, he did not support the idea of a new uprising, but he stayed in touch with the "Whites,"* and, when he started to believe in Western intervention on behalf of Poland, he encouraged them to participate in the January Insurrection.* In May 1863 the insurgent National Government appointed him its main plenipotentiary in Great Britain, Italy, Sweden and Turkey. However, when Czartoryski's diplomatic activities failed, he lost his faith in Western intervention, and, in April 1864, he advised the underground National Government in Warsaw* to terminate the uprising. In 1865 he asked the Pope to help the Uniates,* and he tried to raise the Polish question during the Berlin Congress in 1878. In the second half of his life, especially after the fall of Napoleon III, Czartoryski concentrated mostly on cultural activities. PSB, IV, 300-303 CZECH, BRONISLAW (1908-1944), skiing champion, alpinist and glider. Poland's champion in most skiing competitions during the 1930s, he graduated from the Central Institute of Physical Education in Bielany. In 1929 he became an unofficial world champion in downhill skiing. He took part in three Winter Olympics and was also known for his artistic talents. On May 14, 1940, he was arrested by the Gestapo for underground activities and transferred to Auschwitz,* where he was killed on June 5, 1944. WEP, II, 717-71 CZECHOWICZ, JOZEF (1903-1939), poet. The son of a poor family, educated at a teacher's college, he belonged to the avant-garde group of Lublin* writers. From 1930 Czechowicz lived in Warsaw,* where he edited Miesiecznik Literatury i Sztuki (Literature and Art Monthly) and Pioro (The Pen). His first poetry collection Kamien (Stone) appeared in 1927 and was followed by several new collections edited in Warsaw in the 1930s. His works are characterized by fantastic moods, extensive use of metaphor and internal melodiousness. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 411-412; WEP, II, CZECHOWICZ, SZYMON (1689-1775), painter. For almost thirty years he studied and lived in Rome, sent there by a Polish Treasurer, M. Ossoliriski, who discovered his talent. In 1740 Czechowicz returned to Poland and worked for several noble families. His best works, mostly of a religious character, were painted in Hetman* W. Rzewuski's Podhorce, in the Cathedral of Kielce* and the parish church in Poznari.* During the last years of his life, he established a

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school of painting in Warsaw.* His painting was strongly influenced by Italian art. PSB, IV, 312-313 CZEKANOWSKI, JAN (1882-1965), outstanding anthropologist. Educated in Zurich, he worked in the Konigliches Museum fur Volkerkunde in Berlin and as curator of the anthropological and ethnographical museum of St. Petersburg Academy of Learning. In 1907 he participated in an expedition to Africa to study the regions between the Nile and Congo Rivers. In the years 1913-1941 he held the chair of anthropology at Lvov University. His publications on Central Africa and the ethnogenesis of the Slavs became enduring works. J. Czekanowski, Forschungen im Nil-Kongo-Zwischengehiet (Leipzig, 1911-1927); WEP, II, 730.

CZERNIAKOW, ADAM (1880-1942), Jewish politician. An engineer by profession, he was a member of the Warsaw* Municipal Council (1927-1934) and a leader of the Jewish Artisan Association. He represented the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (BBWR)* in the Senate* (1931-1935) and was a member of the Executive Council of the Warsaw Jewish Community before the outbreak of WW II. On September 23, 1939, the Mayor of besieged Warsaw appointed him head of the Jewish Community Council and, after the fall of Warsaw, the Germans appointed Czerniakow head of the Judenrat* on October 4, 1939. He served in this capacity until his suicide on July 23, 1942. Czerniakow fought against the idea of ghettoization and refused to believe that the Germans intended to exterminate the whole Jewish population. He left a secret diary of 1,009 pages, revealing the tragic story of the Warsaw Ghetto. A. Czerniakow, Warsaw Ghetto Diary (Jerusalem, 1968); Encyclopaedia Judaica, vo (Jerusalem, 1971), 1210-1211; J. Lichten, "Adam Czerniakow and His Times," Polish Review XXIX/1-2 (1984), 71-8 CZESTOCHOWA, town on the upper Warta* River, established in the midfourteenth century, which became the center of the cult of Our Lady of Czestochowa. In 1382 the Piast* Prince, Wladyslaw Opolczyk, brought the Pauline Fathers there to take care of a Gothic Chapel. Its main icon, the "Black Madonna' ' (probably of Russian or Byzantine origin), became an object of veneration and mass pilgrimages. The monastery, located on Jasna Gora (Polish: shining mountain), was fortified and played a key role during the Swedish invasions of 1655 and 1705. After the Partitions* the city of Czestochowa belonged to Prussia* (1793-1807), the Duchy of Warsaw* (1807-1815), and to the Congress Kingdom of Poland* (1815-1915). It developed as an important center of the textile, chemical and metal industries, and its population grew from 5,000 in 1827 to 38,000 in 1900 and to 138,000 in 1939. O. Halecki, "The Place of Czestochowa in Poland's Millennium," Catholic Historical Review II/4 (1967) 508; J. Pasierb, The Shrine of the Black Madonna at Czestochowa (Warsaw, 19 CZORSZTYN, castle overlooking the Dunajec River. It was built in the fourteenth century by Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great)* and served as a seat

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of the local district governor (starosta) from the fifteenth century. In 1651 Czorsztyn was the center of the mountaineers' rebellion led by A. KostkaNapierski. In the twentieth century, because of the attractive Dunajec gorge, Czorsztyn became a tourist attraction. CHP, I, 514. CZUMA, WALERIAN (1890-1962), General. He participated in WW I as an officer of the Polish Legions.* Protesting against the anti-Polish decisions of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty,* he crossed the front line and moved to Russia together with his Second Brigade in spring 1918. Before he returned to Poland in 1922, he commanded the Polish Siberian Division, fighting against the Bolsheviks in Siberia.* In interwar Poland, he occupied several important military positions, including officer in charge of the Vilna* garrison and the Polish Border Guards. In September 1939, he distinguished himself as Commander-in-Chief of the Warsaw defense. After its capitulation, he was taken prisoner by the Germans. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Warsaw, 19 84. CZYNSKI, JAN (1801-1867), politician, lawyer, publicist and writer. He participated in the November Insurrection* and supported the policy of offensive military operations against the Russians. After the Uprising, he went into exile. He was among the radical activists of the Polish emigre community in Paris, strongly opposed the policy of A. Czartoryski,* and co-founded the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]).* He developed a program for the "social reconstruction" of Poland. He was also interested in the Polish Jewish problem and supported the emancipation of the Jews.* PSB, IV, 375-378. CZYZEWSKI, TYTUS (1880-1945), painter, poet and critic of art. He began his art studies in Cracow* as a student of Mehoffer* and Wyspiariski.* Then he continued his studies in Paris, where he was influenced by neo-impressionism and cubism. In 1917 he co-founded the group of "formists,"* and his works became similar to folk art. But after a long trip to Italy, Spain and France in 1925, Czyzewski changed his style, and colors became the most important element of his painting. As a poet he belonged among Polish futurists. H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (London, 1942); A. Oseka, "O malarstwie Tytusa Czyzewskiego," Przeglad Artysty czny No. 4 (195

D DAGOME IUDEX (Judge Dagome), opening words of the oldest Polish document and one of the earliest written sources on Polish history. Issued during the pontificate of the Pope John XV, probably by 990 A.D., it refers to Mieszko's* decision to place Poland under the special protection of the Papacy. The name Dagome is probably a Latinized version of Mieszko's original Slavic name (Dzigoma?), used by him before he was baptized. The document, known from an abridged version made in Rome at the end of the eleventh century, gives a description of Polish borders at the end of the tenth century. The purpose of Mieszko's action was probably to prevent the control of the German hierarchy over the newly established Polish Church and to deal directly with the Papacy. F. Dvornik, The Making of Central and Eastern Europe (London, 1949), 315-318 Hensel, 77**? Beginning of the Polish State (Warsaw, 1960); T. Manteuffel, The F dation of the Polish State (Detroit, 198 DALBOR, EDMUND (1869-1926), Cardinal and Primate* of Poland from 1915. Ordained in 1893, he became Chancellor of the Poznari* archdiocese, and, from 1909, its Vicar General. He also served as a professor of canon law at Gniezno* seminary, and, on June 30, 1915, was raised to the position of Archbishop of Gniezno. Dalbor proved to be an energetic administrator and established several important institutions, such as new seminaries, a union of philanthropic societies called "Caritas," a Diocesan library and archives. He called the first postwar Synod of Polish Bishops in Gniezno held in September 1919 and later held such conferences every year, serving as their chair. He was very active in the political life of interwar Poland and supported Polish emigrants in Germany and France by organizing a network of Polish parishes in those countries. PSB, IV, 391-392. DANCES, the folk dances of Poland, like those of other Slavic countries, had roots in pagan rituals. Each movement was symbolic and had a magical pur-

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pose—whether to ensure a plentiful harvest, bring good luck to hunters and fishermen, bring victory in a battle, give a blessing to newlyweds, help in making a wise decision in choosing a new leader, or send off a soul on its final journey. Everyone understood these symbols, knowing that to change the canons of a dance might bring down severe consequences. After Poland accepted Christianity in 966, the next stage of the development of dance took place. Gradually the symbolic, magical meanings of dances have been forgotten as they became solely a form of entertainment. Over several centuries Polish folk dances absorbed certain foreign elements (contredanse, ecossaise, waltz, polka). In the South, there is a similarity between the folklore of Polish mountaineers (gorale) and that of Czechs, Slovaks, Moravians, Romanians and Hungarians. In the northern Baltic Sea region, German and Scandinavian impact on the folklore of the Kaszubi (Kashubians)* is apparent. Gradually Poles assimilated foreign elements and created a unique style. Polish dances are divided into two categories: national and regional. In the first category is the chodzony (the "walking dance") or the polonaise, brought by the gentry into the ballrooms in the seventeenth century and later borrowed by the courts of the magnates and the Royal court; and the krakowiak (from the Cracow* region), which became popular in Polish ballrooms, salons and private houses and lost its peasant character. Various other dances originated in specific districts of Poland, but they are regarded as national because of their popularity all over the country. They have many steps and figures, as each region which adopted them added its own characteristic variations and styles. Some Polish national dances spread to Western Europe and America, especially during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. One of the reasons for this phenomenon was Chopin's* popularity. His compositions are often based on Polish folk dances. Polish fondness for dancing is documented by the role of the dance in numerous great plays, especially Wyspiariski's* Wesele (The Wedding). S. Benet, Song, Dance, and Customs of Peas Poland (New York, 1951); I. Ludwig, Polish Dances (London, 196 DANTYSZEK, JAN (1485-1548), diplomat, poet, and Bishop of Warmia.* His last name originated from his native city of Danzig (Gdarisk).* Dantyszek graduated from Cracow Academy; he then worked at the court of King Jan Olbracht,* who helped him continue his studies and travel through the eastern Mediterranean. From 1507 Dantyszek again worked in the King's Chancery; he served as a secretary of Zygmunt I Stary,* and as his adviser and envoy to several European states. In 1533 Dantyszek was ordained a priest, and in the same year, was consecrated Bishop of Warmia. His residence became a center of learning. An author of Latin psalms, autobiographical elegies, patriotic and religious poems, Dantyszek is considered one of the leading representatives of the Polish Renaissance. PSB, IV, 424-430 DASZYNSKI, IGNACY (1866-1936), Socialist leader and statesman. Raised in a patriotic family, he began early to participate in the Polish freedom move-

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ment. Expelled from school in 1882, he worked as a clerk and private tutor in Galicia* and the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* Imprisoned by the Russian police in 1889, he was sent back to Galicia* and arrested by the Austrians. Released, he later co-founded the Workers Party in 1890 and the Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia (PPSD)* in 1892. From 1893 he edited PPSD's press organ Naprzod (Forward) and participated in all conventions of the Austrian Social Democracy and in most congresses of the Second International. He became the main spokesman of the Galician radical opposition against the oligarchic domination of Polish aristocracy and Austrian bureaucracy. In 1897-1918 Daszyriski was a member of the Vienna Parliament, where he chaired the Socialist Club. From 1901 he cooperated with J. Pilsudski,* and, after the 1906 split within the Polish Socialist Party (PPS),* he supported the PPS Revolutionary Fraction.* In the last years before WW I, Daszyriski belonged to the most important Polish leaders of the pro-Austrian political camp. After the outbreak of the war, he co-founded and served as a Vice President of the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN])* in Cracow.* After the Brest-Litovsk Peace* he ceased to support the Austrian solution for Poland and joined the opposition against the Habsburgs* by voting against the imperial budget. On November 7, 1918, he became Premier and Minister of Foreign Affairs of the "People's Government" proclaimed in Lublin by socialists and radical peasant leaders. After Pilsudski returned from German incarceration and became Polish Chief of State, Daszyriski was asked to form a coalition government, but because of Endeks'* protest he declined. In July 1920, he became deputy Premier in the Government of National Unity created to face the Bolshevik invasion. Elected to the Sejm* in 1919, he was its Deputy Speaker (1922-1927) and Speaker (1928-1930). Though he originally supported J. Pilsudski, after the 1926 coup d'etat, Daszyriski opposed the authoritarian Sanacja* regime, became a leader of Centrolew* opposition, and tried to defend Parliament's independence. After 1930 he withdrew from active politics because of his deteriorating health. He died in poverty but was hailed as a "Speaker of Democracy." W. Najdus, lgnacy Daszyhski, 1866-1936 (Warsaw, 1988); I. Daszyri Pamietniki (Memoirs) (Warsaw, 1957); Prezydenci i premierzy Drugiej Rzeczpos (Presidents and Premiers of the Second Polish Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wrobel (Warsaw, 1992), 65-86. DABROWA BASIN, coal mining and steel mill region northeast of Silesia,* which before WW I was the Russian-Polish "extension" of Upper Silesia, just across the German-Russian border. The name of the region derives from the town of Dabrowa Gornicza, where coal was discovered in 1785. In the 1820s, zinc* foundries were opened there. The 1859 opening of a railroad link with the Warsaw*-Vienna line boosted the coal mining in the region. Late in the nineteenth century other industries developed, including steel mills, brick foundries, a brewery, and a tar plant. In the 1870s, state mines and foundries were privatized, and foreign capital was attracted by protective customs policies. The

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metal products of the region sold well on the Russian markets because there was no customs barrier between the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and Russia. WW I delayed further industrial growth of the region. Dabrowa Gornicza had 41,000 inhabitants in 1939, of whom about 30 percent died during WW II. EHGP, II, 529-530 DABROWSKA, MARIA (1889-1965), novelist. After studies in Switzerland and Belgium, where she joined Polish patriotic student organizations, she began publishing short stories, mostly for children. Her next works were devoted to poor peasants and rural and estate life in nineteenth-century Poland. Dabrowska was an adherent of the "organic work"* and cooperative movement, and as a writer she was interested in the transformation of Polish society. The major work of her life is a great epic novel in four volumes, Noce i Dnie (Nights and Days), a "family saga" depicting the life of a gentry couple living on an estate in late nineteenth-century Poland. Dabrowska is considered the outstanding representative of the best Polish epic narrative. Z. Folejewski, Maria Dabrowska (New Yo 1967); M. Kuncewicz, "A Great Provincial," Polish Review X/4 (1965), 3-7; C. M The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 420D^BROWSKI BRIGADE, one of the six international Brigades that participated in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) on the side of the Republican Army. The Brigade's main force, besides Spanish, Hungarian and Latvian volunteers, were Poles and Polish Jews.* They first belonged to the "Libertad de Catalonia" column, active in summer 1936 and reorganized in October as a Polish battalion named after Gen. J. Dabrowski, Commander of the 1871 Paris Commune. The unit grew and gained fame in the defense of Madrid in 1936. From March 1938 the Brigade belonged to the Thirty-Fifth Division commanded by the Polish Communist Gen. K. 3wierczewski ("Walter").* Altogether, 5,000 Poles served in the Brigade. Called "Dabrowszczacy," they were recruited mainly from the Communist Party of Poland (KPP).* For the successful crossing of the Ebro River in July-September 1938, the Brigade was awarded the Spanish Medailla del Valor. Its losses were over 50 percent. After the fall of the Spanish Republic, it crossed the Spanish-French frontier on February 9, 1939. About 1,000 soldiers of the Brigade were deprived of their Polish citizenship and interned in French camps. During WW II, most of them volunteered for the Polish Army in exile. M. Bron (ed.), Polacy w wojnie hiszpanskiej (The Poles in the Spanish War) (Wa 1963). DABROWSKI, JAN HENRYK (1755-1818), General, who created the Polish Legions* in Italy. He was the son of a Polish officer in the Saxon Army, for which he also volunteered in 1771 and served almost twenty years. In 1792 he returned to Poland and joined the Polish Army. Participating in the Kosciuszko Insurrection,* he defended Warsaw* against a Russian attack in August 1794 and tried to spread the Insurrection into the Poznari* region. After the collapse

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of the uprising, he remained in Prussian-occupied Warsaw and tried to convince the Prussians to organize a Prussian-Polish alliance against Russia and Austria. In 1796 he left for Paris with the idea of establishing Polish Legions* under French command. On January 9, 1797, Dabrowski, backed by Napoleon, signed an agreement with the revolutionary government of Lombardy in Milan to form Polish auxiliary units under national banners. Thus, soon after the Third Partition* of 1795, a semi-autonomous Polish Army was created. Dabrowski's ability to mobilize and keep under arms thousands of Polish volunteers under the banner of Poland's independence and to prepare cadres for a larger army had a tremendous impact on recently partitioned Poland. This is best expressed in the opening words of Dgbrowski Mazurka (Polish national anthem), "Poland has not yet perished as long as we're alive!" and its refrain, "March, march Dabrowski from Italy to Poland!" Dabrowski believed that France would take up the Polish question out of gratitude, and therefore he decided to remain loyal to Napoleon, participating in all his campaigns including the 1812 invasion of Russia. In 1806 Dabrowski organized an anti-Prussian uprising in the Poznari region and contributed to the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw* and its army. After the fall of Napoleon, Dabrowski returned to the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* helped to organize its army under Grand Duke Constantine,* retained his rank of Cavalry General and became a Senator but withdrew from active politics. PSB, V, 1-6.

DABROWSKI, JAROSLAW (1836-1871), revolutionary and general. The offspring of an old Polish gentry family, he graduated from the St. Petersburg Cadet Corps in 1855 and fought as a Russian officer against mountaineer uprisings in the Caucasus. In 1859 he enrolled in the General Staff Academy in St. Petersburg, where he became one of the leaders of the secret "Officers' Committee of the First Army," composed of several hundred officers, both Russian and Polish, and cooperating with the "Zemlya i Volya" (Land and Liberty) revolutionary movement. Assigned as a Quartermaster to a Russian Division in Warsaw in 1862, he contacted the radical wing of the "Reds"* to plan the uprising. Dabrowski presented the secret National Central Committee (Centralny Komitet Narodowy [CKN]) with a detailed military plan of the uprising. The plan was not accepted, but Dabrowski was appointed "the Head of the City of Warsaw" and a chief of CKN's Military Department. On August 14, 1862, he was arrested and sentenced to fifteen years of forced labor in Siberia.* He escaped and left for Paris, where he was active among Polish leftist emigres. He also continued his military studies and submitted a memorandum to Napoleon III, asking for support of the Polish freedom movement. After the outbreak of the 1870-1871 Franco-Prussian War Dabrowski tried to organize a Polish Legion. He participated in the Paris Commune in 1871 and was appointed Commander-in-Chief of its Army. He was mortally wounded on the barricades near Montmartre. PSB, V, 8-10.

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DABROWSKI LEGIONS, Polish voluntary units fighting under Napoleon in the 1797-1803 period. They were formed by Gen. J. H. Dabrowski* in Northern Italy soon after the Third Partition* of Poland. After the fall of the Kosciuszko Insurrection,* a few thousand officers and politicians left Poland, mostly for Paris, where a semi-official Agency of the Insurrection government was active. The Agency tried to form Polish military units in France. General J. H. Dabrowski,* who arrived there in 1796 from Warsaw,* supported this plan. At the same time, Napoleon, who intended to create an Italian Army, was looking for volunteers. On January 9, 1797, Dabrowski signed an agreement, drafted by Napoleon, with the revolutionary government of Lombardy. The Legions were composed mainly of Polish prisoners of war from the Austrian Army. Within a year, the number of legionnaires reached 10,000. They fought Austria, Neapolitan forces and Italian peasant revolts but hoped to return "from Italy to Poland," as expressed by the Dgbrowski Mazurka,* a song composed by J. Wybicki,* Dabrowski's friend. The Legions suffered heavy losses in 1799, and after the French-Austrian Peace Treaty of Luneville (1801), many legionnaires resigned. About 6,000 of them were sent to Santo Domingo* (modern Haiti) to suppress the black slave rebellion (1802-1803). Nearly all of them died or were killed there. Nevertheless, about 20,000 were trained in the Legions, which became a national legend and school of patriotism and democracy based on ideas of the French Revolution. S. Askenazy, Napoleon et la Pologne (Paris, 190 CHP, II, 220-33 DABROWSKI, MARIAN (1878-1958), journalist. He started his professional career in 1901 with Ilustracja Polska (Polish Illustration). From 1910 he was an editor and publisher of a popular Cracow* daily, Ilustrowany Kurier Codzienny, with the largest circulation in Poland. Once associated with the peasant movement, he supported the Sanacja* regime from 1926. From 1939 he lived in exile. WEP, II, 838. D£BROWSKI MAZURKA, a stirring song written by J. Wybicki* during the formation of the Dabrowski Legions* in Lombardy in 1797 to the music of a popular folk dance of the Mazovia* region, which became the Polish national anthem in 1918. It begins with the words "Poland has not yet perished as long as we are alive" (Jeszcze Polska nie zginela, poki my zyjemy). Its emotional call to arms was the refrain "March, march, Dabrowski, from Italy to Poland" (Marsz, marsz, Dabrowski, z ziemi wloskiej do polskiej). WEP, VII, 146-147. D^BROWKA (Dobrawa, Dubrawka) (about 930-977), wife of Poland's Piast* Duke Mieszko I,* daughter of the Czech King Boleslaw I. She traveled to Poland and married Mieszko in 965, strengthening the Czech-Polish alliance directed against German attempts to control the Slavic tribes between the Elbe and Oder Rivers. The Christianization of Poland in 966 (with Czech and not German help) was a part of the alliance. Dabrowka contributed personally to

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the mission, founding some churches in Poland and, according to old Polish tradition, convincing Mieszko to embrace the new religion. Dabrdwka was the mother of Boleslaw I the Brave* and of Swietoslawa-Sigryda, wife of a Swedish and later of a Danish King. CHP, I, 16-43; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 56-79.

DABSKI, JAN (1880-1931), politician. Active in the peasant movement as a student of Lvov University, he became the movement's public speaker and journalist. After the outbreak of war in 1914, he served with W. Witos* as the peasant movement's representatives in the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]).* Then he joined the Polish Legions* organized by J. Pilsudski* under the Austrian command. In 1919 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly* as a representative of the Polish Peasant Party "Piast."* He served on the Sejm's* Agrarian Committee and co-authored and promoted the agrarian reform, passed on July 19, 1919. In the years 1919-1921, he was a Deputy Foreign Minister of Poland, in which capacity he prepared and signed an agreement with the Ukrainian leader, S. Petlura,* paving the way for Pilsudski's Kiev expedition. In 1920 Dabski was appointed head of the Polish delegation to complete negotiations for peace with the Soviet Russia. He proved to be an able negotiator and eventually signed a favorable agreement for Poland, the Riga Peace Treaty,* on March 18, 1921. Twice re-elected to the Sejm, he became its Deputy Speaker in March 1928. Initially one of the leaders of the Polish Peasant Party "Piast," he opposed W. Witos's cooperation with the Endeks,* and, in 1923, he left "Piast" with a faction which united with the Polish Peasant Party "Wyzwolenie" (Liberation).* In 1930 Dabski co-founded the Centrolew* Coalition and became one of its most vocal leaders. Attacked by a group of officers supporting the Sanacja* regime, Dabski died as a result of the beating he received. PSB, V, 28-30 DEFENSE OF LVOV, action by the Polish population of Lvov* against the Ukrainian military control established in the city on November 1, 1918. When the Austrian Empire disintegrated in fall 1918, the West Ukrainians made preparations for creating their own independent state. On October 18, 1918, politicians of Eastern Galicia* and Bukovina formed a Ukrainian National Council and, on the night of October 31, a group of young Ukrainian officers of the Austrian Army gathered all available Ukrainian soldiers and took control of Lvov,* proclaiming it capital of their newly created state. The Poles also claimed Eastern Galicia and predominated in Lvov, which was previously the capital of the autonomous Polish ruled Galicia. Poles improvised their own military units, mostly based on the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* The bitter three-week struggle for each district ended on November 22, when Polish regular troops under Col. M. Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski* entered the city. This dramatic episode, with hundreds of participants killed on both sides, left a bitter legacy and initiated the 1918-1919 Polish-Ukrainian

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War.* R. Bailly, A City Fights for Freedom: The Rising of Lwow, 1918-1919 (L 1956). DEFLATION, curbing of money circulation caused by economic stagnation or recession. It can also be done by monetary authorities to counteract inflation. Deflation policy is used for domestic purposes, such as control of price increases, to return balance to the market. It can also be used as a foreign policy instrument. It occurs through bank or budgetary measures such as increases in interest rates, stricter control of credit policy, and sale of valuable papers by a central bank. Symptoms of deep deflation occurred during the Great Depression in many countries, including Poland, causing the so-called deflation spiral. That, in turn, created a substantial increase in currency value but led to lowering of nominal wages. It adversely affected private banks and caused a decline in export development. Despite these negative results, in the 1930s, Polish authorities considered deflation the only way out of the crisis. Some economists and socialist leaders opposed the deflation program, which was partially eased by legal acts decreasing debts of farmers, who were especially hard hit by deflation and the fall of agricultural prices. Z. Knakiewicz, Deflacja polska 1930-1935 (The Poli Deflation 1930-1935) (Warsaw, 1967). DEKERT, JAN (1738-1790), Mayor of Warsaw* in the years 1789-1790. A wealthy merchant who owned a woolen mill and leased a tobacco and timber monopoly, Dekert was involved in public work and politics. A Warsaw Councilman from 1769 and an elder of the merchant confraternity in 1771-1785, he was elected Mayor of Warsaw in 1789. He immediately began to work for the improvement of the burghers' political life, supported by H. Kollataj.* In November 1789 he organized a convention of 294 representatives of 142 Polish towns, who signed a petition to the King, demanding a reform of burgher status. The memorandum was delivered to Stanislaw August* on December 2, 1789, during the "Black Procession." It was one of the most important events of the Great Sejm,* where Dekert became a spokesman of the Third Estate. Political work prevented him from improving his own business and almost brought him to ruin. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 37 DELEGATE OF THE POLISH GOVERNMENT-IN-EXILE. See DELEGATURA RZADU NA KRAJ. DELEGATURA RZADU NA KRAJ (Government Delegation for the Home Country), clandestine central agency in occupied Poland of the Polish Government-in-Exile,* established in December 1940. The Delegatura co-ordinated underground and emigre policies, created a secret administration, and organized conspiratorial educational, cultural and publishing activities. The Delegate with two other Ministers formed the underground Council of Ministers. The first Delegate was C. Ratajski* until August 1942; the second, Dr. J. Piekalkiewicz*

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until February 1943; and the third, J. Jankowski* between April 1943 and March 1945. The Delegatura's official organ was the monthly Rzeczpospolita Polska (Polish Republic). The Delegatura cooperated with the deliberative body of the resistance, the Political Liaison Committee (Polityczny Komitet Porozumiewawczy [PKP]), which was based on a coalition of four major political parties active underground, namely the Peasant Party (underground code name "Triangle"), the Polish Socialist Party ("Circle"), the National Party ("Square"), and the Labor Party ("Rhombus"). The Delegatura, headed by a London nominated delegate, had regional delegates proposed by the PKP and ten Departments corresponding to similar ministries in London. In March 1941 the Delegatura created a Directorate of Civilian Struggle (Kierownictwo Walki Cywilnej)* led by S. Korboriski.* On July 26, 1944, with the reorganization of the underground state, delegate Jankowski gained a new designation as Deputy Premier, while A. Bieri* of the Peasant Party, S. Jasiukowicz of the National Party, and A. Pajdak of the Polish Socialist Party were appointed full-fledged Ministers to stress ties with the London Government-in-Exile. All were arrested by the Soviet authorities and deported for trial in Moscow in March 1945, while Korboriski was appointed a Delegate by Premier T. Arciszewski.* S. Korboriski, The Polis Underground State (New York, 1979); G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy (New Y 1988). DELUGE (1655-1656), colloquial term for the Swedish invasion of Poland in 1655. Lutheran Swedes, provoked by the dynastic claims of the Catholic Vasa* King Jan Kazimierz* and continuing their policy of turning the Baltic Sea into their "internal lake," were at first very successful, occupying most of the country, including Cracow.* The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* was unprepared for the war, and a part of the Protestant magnates, such as J. RadziwiH,* joined the invaders. The Polish King went into exile to Silesia,* but the successful resistance of the besieged Czestochowa's* Light Mountain (Jasna Gora) Monastery in December 1655 became a turning point and an inspiration for the Polish patriotic guerrilla warfare. This was also sparked by Swedish plunder of Poland. Hetman S. Czarniecki* organized the campaign, which ended with the Peace Treaty of Oliva* in 1660 and the expulsion of the invaders. CHP, I, 518-532; Frost, After the Deluge: Poland-Lithuania and the Second Northern War 1566-6 bridge, 1993). DEMBE WIELKIE, BATTLE OF (March 31, 1831), one of the most important battles of the November Insurrection.* After its outbreak, the Poles did not launch any operations against Russians and, in February 1831, a Russian Army under Field Marshal I. Diebitsch marched into Poland. The Russians were stopped at the Battle of Groch6w,* and the Polish Commander, Gen. J. Skrzynecki,* started an offensive. On March 31 the Polish forces smashed the Russian right wing at the village of Dembe Wielkie, southeast of Warsaw,* and at Iganie* on April 10, 1831. The Russians lost more than ten thousand prisoners

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and were cut off from their main supply base in Siedlce. But the hesitant Skrzynecki, instead of taking advantage of his victories, unfortunately withdrew to Warsaw. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 454-45 DEMBINSKI, HENRYK (1791-1864), General. Son of a member of the Great Sejm,* Dembiriski served in the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw* and participated in its campaigns from 1809 to 1813. After the fall of Napoleon, in whose Armies Dembiriski lost three brothers, he returned from Paris to the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* leased a landed estate, and engaged in controversial lottery operations. He also entered politics and was elected to the Sejm* in 1825. Although he originally opposed another anti-Russian uprising, he joined the November Insurrection* and distinguished himself at Dembe Wielkie* and other battles. In the final stage of the Insurrection, he was nominated a Governor of Warsaw* and a Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army. After the fall of the Insurrection, Dembiriski crossed the Polish border with a part of his troops, fighting until the last moment, and emigrated to Paris to cooperate with A. Czartoryski.* Dembiriski tried to create Polish units within the Turkish, Egyptian and Spanish Armies. During the Springtime of Nations* in 1848, he went to Hungary, commanded the Hungarian insurgent armies in northern Hungary, and later served as a Chief of Staff and Commander-in-Chief of the entire Hungarian Army. After its defeat by the Austrians and Russians, he went into exile in Turkey and France. PSB, V, 65-71 DEMBINSKI, WALENTY (7-1585), Crown Chancellor* in 1564-1576, Castellan* of Cracow* from 1567, and a leader of the "Execution-of-the-Law"* movement. Though a devout Catholic, he refused to fight Protestant dissidents and often served as an intermediary in religious disputes. He contributed to the signing of the Union of Lublin* in 1569. WEP, II, 872 DEMBOWSKI, EDWARD (1822-1846), philosopher and revolutionist. Born into a wealthy gentry family, he studied and participated in the intellectual life in Warsaw,* where he was also active in the anti-Russian, revolutionary democratic movement. Influenced by H. Kamieriski,* Dembowski joined the clandestine Union of the Polish Nation (Zwiazek Narodu Polskiego) and became one of its leaders, preparing a new Insurrection. When the conspiracy was denounced in fall 1843, he escaped to Poznari (Posen)* in Prussian-occupied Poland. Expelled from Prussia, he left for Galicia,* where he contributed to the preparation of the 1846 Cracow Insurrection.* After its outbreak, Dembowski worked as a secretary of its revolutionary dictator, J. Tyssowski,* and belonged to its most radical leaders. Dembowski tried to win the support of peasants and was shot dead by Austrian soldiers while heading a demonstration in a dramatic last attempt to revive the Insurrection. Dembowski was strongly influenced by Hegel and believed that in the dialectical process communism would follow the republican system, but the necessary antithesis would replace even that system

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with a new synthesis, and so on, ad infinitum. PSB, V, 85-87; WEP, II, 872-87 A. Walicki, Philosophy and Romantic Nationalism: The Case of Poland (Oxford, DEMBOWSKI, JAN (about 1770-1823), politician, general in the Italian Army. During the Great Sejm,* he was I. Potocki's* secretary and a member of the "Kollataj's Forge," a group of patriotic publicists and politicians supporting the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* During the Kosciuszko's Insurrection,* he was one of the most radical leaders of the Jacobin* Club. After the fall of the Insurrection, Dembowski left for Paris and, from 1796, served as J. H. Dabrowski's* aide-de-camp and officer of his Legions. In 1802, Dembowski joined the Italian Army and participated in its ranks in Napoleon's campaigns; he was promoted to the rank of General in 1811. He authored several important sources on Polish history in the eighteenth century. PSB, V, 89-91 DEMOCRATIC PARTY (Stronnictwo Demokratyczne), small party called into being at a Conference of Democratic Clubs in Lvov* on June 12, 1938, officially formed in Warsaw* on April 15-16, 1939. It aimed to mobilize the liberal intelligentsia and craftsmen for an effective left-of-center coalition with the Peasant Party* and the Polish Socialist Party (PPS)* in opposition to the authoritarian Sanacja* regime and the ultra-nationalistic National Party.* In its program, the Democratic Party declared the urgent need to defend parliamentary democracy and to reform the Polish social-economic system; it was to be based on a planned economy, nationalization of key industries, radical agrarian reform, and legal protection of human rights for all citizens. During WW II, the party played an active role in the resistance and suffered great losses. In 1943 it was split between the majority supporting the Polish Government-in-Exile* and the pro-Soviet faction. L. Chajn, Materialy do Historii Klubow Demokratycznych, 2 (Warsaw, 1964); WEP, XI, 49-5 DEMOKRATA POLSKI (Polish Democrat), organ of the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]),* which appeared regularly in Paris (1837-1849) and irregularly in London (1851-1863). Among its editors were W. Darasz and S. Worcell.* Demokrata Polski promoted closer cooperation between Russian and Polish revolutionaries, and it was also supported by A. Herzen, who advocated a binational alliance. After Worcell's death Demokrata was edited in the same spirit by A. Zabicki, and then, in London, by L. Bulewski as Glos Wolny (Free Voice), organ of the Committee of Polish Emigration. A. and L. Ciolkosz, Zarys Dziejow Socjalizmu Polskiego (An Outlin the History of Polish Socialism), vol. I (London, 1966); A. Walicki, "The Problem of Revolution in Polish Thought, 1831-1848/49," The American and European Revo tions, 1776-1848, ed. by J. Pelensky (Iowa City, Iowa, 1980), 287-3 DEPORTATIONS, at first a measure inflicted upon political criminals, it became, in time, a means of removing virtually entire conquered nations. Peter

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the Great* of Russia began the practice of sending political prisoners to Siberia* in 1710. His successors sent tens of thousands of Polish citizens to remote regions of the Tsarist Empire, especially in the period of the Great Sejm* and after the Kosciuszko,* November* and January* Insurrections. During the interwar period, Soviet authorities deported the entire Polish population from Belorussia* and Ukraine,* which remained within the Soviet borders after the 1921 Riga Peace Treaty.* In the years 1939-1941, the Soviets deported about 1.5 million Polish citizens (about 52 percent ethnic Poles) from the territories of eastern Poland, conquered as a consequence of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact.* The Nazis deported about 930,000 Poles from the territories incorporated into the Third Reich. About 630,000 of those exiled were from the so-called Warthegau,* 81,000 from Silesia,* and 120,000 from Pomerania.* Altogether 500,000 were deported to the General Government,* the rest to forced labor in Germany. Several hundred thousand Poles were forcibly moved internally from one district to another. About 100,000 people from Zamosc* province were deported in 1942-1943, and 171,000 others from territories used for firing ranges. Another 500,000 were deported during and after the Warsaw Uprising* of 1944. Deportations, under both the Nazis and the Soviets, were conducted in the most brutal way. Frequently, people were given ten to thirty minutes to pack a small suitcase and lost almost all their property. Most deportees did not survive the exile. W. Anders, An Army in Exile (London, 1949); J. T. Gross, Revolution fro Abroad. The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belo (Princeton, New Jersey, 1988), 187-224; T. Piesakowski, The Fate of Poles in the US 1939-1989 (London, 1990); Z. Siemaszko, "The Mass Deportation of the Polish Pop ulation to the USSR, 1940-41," The Soviet Takeover of the Polish Eastern Provi 1939-41 (New York, 1991), 217-235. DEULINO TRUCE (January 3, 1619), agreement suspending for fourteen years Poland's wars with Moscow, which began with Ivan the Terrible's* attack on Lithuania* and was followed by the First Northern War of 1579-1582, and then by the Time of Troubles during 1606-1613. Russian boyars forced Polish troops out of Russia in 1613 and elected Michael Romanov Tsar. However, in 1617, Wladyslaw, a son of the Polish King, Zygmunt III Waza,* launched a new campaign against Muscovy. The truce, signed in the village of Deulino, concluded the operation and assigned the previously Russian districts of Smolensk,* Chernihiv, and Seversk to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* Wladyslaw also refused to relinquish his claim to the Russian throne. The truce expired in 1632, and hostilities were resumed until Russia accepted the Treaty of Polyanov in 1634. CHP, I, 451-475; B. Dmytryshyn, A History of Russia (Englewood Cli New Jersey, 1977). DEUTSCHER, ISAAC (1907-1967), Marxist historian and political scientist. Born and raised in an Orthodox Jewish family, he was a Zionist in his youth but, in 1926, joined the illegal Communist Party of Poland (KPP)* and served

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as an editor of several periodicals published by or close to the party. In 1932 he disobeyed Comintern orders, refusing to brand Social Democrats as "SocialFascists" and enemies of the working class. Expelled from the party, he leaned toward Trotskyism. In 1939, before the outbreak of WW II, Deutscher went to London, served temporarily in the Polish Army in Scotland, and was on the editorial staff of the Economist and Observer, while his wife, Tamara, worked for the Polish Ministry of Information. He acquired an international reputation as a biographer of Stalin and Trotsky and an expert on the Soviet Union and communism. I. Deutscher, Non-Jewish Jew and Other Essays (London, 1968); E clopaedia Judaica, vol. V. (Jerusalem, 1971), 1594-15 DEWEY, CHARLES S. (1880-1980), American government official, banker and Republican politician. From 1924 he served as an Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Treasury. In November 1927 he was appointed American Financial Adviser to the Polish Government and a Director of the Bank of Poland. He stayed in Poland until 1931, and he contributed greatly to the reorganization of Polish financial and monetary systems. He became very popular in Poland and was made an Honorary Director for life of the Bank of Poland. In a New York speech in 1930, reprinted in the Wall Street Journal, Dewey expressed his belief that Poland was "destined to become the chief distributing center for Central Europe and the Near East." Current Biography, 1949 (New York, 1949), 150-152; Current Biography Yearbook, 1981 (New York, 1981), 461; N. Pease, Poland, th States and the Stabilization of Europe, 1919-1933 (New York, 1986); P. Wandyc United States and Poland (Cambridge, 198 DABSKI, ALEKSANDER (1857-1935), Socialist leader. Active in the Socialist movement since his studies in St. Petersburg, he was among the leaders of the First Proletariat Party* in 1883. Hunted by the Tsarist police, he emigrated to the West, where he edited the socialist papers Class Struggle and Dawn (Przedswit). In 1892 he participated in the founding congress of the Union of Polish Socialists Abroad (Zwiazek Zagraniczny Socialistow Polskich [ZZSP])* in Paris and then, in the years 1893-1899, represented the ZZSP in the Second International. Between 1899 and 1919 he lived in America, where he co-founded the Union of Polish Socialists (ZSP). Debski supported J. Pilsudski's* policy and cooperated with the Temporary Commission of Confederated Independence Parties (Tymczasowa Komisja Skonfederowanych Stronnictw Niepodleglosciowych [TKSSN]), Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]),* and Committee of National Defense (Komitet Obrony Narodowej [KON]). In 1919 he returned to Poland, was active among the leaders of the Polish Socialist Party (PPS),* and, from 1930, represented it in the Senate.* PSB, V, 145-148. DIAMAND, HERMAN (1860-1931), Socialist politician. He joined the socialdemocratic movement in the late 1880s and, in 1891, co-founded the Polish

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Social-Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn-Silesia (PPSD). Together with I. Daszyriski,* Diamand was one of the most important leaders of the party, and, in the years 1907-1918, represented it in the Austrian Parliament. He worked with J. Pilsudski* and belonged to the Temporary Commission of Confederated Independence Parties (Tymczasowa Komisja Skonfederowanych Stronnictw Niepodleglosciowych [TKSSN]) and the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN].* After WW I, Diamand co-chaired the most important bodies of the Polish Socialist Party (PPS),* and represented it in the Sejm* (1919-1930) and in the Executive Committee of the Second Socialist International. A. Prochnik, "Herman Diamand: A Biography," Kronika R chu Rewolucyjnego w Polsce IV/1 (1938); PSB, V, 151-153.

DICKSTEIN, SZYMON ("JAN MLOT") (1858-1884), Socialist activist of Jewish origin. Active in the Socialist movement since his studies at Warsaw University,* he emigrated to Switzerland and France to avoid arrest by the Tsarist police. Living in exile, he collaborated with the First Proletariat Party,* translated several works of Spencer, Lassalle, Darwin and Engels into Polish, and co-edited the Polish Socialist periodicals Rownosc (Egality) and Przedswit (The Dawn). In 1881 he published a popular pamphlet, Kto z czego zyje? (Who lives from what?), one of the earliest and best popularizations of K. Marx's Das Kapital A. Birkenmeier, "Szymon Dickstein," Kwartalnik Historyczny LIII (1946 477-479; L. Krzywicki, "Jan Mlot (Szymon Dickstein)," Niepodleglosc 1/1 (1930), 8 102. DIDUR, ADAM (1874-1946), opera singer (bass). Acclaimed by Toscanini, he performed at Milan's La Scala, at Warsaw's Great Theater, and at New York's Metropolitan Opera during 1895-1932. Retiring in 1933, he settled in Lvov* as an Artistic Director of the Opera and professor at the Conservatory. During WW II, he taught singing in Warsaw,* and he re-organized the Silesian Opera in Bytom* in 1945. SBTP, 198-199 DIETL, JOZEF (1804-1878), physician and social activist. He received his M.D. degree in 1829 at the University of Vienna and began his teaching career there. In 1850 he started work as a professor of medicine at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* and became one of its most prominent scholars. In 1856 he was appointed Dean of the Medical School, and in 1861 he was elected Rector of the Jagiellonian University and a member of the Galician Sejm.* He supported the idea of broad political autonomy for Galicia* and academic autonomy for his university. In 1865 the Austrian Emperor, Franz Josef, relieved Dietl of his positions, but in 1866, he was elected Mayor of Cracow. He contributed greatly to the modernization of the city. During his tenure, the Vistula* River utilization was regulated, a proper sewer system was constructed, Cracow received sources of clean water, and its educational and cultural institutions were improved. Dietl, an experienced balneologist, classified Galicia's therapeutic

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waters and developed the resorts of Szczawnica, Iwonicz, and Krynica. PSB, V 158-166. DIOCESE, originally an administrative unit in the Roman Empire, later used by the Church to designate a territorial district headed by a Bishop appointed by the Pope. All Dioceses are divided into parishes, each with its own church. The first missionary Bishop in Poland was Jordan* of Lower Lorraine (from 968), who probably resided in Poznari (Posen).* From the year 1000 all Polish Dioceses were placed under the jurisdiction of the Gniezno* Archdiocese. Despite the claims of German Magdeburg, the Cracow,* Wroclaw,* and Kolobrzeg Dioceses were created early in the eleventh century, to be followed by those of Plock,* Kruszwica, Wloclawek,* and Lubusz. Before the Partitions,* Poland had twenty-five Dioceses, with several Archdioceses (Cracow, Gniezno-Poznari, Lvov), and in the interwar period there were seventeen Dioceses, including three of the Uniate* (Graeco-Catholic) rite in Przemysl,* Stanislawow,* and Lvov. The latter was a See of three Archdioceses: Armenian, Latin and Uniate. J. Kloczowski (ed.), Chrzescijanstwo w Polsce (Christianity in Poland) (Lublin, 19 DISSIDENTS (Latin: those who disagree). In a religious sense, the term used for those rejecting the established Church. In England the term dissenters applied to all Protestants ejected from the Church of England after 1662. In Poland, dissidents were Christians who did not belong to the Catholic Church, particularly Protestants. Medieval Poland was almost homogeneously Catholic, but after the incorporation of ethnic mixed territories in the East, and as a result of the Reformation* and the nobility's campaign against the Church's political power, numerous non-Catholics appeared in the multinational Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Every Polish noble was entitled to the maximum freedom possible, and the "Golden Freedom" guaranteed a unique religious tolerance and attracted non-Catholics and opponents of Catholicism from the whole of Europe. Non-Catholic Christians became very numerous among the leaders of the gentry. During the 1550s, Polish Calvinists enjoyed a majority in the Sejm.* In addition to Calvinists, Lutherans, and Orthodox Ruthenians,* there were also adherents of the Czech Brethren, or Hussites; the Socinians; the Anabaptists; the Mennonites; the Quakers; and the Armenian Monophysites. In 1573, the Confederation* of Warsaw guaranteed full religious freedom to the nobility. After the Union of Brest-Litovsk (Brzesc)* in 1596, the Uniate* Church was established. However, the Orthodox Church in Poland restored its hierarchy quickly, and its adherents were called "disunites." In seventeenth-century Poland religious tolerance gradually disappeared, and, in the eighteenth century, the words Pole and Catholic were becoming synonymous. This was caused by numerous factors. The King, Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa)* (1587-1632), a fundamentalist Catholic, opposed the provisions of the Warsaw Confederation.* Poland found itself surrounded by states hostile to Catholicism, and the dissidents were seen as a "fifth column" of

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Protestant German Principalities, Lutheran Sweden, Orthodox Muscovy and Muslim Turkey. The religious atmosphere in other European countries and the Counter-Reformation* favored an anti-dissident policy. The rights of dissident groups were limited, the number of dissident communities shrank, and some of them were expelled. By 1668 the Polish Parliament (like those of England, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian monarchies) prohibited conversions from the officially established faith under penalty of exile and later barred dissidents from admission into the nobility. The dissident issue was used by Poland's enemies as a pretext for intervention. Two Russian Tsars announced themselves as protectors of the Othodox Church and Poland was reduced to the level of a vassal state, while Prussia supported the Lutherans. The 1768 Sejm, surrounded by Russian troops, accepted equal rights for the dissidents. P. Jasienica, Commo wealth of Both Nations, vol. Ill (Warsaw, 1980); History of Poland, ed. by A. Giey (Warsaw, 1968), 169-337; A Republic of the Nobles, ed. by J. K. Federowicz (Ca bridge, 1982), 198-217; J. Tazbir, A State without Stakes: Polish Religious Tolera in the 16th and 17th Centuries (New York, 197 DLUGOSZ, JAN (1415-1480), the most outstanding Polish historian of the fifteenth century. After studying at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* (1428-1431), he joined the court of Bishop Z. Olesnicki* as a secretary and as Head of his Chancery. In 1436 Dlugosz was appointed a Canon of Cracow, and after Olesnicki's death (1455), he improved relations with King Kazimierz IV* (Olesnicki was ill disposed toward the Jagiellonians) and assisted the monarch in negotiations with the Teutonic Knights* before and during the Thirteen Years' War (1454-1466).* In 1467 Dlugosz was charged with the education of the King's sons. Just before his death, he was appointed Archbishop of Lvov.* Dlugosz was influenced by the Italian Renaissance* and thus by ancient Roman historians. In Cracow, he collected old documents and, in 1455, after completing biographies of medieval Bishops and the inventory of Cracow Diocese properties, he undertook the massive project of writing the first extensive Polish history. His Historiae Polonicae Libri XII, finished in 1480, became the first Polish historical work written pragmatically, with the application of professional methods, based on original Polish and foreign primary sources. However, it was also deeply patriotic and frequently tendentious, particularly when dealing with German issues. M. Bobrzyriski and S. Smolka, Jan Dlugosz, jego zycie i stanowisk pismiennictwie (Jan Dlugosz, His Life and Writing) (Cracow, 1893); P. Knoll, "J Dlugosz, 1480-1980," Polish Review XXVII 1/2 (1982), 3-28.

DLUSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1855-1930), physician. Active in the Socialist movement in Warsaw* and threatened with arrest, he emigrated to Geneva and Paris, where he studied at the Ecole des Sciences Politiques (1884) and obtained his M.D. degree in 1891. In Paris he co-edited several Socialist periodicals and practiced as a physician in workers' suburbs. In 1898 he went to Galicia* and established a model tuberculosis sanatorium in Zakopane* in 1902. He joined

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the Polish Socialist Party (PPS)* and was among J. Pilsudski's* supporters. For many years, he served as President of the Tatra* Mountains Museum Association. PSB, V, 189-193. DMOCHOWSKI, FRANCISZEK KSAWERY (1762-1808), poet and politician. Educated by the Jesuits* and the Piarists,* he joined the latter and taught in their schools. From 1789 he lived in Warsaw;* he was active in the "Forge" of H. Kollataj* and became his private secretary. In 1792 Dmochowski went to Leipzig to write a protest against the Targowica Confederation.* However, in 1794, he participated in the Kosciuszko Insurrection,* editing its Gazeta Rz& dowa (Government Gazette). After the collapse of the Insurrection, he emigrated to Paris, where he was a leader of a radical "Polish Deputation." In 1800 he returned to Warsaw, where he co-founded the Association of the Friends of the Sciences and was active as an editor, writer and translator. C. Milosz, The Histor of Polish Literature, (London, 1969), 162-1 DMOWSKI, ROMAN (1864-1939), nationalist statesman, co-founder and leader of the National Democratic Party.* The son of a road-construction entrepreneur from a Warsaw* suburb, Dmowski was active in the Polish national liberation movement from his youth. As a high school student, he co-organized the clandestine "Straznica" (Watchtower) opposing the Russification of Polish education. In 1888, two years after he enrolled at the Russian University in Warsaw to study natural sciences, he joined the Association of Polish Youth (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej [Zet]).* In 1890 he joined the Polish League (Liga Polska)* and met J. Poplawski,* his mentor in modern nationalism. In 1893, Dmowski and Poplawski decided to reorganize the Polish League into a more dynamic National League (Liga Narodowa),* of which Dmowski became a Chairman. In 1895 he settled in Lvov,* where with Poplawski he edited the monthly Przeglgd Wszechpolski (All-Polish Review). The journal's main purpose was to formulate for the Poles a realistic program for regaining independence. In 1897 Dmowski co-founded the National Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne),* nicknamed "Endecja," and in 1903 he explained its ideology in Mysli Nowoczesnego Polaka (Thoughts of the Modern Pole). Dmowski opposed revolutionary methods for regaining Polish independence, favored autonomy within the Russian Empire and, during the period of the Russo-Japanese War and the Russian Revolution of 1905-1907, he actively combatted Polish revolutionary activities, especially those of J. Pilsudski.* Dmowski believed that Germany was the most dangerous enemy of Poland and that a compromise with Russia, which might unite all Polish lands within its borders, was necessary to prevent Germanization. He also developed a strong anti-Semitic obsession, blaming the Jews* for Poland's misfortunes. In 1905 Dmowski moved back from Galicia* to Warsaw and, in 1907, he was elected to the Second Russian Duma,* where he led the Polish Circle and became the chief spokesman for Polish collaboration with Russia. He explained this policy

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in his book Niemcy, Rosja i Kwestia Polska (Germany, Russia and the Polish Question). He was also re-elected to the Third Duma but was defeated in the 1912 election to the Fourth Duma.* The Warsaw seat was won by the Socialist W. Jagiello, who was supported by the Jews, thereby confirming Dmowski's anti-Semitism.* In revenge he announced an economic boycott of Jewish business. The outbreak of WW I brought the Grand Duke Nicholas's vague announcement of Polish autonomy (August 1914). Dmowski co-founded the pro-Russian National Committee (Komitet Narodowy*), but the Russian government was unwilling to make concrete commitments. Further setbacks in St. Petersburg, followed by the German occupation of Warsaw and central Poland, convinced Dmowski that only the Western powers could help Poland to regain its independence. In 1915 he moved to the West and in 1917 he co-founded the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski* [KNP]), which was later recognized by the Allies as the official representative of Polish interests and the leadership of the Polish Army in France. Dmowski was also a key Polish delegate at the Paris Peace Conference.* However, he opposed the policy of J. Pilsudski, who was Head of the Polish state at that time. In particular, Dmowski's vision of the future eastern borders of Poland and his national minorities strategy (assimilation program) were entirely different from J. Pilsudski's plans for federation. In 1919 Dmowski was also elected to the Constitutional Sejm* and re-organized his party into the Popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy [ZLN]).* He strongly opposed J. Pilsudski's strategy during the Polish-Soviet War* and briefly served as a Foreign Minister in the Cabinet of W. Witos* in 1923. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* Dmowski's young followers organized the semi-fascist Camp of Greater Poland (Oboz Wielkiej Polski [OWP]),* with Dmowski as its ideologue. The new organization did not play an important role, nor could the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe),* organized in 1928, seriously challenge the Sanacja* regime. In the 1930s Dmowski retired from active politics and devoted himself to writing. A. Fountain, Roman Dmowski: Party, tics, Ideology, 1895-1907 (Boulder, Colorado, 1980); R. Wapiriski, Roman Dmow (Lublin, 1988); A. Micewski, Roman Dmowski (Warsaw, 1971). DOBRZANSKI, HENRYK (HUBAL) (1896-1940), officer, Commander of the first Polish Army guerrilla unit, which fought bravely until April 1940. A prominent equestrian, he fought in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. In October 1939, Major Dobrzariski refused to surrender, re-organized his unit into a guerrilla group in the Kielce region and under the pseudonym "Hubal" continued to resist the Germans until he was killed in action. His activities led to Nazi mass reprisals against the village people. J. Garliriski, Poland in the Secon World War (London, 198 DOBRZYN, town on the high bank of the Lower Vistula,* where Konrad of Mazovia* founded the crusading Order of Dobrzyri Brethren (Militis Cristi de

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Prussia, related to the Cistercians*) in 1228 to protect the land from Prussian pagans. In 1240, the Dobrzyri Brethren were absorbed by the Teutonic Knights,* who occupied the Dobrzyri region until the Kalisz* Peace Treaty of 1343, which assigned it back to Poland. In 1376-1391 the region was a fief of the Piast* Duke Wladyslaw Opolczyk, who gave it again to the Teutonic Knights, but the Poles bought the area in 1404. Dobrzyri maintained close trade relations with Gdarisk* until the Swedish Wars* of the seventeenth century. During the Second Partition,* the Dobrzyri region was assigned to Prussia* and, in 1807, to the Duchy of Warsaw.* It became a part of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in 1815. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 31-16 DOMEYKO, IGNACY (1802-1889), geologist. As a student of Vilna* University, he joined a patriotic youth conspiracy, the "Filomaci,"* in 1819, for which he was jailed. He participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830— 1831 and, after its fall, went into exile in Dresden and then Paris, where he studied at the Sorbonne, the College de France, and the Ecole des Mines. In 1838 he accepted a job in Chile as professor of chemistry and mineralogy at a mining college in Coquimbo. In 1846, he received the chair of chemistry and mineralogy at the University of Santiago, where he served as a Rector in 18671883. Domeyko, the father of the Chilean mining industry, discovered new minerals and produced the first geological map of Chile and was duly honored. T. Turlej, "Ignacy Domeyko: Mineralogist and Geologist," Polish American Studies I 3-4 (1952), 96-98. DOMINICANS, one of the four great mendicant orders of the Roman Catholic Church, also called Black Friars and Order of Preachers, established in 1215 in Prouilly, near Toulouse, by St. Dominic Guzman to counteract the Albigensian heresy. The order's special fields were homilectics, disputes with heretics, philosophy and theological studies, which secured for the Dominicans a strong position in the academic life of the oldest medieval universities in Paris, Bologna, and Padua. In Poland, the first Dominican monastery was established by Bishop Iwo Odrowaz in 1222 next to the Holy Trinity Church in Cracow.* In the fourteenth century, there were some forty Dominican convents in Poland, with the largest concentration in Silesia.* They contributed to the advancement of intellectual life in Poland and became an important cultural link with Western Europe. J. Kloczowski (ed.), Chrzescijanstwo w Polsce: Zarys Przemian 966-194 blin, 1980). DOWBOR-MUSNICKI, JOZEF (1867-1937), General. In 1902 he graduated from the Russian Military Academy and fought in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. After the outbreak of WW I, he commanded a Division in the Caucasus and on the Baltic front. After the Russian Revolution of March 1917, he organized the First Polish Corps in the Bobruysk-Mohylev region and tried to stop a revolt by Belorussian peasants. In spring 1918, when the Germans took over

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all of Ukraine* and Belorussia,* Dowbor-Musnicki recognized the German sponsored Polish Regency Council* in Warsaw.* However, the German High Command demobilized the First Polish Corps. After the outbreak of the antiGerman Poznari Uprising* of December 1918, Dowbor-Musnicki was offered the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Insurgent Army and managed to defend the Poznari region. He strongly disagreed with J. Pilsudski,* and he retired in fall 1920, when judged insubordinate, and the Poznari Insurgent Army was incorporated into the regular Polish Army. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (War 1991), 23. DRABIK, WINCENTY (1881-1933), outstanding scenographer and painter. He worked for theaters in Lvov,* Samara, Moscow, Kiev, and Warsaw.* SBT 143. DRANG NACH OSTEN (German: push eastward), term indicating the historic eastward expansion of the Germans to occupy Slavic and Baltic lands, frequently associated with the Nazi policy of Lebensraum (living space). The concept, abused by Slavic nationalists and communist propaganda, is among the most controversial issues of Central European history. F. Dvornik, "The First Wave of the Drang nach Osten," Cambridge Historical Journal VII (1943), 129-145; B. Zient "Nationality Conflicts in the German-Slavic Borderlands in the 13th and 14th Centuries," Acta Poloniae Historica XXII (197 DRESZER-ORLICZ, GUSTAW (1889-1936), General. Active in youth organizations of the Polish independence movement in Russia, he deserted from the Russian Army after the outbreak of WW I, crossed the front, and joined the First Brigade of J. Pilsudski's* Polish Legions* to become one of their most daring officers. One of the most loyal followers of Pilsudski during all his life, Dreszer refused to take a loyalty oath to the German Kaiser in 1916; for this he was interned by the Germans together with hundreds of other Legionnaires. After the German defeat, he joined the Polish Army and participated in the Polish-Ukrainian War* and Polish-Soviet War.* He received the highest decorations and was singled out by Marshals Pilsudski and Smigly-Rydz.* In 1936, Dreszer was appointed Inspector of Polish Air Defense but was killed in a plane accident in the same year. PSB, V, 365-368. DRUCKI-LUBECKI, KSAWERY. See LUBECKI-DRUCKI, KSAWERY. DRUZYNA, smallest Infantry detachment, having about ten soldiers, or, in the medieval period, bodyguards of a tribal Duke. Warriors were called in times of need and dismissed after an expedition with booty distribution. In early medieval Poland, the druzyna was a squad of Ducal administration tied by personal links of dependence to the leader. Members of the druzyna gradually evolved into the

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knightly estate of Polish nobles. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsa 1968), 31-76. DRZEWIECKI, STEFAN (1844-1938), pioneer airplane constructor. At first interested in submarines, he then studied the flying behavior of birds and developed the propeller theory. His dissertation, Theorie generale de Vhelice (1920), was honored by the French Academy of Science as a fundamental work in the development of modern propellers. He continued his research in aviation theory until 1935 and gave Poland a substantial grant for training Air Force technicians. PSB, V, 421-^22 DRZYMALA, MICHAL (1857-1937), peasant who became the symbol of anti-German resistance in Prussian-occupied Poland. Prussian authorities tried to preserve the diminishing German element in the Poznari (Posen)* region and, in 1904, issued a decree prohibiting the erection of unapproved houses on Polish new holdings. Drzymala sought to overcome this obstacle by living with his family in a circus wagon on a piece of land purchased from a German farmer. When a German Court denied him the right to use that wagon as a home, he lived in a hole in the ground. In independent Poland, Drzymala was later decorated with the Officer's Cross of Polonia Restituta and rewarded by the government with a land grant; the village of his original resistance, Podgradowice, was renamed Drzymalowo. R. Blanke, Prussian Poland in the German Empire ( 1900) (New York, 1981); W. W. Hagen, Germans, Poles and Jews: The National Conflict (Chicago, 1980). DUBANOWICZ, EDWARD (1881-1943), politician and professor of law at Lvov* University. Active in Polish student organizations, he joined the clandestine Association of Polish Youth (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej [Zet]),* affiliated with the National League (Liga Narodowa),* and worked as a journalist for its daily organ, Slowo Polskie (Polish Word). Opposed to R. Dmowski's* neo-Slavism, Dubanowicz co-founded another nationalist group and its biweekly, Rzeczpospolita (Commonwealth), published in 1908-1914. In 1918 he participated in the Defense of Lvov.* Elected to the Sejm* in 1919, he served as a Chairman of the Committee preparing the Constitution of March 17, 1921.* He continued his affiliation with the "Endek"* camp, but, in 1922, he founded the Christian-National Club, which participated in the Chjeno-Piast* coalition. After the Pilsudski coup of 1926,* Dubanowicz, a member of the Sejm* until 1927, withdrew from politics and concentrated on his work at Lvov University. However, in 1934, he was removed from his chair of constitutional law by the Sanacja* Premier, J. Jedrzejewicz.* In April 1940, Dubanowicz was deported with his family by the Soviet NKVD to Kazakhstan, where he served later as a Delegate of the Polish Embassy after the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement.* In August 1942 he moved to London. S. Stroriski, "Edward Dubanowicz" Straty Kultur Polskiej, 1939-1944 (Glasgow, 1945), 47-

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DUBIENKA, village near Hrubieszow, where, on July 18, 1792, a battle between Polish and Russian troops took place. Catherine the Great,* furious at the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* decided to intervene in Poland, but her army of 18,000 soldiers was stopped and pushed back by 6,000 Polish troops led by T. Kosciuszko,* who managed to defend the Bug River line and save his army for further warfare. J. Dihm, Kosciuszko Nieznany (Unknown Kosciuszko) (Wrocla 1969). DUBOIS, STANISLAW (1901-1942), Socialist politician. He participated in the disarming of the German units in Warsaw* in November 1918, in all three Silesian Uprisings,* and in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. He joined the Polish Socialist Party (PPS)* in 1918; served on the staff of its paper, Robotnik (The Worker); and led the party's youth organizations, including the "Red Scouts." He was one of the radical left-wing leaders of PPS and supported the policy of a united front with the Communists. Elected to the Sejm* in 1928, he was one of the leaders of the Centrolew.* Arrested in 1930, he was sentenced in the Brest-Litovsk Trial* to three years in prison. After the outbreak of WW II, Dubois volunteered for the Army. In November 1939, he returned to Warsaw and joined the Socialist underground. Caught by the Gestapo in August 1940, he was killed in Auschwitz.* PSB, V, 435-436. DUCAL PRUSSIA (Prusy Ksiazeee), successor state of the Teutonic Knights* and a Polish fief in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In the thirteenth century, the pagan tribes of the Baltic Prussians were conquered and forcibly Christianized by the Teutonic Order. It created a powerful state, which threatened Poland and Lithuania.* After a series of wars with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* the Order was forced to sign the Thorn (Toruri) Treaty* in 1466, ceding the western parts of its lands (Royal Prussia) to the Polish Crown and recognizing Polish suzerainty over the rest. In 1525 the last Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, Albrecht Hohenzollern,* secularized the Order and paid homage in Cracow* to Polish King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund the Old).* By the seventeenth century the indigenous Baltic Prussian population was thoroughly assimilated, and the majority of the inhabitants of the country were Germanspeaking. However, also in the seventeenth century, a strong Polish immigration began and soon Polish-speaking inhabitants constituted almost one-third of the total population. The secularization of Prussia* led to Lutheran domination. The University of Konigsberg, established in 1544, became a center of Protestantism. In 1611 the throne of Ducal Prussia passed to the Electors of Brandenburg, the Hohenzollern dynasty. The unification of these two states meant the beginning of a new European power. The links between Poland and Ducal Prussia were gradually weakening. Frederick William the Great Elector took advantage of the difficult Polish situation during the Swedish "Deluge"* (1655-1660) and gained recognition of his sovereignty over Prussia in 1657. The successor of the Great Elector, Frederick III, was crowned King of Prussia in Konigsberg as

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Frederick I on January 18, 1701. N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Pol vol. I (New York, 1982); K. Piwarski, Dzieje Prus wschodnich w czasach nowozyt (Gdarisk, 1946). DUCH, BRONISLAW (1896-1980), General. He participated in WW I as a soldier of the Second Brigade of the Polish Legions.* In 1918 he crossed the Austrian-Russian front together with other Legionnaires protesting the BrestLitovsk Treaty* and joined Gen. Dowbor-Musnicki's* Polish Corps. After its demobilization, Duch joined the Polish units in the Murmansk area. In December 1919 he was back in Poland, participated in the Polish-Soviet War,* and continued his military career in the interwar period. In the 1939 September Campaign,* he commanded the Thirty-Ninth Reserve Infantry Division and then went to France to command the First Polish Grenadier Division during the German-French war of 1940. After the debacle of France, Duch went to England, organized Polish volunteers in Canada, commanded the Third Carpathian Riflemen Division in Palestine, joined Gen. Anders's* Second Corps, and participated in all its campaigns. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalow Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 35; R. Terlecki, "General Duch," Powsciqgliwosc i Praca (Warsaw, 1986).

DUCHY OF WARSAW (Ksiestwo Warszawskie), short-lived Polish rump state established by Napoleon in 1807. In the early period of the Partitions* of Poland, Polish emigrant groups were formed in the West, particularly in Paris. They tried to re-establish the Polish state, organizing Polish troops and conducting diplomatic activities abroad. When France attacked Prussia in 1806, and Russia came to the aid of Prussia, Napoleon decided to implement his plan for a buffer zone between Prussia and Russia. Simultaneously, a successful anti-Prussian uprising broke out in Prussian-occupied Poland. The monarchs of France, Russia and Prussia* agreed at the Tilsit Peace Treaty* of July 7, 1807, to create the Duchy of Warsaw. It was composed of territories occupied by Prussia after the First and Second Partitions,* totaling 104,000 square kilometers and 2,500,000 inhabitants. The Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw,* dictated by Napoleon, echoed the French supreme law, and a centralized administration was organized in the French manner. The newly created state was placed under the hereditary rule of the King of Saxony and grandson of August III,* Frederick August. The Duchy, by its very name, did not satisfy Polish national aspirations, but the Poles hoped that the new state would be a step toward something better. During the 1809 war, waged by Napoleon against Austria, the Duchy's Army, led by J. Poniatowski,* the nephew of the last Polish King, reconquered a part of the Austrian-occupied Polish territories, and the Duchy grew to 155,000 square kilometers and 4,330,000 inhabitants. However, the state was very weak economically and totally dependent on Napoleon. The continental blockade paralyzed trade and the artificial borders shattered the economic structure of Poland. Military expenses absorbed about half of the Duchy's resources. In 1812, when

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Napoleon declared war on Russia, the Duchy raised an army of 100,000 men, but the defeat of the French Emperor meant that by 1813 the Duchy came under Russian administration. CHP, II, 236-256; N. Davies, God's Playground: A Hist of Poland, vol. 2 (New York, 1982), 294-305: History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieyszt (Warsaw, 1968), 413-427; P. Wandycz, The Lands of Partitioned Poland, 1795-1 (Seattle, 1974). DUL^BA, MARIA (1885-1959), actress. She made her debut in 1902 and worked mainly at the Teatr Polski and Reduta Theater in Warsaw.* She also performed in fourteen Polish movies and taught in a drama school. SBTP, 146 147. DUMA (Russian: deliberation), pre-Soviet Russian State Assembly. Between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries the name of duma was used by the Council of Boyars of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. After 1785, City Dumas were organized in Russia. The modern Gosudarstvennaya Duma (State Duma) was convened by Tsar Nicholas II in his October Manifesto (October 30, 1905) after the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and the outbreak of the Revolution. This was done to placate the growing opposition to the Romanov autocracy. The Duma was to approve the enactment of legislation and was elected in an indirect and undemocratic manner. The Tsar hoped that the overrepresented peasants would make the assembly conservative. But the First and Second Dumas of 1906 and 1907 were marked by liberal opposition and quickly dissolved. The Third and Fourth Dumas were more rightist and tractable. The 1917 Revolution ended this institution. There was a "Polish club" in all the Dumas. In the first, twenty-seven Polish deputies, grouped in the Polish Circle (Kolo Polskie) and belonging mostly to the National Democratic Party, proposed the autonomy of the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* as stipulated by the Congress of Vienna.* In the Second Duma, its thirty-two Polish members renewed their request. The club was reduced to eleven members in the Third Duma and chaired by R. Dmowski,* who worked for a reform program in educational and administrative matters, including a limited reintroduction of Polish language instruction. There were only nine Polish members in the Fourth Duma, and they continued a conciliatory policy. After the outbreak of WW I, the Club declared its loyalty to the Tsar, hoping futilely for a solution of the Polish question in conformity with Russian policy. E. Chmielewski, The Polish Question in the Russian State D (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1970). DUNAJEC, one of the southern tributaries of the Vistula* River. With its sources on the northern slopes of the Tatra Mountains,* Dunajec breaks through 300-meter-high scenic gorges in the Pieniny Mountains. WEP, III, 183. DUNAJEWSKI, ALBIN (1817-1894), Cardinal (from 1890). Arrested in February 1841 as one of fifty-one plotters of the Conspiracy of Polish Democrats

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(Sprzysiezenie Demokratow Polskich), he spent three years in the Austrian prison of Spielberg (Moravia). Released, he joined the legal profession but, in 1859, entered the Cracow* Seminary. In 1862 he started teaching in Warsaw* and, in 1879, was consecrated Bishop of Cracow. Under Dunajewski's supervision, Cracow revived as a center of religious studies, and the Jagiellonian University's* Department of Theology regained its premier status. PSB, V, 462 465. DUNIKOWSKI, XAVERY (1875-1964), sculptor. He graduated from the Cracow* Academy of Fine Arts in 1897 and taught sculpture in the Warsaw* School of Fine Arts (1^04-1909). He studied in Paris and London and was later a professor at the Cracow Academy (1923-1939). His style of sculpture changed during his life: through periods of Impressionism, the "Young Poland"* trend, Rodin's influence, cubism and expressionism. He spent WW II in the Auschwitz* concentration camp, an experience which greatly affected the last period of his artistic career. WEP, III, 186-18 DUNIN, PIOTR (ca. 1415-1484), outstanding Polish military Commander in the Thirteen Years' War* with the Teutonic Knights.* He was also Burgrave of Cracow,* Chamberlain of Sandomierz,* District Governor (starosta) of Malbork* and, from 1480, Palatine (wojewoda) of Kujavia.* PSB, V, 479-480 DWERNICKI, JOZEF (1779-1857), General. In 1809 he volunteered for the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw* during the war against the Austrians and then participated in all the remaining Napoleonic campaigns. After Napoleon's fall, Dwernicki joined the army of the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* where he was promoted to Brigadier-General. In 1830-1831, he participated in the November Insurrection* and distinguished himself at the Battle of Stoczek and in operations in Volhynia* and the Lublin* region. In May 1831 the Russians forced Dwernicki to cross the border and surrender to Austria. He was interned but allowed to emigrate to France, where he chaired the National Committee of the Polish Emigration (Komitet Narodowy Emigracji Polskiej) and co-founded the Confederation of the Polish Nation (Konfederacja Narodu Polskiego). He opposed the policy of A. Czartoryski* and, in 1836, was expelled from France for revolutionary ideas. He went to London; returned to France, where he tried unsuccessfully to organize a Polish Legion; and, eventually, settled in Galicia.* PSB, VI, 19-22 DYBOSKI, ROMAN (1883-1945), historian of English literature and writer, who pioneered English studies at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* where he was a professor from 1911. Mobilized into the Austrian Army during WW I and taken prisoner by the Russians, he spent several years in Russia. After his return in 1922, he resumed his academic career in Cracow and became a link with the Anglo-Saxon world by giving hundreds of lectures in Great

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Britain and America. He authored numerous books and articles on English literature and culture and also interpreted Polish history and culture to the Englishspeaking world. PSB, VI, 33-35. DYBOWSKI, BENEDYKT (1833-1930), zoologist, explorer and physician. He was educated in Polish, Russian and German universities. Arrested for his activities in the Polish independence movement by the Tsarist police and deported to Siberia* in 1864, he traveled extensively and wrote numerous scholarly works on Siberian fauna. He received several awards from the Russian authorities for his exploration and was offered an academic position in Russia. But, in 1883, he accepted an offer from the Lvov* University for the chair of zoology and comparative anatomy and served there with distinction till his retirement in 1906. A prolific writer, he supported and popularized Darwinism. His memoirs are a valuable source for historians and ethnographers. PSB, VI, 36-40. DYGAS, IGNACY (1881-1947), singer. He made his debut in 1903 and sang in major opera houses of Poland, Russia, Spain, Italy and both Americas. During WW II, he earned a living singing in coffee houses in Warsaw* and Lublin.* SBTP, 150. DYGASINSKI, ADOLF (1839-1902), prolific writer and educator. He participated in the January Insurrection* of 1863, traveled to Bohemia and Brazil, worked as a private tutor, and contributed regularly to various periodicals, writing on the theory of education, philosophy and natural sciences. He started several unsuccessful publishing and bookselling businesses in Warsaw* and Cracow,* but progressive ideas popularized by him antagonized conservative public opinion. Dygasiriski strongly supported Polish Positivism,* and was among the first Polish writers to depict the life of the unskilled workers and farm laborers. PSB, VI, 49-52. DZIEDUSZYCKI, WOJCIECH (1848-1909), politician, writer and scholar. The scion of an old aristocratic family, in the years 1879-1885 and 1895-1909, he was a member of the Reichsrat (Austrian Parliament), where he supported the autonomy and Polonization of Galicia.* He was one of the most active and articulate Polish conservative politicians, chaired the Polish Circle in 1904, and served as Minister for Galicia in the Imperial Government in 1906-1907. Dzieduszycki was also a prolific writer and publicist and an expert on ancient and Renaissance Mediterranean culture. A member of the Polish Academy of Sciences from 1887, he taught the history of philosophy at Lvov University from 1896. PSB, VI, 126-127. DZIERZGOWSKI, MIKOLAJ (ca. 1490-1559), Primate* of Poland. An alumnus of the Cracow Academy, he served in the Royal Chancery from 1518 and was appointed Dean of Plock* in 1538, Bishop of Kamieniec and of Chelm*

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in 1541, and of Kujavia* in 1543. Active in the Senate,* he was one of the leaders of the national party and the Counter-Reformation.* In 1545 he became Primate and Archbishop of Gniezno.* Remaining close to Queen Bona,* he opposed the controversial marriage of her son, Zygmunt August,* with Barbara RadziwiH.* PSB, VI, 145-149. DZIERZYNSKI, FELIKS (1877-1926), Bolshevik leader, head of the Soviet secret police. Son of a Polish nobleman, Dzierzyriski became involved in the revolutionary movement at the Russian high school in Vilna.* In 1895 he joined the Social Democratic Party of Lithuania, which united later with left-wing Polish Social Democrats to create the Social Democratic Party of the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania (Socjaldemokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL]).* Dzierzyriski became one of its most important leaders. He rebuilt the SDKPiL in Warsaw* after the mass arrests among its activists in 1899 and led the party during the Revolution of 1905-1907. In 1906, when the SDKPiL became an autonomous part of the Russian Social Democratic Party, Dzierzyriski became a member of its Central Committee. Arrested six times, and twice deported to Siberia,* he spent eleven years in jail, escaping repeatedly. Arrested for the last time in 1912, he remained in prison until the February Revolution of 1917. In June 1917 he joined the Bolshevik Party's Central Committee, played an important role in the October Revolution, and, on Dec. twentieth, 1917, was named head of the new All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counterrevolution and Sabotage (Cheka). During the Polish-Soviet War* against Poland, he was appointed to the Polish Provisional Revolutionary Committee (Tymczasowy Komitet Rewolucyjny Polski),* that was intended to become the Bolshevik government of Poland. After the Soviet military defeat, Dzierzyriski remained in Russia as head of the Cheka and Commissar for Internal Affairs. He was among the most trusted collaborators of Lenin and most zealous supporters of Stalin. In the Polish and Russian national tradition, Dzierzyriski was a symbol of the most vicious and unlimited political terror. R. Blobaum, Feliks Dzierzyriski and the SDKPiL: A Study of the Origin of Polish Communis (Boulder, Colorado, 1984).

DZIKOW CONFEDERATION, organization of the supporters of King Stanislaw Leszczyriski,* called into being in the village of Dzikow near Tarnobrzeg on November 5, 1734. After the death of August II,* the War of the Polish Succession began. Russia and Austria planned to give the Polish throne to a puppet. The two powers eventually were looking for a Piast* (Polish) candidate. Concurrently, Stanislaw Leszczyriski, who was King of Poland in 1704-1709 and was supported by the Swedes against August II, received French backing and was again elected King of Poland on September 12, 1733. In response, the Russian Army entered Poland and organized the election of August III,* August II's son. The Bourbon Kings of France, Spain, Naples and Sardinia declared war on Austria and Russia, and the supporters of Leszczyriski, led by

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Adam Tarlo, proclaimed a confederation in Dzikow. Disorganized and politically divided, Poland could not fight against Russia. The Bourbons, interested more in Austrian lands in Italy than in Poland, compromised with Vienna and St. Petersburg. Leszczyriski left Poland and, as titular King, was given the Duchy of Lorraine for life; his daughter married King Louis XV of France. The members of the Dzikow Confederation, after several months of guerrilla operations, recognized August III. CHP, II, 28, 31.

E EAST-CENTRAL EUROPE, geopolitical term indicating countries between Germany and Russia proper, well defined by O. Halecki* in The Limits and Divisions of European History, where he argues for the advantages of the division of the European continent into four sections: Western, West-Central, EastCentral and Eastern. As emphasized by Halecki, the countries of East-Central Europe have close cultural ties with the Latin Southwest of the continent. Other scholars name the rivers Elbe and Dnieper as the western and eastern borders of East-Central Europe and claim that it has a distinctive socioeconomic structure and political tradition, different from those of both Western and Eastern Europe. The designation East-Central Europe is increasingly used by scholars, though many politicians and newsmen still confuse it with the Eastern Europe dominated by the former Soviet Union. G. Lerski, "Why East-Central Europe?" Polish American Studies XXXII/2 (1975), 55-63; R. Osborne, East-Central Europe Introductory Geography (New York, 1960); P. Wandycz, The Price of Freedom: A tory of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present (London, 1992) ECONOMIC BOYCOTT, proclaimed by R. Dmowski* against Jewish business after his defeat in the 1912 elections to the Fourth Russian Duma,* when he lost to the socialist W. Jagiello, supported by Jewish voters in Warsaw.* The Jews* voted for Jagiello because other political organizations participating in the elections were allied with the National Democracy,* and the Jews did not want to support the candidates of the anti-Semitic Endeks.* Dmowski's followers observed the economic boycott until the end of WW I, provoking anti-Polish reaction among American and West European Jewry. G. Lerski, "Dmowski, Paderewski and American Jews (A Documentary Compilation)," Polin: A Journal of Polish-Jewish Studies II (1987), 95-11 ECONOMIC EMIGRATION, wave of Polish emigrants seeking better economic conditions. The phenomenon began in the 1840s in Prussian-occupied

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Western Poland and assumed a mass character, both permanent and seasonal, after the abolition of serfdom in Galicia* and in the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* when millions of peasants, previously bound to the land, started to leave the overpopulated countryside. Unemployment in the rural districts was the most important cause of the economic emigration but it was also affected by the political situation in the partitioned Poland, especially after the fall of the January Insurrection* of 1863 in the Congress Kingdom. Exact numbers are difficult to assess, because until WW I Polish emigrants were usually listed as citizens of Russia, Austria and Prussia.* Chief destinations of the exodus were Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, and the United States. In Germany alone there were about two million Polish immigrants until 1914, and an additional 300,000 emigrated to that country, mainly to Westphalia, in the interwar period. A part of them moved to France and Belgium. The United States counted about 1.5 million Polish emigrants until 1914, and the main area of absorption were the Great Lakes states and Mid-Atlantic region. In the interwar period an additional 100,000 immigrants arrived in the United States. Canada received almost 130,000 until the outbreak of WW I, and 160,000 more between the two World Wars. France accepted about 50,000 until 1914, and 400,000 between the wars. Brazil had 130,000 Poles before 1914, plus some 65,000 who settled between the wars. Other countries with lesser numbers of Polish immigrants were Argentina, Belgium, Denmark, Holland, and Tsarist Russia. SHP, 90-91. EDELMAN, MAREK (1921-), a commander of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising* of 1943. A member of Zukunft, the youth movement affiliated with the Jewish Socialist Party, the Bund,* he was active in the ghetto underground and became one of the Bund's leaders. In November 1942 he joined the Jewish Fighting Organization (Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa [ZOB])* and became the Zukunft's representative in ZOB's command. After the outbreak of the Uprising of April 1943, he commanded the "Brushmakers" area in the ghetto, then in Franciszkariska Street, and was among the last fighters in the ZOB headquarters at 18 Mila Street. On May 10, he left the ruins of the ghetto and went to the "Aryan" side through the sewers. In August and September 1944 he participated with the ZOB company in the Warsaw Uprising.* After the war, he studied and practiced medicine in Poland. R. Ainsztein The Warsaw Ghetto Revolt (New York, 1979); Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 2 (New York, 1990), 415; M. Edelman, The Ghetto Fights (New York, 1946 EICHLEROWNA, IRENA (1908-1990), actress. From 1929 she performed in Vilna,* Lvov* and Warsaw,* and, during WW II, in Bucharest, Paris and Rio de Janeiro. WEP, III, 319. ELBL^G (Elbing), city about 70 kilometers East of Gdarisk (Danzig),* originally a castle erected by the Teutonic Knights* in 1237. Elblag, located close to the old Baltic Prussian port of Truso, became an important center of inter-

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national trade and a member of the Hanseatic League* and the Prussian Confederation. In 1466, after the Toruri (Thorn) Peace,* the city was incorporated into Poland and developed into a major trade competitor of Gdarisk. In 1572 the first Polish dockyard was built in Elblag. In the seventeenth century, the city deteriorated, mostly as a result of a series of wars with Sweden. In 1703 it was occupied by Prussia,* to be officially absorbed by it at the 1772 Partition* of Poland. In the late nineteenth century, Elblag revived again, and became an important industrial center of East Prussia, with a population of 86,000 in 1939. During WW II, Elblag was 65 percent ruined; it was returned to Poland after the collapse of the Third Reich. EHGP, I, 157; SHP, 86. ELECTIONS, ROYAL, process of selecting a king. Elevation to the throne also included (not necessarily in this order) paternal designation, homage by the magnates, enthronement and other steps. A hereditary system prevailed in medieval Poland but, sometimes, members of the Piast* dynasty were also elected by the feudal lords. After the extinction of the Piast line, the Polish nobility, interested in political cooperation with Hungary, elected its King Louis I (Ludwik Wejperski).* After his death, the Polish throne was given (in exchange for privileges) to his younger daughter, Jadwiga.* She married a Lithuanian Prince, Jogaila (known in Poland as Wladyslaw Jagiello*), since both Poland and Lithuania were jeopardized by the Teutonic Knights* and decided to fight together against this threat. Most of Jagiello's descendants succeeded to the throne not by right of primogeniture but by elections for which they had to pay by concessions. The Royal elections under the Jagiellonians had never been formally settled, and Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old)* managed to organize the election of his son, Zygmunt August (Sigismund Augustus), vivente rege, that is, while the old king was still alive and his successor was only ten years old. New, relatively strict electoral rules were established when Zygmunt August, the last Jagiellonian, died in 1572, and a period of "free" Royal elections began. In 1573 Henryk Walezy (Henry de Valois),* brother of King Charles IX of France, was chosen by 40,000 noblemen. From then the rule that all the Polish gentry could participate in elections (electio viritim) was considered a fundamental right of the entire nobility. The electoral Sejm was called into being by the Convocation Sejm* announced by the Primate* serving as the Interrex.* Newly elected Kings had to promise to respect all the liberties of the gentry, as set out in the Pacta Conventa* and the Henrician Articles.* Henryk Walezy deserted his Polish throne in 1574, when he seized the opportunity of succeeding his brother as King of France. The next two elections, in 1575 and 1587, were less disciplined than the first one. On both occasions two candidates were declared Kings: in 1575 Stephen Batory,* Prince of Transylvania, and the Habsburg* Maximilian II, the Holy Roman Emperor; in 1587 Sigismund Vasa* and the Habsburg Archduke Maximilian. As a consequence, the elections turned into civil wars. Zygmunt III Waza* reigned for 45 years and was succeeded by his two sons, but the

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system of the "Golden Freedom" was already completed. Poland, the "republic of the nobles," was in the hands of landowning gentry, who loaded the kings with improbable obligations and threatened them with rebellion. The next "free elections" generated political conflicts in the seventeenth century and foreign intervention in the eighteenth century. They became a symbol of anarchy and corruption and were abolished by the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* CHP, I 416-440; SHP, 86-87. ELIMELECH OF LEZAJSK (1717-1787), popular zaddik, one of the founders of Hasidism* in Galicia.* After years of wanderings, he settled in Lezajsk and created an important Hasidic center there. He believed that the authority of a Hasidic leader comes from his direct connections with God, and that the zaddik's activities could influence the divine will. M. Buber, Tales of Hasidis (New York, 1968), 253-264; Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. VI (Jerusalem, 1971), 661-6 ELIZABETH OF HUNGARY (ELZBIETA LOKIETKOWNA) (13051380), Queen of Hungary (1320-1342) as the third wife of Charles Robert and daughter of the Polish ruler, Wladyslaw Lokietek,* and later mother of the Hungarian and Polish King, Ludwik.* She influenced Hungarian politics greatly and also became a Regent of Poland (1370-1375) after the death of her brother, Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great),* when her son, Ludwik, a minor, inherited the Polish crown. Elizabeth continued her brother's policy and managed to secure the Polish Crown for his son's daughter, Jadwiga. P. Knoll, The Rise of the Polish Monarchy: Piast Poland in East-Central Europe, 1320-1370 (Chicago, EMANCIPATION OF PEASANTS, process or event that gave freedom to the peasants. The farmers of medieval Europe were bound to hereditary plots and to the will of their landlords. The serfs could not leave their villages without their lord's permission; neither could they marry, change their occupation, nor decide about their property. By the fourteenth century, economic and political changes in Western Europe caused the replacement of serfs by a free peasantry. In Eastern Europe, where the cities and central authorities were weaker and the power of nobility greater, the basic feudal relationship and serfdom were preserved until the nineteenth century. The fate of the peasants of partitioned Poland was tied to the changes in Prussia,* Austria and Russia. Prussia, economically the most advanced among them and the most influenced by French progressive legislation, issued its emancipation acts in 1811 and 1816. The Prussian peasants had to pay for their freedom and holdings with money or land, and, as a consequence, the poorest among them had to leave the countryside. Polish peasantry in Austrian Galicia* received freedom and land in 1848 as a result of the Springtime of Nations.* The serfs of Russia were given their personal freedom and their own allotments by Alexander II's* Edict of Emancipation of 1861. The serfs of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* were to pay a special compensation for their freedom and land, but, on January 22, 1863, the Polish National Gov-

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ernment of the January Insurrection,* looking for the support of the peasants, granted them freeholds in exchange for the subsequent land tax. The Tsarist authorities followed this decision with its similar decree issued on March 2, 1864, which gave the peasants of the Congress Kingdom the land they cultivated, while granting landowners compensation from state funds. The effect of this move was advantageous to Russia. The peasantry* abandoned its armed struggle and concentrated on the distribution of land. The emancipation of peasants freed and made movable a large segment of the Polish population, who left the overpopulated countryside and moved to the cities, contributing to the process of industrialization and urbanization. The emancipation was probably the most important social change of nineteenth-century Poland and reshaped its culture and politics. S. Kieniewicz, The Emancipation of the Polish Peasantry ( cago, 1969). ENDECJA. See NATIONAL DEMOCRACY. ENDEKS. See NATIONAL DEMOCRACY. ENIGMA, name of a German cipher machine decoded and copied by the Polish mathematicians M. Rejewski,* J. Ruzycki and H. Zygalski on the eve of WW II and lent to the French, then to British intelligence. The British code name for use of Enigma was Ultra Operations. This important contribution of Polish scholars to the Allied victory permitted the high command to be aware of all major Nazi operations ahead of time. J. Garliriski, The Enigma War (New York, 1979); W. Kozaczuk, Enigma: How the German Machine Cipher Was Broken, an It Was Read by the Allies in World War Two (Washington, D.C., 1 ENLIGHTENMENT, intellectual movement which began in England by the end of the seventeenth century, developed in France and reached Poland in the mid-eighteenth century. It stressed the power of science and wisdom and referred to the tradition of antiquity and the Renaissance.* It challenged feudalism, paved the way for the growth of capitalism, and triggered serious political changes, including the French Revolution. Poland adopted the French version of the Enlightenment by the end of Saxon times* in the years 1740-1764. The Polish Enlightenment grew in the struggle against obscurantism, particularly "Sarmatism,"* and feudal relations. In 1764-1795, during the reign of the last King of Poland, the Enlightenment reshaped and revived the cultural, educational, economic and political life of the country. Some landlords made efforts to modernize agricultural production, tried to replace serfdom with rent for the peasant, and established relatively numerous manufacturing businesses. It was also a period of substantial political reforms and attempts to strengthen the defense of the country with the crowning achievement of the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* Although the Enlightenment had a cosmopolitan character, it had a great impact on the Polish national culture, marked by the flourishing of science (the Sni-

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adecki* brothers), liberal arts (A. Naruszewicz*), and education (S. Konarski* with his Collegium Nobilium,* Commission of National Education,* Society for Textbooks, development of the Jagiellonian University,* and creation of Warsaw University* and the Society of Friends of Learning). The Enlightenment also helped to raise the Polish bourgeoisie and to promote modern economic relations. Its main accomplishments were in literature, particularly in poetry and drama (I. Krasicki,* J. Niemcewicz,* S. Trembecki,* T. Wegierski*), and contributed to the development of the national language. In Poland the Enlightenment lasted into the early nineteenth century, when it was succeeded by Romanticism.* History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 338-358; Republic of Nobles, ed. by J. K. Federowicz (Cambridge, 1982 EPSTEINS, Jewish family who settled in Warsaw* early in the nineteenth century. Its head was Jakub Epstein (1771-1843), who provisioned the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw* and established a trade house in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* His four sons became leading bankers and industrialists. EHGP, I, 163; SHP, 93. ERASTIANISM, doctrine stating that the state is superior to the Church in ecclesiastical matters, named after the sixteenth-century theologian T. Erastus. The idea had numerous supporters among Polish dissidents,* especially of the Calvinist denomination. The most outstanding of them were Jan Laski (Johannes a Lasco)* and Mikolaj RadziwiH,* who recommended the establishment of a national Polish evangelical Church. The New Cambridge Modern History, ed. by G. R. Elton, vol. II (Cambridge, 1958), 204; Encyclopedic Dictionary of Religion, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C., 1979), 1227. ERLICH, HENRYK (1882-1941), journalist and leader of the Bund.* He joined it in 1903 while a student at Warsaw University.* Arrested several times for revolutionary activities, he became a member of the Central Committee of the Bund and one of the leaders of the Petrograd Soviet during the 1917 revolution. In 1918 he returned to Warsaw,* and was one of the most important Jewish politicians of interwar Poland. In September 1939 he left Warsaw after the German invasion and, together with W. Alter,* was arrested by the Soviet police as an alleged agent of the Polish intelligence service. In September 1941, following the amnesty for Polish citizens in the USSR, Erlich and Alter were set free and invited to join the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, but, on December 6, 1941, they were re-arrested and executed. The Case of Henryk Erlich and Victor Alter (London, 1943); Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. VI (Jerusalem, 1971), 844-845. ERLICH, LUDWIK (1889-1968), jurist, lecturer in political science at the University of California at Berkeley (1917-1920), and professor of international law at the University of Lvov (1920-1924 and 1928-1940). In 1927-1928 he

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served as a Judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice at the Hague (1927-1928). International Who's Who 1944-45 (London), 22 ERMLAND. See WARMIA. ESTREICHER, KAROL (1827-1908), librarian, bibliographer and historian. In 1862-1868 he served as Librarian of Warsaw's* Principal School (Szkola Glowna),* and, in 1868-1905, as Director of the Jagiellonian Library in Cracow.* In 1870 he initiated the editing of the monumental Bibliografia Polska and authored its first twenty-two volumes. He also published three volumes of Teatra w Polsce (Theaters in Poland) and other works on history of drama and literature. He co-founded the Polish Academy of Learning.* His pioneering Bibliografia was continued by his son Stanislaw and grandson Karol. WEP, III, 486 487. ESTREICHER, STANISLAW (1869-1939), bibliographer and professor of law at the Jagiellonian University in Cracow,* where he also served as Dean and Rector. He continued the work of his father, Karol Estreicher,* and published eleven volumes of Bibliografia Polska. His tremendous erudition helped to make it unique in world literature. As a scholar, he specialized in the role of German law in medieval Poland. After the outbreak of WW II, he was imprisoned with other professors of the Jagiellonian University in the Sachsenhausen* concentration camp, where he died. PSB, VI, 312-315. ETATISM, policy emphasizing the importance of state entrepreneurial activities and of regulation of economic life by using administrative means according to a plan of economic priorities. Relatively numerous state enterprises appeared in Poland in the eighteenth century and in the first half of the nineteenth century. In 1918 the independent government of interwar Poland took over many German, Russian and Austrian companies and had to eliminate the impact of different economic policies of these states on the Polish territories in the nineteenth century. The Sanacja* regime also practiced the etatistic policy, supported particularly by the Minister of Finance and later Deputy Premier, E. Kwiatkowski,* whose main achievements were the construction of Gdynia,* the largest Baltic port, and of the Central Industrial Region (COP).* In 1939, between 15 and 20 percent of the Polish economy was state-owned. EHGP, I, 163-164. "EXECUTION-OF-THE-LAW," political platform of the middle nobility* formulated in the 1520s. It demanded that all the law and rights of the gentry be collected, unified and codified, and then put into effect. It also asked for the reform of the state administration, treasury, judiciary, and armed forces. Annexed to this proposal was a demand that the state should take back the estates (egzekucja dobr) illegally held by magnates* or the monarch. The movement was directed mostly against the growing oligarchy of large landowners, and

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against the King's alliance with the magnates. In contrast to these progressive demands, the nobles began raising feudalistic requests for more privileges, such as full freedom of customs and limitation of the rights of towns and peasants. The movement also insisted on the free election of the King. These demands led in 1537 to the civil war. In 1562-1563 the Sejm of Piotrkow passed a law to deprive Senators of their Royal possessions, which they had obtained after 1504. The lower gentry was not able, however, to undermine the economic basis of the magnate oligarchy. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968 178-181; SHP, 84. EZOFOWICZ, MICHEL (7-1529), Jewish merchant. King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old)* appointed him a superviser of state wax and salt warehouses and custom collections on the northern and eastern borders of Poland. In 1514 the King knighted Ezofowicz and nominated him the Elder over all Jews* in Lithuania.* Ezofowicz became a symbol of a successful assimilated Jew. PSB, VI, 331-333.

F FALAISE, BATTLE OF (August 7-21, 1944), one of the decisive battles after the Allied invasion of Normandy. The First Polish Armored Division under Gen. S. Maczek* was assigned to close the Falaise "pocket" between the pincers of American and Canadian Armies. About 120,000 German troops who were attempting to withdraw were taken prisoner. S. Maczek, Od Podwody do Czol (From a Wagon to a Tank) (Edinburgh, 1961). FALANGA, Fascist youth organization established in 1934 as a faction of the National Radical Camp (Oboz Narodowo-Radykalny [ONR]),* which was a splinter group from R. Dmowski's* National Party.* Headed by B. Piasecki,* it attracted fanatical nationalists, who used the salute, uniforms and other patterns established by the Nazis and Italian fascists. Falanga members were not numerous but were very active, especially among university students. Organized in terrorist squads they attacked leftist institutions and Jews,* demolishing Jewish shops and enforcing the University "bench ghettos."* In 1937 Falanga was approached by the ruling Camp of National Unity (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego [OZN])* and cooperated with it until the outbreak of WW II. Then Falanga changed its name to the Confederation of the Nation (Konfederacja Narodu) and joined the anti-German resistance as the Home Army's (Armia Krajowa [AK])* right wing. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 371; SHP, 94.

FALCONS (Sokolstwo), gymnastic societies promoting patriotic values, communal spirit, and physical fitness. The idea of the Falcon movement as a vital ingredient of national survival originated in Prague in 1862. The Poles followed that example and created the Polish Gymnastic Association "Sokol" (Falcon) in Lvov* in 1887. It spread to other parts of Poland (however, it was illegal in the Congress Kingdom of Poland*), acquired a para-military character, and be-

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came politically dominated by the National Democracy.* The Falcons took active part in the movement striving for national freedom. A central Falcon organization was called into being in Warsaw* in 1919 and reached a total of 100,000 members in the 1930s. Abroad, the most effective were the Polish Falcons in the United States, with 24,000 members in 1914. When America entered WW I, I. Paderewski* proposed that the Falcons take the lead in the organization of the "Kosciuszko Army." The project materialized in a different form, but almost half of the volunteers in the Polish Army in France were former Falcons from the United States. D. Pienkos, One Hundred Years Young: A His of Polish Falcons of America, 1887-1987 (Boulder, Colorado, 1987); SHP, FALTER, ALFRED (1880-1954), industrialist associated with coal mining and major capital in interwar Upper Silesia.* He served as a Polish Delegate in the International Reparations Committee established by the Versailles* Treaty, chaired the Central Union of Polish Industrialists (a continuation of the "Leviathan"*), and was a board member of several important institutions. In 1939-1940 he served as a Deputy Finance Minister in the Polish Governmentin-Exile.* EHGP, I, 165. FALAT, JULIAN (1853-1929), painter. Educated in Cracow,* Zurich and Munich, he spent ten years as a Royal artist at the invitation of Emperor William II. In 1895 he left Berlin to head the Academy of Fine Arts in Cracow. He served twice as its Rector, modernized it and recruited most prominent Polish artists as teachers. He also served briefly as a Director of the governmental Department of Culture and Art in Warsaw.* Falat is best known for his watercolors and winter scenes influenced by French Impressionists. J. Falat, Pamietniki (Memoirs) (Warsaw, 1935); PSB, VI, 366-367. FAMILIA, name of a party organized by the Czartoryski* family during the last years of August II's* reign. The party consisted of a group of magnates* and their political clients and was led by the sons of Kazimierz Czartoryski— the Castellan* of Vilna,* Michal and August Czartoryski, and their brother-inlaw, Stanislaw Poniatowski* (father of the king Stanislaw August Poniatowski*). After the death of August II, Familia supported the royal candidacy of Stanislaw Leszczyriski,* but after his defeat, they reconciled with August III* and created a Court party. The Familia was fought by the old oligarchy: the anti-Court "Republican," "Patriotic" or "Hetman" party of the Potockis,* and by the Radziwills* in Lithuania.* During 1744-1750, the Czartoryskis tried to initiate basic reforms of the Polish government. They attempted to re-organize the army and treasury and abolish or limit the liberum veto* but the Court and the Czartoryskis drifted apart. The Familia was replaced as a court party by the "Republicans"; however, after 1762, the pro-Russian Czartoryskis were supported by the new Tsarina, Catherine the Great.* The Czartoryskis, politically experienced and notable for their coherence and high intellectual standards, ex-

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pected that one of them would receive the Polish throne. However, Catherine installed as a king her former lover and a minor political partner of the Familia, Steward (Stolnik) of Lithuania, Stanislaw August. He started to build a Royal party and supported a program of constitutional monarchism: the throne was to be hereditary, and the King would appoint Ministers, Senators and officers of state and control the central government. The Familia had a more republican program: the Sejm, voting by a simple majority, was to appoint the central officers, and the King was to be deprived of his real prerogatives. The differences between the King and the Czartoryskis gradually increased. The old Familia changed political programs, fought against the growing independence of the King, defended "Polish liberties," and merged with the Potockis and the antiRoyal magnate opposition. However, during the Great Sejm* of 1788-1791, the representatives of the former Familia abandoned their old pro-Russian policy and supported the reforms and the King. M. Kukiel, Czartoryski and European Unity, 1770-1861 (Princeton, New Jersey, 1955); CHP, II, 25-49. FEDERALISM, general concept of divided governmental power (national authority and several states), as well as various proposals of a loosely knit union of East-Central European countries situated between Germany and Russia, as suggested by the original Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* Proponents of such federalism (better styled "confederalism") believed that the survival of nationalities of that turbulent region required their close association for defense and joint foreign and economic policies to face the common dangers of domination by powerful expansionist neighbors. To attain such a goal it would be necessary for the countries involved to resolve their conflicts in a spirit of compromise and secure respective minority rights. A. Czartoryski* discussed that idea in his Essai sur la diplomatic on the eve of the Vienna Congress.* Federalist ideas were revived by J. Pilsudski,* with regard to the Ukraine,* Belorussia,* and Lithuania* after WW I, and by the Polish Government-in-Exile* with regard to Czechoslovakia during WW II. M. K. Dziewanowski, Joseph Pilsudski, a European Federalist, 1918-1922 (Stanford, California, 1969); P. Jordan, Central Union (London, 1944). FEDERALISTS, group of Galician politicians led by F. Smolka,* who, in the 1860s and 1870s, proposed a re-structuring of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy into a federation of nationalities under the Habsburgs* with Galicia* as one of its component parts. CHP, II, 432-461. FELDMAN, JOZEF (1899-1946), historian, son of Wilhelm Feldman.* He studied and then taught at the Jagiellonian University at Cracow* as a specialist on the Saxonian period in Polish history and on the modern history of Europe. During 1939-1941, he continued his research in Soviet-occupied Lvov,* and, after the Germans invaded Russia, he taught at the underground Warsaw Uni-

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versity.* He participated in the Warsaw Uprising* of 1944; after WW II, he returned to work at Jagiellonian University. PSB, VI, 396-399. FELDMAN, WILHELM (1868-1919), literary critic and writer. Son of an Orthodox Jewish family, he became one of the main proponents and activists of assimilation. As a young man, he participated in Galician Polish patriotic and socialist movements and was temporarily imprisoned by the Austrian authorities. He edited Dziennik Krakowski (Cracow Daily) and a literary journal, Krytyka (Critique). In 1905 he joined the Pilsudski* camp, and, in 1914, the Polish Legions.* He was sent as a press officer of the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN])* to Berlin, where he published the Polnische Blatter (Polish Pages). During 1918-1919, he worked in the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Warsaw.* As a literary critic, he followed the Polish Romantic tradition. He was among the leading spokesmen of the "Young Poland"* movement and strongly influenced literary opinions of the contemporary intelligentsia. P. E. Mendelsohn, Jewish Assimilation in Lwow: The Case of Wilhelm Feldman (New Haven, Connecticut, 1981). FELICIAN SISTERS, popular name of the Association of St. Felix of Cantalicia, a branch of the Franciscan* Order. The Polish section of the Association was founded in 1855 in Warsaw* by the Capucin friar H. Kozminski. Felician Sisters organize shelters for the old, orphanages, kindergarten-schools and hospitals. In 1874 they moved to the United States, to work among American Polonia.* WEP, III, 608. FELINSKI, ZYGMUNT (1822-1895), Archbishop of Warsaw.* He participated in the Great Poland Insurrection of 1848, and, after a short period of emigration, he enrolled in a seminary and became a priest. In 1862 he was ordained Archbishop of Warsaw. He tried to stop the outbreak of the January Insurrection* of 1863. Polish patriots suspected he was a Tsar's agent, chosen to suppress the rising wave of unrest. However, he also opposed Tsarist policy in Poland and was deported to Russia, where he spent twenty years. He resigned from the Archbishopric at the request of Pope Leo XIII and returned from Russia to Austrian Galicia.* PSB, VI, 410-412. FEUDAL DISINTEGRATION, era in Polish history (twelfth and thirteenth centuries) when the Polish state was divided into several small independent Principalities similar to appanage divisions in other European countries. Dynastic quarrels and centrifugal trends were always strong in early medieval Poland. A Piast* ruler of Poland during 1102-1138, Prince Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth),* who had five sons, decided to divide Poland among his sons in such a way that the oldest living brother would be the Grand Duke or the Senior and would enjoy considerable prerogatives relating to the whole country. All the other brothers would receive their hereditary districts, which corresponded

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roughly to the old provinces, but every Grand Duke would also control Little Poland (Malopolska)* and Pomerania.* The so-called seniority districts would secure his military and economic advantage over the other Polish dukes. The testament of Boleslaw Krzywousty took effect after his death in 1138. His oldest son, Wladyslaw II, later called the Exiled (Wygnaniec),* received Silesia* as his hereditary Principality plus the seniority districts. The second son, Boleslaw K^dzierzawy (the Curly),* inherited Mazovia* and Kujavia.* The third son, Mieszko III Stary (the Old),* received Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* The remaining Polish lands, the territories of Sieradz and Leczyca,* fell to Krzywousty's widow, Duchess Salomea, who lived together with the two youngest, minor brothers, known later as Henryk Sandomierski (Henry of Sandomierz)* and Kazimierz Sprawiedliwy (Casimir the Just).* In 1145, Grand Duke Wladyslaw tried to restore the central power but his brothers fought back. In 1146, Wladyslaw lost the Battle of Poznari (Posen)* and escaped to his brotherin-law, the German King Conrad III. Boleslaw the Curly, the second oldest brother and the Prince of Mazovia, took control over Silesia and the seniority district of Little Poland (Malopolska). He created a new principality around Sandomierz,* previously a part of Little Poland, and gave it to Henryk. In 1166, the latter died during an expedition against the Baltic Prussians,* and his principality was taken by the youngest Prince, Kazimierz Sprawiedliwy (Casimir the Just). Wladyslaw the Exiled was unable to return to Poland, but his brothers had to pledge fealty and pay a ransom to the German Emperor. In 1173, Mieszko the Old became Grand Duke and tried to gain control over whole Poland. The lords of Cracow* rebelled against him and installed Kazimierz the Just in their city in 1177. From then on, Mieszko and Kazimierz fought constantly over Cracow. In 1202, Mieszko the Old died and was succeeded in Cracow by the son of Kazimierz the Just, Leszek Bialy (the White).* In 1227, Leszek was murdered when he made a last attempt to exercise the power of the Grand Duke and visited the Eastern Pomeranian capital of Gdarisk (Danzig).* By the early thirteenth century, the principle of the seniorate was extinct. Poland became a group of independent and sovereign duchies. The Piast dynasty was split into several lines of Great Poland, Little Poland, Mazovia, Kujavia, and Silesia. Divided Poland became vulnerable to external expansion. The Mongols and Ruthenians attacked it from the east; Lithuanians, Sudavians, Baltic Prussians, and the Teutonic Knights* from the north; and the German feudal lords, especially the March of Brandenburg,* from the west. German settlers became politically and economically dominant in Pomerania, Silesia, and even Cracow. Polish political elites became aware that their country could cease to exist as a geographical and political concept. Small principalities were unable to stop the invaders. Cities were interested in removing the barriers to free commerce. In the last decades of the thirteenth century, Great Poland, which avoided extreme fragmentation, became the center of the integration movement. Its Prince, Przemysl II,* extended his rule to Gdarisk Pomerania and, in 1295, was crowned

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King of Poland by Archbishop of Gniezno* Jan $winka, a promoter of national unification. In 1296, Przemysl was killed by assassins sent from the March of Brandenburg, and the task of unification was continued by the Czech King, Vaclaw (Venceslaus) II.* He subjugated most Silesian principalities and took control over Little Poland in 1292, and over Great Poland and Gdarisk Pomerania in 1300. In the same year, he was crowned King of Poland and married Przemysl's daughter, Richeza. In 1306, he was succeeded on the Polish throne by his son, Vaclaw (Venceslaus) III.* Bohemian rule, which looked very advantageous at first, provoked rising opposition in Poland. Both Vaclaw II and Vaclaw III supported German and Bohemian patricians, monasteries, and officials against ethnic Poles. The Polish opposition finally found a leader in a Prince of Kujavia, Wladyslaw Lokietek (the Short).* In 1320, he was crowned King of Poland. Wladyslaw was not in a position to regain all the lands of the first Piast rulers. However, the feudal division was gradually terminated and the Regnum Poloniae survived. D. Buczek, "Archbishop Jakub Swinka, 1283-1314," Studies in Polish Civilization, ed. by D. Wandycz (New York, 1966), 54-65; CHP, I, 85-107; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 80-118; P. Jasienica, Piast Poland (Miami, 1985), 101-160.

FEUDALISM, medieval social structure based on land tenure and a personal relationship between a lord and a vassal. European feudalism originated in the early Frankish Kingdom in the eighth century and was characterized by a closed agricultural economy and the manorial system, in which the landlord exercised police, judicial, fiscal and other rights over the unfree peasantry. East-Central Europe and Poland were more slowly feudalized than the Frankish Empire. Polish feudalism took its shape in the twelfth century and was characterized by political division of the state and a peasant serfdom which persisted till the nineteenth century. T. Grudziriski, "The Beginnings of Feudal Disintegration in Poland," Acta Poloniae Historica XXX (1974), 5-31; P. Knoll, "Feudal Poland: Division and Reunion," Polish Review XXIII/2 (1978), 40-52; P. Skwarczyriski, "The Problem of Feudalism in Poland up to the Beginning of the 16th Century," The Slavonic and East European Review XXXIV (1956), 292-310. FIEDLER, ARKADY (1894- ), writer and traveler. He began his career in 1917 as a poet in the magazine Zdroj (Spring). During the interwar period he traveled through Latin America, Africa and Oceania. He joined the Polish Army in France and then served in the Polish Merchant Marine. He wrote popular travelogues and reports on the Polish Army in WW II. WEP, III, 641. FIELDORF, ("NIL") AUGUST EMIL (1895-1953), General. He joined the Polish Legions* during WW I; during the interwar period, he continued his military career in the Polish Army. After the 1939 September Campaign,* he escaped to France to join the Polish troops there. In 1940 and 1942 he was parachuted into occupied Poland as an emissary of the Government-in-Exile.*

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He commanded the Directorate of Diversions (Kedyw)* of the clandestine Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* After the Warsaw Uprising* of 1944, he was taken prisoner by the Germans. After WW II he returned to Poland, was jailed, and was murdered by the communist security forces. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 91. FIFTH COLUMN, clandestine group of agents who attempt to undermine a nation's solidarity. The term is credited to a Fascist general of the Spanish Civil War. As four of his military columns approached Madrid, he called his supporters in the city his "fifth column." Later the term was used for the German penetration to prepare for the invasion of Poland and other countries. The German Fifth Column in Poland (London, 1941). FILARECI (Philareths), youth association created by the Filomaci (Philomaths)* in 1820 in Vilna.* The name derives from the Greek word philaretos, or lovers of virtue. The organization continued the patriotic activity of the "Circle of Shining Ones" (Kolo Promienistych), which was dissolved by the authorities of the Vilna University,* and had a clandestine character. It was composed of four sections that controlled smaller cells, all with elected officers. The Filareci president was T. Zan*; their goals were "acquiring knowledge, morality, and religion through mutual friendly control, advice, and assistance in need." They were disbanded in 1823, following the trial of the Association of Filomats. H. Mos*cicki, Promienisci—filomaci—filareci (Shining Ones—Philomathes— Philareths) (Warsaw, 1928); WEP, III, 647. FILIPOWICZ, TYTUS (1878-1953), diplomat. He participated in J. Pilsudski's* mission to Japan in 1904. In 1917-1918 he acted as a Polish political agent in Britain and, in 1918, he became undersecretary of Foreign Affairs of reborn Poland and a member of its delegation to the Paris Peace Conference.* In 1922 he represented Poland in the League of Nations Assembly. In 1922— 1927 he served as Minister to Finland; in 1928-1929 to Belgium; and, in 1929, he went to the United States, where he became the first Polish Ambassador in America in 1930-1932. Before WW II he was President of the Polish Red Cross and joined the opposition as a member of the newly created Democratic Party.* During the war, he was a member of the Polish National Council in exile. International

Who's Who 1944-45 (London), 255.

FILOMACI (Philomaths), clandestine youth association created on the initiative of T. Zan,* A. Mickiewicz,* J. Jezewski, F. Malewski, O. Pietraszkiewicz and S. Czeczot in 1817 in Vilna.* Its name derived from the Greek word philomathes, or lovers of knowledge, and its structure resembled that of learned societies. The Filomaci protected the clandestine character of their organization; however, some of its activities became open. Though the initial aims of the

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association had a primarily self-educational and didactic character, gradually social and political goals emerged, with the emphasis on the "implanting in Polish youth of pure morality, love of national culture through public education, and service for the good of the country." The statistical commission gathered data on Poland and Lithuania,* and a secret magazine, Opis Geograficzny (Geographical Description), propagated concepts of a future struggle for national independence. Filomaci established contacts with similar conspiracies in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and in Russia. In 1823, the association was denounced by an agent provocateur and disbanded by the Russian authorities. Arrests and trials followed, and 20 leaders of the organization were deported to Russia proper. H. Moscicki, Promienisci—filomaci—filareci (Shining Ones—Philomathes-—Philareths) (Warsaw, 1928). FINAL SOLUTION (Endlosung), Nazi concept and program to resolve the "Jewish question" by the extermination of all the European Jews.* The "final solution" was the culmination of a long evolution of Hitler's Jewish policy. From 1919 Hitler spoke and wrote many times about the "removal," "expulsion," and "exclusion" of the Jews. They became Hitler's obsession and the "pivotal question" of the Nazi party (NSDAP). After Hitler came to power in 1933, the Nazi government pursued different Jewish policies and concentrated on systematic legislative discrimination. The Kristallnacht of November 9, 1938, initiated a new strategy of mass expulsion and "Aryanization." After the conquest and partition of Poland in September 1939, an additional three million Jews found themselves under German administration. For a short period, the Nazis planned to deport all the Jews from Germany and from the Polish territories incorporated into the Third Reich to the Lublin* region. In 1940 the Nazis perpetrated the "euthanasia" program and the de-nationalization of Poland through the systematic liquidation of the Polish intelligentsia. Therefore, after the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Nazis decided to implement a "final solution' ' of another kind. Hitler, euphoric about his seemingly imminent victory over Russia and the whole world, ignored international public opinion and felt free to cross any limits. Already by July and August 1941, the mobile killing units (Einsatzgruppen) started the systematic mass murder of all the Soviet Jews. In fall 1941 the killing techniques were improved, and, during the Wannsee Conference of January 20, 1942, the final decisions were made. A network of extermination camps was organized. They "worked" until the end of the Third Reich and killed over six million European Jews. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 2 (New York, 1990), 488-493; R. Hilberg, Destruction of European Jews (New York, 1961); G. Reitlinger, The Final Solution (New York, 1968). FINDER, PAWEL (1904-1944), Communist leader. A Zionist in his early youth, he was educated as a chemical engineer in Vienna and Paris, where he joined the Communist Parties of Austria and France, respectively. In 1928, he was expelled from Paris and returned to Poland to be the Communist Party

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District Secretary in Warsaw,* Lodz,* and Silesia.* Sentenced to twelve years in prison for these activities in 1934, he was freed in September 1939 and left for Soviet-occupied Bialystok,* where he worked as Head of a local Planning Commission. In 1941 he became a member of an "Initiative Group," organized by Moscow to rebuild the Communist Party in Poland after the outbreak of the Soviet-German War. In December 1941 the Group was parachuted into Nazioccupied Poland, and, on January 5, 1942, it established a Polish Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza [PPR]).* After its first leader, M. Nowotko,* was murdered, Finder became the new head of the party. He worked in that capacity until November 14, 1943, when he was arrested and then executed by the Germans. M. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, 195 FIRLEJ, JAN (1521-1574), statesman, Palatine (wojewoda) of Cracow* and Lublin,* Speaker of the Sejm* and Grand Crown Marshal of Poland (marszalek wielki koronny) from 1563. He was among the leaders of the "Execution-ofthe-Law"* movement and the main architects of the 1569 Union of Lublin* and the 1573 Confederation of Warsaw,* which formulated the political rights of dissidents.* He opposed the election of Henryk Walezy* and was one of the most important Calvinist* leaders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* PSB, VII, 1-6. FIRLEJ, MIKOLAJ (7-1601), statesman, the oldest son of Jan Firlej,* District Governor (starosta) of Kazimierz and Palatine (wojewoda) of Cracow.* After his journey to Rome, he converted to Catholicism and remained under the influence of the Jesuits,* especially P. Skarga.* During the second Royal election,* Firlej favored the Habsburg* Emperor Maximilian, though eventually he shifted his allegiance to Stefan Batory.* In the 1580s, Firlej became a follower of Chancellor* J. Zamoyski* and supported the Swedish candidate, Zygmunt Waza (Sigismund Vasa),* during the third election. PSB, VII, 8-10. FIRST BRIGADE, one of the three Brigades of the Polish Legions,* which fought under the Austrian Command during 1914-1917. The First Brigade developed from the First Regiment of Riflemen commanded by J. Pilsudski.* The Brigade was composed of two Infantry Regiments under Lt. Col. E. Rydz"Smigly,"* and Lt. Col. M. Zymierski,* and one uhlan Regiment commanded by Maj. W. Prazmowski-"Belina."* After Pilsudski's refusal of the loyalty oath to the German Emperor in fall 1916, most of the officers and ranks refused to take that oath and were interned in Benjaminow and Szczypiorno, while Pilsudski and his Chief of Staff, Col. K. Sosnkowski,* were incarcerated in the Magdeburg fortress. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* the veterans of the First Brigade became a political and military elite in Poland. Their song, We, the First Brigade (My Pierwsza Brygada), became the second unofficial anthem of Poland in the years 1926-1939. CHP, II, 462; W. Jedrzejewicz, Jozef Pilsudski: A Life for Poland (New York, 1982).

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FLEMMING, JAKUB HENRYK (1667-1728), Saxon Field Marshal and politician. A scion of a West Pomeranian* noble family, he studied in Holland, where he began his military career. In 1693 he opted for the Saxon Army, fought under Frederick August I in the Turkish campaign of 1695, and, after King J. Sobieski's* death, he was sent to Poland to prepare the election of his master to the Polish throne as August II.* After this success, Flemming was quickly promoted to several important posts in Saxony and Poland. When Poland found itself under the rule of S. Leszczyriski,* Flemming helped August II to regain the throne and recommended that Poland become a hereditary monarchy of the Wettin* family. He opposed August II's plans for partition of Poland, however, and established friendly links with the Czartoryskis* and Poniatowskis.* PSB, VII, 32-35.

FOCH, FERDINAND (1851-1929), Marshal of France, Great Britain and, from 1923, Poland. During WW I, he became the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces on the western front, including three Polish Infantry Divisions under Gen. J. Haller.* In 1918 Foch conducted the business of the Armistice; in 1920 he was appointed President of the Allied Military Committee and proved to be a friend of the reborn Poland as a partner against German revisionism and the Bolshevik threat. Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic 1870-1940, ed. by P. H. Hutton, vol. 1 (New York, 1986), 386. FOLKIERSKI, WLADYSLAW (1842-1904), engineer. Educated in Warsaw,* Karlsruhe and Paris, he taught mechanics and bridge building at the Polish school in Montparnasse. He participated in the January Insurrection* of 1863 and in the French-Prussian War of 1870. In 1873 he left for Peru, where he constructed railroads, participated in the war against Chile, and taught at the University of Lima. In 1889 he returned to Paris and, in 1892, to Galicia,* where he built railroads across the Carpathian* Mountains. PSB, VI, 48-49. FONTANA, JULIAN (1810-1869), composer. A member of the intellectual elite of Warsaw* and a friend of F. Chopin,* he participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, and, after its fall, he emigrated. He taught piano and gave concerts in Paris, London, Bordeaux, New York, and Cuba. He published Chopin's manuscripts posthumously and tried to popularize Polish folk songs. A History of 19th Century American-Polish Music with Annotated Bibliography and Illustrations (New York, 1982), 27-36. "FOR YOUR FREEDOM AND OURS" (Za Wasza i Nasza Wolnosc!), battle cry of Polish exiles in the nineteenth century. They believed that their participation in the freedom struggle of oppressed nationalities would also restore freedom to Poland. The slogan was coined either by the historian J. Lelewel* or by A. Pulaski* and appeared on banners of the November Insurrection* of

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1830-1831. K. Olszer (ed.), For Your Freedom and Ours: Polish Progressive Spirit from the 14th Century to the Present (New York, 1981). FORMISTS, avant-garde group of painters, initially known as Polish Expressionists, established by the Pronaszko brothers and T. Czyzewski* in 1917 in Cracow.* A Warsaw* group was founded and one in Lvov.* The chief Formists were L. Chwistek,* W. Skoczylas,* S. Witkiewicz,* A. Zamoyski, M. Szczuka, K. Winkler, K. Witkowski, J. Zaruba, S. Matwiriski, and Z. Rudnicki. They organized many exhibits, and, during 1919-1921, Chwistek and Czyzewski published their theoretical periodical, Formisci. Because of the hostile attitude of most art critics and conservative artists, the Formists conducted many activities to justify their theories and avant-garde intentions. They were the first Polish artistic movement which included in its program the avant-garde experiences of Western European art, such as cubism, futurism, and expressionism, while emphasizing their affinity to the Polish art tradition and folk art. In practice, there were growing differences within the group, which led to its dissolution in 1922. K. Winkler, Formisci Polscy (Polish Formists) (Warsaw, 1927). FOUR YEAR SEJM, also known as the Great Sejm because of its reforms crowned by the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* The Sejm took place from October 6, 1788, to May 29, 1792. With Russian tacit agreement it took the character of a confederation,* which excluded the threat of the liberum veto* and was chaired by S. Malachowski* and/or K. N. Sapieha.* Contrary to King Stanislaw August's* expectations, it did not discuss the project of the PolishRussian Alliance against Turkey. The Sejm took over the command of the Army from the King's Permanent Council,* dissolving the latter on January 19, 1789. In 1790, the Sejm extended its tenure and, with Prussian support, forced Russia (involved in a war with Turkey) to withdraw its armies from Poland. On October 20, 1788, the Sejm enthusiastically endorsed a bill for a 100,000-strong Army but insufficient tax income allowed only a contingent of 65,000. New political parties and numerous essayists discussed the problems of governmental reforms, Royal succession, and the demands of the third estate formulated by Warsaw's Mayor J. Dekert.* The passing of urban reforms and especially of the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* was interpreted by Russia, Prussia and Austria as a major political threat. On May 29, 1792, the Sejm dissolved itself, after it faced Russian intervention and the Targowica Confederation.* CHP, II, 112-137; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 359-377. FRANCISCANS, religious order founded by St. Francis of Assisi in 1209. The friars, who followed the example of St. Francis and had no possessions of any kind, were brought to Poland by Prince Henryk I Brodaty of Silesia* in 1237. In the beginning of the fifteenth century a separate order was formed on Franciscan tenets known as the Bernardines.* After the Partitions* of Poland, the Franciscan order survived only in Austrian Galicia.* However, in 1856, the

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Association of Franciscan Sisters of the Virgin Mary Family was established in St. Petersburg, and, in 1863, brought to Poland, where they were known as Franciscan Sisters (Franciszkanki). They worked in education, particularly of orphans, and took care of the sick. Another branch was established in 1918 in Warsaw* as the Association of Franciscan Sisters Servants of the Holy Cross. They specialized in care of the blind, with their main center in Laski* near Warsaw. WEP, III, 807. FRANCO-POLISH ALLIANCE, traditionally close relations between the two countries strengthened by a common danger—expansionist Germany. During WW I, a Polish National Committee* under R. Dmowski* was active in Paris, where he established close relations with the French authorities. At the Paris Peace Conference* France contributed substantially to the creation of an independent Poland, considering it a natural ally. During the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, the French military mission was sent to Poland. It became an important part of the French network of alliances directed against both Germany and Soviet Russia. A formal treaty of mutual assistance was signed on February 19, 1921, and was supplemented by a military convention of February 22, 1922. Poland, internationally isolated, received in this way its first support in international politics. However, the Locarno* Treaty, signed in October 1925, created a new international situation and weakened the Polish-French alliance. The treaty recognized the inviolability of German western borders and left open the question of the eastern frontiers. In a new Polish-French Treaty of October 16, 1925, the French government guaranteed the Polish and Czechoslovak borders, but within the framework of the League of Nations.* Pilsudski's* governments, after the coup d'etat of 1926, were less eager to cooperate with Paris, which supported Pilsudski's political enemies during WW I. The most important principle of the Pilsudskiite foreign policy was a balance between Germany and Russia. After Hitler's seizure of power in 1933, Pilsudski tried to modify this policy unsuccessfully and proposed a preventive war against Germany to Paris and London. The Munich agreement of September 1938 completely destroyed the French alliance system in Central Europe. Immediately after Munich, in October 1938, Germany demanded the annexation of the Free City of Gdarisk,* and of a strip of territory across the Polish "Corridor."* On March 17, 1939, after the annexation of Bohemia and Moravia by the Third Reich, the British government announced a guarantee of Poland's independence, and, on August 25, 1939, two days after the Ribbentrap-Molotov Pact,* the Anglo-Polish alliance was signed. France followed its British ally. In May 1939 a Polish-French military agreement, which promised French assistance in case of German aggression against Poland, was concluded. But implementation of this agreement depended on the conclusion of a political treaty. This was signed on September 4, 1939, four days after the Nazi invasion of Poland. G. Sakwa, "The Renewal of the Franco-Polish Alliance in 1936 and the Rambouillet Agreement," Polish Review XVI

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2 (1971); P. Wandycz, France and Her Eastern Allies, 1919-1925 (1962); P. Wandycz, The Twilight of French Eastern Alliances, 1926-1936 (Princeton, New Jersey, 1988). FRANK, HANS (1900-1946), jurist and Nazi official, Governor-General of German-occupied Poland during 1939-1945. In 1923 he joined the Nazi party and took part in Hitler's Beer-Hall Putsch in Munich. After Hitler came to power in 1933, Frank became a third-rate official, outside the inner circle of the Nazi leaders. It was a surprise, therefore, when in October 1939 Hitler appointed him head of General Government (GG),* the central-southern part of occupied Poland (the western part was incorporated directly into the Reich, the eastern section occupied by the Soviet Union). As a Governor-General, Frank tried to build up his own domain in Poland but was challenged by Himmler's Higher SS and Police Leader F. W. Kriiger. The Nazi leaders from the SS circle disagreed with Frank's pragmatic policy of economic stabilization and "saw the Generalgouvernement as the racial dumping ground, the slave-labor reservoir, and finally the slaughter yard of the Third Reich." Frank, a radical and a brutal Nazi himself, lost the political competition with the SS and was pushed toward ruthless exploitation and the genocide policy. In January 1945, he escaped from Poland and hid in Bavaria but was found, tried in Nuremberg, and sentenced to death as a person co-responsible for the destruction of Poland and the extermination of six million of its citizens. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 2 (New York, 1990), 524-526. FRANK, JACOB (1726-1791), pseudo-messiah and the founder of a Jewish sect named after him. Born in the small town of Korolowka in Podolia,* he moved as a young man to Czernowitz (Cernauti) and Bucharest, where he began to make a living as a dealer in cloth and precious stones. His trade took him through the Balkans to Turkish Smyrna, where he fell under the spell of the Shabbatean sect. Soon, he became a leader of the sect in Poland. Excommunicated by a rabbinical assembly and condemned by the Council of the Four Lands,* Frank and his supporters put themselves under the protection of the Catholic Church, and, after two public disputations with the representatives of rabbinical Jewry, several thousand Frankists were baptized in 1759 and 1760. They accepted Polish names, assimilated to the Polish culture, and became Polish patriots; however, for an uncertain period, they remained a relatively closed group, married only among themselves, and preserved their Jewish character in several ways. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. VII (Jerusalem, 1971), 55-72; G. and H. Lerski, "Frankism and Neophytes," Jewish-Polish Coexistence, 1772-1939: A Topical Bibliography (New York, 1986), 84-86. FRANKISTS. See FRANK, JACOB. FREDERICK AUGUST (1750-1827), grandson of August III,* Imperial Elector from 1763 and King of Saxony from 1806. In 1791, the Constitution of May

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3* offered him the Polish throne, but he declined it because of the Russian opposition. In 1806 he sided with Prussia* against Napoleon, but after the defeat of Jena, Frederick August signed the peace with France, entered the Confederation of the Rhine, and, after the Tilsit Treaty* of July 7, 1807, received the Duchy of Warsaw.* He became one of Napoleon's most loyal allies, joining him against Austria in 1809 and against Russia in 1812. However, he seldom resided in the Duchy of Warsaw, and his influence on its government was very limited. During the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, the Saxon troops went over to the Russians and Prussians, who took Frederick August prisoner. The Congress of Vienna* returned him to his Kingdom, but he had to abandon the title of Duke of Warsaw and cede northern Saxony to Prussia. WEP, IV, 39. FREDERICK II HOHENZOLLERN (1712-1786), King of Prussia* from 1740, who won for his country the status of a great European power and was one of the architects of the Partitions of Poland.* After his succession to the throne, Frederick exploited the French-British conflict and the new international situation in Europe and conquered economically important Silesia* during two wars against Austria (1740-1741 and 1744-1745). Prussia defended its gains during the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, mostly because of a change on the Russian throne. A new Tsar, German-born Peter III, was an ardent admirer of Frederick and concluded an alliance with him. Frederick also cooperated with Peter's wife and successor, Catherine the Great,* and, after the period of reconstruction of his country, ruined during the Seven Years' War, he participated in the First Partition* of Poland of 1772. It assigned to the Kingdom of Prussia Western (Royal) Prussia (or Eastern Pomerania*) without Gdarisk (Danzig)* and Toruri (Thorn),* and a part of Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* to the Notec River. In the occupied territories he immediately introduced Prussian administration and laws. Church and Polish Royal property were taken by the Prussian state. Prussia also abolished the gentry's tax freedom and restricted its power and began German colonization of Polish lands. W. Konopczyriski, Fryderyk Wielki a Polska (Frederick the Great and Poland) (Poznari, 1947).

FREDRO, ALEKSANDER (1793-1876), playwright. A scion of a wealthy noble family from Galicia,* he joined the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw* in 1809, participated in the 1812 Moscow expedition and, after its defeat, moved with Napoleon's Army to Paris. In 1815 he returned to Poland and spent most of his life in his family estate and in nearby Lvov.* During 1833-1842 he served in the Galician Diet. He represented the conservative nobility, opposed conspirational attempts and plans for radical agrarian reform, and supported close cooperation with the Habsburg* dynasty. Simultaneously, he fought for use of the Polish language in local administration and the censorship introduced in Galicia after the 1848 Revolution. He wrote for the public of Lvov, but, in spite of its contemporary preferences, he was not a Romantic. He adopted the versification and style of eighteenth-century Polish comedy, and C. Milosz called

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him "the last writer of the old Respublika" Fredo left about thirty comedies, most and the best of them written before 1835. They portray in a farcical way and with witty dialogue various shortcomings of Polish character, and they still form a part of the repertoire of the Polish theater. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 249-254; H. Segel, Comedies of Aleksander Fredo (Princeton, New Jersey, 1969); W. Weintraub, "Alexander Fredro and His Anti-Romantic Memoirs," Slavic and East European Review XII/4 (1953). FREDRO, ANDRZEJ MAKSYMILIAN (1620-1679), political writer and Castellan* of Lvov* very active in contemporary political life. In his Latin treatises, he favored the "Golden Freedom" and the "Sarmatian" way of life of the Polish gentry. He belongs to literary history mostly because of his only work in Polish, his Proverbs of Common Speech (Przyslowia mow potocznych), in which he collected and invented maxims reflecting the worldview of the Polish nobility. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 148. FREE CITY OF GDANSK (Danzig), small semi-state created under the Treaty of Versailles,* situated at the mouth of the Vistula* River. The northern borders of interwar Poland, drawn during the Paris Peace Conference,* resembled in the main the frontiers of pre-Partition Poland. However, the Polish "Corridor"* was resented by the German public, and its borders became an object of contention, especially in the Gdarisk* region. Poland's claim to Gdarisk was based on economic arguments, Germany's on ethnic arguments. The Peace Conference decided to make a compromise and form a Free City. Gdarisk enjoyed this status from 1807 to 1815 under French auspices. The compromise gave equal offense to Poland and Germany and was among the "unsolved problems" of both these powers. The Free City was formed by the activation of the Versailles Treaty on January 20, 1920, and comprised a population of 367,000 (in 1923, and 407,000 in 1939), and a territory of 1,893 square kilometers, divided into two urban counties (Gdarisk and Sopot) and three village areas. Its legal status included the articles of the peace treaty, two agreements with Poland, and the Constitution issued in 1922 and modified in 1930. The city had no state sovereignty, as its rights were limited in favor of Poland, which controlled all transportation in Gdarisk, represented it abroad, and had administrative governance over it. The Free City was within the custom borders of Poland, which were represented in Gdarisk by a General Commissioner. The controversies surrounding the city were to be solved by a High Commissioner of the League of Nations.* However, both the legislative body of the City, the Volkstag (Parliament), and its executive, the Senate, were dominated by Germans hostile to Poland, who antagonized it whenever possible. Polish rights to use the Gdarisk port were constantly restricted, and Warsaw* decided to build another port on Polish territory at Gdynia.* The Polish population, about 12 percent of all inhabitants, was harassed. The rights of Polish organizations were systematically curbed. With Hitler's access to power, strong Nazi sentiment gained an upper hand in the City. The

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Nazi Party won a majority of the assembly seats in the elections of 1933 and 1935. In 1933, the Senate unilaterally denounced the agreement with Poland regarding the administration of the port. From 1938, the actual power in the City passed to the Nazi Gauleiter, A. Forster, and the last President of the Senate, A. Greiser. On October 24, 1938, Hitler's Foreign Minister demanded the "return of Danzig," and, on September 1, 1939, the Germans attacked Polish units in the City and officially incorporated it into the Third Reich. C. Kimmich, The Free City Danzig and German Foreign Policy, 1919-1934 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1968); H. Levine, Hitler's Free City: A History of the Nazi Party, 1925-1939 (Chicago, 1970). FREEMASONRY, secret fraternal order and the largest worldwide secret society. It evolved from the guilds of medieval stonemasons and developed sophisticated symbolism and rites. In 1717 the first Grand Lodge was founded in England. In pre-Partitioned Poland freemasonry was officially abolished in 1734, but it re-emerged quickly. Kings Stanislaw Leszczyriski* and Stanislaw August* were devoted lodge members. Freemasons exercised a substantial influence on the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792 and supported the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* After the Partitions* of Poland, Freemasons in Prussian-occupied territories were quickly Germanized and became associated with German liberal movements. The activities of numerous secret organizations created favorable conditions for freemasonry in the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* where there were thirty-two lodges by 1815. In 1819 Major W. Lukasiriski* founded National Freemasonry (Wolnomularstwo Narodowe), which evolved into the conspiratorial, antiRussian National Patriotic Society. The main Polish lodge, the Grand Orient of Poland (Wielki Wschod Polski), was dissolved in 1822. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a group of intellectuals belonging to foreign lodges reestablished freemasonry in Poland. The first lodges were created in 1910. In 1921 the Grand Lodge of the Polish Nation (Wielka Loza Narodu Polski) was established. Among its leading members were scholars and writers such as M. Handelsman,* M. Michalowicz, H. Kolodziejski, E. Kipa, S. Stempowski, J. Langrod and A. Zaleski. In interwar Poland there were also German, Ukrainian, and Jewish freemasons. J. Pilsudski* ordered his followers to resign from freemasonry. In 1938, anticipating a Presidential decree, the Polish lodges dissolved themselves, but they re-appeared in exile during WW II. B. Chelmiriski, Masoneria w Polsce wpolczesnej (Warsaw, 1936); L. Hass, Wolnomularstwo w Europie srodkowowschodniej w XVIII i XIX wieku (Wroclaw, 1982). FRENCH CAMPAIGN, German invasion of the Low Countries and France between May 10 and June 22, 1940. The campaign closed the first period of WW II in the West (September 1939-June 1940). France and Great Britain did not interrupt the German conquest of Poland, and their operations against Germany were so limited that journalists began to speak about the "phony war." Thanks to this inactivity, the Nazis managed to regroup their armies, conquered

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Denmark and Norway in April 1940 and, on May 10, 1940, invaded France, which requested an armistice on June 16, 1940. About 85,000 soldiers of the Polish Army, organized by the Polish Government-in-Exile* in France, participated in its defense. Two Infantry Divisions and an Armored Brigade were sent to the front under Generals B. Duch,* B. Prugar-Ketling,* and S. Maczek.* After the fall of France the remnants of the Polish forces, about 19,000 men, were evacuated to Britain, while the bulk of the fighting units were either taken prisoner or interned in neutral Switzerland. The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 222-224; Polskie Sify Zbrojne w Drugiej Wojnie Swiatowej, vol. II (London, 1949). FRENKIEL, MIECZYSLAW (1858-1935), actor. After a debut in 1879, he performed in the theaters of Cracow,* Lvov,* Petersburg and Warsaw.* He also played in six Polish movies of the interwar period and was among the most popular comic actors, specializing in the plays of Moliere and Fredro. SBTP, 172-173. FRONT MORGES, alliance of the Polish centrist parties, the Christian Democracy,* the National Workers Party (Narodowa Partia Robotnicza),* and the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe).* The alliance was initiated in 1936 by Gen. W. Sikorski,* and its name derived from the Swiss town where I. Paderewski* resided. Its other personalities were J. Haller,* W. Korfanty,* K. Popiel,* S. Stroriski,* and W. Witos.* They attempted to consolidate the opposition against the post-Pilsudski Sanacja* regime, especially against its authoritarian character and risky foreign policy. Front Morges tried to enlarge its influence and formed a new organization, the Labor Party (Partia Pracy).* It was one of the parties which constituted the political basis for the Polish Government-inExile* during 1939-1945. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 418, 482, passim.

FRYCZ-MODRZEWSKI, ANDRZEJ. See MODRZEWSKI, ANDRZEJ FRYCZ.

G GABSZEWICZ, ALEKSANDER (1911-1983), fighter pilot. He fought in the 1939 September Campaign* and later distinguished himself during the Battle of Britain.* J. B. Cynk, History of the Polish Air Force, 1918-68 (Reading, Massachusetts, 1972). GACKI, STEFAN (1901-1984), politician and journalist. He participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921 and in the French Campaign* of 1940. In 1941 he was sent to the Polish Embassy in Kuibyshev to organize help for Polish deportees in the USSR. In 1943 he returned to London to serve as Head of the Soviet Division in the Foreign Ministry of the Polish Government-inExile. In 1944 he co-founded the Independence and Democracy (NID)* movement. G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy, 1939-1945 (New York, 1988). GADON, LUBOMIR (1831-1908), historian. After his involvement in the January Insurrection* of 1863, he emigrated to Paris to work for the Hotel Lambert.* In 1867 he became W. Czartoryski's* private secretary and a Co-Editor of Correspondance du Nord-Est. After W. Czartoryski's death, Gadon moved to Cracow,* where he worked on the history of the Great Emigration* and on Czartoryski's correspondence. PSB, VI-VII, 203-204. GALICIA, colloquial name for southern Poland, occupied by Austria during 1772-1918. The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria was created in 1773 out of the territories taken by the Habsburg Empire at the First Partition* of Poland in 1772. Previously, Galicia had no separate identity within the Polish state. The name harked back to the medieval Principalities of Halicz* and Vladimir, once claimed by the Hungarian state. In 1795 Galicia was enlarged by the Austrian share in the Third Partition of Poland, which was recaptured by the Duchy of Warsaw* in 1809 and, after the Congress of Vienna, formed a part of the Rus-

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sian-controlled Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In 1846 the Republic of Cracow* was added, and, after this reorganization, Galicia covered about 32,000 square kilometers and remained unchanged until the end of its autonomous existence in October 1918. Galician history, like that of the entire Habsburg Empire during the same epoch, can be divided into three periods: (1) the absolutist era before 1848; (2) the decades of revolution, counter-revolution and neo-absolutism of 1848-1859 and the struggle for democratic changes of 1859-1867; and (3) the epoch of Galician autonomy of 1867-1918. After 1772 Galicia, cut off from its Polish hinterland, stagnated and was exploited economically. The monarchs of Austria treated it as a reservoir of manpower for the Austrian Army. Galicia was among the most backward and poverty stricken regions of Central Europe and based its economy almost entirely on agricultural production. After the Springtime of Nations* in 1848, serfdom was abolished in Galicia, and the first changes leading to a capitalist society were introduced. In 1867-1874 broad Galician autonomy* was granted. Galicia, with its capital in Lvov,* was administered by an oligarchy of Polish nobles. Polish became its official language, and the province was reshaped into a center of Polish culture. The Galician population was about four million at the beginning of the nineteenth century (eight million in 1910) and consisted mostly of Poles (approximately 45 percent), Ukrainians (about 45 percent) and Jews* (about 6 percent). Western Galicia, west of the River San,* was mostly Polish, while Eastern Galicia, east of the San, was predominantly Ukrainian. Cultural autonomy helped to develop centers of learning and a high-quality press. During the last decades of the nineteenth century, Polish political life thrived in Galicia. Initially, the most influential was a conservative, loyalist group known as "Stariczyks."* Peasants' and workers' class movements appeared with the prominent Polish Peasant Party (Zwiazek Stronnictwa Chlopskiego)* and the Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia (PPSD).* After 1905 a Galician branch of the Polish National Democratic Party became one of the most influential political forces in Galicia. After the Russian revolution of 1905-1907, the leadership of the independence movement headed by J. Pilsudski* moved to Galicia. The illegal Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC])* and the legal para-military Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki)* were organized. After the outbreak of WW I, most political parties in Galicia assumed a pro-Austrian position. A Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN])* and the Polish Legions* were called into being. Galicia also became an arena of intense fighting between Russian and Austro-German armies, and large parts of the province were devastated. In October 1918, after the fall of the Habsburg Empire, Polish power was restored in Western Galicia* and, after the Polish-Ukrainian War* of 1919, also in the eastern part of the province. In September 1939, after the RibbentropMolotov Pact,* Galicia was divided between the Third Reich and the Soviet Union. After the 1941 Nazi invasion of the USSR, Eastern Galicia was incorporated into the General Government.* After WW II, it became part of the

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Soviet Ukraine. S. Kieniewicz, Galicja w Dobie autonomicznej (1850-1914) (Wroclaw, 1962); R. Magocsi, Galicia: A Historical Survey and Bibliographical Guide (Toronto, 1985). GALLUS ANONYMOUS (7-1116), author of the first Polish chronicle, most likely a Benedictine monk from France or Italy who settled in Poland as a chronicler of Prince Boleslaw the Wrymouth (Krzywousty).* The real name of the chronicler is unknown. He was called Gallus by a sixteenth-century Bishop, M. Kromer.* The chronicle covers the earliest history of Poland until the years 1112-1113, when it was written in a fashionable, strongly rhymed Latin prose. The text opens with a geographical description of the "country of the Slavs," tells of the legendary beginning of the Piast* dynasty, and includes descriptions of events, battles, and personalities, and also of some personal difficulties of the chronicler. His chronicle, one of the most important primary sources on Polish medieval history, praises Boleslaw the Wrymouth; takes a critical approach to some Piast rulers, such as Wladyslaw Herman*; and gives an objective presentation of the conflict between King Boleslaw the Bold* and Bishop Stanislaw Szczepanowski.* R. Grodecki, Kronika Galla Anonima (Cracow, 1923); F. Lazenby, "Galli Anonymi Chronico," Polish Review XI/4 (1966), 5-9; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 9-10; PSB, VI, 227-229. GALCZYNSKI, KONSTANTY IDELFONS (1905-1953), outstanding poet. Born in Warsaw,* he resided with his evacuated family in Moscow during 1914— 1919. Upon his return to Poland, he started publishing humorous poems in 1923 and enrolled in Warsaw University to study English and classical philology. In 1926—1933 he contributed to the satirical weekly Cyrulik Warszawski (Barber of Warsaw)* and was a member of the "Kwadryga" (Quadriga) poetic group in 1928-1930. He moved intellectually to the extreme political right and joined the Warsaw weekly Prosto z mostu (Straight from the Shoulder). He participated in the 1939 September Campaign* as an ordinary soldier and was taken prisoner of war. In 1946, he returned to Poland. His poetry is a unique and paradoxical mixture of folklore, absurd and street humor, nostalgia, fantasy, realism and the grotesque, with a nonchalant ironic view of all ideologies and a catastrophic mood. A jester, a buffoon, a drunkard, a vagabond, but at the same time a Polish patriot and dreamer, Galczyriski was one of the most unusual giants of Polish poetry. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 409-411; A. Stawar, O Galczynskim (Warsaw, 1959). GAMRAT, PIOTR (1487-1545), Bishop of Cracow* and Archbishop of Gniezno.* He enrolled in the Jagiellonian University* at Cracow in 1500, and, in 1507, he went to Rome as a courtier of a Bishop and diplomat, E. Ciolek.* In Rome, Gamrat continued his studies and mastered Italian. His fluent knowledge of this language opened a new career for Gamrat, who returned to Poland in 1522 and became a lifelong trustee and close adviser of Queen Bona,* the

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Italian wife of Zygmunt I.* Supported by the influential and energetic Queen, Gamrat eventually was promoted to the Archbishop of Gniezno and Primate* of Poland in 1541. As such, he zealously supported the Counter-Reformation,* created an Inquisitor office, denied the right to build Protestant churches in Lithuania, and demanded the expulsion of the Jews* from Cracow. At the same time, however, he promoted ethical improvement of the clergy, bettered relations between bishops and the lower ranks, supported a reform of the school system, and stressed the need for libraries and for more assistance to the Jagiellonian University. He favored the weakening of the legislative power of the Senate and the strengthening of the authority of the monarch and the rights of the middle gentry. His court became a noted intellectual center of Cracow. PSB, VII, 264266. GAUDENTY (9657-10117), Archbishop of Gniezno,* a stepbrother of St. Adalbert* and his companion from their childhood. They went together to Rome, to Poland and then to Prussia,* where Gaudenty witnessed St. Adalbert's martyrdom. Gaudenty remained at the Piast* Court of Poland and, in 999, was consecrated the first Archbishop of Gniezno. PSB, VI-VII, 308-309. GAZETA WARSZAWSKA, oldest Warsaw* daily, established in 1774 by Father S. Luskina. In 1794 it was taken over by the Lesznowski family, changed its title temporarily to Gazeta Wolna Warszawska (Free Warsaw Gazette), and again to Gazeta Krajowa (Home Gazette). Late in 1794, after serving as a press organ of the Kosciuszko Insurrection,* the paper returned to its original name. The Lesznowski family edited the daily throughout the entire nineteenth century. In 1906 the publishing rights were transferred to M. Zamoyski,* who changed the political orientation of the daily to the right. From 1910 it was edited by a new team led by R. Dmowski* and was reshaped into an "Endecja"* organ. WEP, IV, 132. G^SIOROWSKI, WACLAW (1869-1939), writer and emigre activist. In 1899, he moved from his native Warsaw* to Lvov,* to avoid persecution after he published the novel Ugodowcy (Conciliationists), which criticized political cooperation with Russia. In 1904, he settled in Paris, where he was active among Polish emigrants. After the outbreak of WW I, he established a bilingual weekly, Polonia, and was among the first to form Polish military and political organizations. In 1917 and during 1921-1930 he lived in the United States. In 1922 the Polish National Alliance* made him head of its college in Cambridge Springs, Pennsylvania. In 1930 he returned to Poland, where he organized and chaired the Association of Emigre Journalists and Publicists. Gasiorowski published several dictionaries, textbooks, works on France and America, and numerous novels, devoted especially to the Napoleonic period. PSB, VI-VII, 354356.

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GDANSK (Danzig), port city at the mouth of the Vistula* River. First mentioned in 997, it was a fishing settlement, a commercial center, and an important fort, especially after Mieszko I* conquered Eastern Pomerania* around 979. However, Gdarisk traditionally tried to protect its autonomy, particularly after 1138, when Boleslaw the Wrymouth* divided his monarchy among his sons and initiated the period of feudal division of Poland. In 1306 Gdarisk with its region was again a part of the Polish Kingdom, united by Wladyslaw Lokietek,* but, in 1308, the city was conquered by the Teutonic Knights.* From the thirteenth century Gdarisk belonged to the Hanseatic League* and expanded greatly. It attracted a large group of new rich settlers from Germany, received town privileges, and traded with Western Europe. The growth of Gdarisk was hampered by the Teutonic Knights' economic policy. Dissatisfied burghers organized several rebellions. In 1466, Gdarisk was regained by Poland after the Thirteen Years' War,* and it prospered for the next 300 years as a major center of wheat and timber export from Poland to Western Europe. The population of Gdarisk reached 77,000 in 1754, when it was one of the largest East European cities. However, the Swedish Wars* of the seventeenth century, the Northern War* of

1700-1721, and the occupation of Gdarisk by Prussia in 1772 stopped and then reversed the development of the city. During 1807-1815 Gdarisk was declared

a Free City by Napoleon and used as a French naval base. The Congress of

Vienna* gave it to Prussia. After WW I, the Versailles Treaty* created the Free City of Gdarisk,* which was a bone of contention between Poland and Germany. In 1938 Hitler demanded that the city be given to Germany and, on September 1, 1939, the German attack against the Polish Gdarisk garrison on the Westerplatte* peninsula started WW II. On the same day the city was officially incorporated into the Third Reich. Gdarisk was 55 percent damaged during the war. In 1945, it was regained by Poland. S. Askenazy, Danzig and Poland (London, 1930); EHGP, I, 189-191; B. Szermer, Gdansk, Past and Present (Warsaw, 1972).

GDYNIA, town and port on the Gulf of Gdarisk (Danzig), northwest of Gdarisk.* First mentioned in 1253, Gdynia remained a small fishing settlement until the interwar period, when it returned to Poland. In 1922, the Sejm* decided to build a major port in Gdynia to become economically independent of Germandominated Gdarisk. Gdynia developed quickly from a village of less than 1,000 to a modern town of 120,000 people in 1939 and became the largest Baltic port, with almost ten million tons of transit tonnage. It served mainly for the export of Polish coal, coke, lumber and sugar and was the main outlet of Polish sea trade. It also possessed a passenger port, a fishing harbor, and the naval port of Oksywie. After the outbreak of WW II, the city defended itself against the Germans for almost three weeks. The Nazis deported the entire Polish population and used the harbor as their repair shipyard. At the end of the war, the Germans destroyed most port installations and barricaded its entry by sinking large ships.

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J. Borowik, Gdynia. Port Rrzeczypospolitej (Toruri, 1934); B. Dopierala, "Beck and the Gdarisk Question, 1930-1935," Acta Poloniae Historica XVII (1968). GDYNIA-AMERYKA LINE (GAL), shareholding company established on March 11, 1930. Until 1934 it operated as the Polish Transatlantic Shipping Company. It transported passengers between Gdynia* and New York, and between the Romanian port of Constanza and Haifa in Palestine. The GAL passenger liners and cargo ships also navigated from Gdynia to ports of South and Central America, India and China. In 1938 the company served about 50,000 passengers. Of the initial capital of nine million zlotys,* 52 percent belonged to the Polish government, and 48 percent was owned by a Danish company. In 1939 GAL passed almost entirely to Polish ownership. Its first passenger liners were Kosciuszko, Polonia, and Pulaski. In 1932 larger transatlantic ships, ordered in Italian shipyards, were introduced, namely Pilsudski, Batory, Chrobry, and Sobieski. During the war, GAL moved to London and served as a major troop transport. Despite war losses, 24 ships were at the disposal of GAL in 1945, when it returned to Gdynia. H. Dehmel, Gdynia-Ameryka Linie Zeglugowe S.A., 1930-1950 (Gdarisk, 1969). GEBETHNER AND WOLFF, publishing house and bookstore in Warsaw,* established in 1857 by Gustaw Gebethner (1831-1901) and Robert Wolff (18331910), with branches in Poznari,* Cracow,* Lublin,* Lodz,* Vilna,* Zakopane,* Paris, and New York. It mainly published books of Polish authors and issued all pre-war editions of the Nobel laureates H. Sienkiewicz* and W. Reymont,* as well as those of other noted Polish authors. The company also published sheet music and newspapers. WEP, IV, 153. GEMBICKI, PIOTR (1585-1657), Crown Chancellor* and Bishop of Cracow.* After studies abroad, he became a secretary in the King's Chancery. In 1635 he was promoted to Vice-Chancellor and Bishop of Przemysl.* In 1638 he became Chancellor and an actual Foreign Minister of Poland. His policy was characterized by support of the Austrian Empire and a strong anti-Brandenburg attitude. In 1642 Gembicki gave his position of Chancellor to his political rival, Vice-Chancellor J. Ossoliriski,* and became Bishop of Cracow. PSB, VI-VII, 379-382. GEMBICKI, WAWRZYNIEC (1559-1624), Archbishop of Gniezo.* He began his career in the chancery of the Vice-Chancellor of Poland and became a private secretary of King Stefan Batory.* He remained in this position under King Zygmunt III Waza* and acquired several ecclesiastical offices. A good diplomat, he was sent to Rome in 1596, in 1607 he was appointed Crown ViceChancellor, and, in 1609, Chancellor.* He supported the King's plans to subjugate Muscovy and, in 1610, participated in a military expedition against this state. When it ended in failure, Gembicki passed the Crown Seal to his rival,

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F. Kryski, and devoted his attention to Church matters, including CounterReformation* policies aimed against Lutherans in Gdarisk.* In 1615 he was nominated Primate* of Poland. PSB, VI-VII, 832-834. GENERAL GOVERNMENT (Generalgouvernement [GG]), name of an administrative unit established by the Germans on October 26, 1939, by Hitler's decree of October 12, 1939. The area consisted of those parts of Poland that had not been incorporated into the Third Reich and were not occupied by the Soviet Union. It was divided into four districts (Distrikt): Cracow,* Warsaw,* Radom* and Lublin.* After the Nazi aggression against the USSR, the fifth district of Lvov* was added in August 1941, and the GG then included 145,000 square kilometers and about fifteen million inhabitants. Its full official name was Generalgouvernement fur die Besetzten Polnischen Gebiete (General Government for the Occupied Areas of Poland). The districts of the GG were divided into sub-districts (Kreis), and the whole unit was administered by a government located in Cracow and headed by the General Governor, Hans Frank.* Only a few Polish institutions, operating under strict General Government supervision, were permitted to function, among them the bank, the Polnische Polizei (Polish Police), and the General Relief Committee. The Germans considered the GG a reservoir of slave manpower and cheap food and a reservation for the Jews* and Poles relocated from other regions. The occupiers destroyed Polish culural, educational and scientific institutions and killed over six million Polish citizens, among them about three million Jews. The Volksliste* (a list of Poles of German origin) was established, and the Nazis planned to Germanize and colonize the GG, a vast Polish underground movement notwithstanding. It was set free in the summer of 1944 and the winter of 1945 during two Soviet offensives. J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland 1939-47 (Leicester, England, 1986); J. T. Gross, Polish Society under German Occupation: The Generalgouvernement,

1939-1944 (Princeton, New Jersey, 1979); S. Piotrowski, Hans Frank's Diary (Warsaw, 1961).

GENOCIDE, term applied to the murder of human beings by reason of their belonging to a nation or an ethnic or religious group (from Greek genos, "race," and Latin caedes, "killing"). The term was used for the first time by a Jewish lawyer, R. Lemkin, at a 1933 conference in Madrid. During WW II, Lemkin developed the concept of genocide to describe the Nazi extermination crimes. The International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg used the concept of "crimes against humanity." On December 9, 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a convention for "the prevention of genocide and the punishment of the organizers thereof," which is known as the United Nations Genocide Convention. The charge of genocide was included in the Nuremberg proceedings and in several trials in Poland against the Nazi criminals. S. Datner, J. Gumkowski, and K. Leszczyriski, Genocide, 1939-1945 (Warsaw, 1962); Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 2 (New York, 1990), 553-554.

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GERMAN COLONIZATION COMMISSION, agency established by the Prussian government in 1907 for the expropriation of the holdings of Polish landowners and the systematic German colonization of the western provinces of Prussian-occupied Poland. The Poles answered with an action of self-defense, won the struggle for land, and emerged with an increase in their holdings by the beginning of WW I. This was partly caused by the flight of German population from the Polish lands in the east to better industrialized regions in the west of Prussia.* The colonization was supported by other anti-Polish means of the Prussian government, such as the "muzzle" or forbidding the use of the Polish language in public meetings. CHP, II, 409^431; W. Jakubczyk, "The First Decade of the Prussian Settlement Commission's Activities, 1886-97," Polish Review XVII (1972), 3-12. GERO (8907-965), from 937 a Margrave of the Eastern March (Ostmark) of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, known for his hostility toward Slavs. He conquered Slavic tribes between the rivers Elbe and Oder, which became a border between his March and Poland. The first encounters of Gero's warriors with those of Mieszko I* were recorded in Bishop Thietmar's* chronicle in the year 963, which can be accepted as the very first date of Polish history, although it remains controversial among historians. Brockhaus Encyclopadie, vol. 7 (Wiesbaden, 1969), 173; W. Hensel, The Beginnings of the Polish State (Warsaw, 1960). GESTAPO (Geheime Staatspolizei), Nazi secret police established in 1933 by H. Goering and developed after 1934 by H. Himmler, who made it a subdivision of the SS. The Gestapo controlled the concentration camps, and its activities extended into occupied countries. Gestapo became the most dreaded word in occupied Poland for its mass terror and cruel methods of investigation. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 5 (Chicago, 1992), 227. GEYER, LUDWIK (1805-1869), industrialist of German origin, one of the pioneers of the Polish textile industry. In 1828 he moved from Saxony to Lodz,* where he founded a cotton textile factory, which later became the largest in Poland. In 1840 it had about 600 workers and over 20,000 spindles. The enterprise was eventually reshaped into a shareholding association in 1886. EHGP, I, 197. GHETTO, Jewish district separated from other parts of a city. The term derived from the Geto Nuovo (New Foundry), a closed quarter of Venice, where the Venetian Jews* were forced to settle in 1516. Jewish streets already existed in Poland by the thirteenth century, and numerous Polish cities received privilegia de non tolerandis Judaeis. From the end of the eighteenth century, the policy of obligatory Jewish ghettos was gradually abandoned in Europe. During WW II a new kind of ghetto was organized in Nazi-occupied Eastern Europe. Ghettos

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became a transitional phase leading to the "final solution,"* an instrument of destruction. There is no record of any general order for the establishment of the ghettos, and the Nazis did not use that name. Instead, they called ghettos Jiidische Wohnbezirk (Jewish residential quarter) and claimed that they were to prevent the spread of contagious diseases and political rumors by the Jews and to restrict Jewish profiteering. The first ghetto in occupied Poland was established in Piotrkow Trybunalski in October 1939. The Warsaw* ghetto, the largest in Europe (445,000 inhabitants in March 1941), was closed off and separated from the outside "Aryan" world in November 1940. In Silesia,* an area incorporated into the Reich, the ghettos were installed at the end of 1942 and the beginning of 1943, when most Jewish communities in Eastern Europe were being annihilated. Late in fall 1941 there were about 800 ghettos in Poland. Some of them were enclosed by a barbed-wire and wooden fence or by a wall. Others were partially opened and were locked shortly before the last phase of the "final solution." East European ghettos housed not only the local Jewish population, but also the Jews from smaller cities and from Western Europe. In October 1941, the German General Governor in Poland, Hans Frank,* decreed that every Jew found outside the ghetto without permission would be executed. Because of the harsh conditions inside the ghettos, more than 100,000 died of starvation and disease in 1941 and 1942 in the Warsaw and Lodz* ghettos alone. The Jews answered with organized resistance, which reached its peak in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising* in April 1943. In the spring of 1942, the Nazis started the liquidation of the ghettos. The last of the ghettos survived until the summer of 1944 in Lodz. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 2 (New York, 1990), 579-582.

GIBALSKI, EDWARD (1886-1915), activist of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socialistyczna [PPS]).* He joined the PPS in 1904, organized and commanded its fighting squads that fought against the Russian administration in the Lublin,* Plock* and Kielce* regions. In 1912 he left the Congress Kingdom of Poland* for Galicia* and Switzerland, where he enrolled in a technical school. At the outbreak of WW I he returned to Galicia and joined the Polish Legions.* He was killed in a battle with the Russians on September 13, 1915. PSB, VI-VII, 421. GIBRALTAR, CATASTROPHE OF, accident or assassination which caused the death of Gen. W. Sikorski,* the Prime Minister of the Polish Governmentin-Exile.* On July 4, 1943, a British bomber piloted by a Czech, Capt. E. Prchal (the only survivor), exploded soon after leaving the runway with W. Sikorski; his daughter, Z. Lesniowska; Chief of Staff Gen. T. Klimecki; British Col. V. Cazalet; and two Polish officers. There are several theories explaining the event, but the mystery was never fully solved. It was found later that a Soviet spy, Col. K. Philby, was in charge of British intelligence operations in Gibraltar when Gen. Sikorski was there. In the Gibraltar air crash Poland lost its top leader.

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Nazi propaganda tried to utilize the catastrophe by driving a wedge between the outraged Poles and Churchill's government. D. Irving, Accident: The Death of General Sikorski (London, 1967). GIBSON, HUGH (1883-1954), American diplomat. Early in 1919 he became the first American Envoy Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Minister to Poland, where he served until April 1924. G. Lerski, Herbert Hoover and Poland: A Documentary History of a Friendship (Stanford, California, 1977); C. Perrin-Galpin, Hugh Gibson, 1883-1954: Extracts from His Letters and Anecdotes from His Friends (New York, 1956). GIEDYMIN (Gediminas) (12757-1341), Grand Duke of Lithuania. He succeeded his brother, Vytenis, and started the Gediminian dynasty, which included his grandson, Wladyslaw Jagiello.* Giedymin greatly enlarged his domain with cunning diplomacy and military force. He also strengthened the internal fabric of his state. Besides a large number of forts, he established the towns of Troki* and Vilna*; invited monks, merchants and artisans from the cities of the Hanseatic League*; and developed trade with other countries. He married his daughter, Aldona, to Kazimierz,* son of the Polish King Wladyslaw Lokietek,* and built a network of alliances to neutralize the threat of the Teutonic Knights.* To prevent further attacks by the Knights, Giedymin established relations with Pope John XXII but avoided religious conversion and the Christianization of his state. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 2 (Boston, 1972), 287-293; WEP, IV, 223. GIERAT, STANISLAW (1903-1977), peasant youth leader. In 1928 he cofounded the Central Association of Peasant Youth "Sowing" (Centralny Zwiazek Mlodej Wsi ["Siew"]). The organization supported the political camp of J. Pilsudski,* and it competed with the more radical peasant youth association "Wici" (Call to Arms).* After the outbreak of WW II, Gierat fought in the September Campaign,* moved to France and Scotland, and served in the Second Army Corps of Gen. W. Anders.* L. Stariczykowski, "Wspomnienie o Stasiu," Nowy Dziennik, September 23, 1977. GIERTYCH, JEDRZEJ (1903- ), nationalist politician and writer. As a young man he participated in the Polish-Soviet War,* and he studied law in Warsaw* in the 1920s. He joined the National Democracy* and, in 1932-1933, he was a secretary of the Camp of Greater Poland (Oboz Wielkiej Polski [OWP]).* He authored numerous historical and political works and contributed nationalistic articles to Gazeta Warszawska and the official organ of Endecja,* Warszawski Dziennik Narodowy (Warsaw National Daily). During 1935-1938 he served on the Executive Committee of the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe),* and he was among the most loyal followers of R. Dmowski.* After the 1939 September Campaign, he was taken prisoner by the Germans. Released at the end

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of the war, he joined the London exiles. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 372. GIERYMSKI, ALEKSANDER (1850-1901), outstanding painter, brother of Maksymilian Gierymski.* After studies in Warsaw* and Munich and several years of work in Rome, he became a pillar of an artistic community in Warsaw, where he lived in 1880-1888. The city and its everyday life were among the main motifs of his paintings. He also contributed illustrations to Warsaw's journals. After 1888 he lived in Munich, Paris, southern France and Italy. In France he fell under the spell of Impressionism. Later, he combined it with his own emotional but realistic style. He was one of the best Polish colorists and could compete with the most outstanding European artists of his time. PSB, VI, 447-450. GIERYMSKI, MAKSYMILIAN (1846-1874), painter, brother of Aleksander Gierymski.* He participated in the January Insurrection,* which later was reflected in the themes of his paintings. After the fall of the uprising, he enrolled in the law department of Warsaw's Principal School (Szkola Glowna),* but then he began art studies and obtained a scholarship to study in the Munich Academy of Fine Arts in 1867. Subsequently, he participated in several international exhibits in London, Berlin and Vienna, where he became highly praised and well paid. Most of his paintings depicted Polish landscapes and scenes of the January uprising. PSB, VI, 450-452. GILLER, AGATON (1831-1887), journalist, historian, member of the National Government during the January Insurrection.* In 1849 he left his native Kalisz* region for the Prussian-occupied Poznari (Posen)* region and then for Cracow,* where he associated with the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie).* Arrested by the Austrian authorities, he was extradited to Russia and deported to Siberia* in 1853. In 1860 he returned to Warsaw, became involved in the patriotic movement, and joined the National Central Committee (Centralny Komitet Narodowy) and the "Reds." In 1863 he became a member of the National Government hiding in Warsaw. As a consequence of a conflict with the radical Red leaders, Giller was removed from the government and left Poland for Saxony and Switzerland, where he published a Polish daily, Ojczyzna (Fatherland). In 1867 he went to Paris and, in 1870, to Galicia,* where he continued his patriotic activities. As a result, he was expelled by Austrian authorities in 1878 and went to Switzerland, later to return to Galicia in 1884. As a politician, he represented a middle-of-the-road policy. He opposed premature revolutionary outbreaks but endorsed consequent fighting for independence, building of secret organizations, and applying for international support for Polish national endeavors. PSB, VI, 467-470.

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GISEWIUS, GUSTAW (1810-1848), ethnographer and educational activist in East Prussia.* A scion of a Polish Germanized family of Gizyckis, he began to research Mazurian (Slavic East Prussian) folklore under the influence of Romanticism.* During his theological studies in Konigsberg, he took courses in Polish language and culture. When he became a Lutheran preacher in the city of Ostroda in 1835, he protected the Polish-speaking Mazurian population from Germanization. He authored a collection of local folk songs and tales. Together with K. Mrongowius,* Gisewius prepared a memorandum to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, demanding the legal recognition of the Polish language in the southern region of East Prussia. PSB, VIII, 4. GISZ, General Inspectorate of Armed Forces (Generalny Inspektorat Sil Zbrojnych), Polish interwar supreme military organ created in August 1926 and headed by the General Inspector of the Armed Forces, who was to be Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army in case of war. The most important element of GISZ consisted of a group of Generals with the title of Army Inspectors, who supervised the training of particular armies and branches of service. The General Inspector had Chiefs of Staff under his command, and, from 1936, he also supervised the Committee for Armament, the Military Academy, and the Bureau of Military History. From 1936 the General Inspector also served as Deputy Chair of the Committee for Defense of the Republic headed by the President of Poland. Until 1935, Marshal J. Pilsudski* served as the first General Inspector. After his death in May 1935, he was succeeded by Gen. E. SmiglyRydz,* who was promoted to Marshal in 1936. Pilsudski founded GISZ after the coup d'etat of 1926, because he was afraid that the frequent changing of Ministers of Military Affairs, as occurred in Poland after WW I, jeopardized the development of national security and the alertness of the Armed Forces. B. Podoski, "Organizacja naczelnych wladz obrony panstwa," Niepodleglosc vol. VII (1962).

GLIWIC, HIPOLIT (1878-1943), economist and politician. He joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socialistyczna [PPS])* in 1905 and participated in the Revolution of 1905.* Later he taught in the Mining Institute in St. Petersburg. In 1918 he served as a Counselor in the Russian Legation of the Polish Council of Regency.* During 1919-1925 he worked as a counselor and charge d'affaires in the Polish Embassy in Washington. In 1926 he became a Minister of Industry and Trade and, in 1928, he joined the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR])* and became a Deputy Speaker of the Senate* and Chairman of the Senate Financial Budgetary Commission. He often represented Poland in the League of Nations in Geneva. During WW II he participated in the resistance. Arrested by the Gestapo,* he committed suicide. PSB, VIII, 74-75. GLIWICE (Gleiwitz), one of the seven large industrial towns of Upper Silesia.* Gliwice, an old settlement, received its city rights in 1276 and belonged to

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Poland until the fourteenth century, when it passed with the entire region to Bohemia, then to the Habsburgs*; in 1742, it was incorporated into Prussia.* By the end of the eighteenth century, industrial development began with the building of an iron foundry, coal mines and a coke furnace. After WW I the city remained part of Germany in spite of its large Polish population and reached 117,000 inhabitants in 1939. On the eve of WW II, Hitler staged a simulated assault by allegedly Polish uniformed men on the Gliwice radio station to create a pretext for armed aggression against Poland. WEP, IV, 265-266. GLOBOCNIK, ODILLO (1904-1944), Nazi Commander of the SS and police units in the Lublin* District of the General Government* during 1939-1943. Remembered for exceptional cruelty, he was responsible for mass deportations of Polish children from the Zamosc* region. L. Yahil, The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry (New York, 1990), 136, passim GLOGER , ZYGMUNT (1845-1910), ethnographer, historian and archaeologist. A prolific writer and contributor to numerous periodicals, he gained respect with his ethnography, introduced comparative methods and modern ethnographic descriptions, and reshaped ethnography into an auxiliary branch of history. His impressive Encyklopedia Staropolska Ilustrowana (Illustrated Old Polish Encyclopedia) deals with many aspects of Polish culture. He collected major research materials and archives, which he willed to museums in Cracow* and Warsaw.* PSB, VIII, 80-81. GLUZINSKI, TADEUSZ (HENRYK ROLICKI) (1888-1940), politician. He was active in the National Democratic Party* from the period of his studies at Lvov University.* After WW I he settled in Warsaw,* where he worked in the Ministry of Education and then as an independent lawyer. He contributed articles to the rightist press and published several ultra-nationalistic and anti-Semitic works. In 1934 he left the National Party* and joined the pro-fascist National Radical Camp (Oboz Narodowo-Radykalny [ONR]).* When it was later declared illegal, he was arrested together with his companions and jailed in the concentration camp of Bereza Kartuska.* PSB, VII, 88. GL4BINSKI, STANISLAW (1862-1943), economist and politician. He graduated from the Lvov* University where he later taught, and became a professor, Dean, and Rector (1908-1909). In the 1890s he began his political career as an ardent nationalist. During 1902-1918, he was a member of the Austrian Reichsrat. He also held a seat in the Galician* Diet (1904-1918) and the Diet of Bukovina (1910-1918). After the founding of the Galician branch of the National Democratic Party* in 1905, he was its most important leader. He edited several national periodicals in Galicia and was active in numerous Polish economic organizations. He intended to develop and strengthen Galician autonomy and was hostile to the Ukrainian political emancipation movement. In 1911 he

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became Minister of Railroads and Transportation in the Austrian government. With the outbreak of WW I, he joined the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]),* but he withdrew in October 1914, and, from 1917, he represented the anti-Austrian coalition. In 1918, he participated in the establishment of Polish authority in Galicia and became Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Council of Regency* government of J. Swiezyriski.* After the complete liberation of Poland, Glabiriski opposed J. Pilsudski's* political leadership. In 1919 Glabiriski was elected to the Sejm,* where he chaired the representation of the Popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo Narodowy [ZLN])*—a new organization of National Democracy. He also became Minister in the two Chjeno-Piast* governments of W. Witos* in 1923 and 1926. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* Glabiriski was one of the main leaders of the opposition and represented it in the Senate (1928-1935). In September 1939 he was arrested by the Soviets and disappeared in the Soviet Gulag. PSB, VIII, 102105. GLOGOW, town on the Oder* River. It was a capital of the Dziadoszanie tribe, before it was incorporated into the Polish state organized by the Piast* dynasty in the tenth century. The city played an important role during the wars of Boleslaw Chrobry (the Brave)* and Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth)* against the Germans. In 1251 Glogow became a capital of the Piast Principality, which was alternately under Czech and Polish control throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Then, Glogow was incorporated into the Habsburg Empire, and, after 1740, into Prussia* to develop as an industrial center. In 1945, the city, almost completely ruined during the heavy WW II fighting, returned to Poland. WEP, IV, 274-275. GLOWACKI (BARTOSZ), WOJCIECH (17587-1794), peasant hero of the Kosciuszko Insurrection.* Drafted to the insurgent Army of T. Kosciuszko,* Glowacki distinguished himself in the Battle of Raclawice* in an assault of peasant scythemen on a Russian Battery on April 4, 1794. Glowacki was first to take control of an Artillery piece and immobilized it by covering its pan with his cap. He was promoted by Kosciuszko to the rank of ensign, his last name was changed from Bartosz to Glowacki, and he was freed from serfdom by his landlord. Mortally wounded in the Battle of Szczekociny on June 6, he died three days later and became a symbol of peasant bravery and patriotism. PSB, VIII, 128-130. GNIEZNO, town in the Poznari (Posen)* region, the first capital of Poland. It existed as a stronghold of the Polanie* tribe in the eighth century and, according to legendary tradition, was established by Lech, the mythological founder of Poland. In 1000 Gniezno became a capital of the first Roman Catholic Archdiocese and, in 1240, was granted a charter. Gniezno survived several advances of Czechs and Teutonic Knights*, but lost its importance when the political

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center of Poland was moved to Cracow* in the thirteenth century. The Swedish Wars* of the seventeenth century and the plague of 1708-1710 started the decline of the city. In 1793, as a result of the Second Partition* of Poland, Gniezno was incorporated into Prussia.* In 1807 it passed to the Duchy of Warsaw* and again to Prussia in 1815. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the city developed industrially with the manufacture of agricultural machinery, iron, and other products. In 1872 it gained railroad linkage with Poznari and Bydgoszcz, and, in 1910, it had over 50,000 inhabitants. After WW I Gniezno was regained by Poland, but, because of economic stagnation, its population decreased to 33,000 in 1939. J. Daniec, "Poland's Oldest Cathedral," Polish Review XVII/3 (1972), 94-100; J. Topolski, "The Role of Gniezno in International Trade," Acta Poloniae Historica XVIII (1968), 194-204. GODEBSKI, CYPRIAN (1765-1809), poet and soldier. He participated in the Kosciuszko Insurrection,* and after its fall he emigrated to Western Europe. He joined J. H. Dabrowski's* Polish Legions* and distinguished himself in several battles. He participated in educational activities in the Legions and published its newspaper, Dekada Legionowa (Decade of the Legion). The best representative of the Legions' poetry, he expressed his disappointment with Napoleon's Polish policy. He was mortally wounded in the Battle of Raszyn.* PSB, VIII, 163-165. GOJAWICZYNSKA, POL A (1896-1963), novelist. Born in a proletarian family, she wrote on the Warsaw* proletariat and petty bourgeoisie. The Girls of Nowolipki (Dziewczeta z Nowolipek) won her the Literary Award of the City of Warsaw, and it was made into a film. From 1932 she worked for the government daily Gazeta Polska. During WW II, she was twice jailed by the Gestapo* at the Pawiak* prison, and, in 1945, she published a book on her prison experiences. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 632; WEP, IV, 304. GOLDEN FREEDOM, popular expression describing the sum of privileges of the Polish nobility* as they grew in the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries. Principal among them were the neminem captivabimus nisi iure victim (1425), a sort of habeas corpus act, which guaranteed personal immunity of noblemen; the nihil novi* (1505), which established Parliamentary control over legislation; the liberum veto* which gave individual Sejm* members a right to dissolve the Parliament and block legislation; and the right of every nobleman to participate in the election of a new monarch. I. K. Federowicz, A Republic of Nobles (Cambridge, 1982). GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR (1812-1875), Galician politician and Austrian statesman. He began his career as an Austrian civil servant in 1835 and distinguished himself as an ultra-conservative enemy of Polish insurrections and a guardian of the interests of the landed gentry. In 1848-1859 he was a Vice-

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Governor, Governor, and Vice-Regent of Galicia.* As Minister of Interior for the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1859-1860, he authored the "October diploma" of 1860, which granted diets to the Habsburg lands and reshaped the empire into a federal state. Goluchowski also introduced Polish as an official language in Galicia. A consistent supporter of the federalist policy, he withdrew from politics in December 1860, when a centralist approach succeeded in Vienna. However, in 1866, after Austria was defeated by Prussia* and returned to federal organization, Goluchowski again accepted the office of Vice-Regent of Galicia, and served three terms in that capacity through 1871. PSB, VIII, 257259. GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR (1849-1921), diplomat and Austrian Foreign Minister during 1895-1906, son of the senior Agenor Goluchowski.* From 1872 he served in the Austrian diplomatic service in Vienna, Berlin, Paris, and Bucharest. In 1893 he resigned and settled in Lvov,* but, two years later, he was called back to Vienna to become Foreign Minister of the Empire. In 1897 he achieved a detente in Austro-Russian relations and helped to establish a joint Austro-Russian policy toward Turkey. In 1902 he signed the renewal of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Italy. After ten years of tenure, the Hungarian opposition forced him to resign. In 1907 he joined the upper chamber of the Vienna Parliament as head of the Polish group. During WW I he chaired its political commission, working on the emancipation of Galicia. PSB, VIII, 260261. GOMBROWICZ, WITOLD (1904-1969), writer. A scion of a rich gentry family, he studied law and economics in Warsaw* and Paris. He began his career in 1933 with a collection of surrealistic and grotesque short stories, Pamietnik z Okresu Dojrzewania (Memoirs from the Time of Immaturity). His next works, among them the drama Iwona Ksiezniczka Burgundii (Yvonne, Princess of Burgundy) and the novel Ferdydurke, also broke with the nineteenth-century "mirror of life" novel and represented a new experimental "anti-novel" style. J. Jarzebski, Gra w Gombrowicza (Warsaw, 1983); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 432-437. GOMOLKA, MIKOLAJ (15357-1609), composer. In 1545 he was accepted into the Royal Capella at King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August's* Court. He left the Royal Court in 1563, but, in 1586, he returned to Cracow* to be a Court musician for Chancellor* J. Zamoyski.* His only known compositions are melodies on Polish psalter, published in 1580 in Cracow. PSB, VIII, 274-275. GOMULKA, WLADYSLAW ("WIESLAW") (1905-1982), Communist leader, general secretary of the Polish Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza [PPR])* in 1943-1948, and first secretary of the Polish United Workers' Party (Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza [PZPR]) in 1956-1970. Trained as a

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locksmith, he joined the socialist youth movement and the trade union of chemical workers in the early 1920s to become a professional trade union organizer. In 1926 he joined the Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP]),* and he studied at the International Lenin School in Moscow in 1934— 1936. Arrested many times and seriously wounded by the Polish police, he spent several years in Polish prisons. Released after the outbreak of WW II, he participated in the defense of Warsaw.* After its capitulation, he moved to Lvov* and worked as a minor Soviet official in a paper mill. After the Nazi aggression against the USSR, Gomulka returned to his native region of Krosno* and organized the communist underground there. In July 1942 he moved to Warsaw and joined the clandestine PPR. In November 1943, after the arrest of P. Finder,* Gomulka became the Secretary General of the party. He also authored its program, co-founded the Communist-controlled Homeland National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa [KRN]),* and became a Vice-Premier in the first two

post-war Communist-controlled governments of Poland. N. Bethell, Gomulka, His

Poland, His Communism (New York, 1969); M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1959). GORA KALWARIA, small town 30 kilometers south of Warsaw* that became an important center of Jewish culture and the seat of the Hasidic Ger dynasty (Ger was the Yiddish* name of the city). Gora Kalwaria was mentioned for the first time in the primary sources in 1252 and, in 1670, received its urban rights. The Jewish community, established there after the Third Partition* of Poland in 1795, numbered 2,919 members in 1897 (55.1 percent of the total population). In February 1941 all the Jews* of the city (some 3,500) were transferred to the Warsaw ghetto* and annihilated there. The last representative of the Ger dynasty, Abraham Mordecai Alter, escaped from Poland to Israel in 1940. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 7 (Jerusalem, 1971), 784-785; WEP, IV, 354. GORZECHOWSKI, JAN ("JUR") (1874-1949), activist in the Polish independence movement and organizer of the Polish police. A son of an 1863 insurrectionist, he participated in youth conspiracies as a student in Warsaw.* In 1904 he joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socialistyczna [PPS]).* As a railroad clerk, he belonged to the All-Russian Committee of the Railroad Union and co-organized the general strike in Warsaw in 1905. He was also among the leaders of the PPS's fighting organization. Arrested in 1907, he was deported to Siberia* but escaped and settled in Lvov,* where he became one of the founders of the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWZ])* and the Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki). During WW I, he commanded the Field Gendarmerie of the First Brigade.* In 1915 he joined the clandestine Polish Military Organization (POW),* and he became a member of its Supreme Command and head of its militia. In 1918 he organized the Polish police and became its first Commander. Later, he was transferred to command Military Field Gendarmerie (1920) and border guards (1928). After the 1939

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campaign, he went to Palestine to join the Polish units there. He was demobilized in England in 1945. A. Garlicki, Jozef Pilsudski (Warsaw, 1990), 112, 132. GOSLAR, JULIAN (1820-1852), revolutionary activist. A son of a Polonized family of German colonists, he was involved in radical student conspiracies and expelled as a subversive from the Galician* school system. Working as a tutor of sons of the nobility, he agitated among peasants. In 1845 he met E. Dembowski,* and they prepared an appeal to the peasants, but Goslar was arrested. He managed to escape and continued his revolutionary activities but, in 1847, he was beaten by peasants and turned over to the Austrians. Sentenced to eighteen years of prison, he was released during the Springtime of Nations* and participated in the revolutionary events in Vienna. After the fall of the revolution, he was re-arrested in 1849 and received an amnesty again in 1850. Goslar continued writing and circulating incendiary pamphlets against the Habsburg monarchy. He was constantly on the move, carrying maps, weapons, and secret codes. Betrayed by a police confidant, he was convicted and executed. PSB, VIII, 350-351. GOSPODARKA NARODOWA (National Economy), Warsaw* bi-weekly published during 1931-1939 by a group of young civil servants of the Sanacja* regime. It advocated modernization of the capitalist system through a "statedirected economy." Gospodarka Narodowa favored an increased rate of industrialization while limiting the influx of foreign capital. At the same time it demanded curbing of cartels and monopolies. Innovative but highly specialized, it had a small circulation of about 2,000. EHGP, I, 206. GOSTOMSKI, ANZELM (15087-1588), Castellan* of Wyszogrod and Plock,* Provincial Governor of Rawa. A Calvinist leader, he demanded equal rights for dissidents,* and his name appears among the signatories of the 1573 Warsaw Confederation.* He supported Henryk Walezy* during the first free election, and the Habsburg* candidate against S. Batory* during the second election. Gostomski was an excellent administrator, and his fame is based on authorship of the agricultural guide Gospodarstwo (Farming), the first original Polish treatise of this sort. EHGP, I, 208; PSB, VIII, 362-364. GOSZCZYNSKI, SEWERYN (1801-1876), poet and politician. He was born and grew up in Ukraine,* in the region of Human, and, together with B. Zaleski,* was the founder of the Ukrainian school of Polish poetry.* As a young man Goszczyriski moved to Galicia* and later to Warsaw,* where he belonged to clandestine organizations and participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830. After the fall of the uprising, Goszczyriski escaped to Galicia. In the 1830s he wrote not only poetry, but also literary criticism and political journalism. In 1838 he left for Paris, where he was active in the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP])* and the Circle of A. Towiari-

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ski.* In 1872 Goszczyriski returned to Poland and settled in Lvov.* He was one of the first representatives of Romanticism.* C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 249; PSB, VIII, 374-377. GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC (15307-1607), political writer and Bishop of Poznari (Posen).* During his studies in Italy, he wrote a book on the Polish political system. The treatise, De optimo senatore libri duo, published in Venice in 1568, described an ideal Senator and presented a theory that the Senate was the most important factor, which allowed an equilibrium between the King and the gentry in Poland. Goslicki, who became a private secretary of King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August,* Bishop of Kamieniec, Chelm,* Przemysl* and Poznari, held many honors at the Royal Court and was very active in politics as a close assistant of Chancellor* J. Zamoyski.* C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 42-44; W. Wagner, "Laurencius Grimaldus Goslicius and His Age: Modem Constitutional Law Ideas in the XVI Century," Polish Review III/1-2 (1958), 37-57. GOTTLIEB, LEOPOLD (1883-1934), painter and brother of Maurycy Gottlieb. In 1910, after studies in Paris, Munich and Cracow* (as a student of J. Malczewski*), he went to Jerusalem to teach at the Bezalel School. During WW I he was a Lieutenant in the Polish Legions* of J. Pilsudski.* During the military campaigns, he drew over one thousand sketches, mainly portraits of the legionnaires. After the war he settled in Paris. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 7 (Jerusalem, 1971), 827; PSB, VIII, 560-562. GOTTLIEB, MAURYCY (1856-1879), painter. A son of a rich oil refinery owner from Drohobycz, Gottlieb studied at the art school in Lvov,* at the Vienna Academy, and at the Cracow Academy. Subjected to anti-Semitic harassment, he turned from German and Polish subject matter to Jewish motifs. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 7 (Jerusalem, 1971), 826-827; PSB, VIII, 556-560.

GOVERNMENT-IN-EXILE, Polish government, based on the constitution of 1935* and established in Paris after the German invasion of Poland in 1939. On September 18, 1939, after the Germans broke the resistance of the main Polish armed forces and the Soviet Union joined the Nazi aggression against Poland, the pre-war Polish government crossed the Romanian frontier and was interned in Romania. Most Poles who escaped from occupied Poland felt that the Sanacja* government was responsible for Poland's defeat and should resign. The French authorities made it clear that they would not support the formation of a new Sanacja government. After some difficulties, W. Raczkiewicz* was appointed the President of Poland, thereby securing the survival and legal existence of the Polish state. Raczkiewicz designated Gen. W. Sikorski* Prime Minister of a new government, which was completed on September 30, 1939. Sikorski, a leader of the Front Morges* and a politician considered by the French

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as their closest friend, had been appointed Commander of the Polish Army organized in France after the Franco-Polish agreement of September 21. He also received the portfolios for justice, internal affairs and military affairs in the new government. A majority of the Ministerial positions were held by other representatives of the pre-war opposition. The National Democracy* was represented in the cabinet by M. Seyda,* Minister without Portfolio, and S. Stroriski,* Vice-Premier and Minister of Propaganda. The Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* was represented by J. Stariczyk,* Minister of Social Welfare, and the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL])* by A. Lados, Minister without Portfolio. K. Popiel,* Undersecretary for Social Welfare; Gen. M. Kukiel,* Undersecretary for Military Affairs; and Gen. J. Haller,* Minister without Portfolio, were associated with the Labor Party (Stronnictwo Pracy [SP]).* As a compromise, there were also some former assistants of J. Pilsudski* in the government: Gen. K. Sosnkowski* was appointed the President's heir apparent and Minister without Portfolio, A. Zaleski* became a Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Col. A. Koc* was designated Minister of Finance. The government met with a favorable reaction among Poles and was recognized by the Allies. On November 2, 1939, the President dissolved the pre-war Sejm* and Senate,* and, since national elections were impossible, a National Council* was appointed to act as a substitute for the Parliament and serve as the consultative organ of the President and the government. On November 13, as the first act after the formation of the government, Sikorski reshaped the Service for the Victory of Poland (Sluzba Zwyciestwu Polski [SZP]),* established in Poland on September 27, 1939, on the orders of Marshal E. Smigly-Rydz,* into the Union for Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ]).* The new military underground was controlled by Sosnkowski through the Committee of Ministers for Polish Affairs, headed by him until August 1941. Sikorski also ordered the replacement of the Chief Political Council (Glowna Rada Polityczna [GRP]), a political organization that supervised the SZP, with the Political Consultative Committee (Polityczny Komitet Porozumiewawczy [PKP]). In addition, the underground state in Poland was controlled by the Delegation (Delegatura Rzadu na Kraj),* established in December 1940 and headed by the Delegate, C. Ratajski* from the Party of Labor, who was directly responsible to the Government-in-Exile. On November 22, 1939, the government moved to the city of Angers in northwest France and, in June 1940, after the defeat of France, was evacuated to London. Its situation drastically changed after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. On July 30, 1941, the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement* was signed. Poland and the Soviet Union became allies, and Moscow invalidated the RibbentropMolotov Pact,* offered amnesty to Polish prisoners in Russia, and helped to establish the Polish Army in the USSR commanded by Gen. W. Anders.* However, Polish-Soviet cooperation was not good, and, after the Battle of Stalingrad, Stalin came to the conclusion that the whole of Eastern and Central Europe would be controlled by the Red Army. On April 13, 1943, the Nazis announced

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the discovery of the graves of Polish officers at the Katyri Forest* and, when the Polish government asked the International Red Cross to examine the situation on the spot, the Soviet authorities accused the Poles of "contact and accord with Hitler" and broke off relations with the Government-in-Exile on April 21, 1943. This started the growing isolation of the Polish government, intensified by the death of Sikorski in the Catastrophe of Gibraltar* on July 4, 1943. Sikorski was replaced by S. Mikolajczyk.* However, the government was weakened by the growing internal conflict between the uncompromising anti-Soviet politicians and the various Polish leaders, including the new Premier, who understood that a compromise with the Soviets entering Poland was necessary. On November 24, 1944, Mikolajczyk resigned and was replaced by T. Arciszewski.* After the Yalta Conference* Mikolajczyk and several non-Communist politicians decided to join the Soviet-controlled Temporary Government of National Unity (Tymczasowy Rzad Jednosci Narodowej) established on June 28, 1945, and the Western Allies withdrew their recognition of the Government-

in-Exile. J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland 1939-1947 (Leicester, England, 1986),

22-35, passim; J. Lerski, "Emigracyjny Rzad Rzeczpospolitej 1939-1945," Wysilek

Zbrojny w 11 Wojnie Swiatowej (London, 1988); G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy (New York, 1988).

GORALE (Highlanders), inhabitants of the region of the Tatra* Mountains with Zakopane* as its main center. Ethnically of mixed composition, the gorale distinguish themselves with specific folk costumes, architectural style, and woodworking, as well as songs, vigorous dances and rich folk stories. They are also characterized by a strong attachment to independence. This last trait was the

cause of numerous rebellions in the region. Their anti-feudal and Polish patriotic resistance often bordered on robbery. During the Swedish Deluge,* gorale of the Zywiec Region assisted King Jan Kazimierz* in his return from exile. During WW II the Nazis tried unsuccessfully to organize that ethnic group as a separate "Goralenvolk," and the Tatra region became a center of a strong resistance movement. WEP, IV, 354. GORNICKI, LUKASZ (1527-1603), humanist and political writer. A son of a wealthy burgher family, educated in Cracow* and Padua, he worked in the chanceries of several magnates and bishops. In 1552 he moved to the Royal Chancellery, and, in 1559, he became a private secretary and, later, a librarian of King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August.* Gornicki authored a number of political and philosophical treaties, poems and a memoir, but his main accomplishment was The Polish Courtier (Dworzanin polski), published in 1566 and written in an elegant, sophisticated Polish prose. J. Krzyzanowski, "Lukasz Gornicki Parenosis," History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 55-56.

GRABOWSKI, STANISLAW (1780-1845), politician, King Stanislaw August's* son born out of wedlock. Educated in Western Europe, he served as a

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secretary of the State Council and the government of the Duchy of Warsaw.* He also held several important positions in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* He distinguished himself as a reactionary politician and was very unpopular in Polish society. WEP, IV, 370. GRABSKI, STANISLAW (1871-1949), economist, politician, brother of Wladyslaw Grabski.* An active socialist in his youth, he belonged to the Union of Polish Workers (Zwiazek Robotnikow Polskich) and, in 1892, participated in the founding congress of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socialistyczna [PPS]).* However, in 1901, he broke with socialism. In 1905, he joined the nationalistic Polish League (Liga Polska)* and was coopted to its Central Committee. In 1906 he moved to St. Petersburg, where he served as a secretary and adviser of the Polish Circle in the first Duma.* After it was dissolved, he returned to Lvov* in 1907 and became the most important leader of the National Democratic Party* in Galicia.* After the outbreak of WW I, he co-founded the Central National Committee (Centralny Komitet Narodowy [CKN]) and assumed a pro-Russian position. When Lvov was occupied by the Russians, he established contact with Governor J. Bobrynski and agitated for support of Russia in the war. When Lvov was retaken by the Austrians, he left for Russia and, then, after the fall of the Tsar, for Paris, where he joined the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP]).* In 1919 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and, on his initiative, the coalition of rightist parties was created under the name Popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy [ZLN]).* He participated in the peace talks with Soviet Russia at the end of the Polish-Soviet War,* and, in 1924, he headed a mission to the Vatican to prepare the Concordat* between Poland and the Holy See. He served as a Minister of Education and Religious Affairs in fall 1923 and in 1925-1926. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he withdrew from politics, parting with increasingly nationalist Endeks.* Throughout the interwar period he opposed conspiratorial and extremist trends in the National Democratic movement, in particular, antiSemitism* and fascism. After the Red Army invasion of Poland in September 1939, he was deported from Lvov to Russia but was freed by the amnesty of summer 1941. Late that year he moved to London, and he became a close associate of Premier W. Sikorski* and, later, of S. Mikolajczyk.* In February 1942 Grabski was elected chairman of the second National Council.* In August 1944, he took part in negotiations with Stalin in Moscow, and, in June 1945, he returned to Poland as one of the deputy presidents of the Homeland National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa [KRN]),* established by the communists on December 31, 1943, in occupied Warsaw.* In this capacity he participated in the Potsdam Conference* and campaigned for the repatriation of Poles from Western Ukraine* and Western Belorussia.* PSB, VIII, 519-523. GRABSKI, WLADYSLAW (1874-1938), statesman, economist, Prime Minister of Poland in 1920 and 1923-1925, brother of Stanislaw Grabski.* After

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studies abroad, he researched problems of Polish agriculture and worked in various agricultural organizations. He joined the National Democracy,* and, during 1906-1912, he was elected to three Russian State Dumas.* After the outbreak of WW I, he co-founded and headed the Central Citizen's Committee (Centralny Komitet Obywatelski [CKO]). After the Germans occupied Warsaw,* he left for Russia, where he organized assistance for Polish war victims. After the Bolshevik Revolution he returned to Poland, and, in the last weeks of the German occupation, he became Minister of Agriculture in the provisional government of J. Swiezyriski,* organized by the Regency Council.* In 1919 Grabski was elected to the Polish Constituent Assembly, but, soon afterward, he joined the Polish delegation at the peace conference in Paris. In December 1919 he was appointed Finance Minister in L. Skulski's* Cabinet, which fell on June 9 as a result of the threatening military situation during the Polish-Soviet War.* On June 23, 1920, Grabski organized a non-Parliamentary government. It settled the question of land reform,* but it was not able to obtain support from the Western Powers, and, on July 24, 1920, it was replaced by the all-party coalition of W. Witos.* Grabski held the portfolio of Minister of Treasury in this cabinet also (until November 1920), and he regained the same position in W. Sikorski's* government, which ruled from January to September 1923. In this capacity, Grabski started an important economic reform, but he really could not implement his plans until he became Premier and Minister of Finance on December 19, 1923. He created a new Polish currency, the gold-based zloty*; arrested inflation; increased taxation of wealthy classes; founded the Bank of Poland; and succeeded in stabilizing the Polish economy. However, the "tariff war" with Germany contributed to a new crisis: the zloty lost almost 50 percent of its original value, prices rose, and unemployment increased. Grabski resigned on November 12, 1925. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he retired from politics and concentrated on teaching and research. PSB, VIII, 524-528; EHGP, I,

215; J. Tomaszewski, Stabilizacja waluty w Polsce. Z badan nad politykq gospodarcza rzadu polskiego przed przewrotem majowym (Warsaw, 1961).

GRAND DUCHY OF POZNAN (Posen), western part of the Duchy of Warsaw* assigned to Prussia* by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The Duchy embraced the Poznari* region and part of the Bydgoszcz (Bromberg)* district, with 776,000 inhabitants living on about 29,000 square kilometers. Thirty years later the population grew to about 1,340,000, including about 804,000 Poles, 453,000 Germans and 81,000 Jews.* A majority of the population (81 percent) lived in the countryside, and the towns were in bad condition. The city of Poznari had only 18,000 inhabitants in 1815, mostly of German origin. The Duchy was divided into the two regencies of Poznari and Bydgoszcz, and these consisted of twenty-six districts (powiaty). Frederick William III, the King of Prussia, kept in mind the two Polish anti-Prussian uprisings of 1794 and 1806, and his manifesto of May 15, 1815, guaranteed the Poles equal rights for their language and the maintenance of the Catholic religion and national character of the

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Duchy. The King took the title of Grand Duke of Poznari and was represented in the Duchy by a Vice-Regent (namiestnik), Prince A. RadziwiH, an organization which was unique in centralized Prussia. The Duchy had its own coat of arms and minted its own small coin, and Polish was an official language in administration and schools. In 1821 the Land Credit Society was founded and, in 1824, a provincial diet was created. The whole situation turned to the advantage of the Polish national movement. The well-organized, relatively wealthy Polish peasantry became the strongest supporter of Polish national ideas. The weaker peasants, who migrated to the cities, strengthened their Polish character. However, the Prussian government did not abandon its plans to Germanize the Duchy. The local Prussian bureaucracy opposed the King's Polish policy of compromise. In practice, the ViceRegent was less important than the head of the administration, General-Governor of the Duchy. In 1830 Polish public opinion in the Duchy enthusiastically welcomed the outbreak of the November Insurrection,* and contingents of Poznari volunteers participated in the uprising. Its fall started a new era in the history of the Duchy. A. RadziwiH was removed from his position, and a new GovernorGeneral, E. Flottwell, began intense Germanization of the province. The Poles took to self-defense, which was especially persistent and well organized in the second half of the nineteenth century. A series of events made it clear that the Poles would not be able to regain their independence by force or foreign intervention. The local insurrection, prepared by L. Mieroslawski* in 1846, failed. The Springtime of Nations* brought a plan of "national reorganization of the Duchy," but it failed, too, and resulted in a bloody conflict between the Polish and German inhabitants of the region. The January Insurrection* in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in 1863 resulted in close Russian-Prussian cooperation against the Poles: the Alvensleben Convention.* Prussian authorities changed the name of the Duchy to Poznari province and incorporated it into the Prussian administrative system. The Polish language was gradually withdrawn from the schools and administration. The Polish press and organizations were harassed. Bismarck's anti-Polish policy became a part of the Kulturkampf.* In 1886, on Bismarck's initiative, a colonization commission was created to buy Polish lands for German settlers. In 1894, the Hakata* Organization was created with the goal of fully Germanizing the Poznari region. In 1904 legislation detrimental to the economic development of the Poles was passed, and, in 1908, a decision was made that, eventually, all Polish landholdings should be expropriated. Poles reacted with spontaneous solidarity actions and well-organized economic and cultural activities, led by such personalities as D. Chlapowski,* J. K. Marcinkowski, E. Raczyriski,* the Kozmian brothers,* P. Wawrzyniak,* and H. Cegielski.* Despite the oppressive policies, the Poles strengthened their position in Great Poland and were able to organize a successful campaign in 1918-1919, which decided favorably on the return of the Poznari region to the reborn Polish state. CHP, II, 336-365, 409-432; R. Tims

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Germanizing Prussian Poland (New York, 1941); W. W. Hagen, Germans, Poles and Jews: The Nationality Conflict (Chicago, 1980).

GRAZYNSKI, MICHAL (1890-1965), politician. An officer of the Austrian army during WW I, he co-founded the secret Polish Military Organization (POW)* in Silesia* after the war and participated in all three Silesian Uprisings.* After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* Grazyriski was appointed Provincial Governor (wojewoda) of Silesia. He held this post until the outbreak of WW II and proved to be a successful administrator and Polonizer. In 1927 Grazyriski was one of the founders of "Naprawa" (League for the Reform of the Republic),* a small group supporting J. Pilsudski* on the left. During 19311942 Grazyriski was also President of Polish Scouting (Zwiazek Harcerstwa Polskiego [ZHP]).* In 1939 he went into exile as a Major, but as a result of political differences with Gen. W. Sikorski,* he was not used in the Armed Forces. In 1943 he became one of the co-founders of the Independence League (Liga Niepodleglosci), composed of faithful supporters of Pilsudski's political thought. L. Marszalek, O Michale Grazynskim: Wspomnienia i Refleksje (Kat 1990). GREAT EMIGRATION, designation for some 10,000 exiles who left Poland after the fall of the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and settled mainly in France, with Paris as a spiritual and intellectual center of the Polish struggle for independence. Smaller groups of exiles, most of them of noble origin, moved to Great Britain, Switzerland, Belgium, Germany, and the United States. There were prominent political and cultural leaders, statesmen, generals, journalists, poets and artists among them. With its press and emissaries, the Great Emigration had a strong impact on the political situation in Poland, though it was split between aristocratic conservatives and democratic radicals. The first group was led by A. Czartoryski* and nicknamed the "Hotel Lambert"* after his residence in Paris. Its method was primarily diplomatic. These conservatives counted on a war of France and England against Russia and anticipated a future constitutional monarchy in Poland. The other camp had a republican program and was originally led by the historian J. Lelewel* and his Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP]). Both groups tried to arouse world opinion to take an interest in the Polish situation and to revive the former Sejm* of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in exile. Violent discussion among the Poles in Paris led to the organizational disintegration of the Great Emigration. In March 1832, left-wing emigres founded the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]).* More radical activists, such as T. Krepowiecki,* condemned the theory of "national unity," criticized the gentry, and declared their solidarity with the peasants. The radicals established contacts with the Carbonari underground movement, with "Young Germany" and "Young Italy," and founded the "Young Poland" (Mloda Polska)* organization. Several hundred ordinary sol-

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diers, who were interned by the Prussians and landed in Great Britain in 1834, established the radical Grudziaz Commune (Gromada Grudziaz)* and Human Commune (Gromada Humari).* In 1837 Lelewel organized the United Polish Emigration (Zjednoczenie Emigracji Polskiej), that was to serve as a bridge between various organizations of the Great Emigration. However, in the 1840s the group around Lelewel and the extreme left lost much of its importance. Most emigrants supported the Polish Democratic Society and the Hotel Lambert, which gradually changed its policy from conservatism to liberalism and counted on a general European war provoked by the Anglo-Russian conflict in the Near East. An aberration of exile activity was the messianic circle around A. Towiariski.* Polish refugees participated in most upheavals of the Springtime of Nations* and became a symbol of the fight for national independence and social justice. In the early 1850s the Great Emigration counted about 7,000 people, of which 4,000 were in France, 1,000 in England, 1,000 in the United States, 700 in Turkey, and the rest in Belgium, Switzerland and other countries. The Great Emigration became a center of Polish intellectual life. The exiles found themselves in an atmosphere of political freedom and in close contact with the progressive trends of the West, ind they left an important intellectual heritage. The fall of the January Insurrection* closed the chapter of Polish history strongly influenced by the Great Emigration. History of Poland, ed. by Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 473-480; CHP, II, 31K323. GREAT POLAND (Wielkopolska), region in Poland, a cradle of Polish statehood with the main center in Poznari (Posen).* The region, located on the Warta* River (between Pomerania* and Silesia*), was originally a tribal territory of the Polanie (Polans).* Led by the Piast* dynasty, they united or subjugated several other West Slavic tribes and created the Polish state in the tenth century. During the period of the feudal division of Poland in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Great Poland constituted a separate principality with the capital in Poznari. After the unification of Poland by King Wladyslaw Lokietek,* Great Poland and Little Poland (Malopolska)* became its two main provinces. There was competition between them, and, later, when the Polish state comprised numerous other regions, Great Poland preserved a certain distinctiveness. The region had separate status and land privileges and was strongly influenced by medieval German colonization. Unlike the eastern provinces of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth,* Great Poland was dominated politically and economically by a middle gentry, and the towns of Poznari, Kalisz,* and Gniezno* played a relatively important role. The well-being of the region was based on intensive agriculture, the wool and textile industries, and flourishing commerce, which developed mainly because the region was located on the trade routes from Germany to Lithuania* and Russia. After the First Partition* of Poland in 1772, the northern part of Great Poland along the Noted River was taken by Prussia,* which incorporated the whole region after the Second Partition of 1793. In 1806, during the war between

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Prussia and France, an insurrection broke out in Great Poland, which joined the Duchy of Warsaw.* However, in 1815, during the Congress of Vienna,* Great Poland was assigned to Prussia as the Grand Duchy of Poznari.* In the nineteenth century, it became one of the richest Polish regions and a center of the Polish national movement. In December 1918, when the region was still in German hands, the Great Poland Uprising* broke out, and after months of fighting, the region returned to the reborn Polish state. During WW II, Great Poland, together with part of the Lodz* region, was incorporated into the Third Reich as "Warthegau."* The Nazis planned its total Germanization and deported, either to the General Government* or to labor camps in Germany, about 400,000 Poles. R. Blanke, Prussian Poland in the German Empire (1871-1900) (Boulder, orado, 1981); E. Opaliriski, "Great Poland's Power Elite under Sigismund III, 15671632: Defusing the Elite," Acta Poloniae Historica XLII (1980). GREAT POLAND (WIELKOPOLSKA) UPRISING OF 1918, Polish uprising which liberated Great Poland from Prussian rule. Following the Partitions* of Poland, Great Poland was controlled and Germanized by Prussia.* After the revival of the Polish state in Central Poland in November 1918, the Polish population, which constituted a majority in Great Poland, started to organize its authorities. The German administration lost control over the situation and tried to rebuild its previous position by sending nationalistic voluntary Grenzschutz and Heimatschutz units to Great Poland. The fighting between these units and the Poles broke out during the visit of I. Paderewski* to Poznari (Posen).* The Polish insurrectionists liberated most of Great Poland, organized the 70,000strong Army led by Gen. J. Dowbor-Musnicki,* and became involved in fierce fighting with German troops. This military conflict was stopped by the Allied Powers. On February 17, 1919, the Poles and the Germans signed an armistice in Trier in Germany. The Versailles Treaty* decided that most of Great Poland would be returned to Poland. T. Komarnicki, The Rebirth of the Polish Repub

(London, 1957); W. Pobdg-Malinowski, Najnowsza Historia P

porary Political History of Poland), vol. 2 (London, 1985), 176. GREAT SEJM. See FOUR YEAR SEJM.

GREGORY OF SANOK (Grzegorz z Sanoka) (14077-1477), humanist and Archbishop of Lvov.* After studies at the University of Cracow,* he taught there and became a tutor of J. Tarnowski's* sons and gained access to the Royal Court, where he was among the close assistants of Wladyslaw III.* Gregory spent several years in Italy and Hungary and was nominated Archbishop of Lvov in 1451. He was an outstanding administrator and created a center of humanist studies in his residence. He took special care of the educational needs of his Archdiocese and elevated the intellectual level of the clergy. Gregory was one of the first Polish representatives of the Renaissance.* J. Krzyzanowski, Histor of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 28-29; PSB, IX, 86-89.

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GROCHOW, BATTLE OF, major encounter of Russian and Polish forces near Grochow, a suburb of Warsaw,* during the November Insurrection* on February 25, 1831. After the outbreak of the uprising, the Polish leaders adopted a delaying policy and did not take advantage of the winter to launch an anti-Russian offensive in the direction of Lithuania.* The Russians reorganized their forces and marched toward Warsaw. After a few minor actions, 60,000 Russian troops led by Field Marshal I. Diebitsch were stopped by a Polish Army of 40,000 soldiers led by Gen. J. Chlopicki* near Grochow. After a bloody battle, in which the Russians lost 9,400 men and the Poles 7,300, the Polish Army with gravely wounded Chlopicki withdrew behind the Vistula* River. Diebitsch did not dare cross that river after the bayonet charge of the famous Polish Fourth Infantry Regiment. The Battle of Grochow was one of the main encounters of the November Insurrection and became part of the Polish national tradition. W. Majewski, Grochow, 1831 (Warsaw, 1972). GRODNO, town on the Niemen River established in the eleventh century as a Ruthenian border stronghold. In 1241 Grodno was sacked by the Tatars. It was passed to Lithuania,* received city rights in 1441, and, in 1569, it was incorporated into Poland. The castle of Grodno was enlarged by King Stefan Batory,* who died there in 1586. Located halfway between Warsaw* and Vilna,* the city became a convenient place to convoke the Sejm* of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* In 1793 the last Sejm of that state silently confirmed the Second Partition* of Poland, and, in 1795, Grodno witnessed the abdication of the last King Stanislaw August.* The city fell under Russian control and became a seat of the provincial government. In 1915 Grodno was taken by the Germans and, after WW I and the Polish-Soviet War,* it was regained by the reborn Poland. During the interwar period Grodno was a center of the food and textile industries with 80,000 inhabitants. Conquered by the Soviets in September 1939, it became an administrative center in the Belorussian Republic, but during 1941— 1944 it was under German occupation. WEP, TV, 431-432. GRODY CZERWIENSKIE (Cherven towns), group of towns and fortresses united around the castle town of Czerwieri (Cherven) on the Huczwa (Huiva) River. A much disputed borderland on the upper Wieprz and Bug Rivers between Poland and Rus', known also as Czerwieri Land (Ziemia Czerwieriska in Polish, Chervenska zemlia in Ukrainian) or as "Red Rus." The territory was alternately under Polish and Kievian rule, then, in the eleventh through the fourteenth centuries, the area belonged to the Principalities of Halicz (Halych)* and Volhynia* and, eventually, was incorporated into Poland by King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* in 1352. The region played an important role as a trade link between Rus' and Byzantium. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol (Toronto, 1984). GRODZICKI, KRZYSZTOF (7-1659), General of Artillery. After a military education in Holland, he fought against the Swedes in 1626-1629 under Het-

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man* S. Koniecpolski,* and, in 1640, he was appointed a Commandant of the Kudak fortress and defended it against B. Chmielnicki (B. Khmelnitsky)* in 1648. Taken prisoner, Grodzicki remained in Tatar* captivity for two years. Promoted later to General of Artillery, he commanded Artillery in the war against the Cossacks* and Tatars in 1653-1655, and as Governor of Lvov,* he successfully defended the city against the onslaughts of the Swedish Armies in 1655. During 1656-1657 he fought against the Swedes near Warsaw,* in Gdarisk* and Pomerania.* PSB, IX, 616. GROTTGER, ARTHUR (1837-1867), painter. After studies in Lvov* and Cracow* in 1854, he went to Vienna, where he remained almost permanently. He painted in water colors, notably battle themes, horses, hunting scenes, and portraits, but his fame rests chiefly on several series of lithographs and chalk drawings depicting Polish martyrology and fighting for freedom. The series "Polonia" (1863) and "Lithuania" (1865), both devoted to the January Insurrection,* especially radiate with an emotional and patriotic atmosphere. H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (London, 1942). GRUBINSKI, WACLAW (1883-1973), author of popular comedies, short stories and penetrating critical works. A President of the Association of Polish Playwrights, he was deported by the Soviets to Kolyma in 1940. Released, he arrived in London in 1943. Of his comedies, the most popular was Niewinna Grzesznica (The Innocent Sinner). C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (L don, 1969), 360; WEP, IV, 444. GRUDZL^DZ, town on the lower Vistula* River. Founded in the tenth century as a Polish stronghold against the Baltic Prussians, it became a part of the Teutonic Knights'* state in 1226. In 1466, after the Thirteen Years' War,* it was regained by Poland and became the seat of a District Governor (starostwo) and of the Provincial Diet of Royal Prussia.* After the First Partition* of Poland in 1772, the city was incorporated into Prussia, to remain within its borders as Graudenz until 1920. During that time, especially after a railroad reached the city in 1879, it developed as a center of the machine, textile, chemical and food industries. In 1939, it had 60,000 inhabitants. WEP, IV, 446. GRUDZIAZ COMMUNE (Gromada Grudziaz), radical organization of Polish political refugees in England, a part of the Great Emigration* and of a larger movement known as Communes of the Polish People (Gromady Ludu Polskiego). Gromada Grudziaz was founded on October 30, 1835, by members of the Portsmouth section of the Polish Democratic Society,* who, under the influence of the radical emigre activists T. Krepowiecki* and S. Worcell,* broke with the society and created their own organization. It was composed of 138 former soldiers, most of plebeian origin, who rejected the Russian amnesty after the 1830 November Insurrection* and went to Prussia, where they were im-

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prisoned and used for hard labor, among other places in the fortress of Grudziadz. In England, they issued a manifesto, in which they promoted the idea of peasant revolution and division of land estates in Poland. The manifesto also stressed the class difference between the masses and nobility, and it scored the gentry for its poor leadership during the 1830 uprising. Gromada Grudziaz established relations with Russian revolutionaries and English Chartists, criticized the capitalist system, and proposed Utopian socialist solutions. Its ideology was embraced by another radical Polish group in England, known as Gromada Humari.* P. Brock, Polish Revolutionary Populism: A Study in Agrarian Socialist T from the 1830s to the 1850s (Toronto, 1977); A. Ciolkosz and L. Ciolkosz, "Socjalizm Romantyczny," Zarys Dziejow Socjalizmu Polskiego I (London, 19 GRUDZINSKA, JOANNA (1799-1831), wife of Prince Constantine,* the Viceroy of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* The Prince divorced his previous wife and resigned from his succession rights to the Russian throne in order to marry Grudziriska in 1820. She adopted a title of Princess of Lowicz (Ksi^zna Lowicka) after Constantine's estates in the Lowicz* region. WEP, IV, 447 GRUDZINSKI, JAN (1907-1940), naval officer. At the outbreak of WW II, he was deputy commander of the Polish submarine Orzel (Eagle). The ship, damaged on September 15, 1939, by German airplanes, took shelter in the Estonian port of Tallinn and was interned there. Grudziriski replaced the sick Commander and, under dramatic circumstances, led the submarine out from Tallinn. After the escape, Orzel managed to arrive in Scotland. In 1940, she participated in British naval operations, sank two German ships, and later was mistakenly destroyed by a Dutch submarine. E. Sopocko, Orzel's Patrol: The Story of the Po Submarine (London, 1942). GRUNWALD, BATTLE OF (July 15, 1410), major encounter of the Teutonic Knights* and Polish-Lithuanian forces during the war of 1409-1411. It stopped the eastward expansion of the Teutonic Knights. Their powerful state, the best military force of Europe, had seized and kept Polish Pomerania* and the cradle of the Lithuanian statehood, Zmudz (Samogitia),* and constituted a major threat to both Poland and Lithuania,* which united to face the enemy together. The deaths of Queen Jadwiga* in 1398 and of the peaceful Grand Master Conrad von Jungingen in 1407 weakened peace parties in Poland and in the Order, and, when it started a new border dispute, war broke out in 1409. Its first year brought only frontier raids, but in 1410, Poland and Lithuania* prepared a great military expedition. The Knights received considerable support from Germany, Hungary, Bohemia and Western Europe. The two armies met near the villages of Tannenberg and Grunwald. The Polish Army of about 100,000 men was led by King Wladyslaw Jagiello* and included Polish knights, Lithuanian boyars and warriors, mercenaries from Bohemia and Silesia,* Tatars,* and three Russian regiments from Smolensk.* The German Army of about 83,000 men, com-

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manded by the aggressive Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen, won the first part of the battle and forced the Lithuanians and the Tatars to retreat. However, when the main Polish forces entered the battle, the Lithuanians returned and the Teutonic Knights were surrounded. The Grand Master was killed in the dense mob of Lithuanian and Tatar warriors; the Germans fled, leaving 18,000 dead, 14,000 prisoners and all 51 standards in Polish hands. The Poles were not able to exploit their victory fully, and, after the compromise peace treaty of 1411, the Teutonic Knights gave back only Samogitia and agreed to pay indemnities, but the Order's forces were decisively undercut. The Battle of Grunwald became a symbol in Polish tradition and a proof that, with proper allied support, the Poles could stop German aggression. G. Evans, Tannenberg, 1410-1914 (1970); Laskowski, Grunwald (London, 1943). GRUNBAUM, YIZHAK (1879-1970), Zionist leader, one of the leading spokesmen for the Jews in interwar Poland. His political activity and public writings began during his student days. From the VII Zionist Congress in 1905 onward, he served regularly as a Delegate to the various congresses. He edited several newspapers in Polish, Yiddish and Hebrew in Warsaw,* St. Petersburg, and Paris. An active promoter of Hebrew culture, he tried to ensure that the struggle of Jews in the Diaspora for their rights should be led by the Zionists. He had been active in rallying the Jewish parties in Warsaw to support the left socialist candidate W. Jagiello against R. Dmowski* during the 1912 elections to the Fourth Russian Duma.* During WW I Grunbaum stayed in Petrograd, and, in September 1918, he returned to his native Warsaw, where he established the provisional National Jewish Council. This organization played an important role in the worldwide campaign for Jewish rights during the first years of independent Poland. In 1919 he was elected to the Sejm,* where he represented the Jewish population until he left Poland for Paris in 1932. Later he settled in Palestine. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. VII (Jerusalem, 1971), 944.

GRYDZEWSKI, MIECZYSLAW (1894-1970), editor. He began his career in 1921 as technical editor of the daily Kurier Polski. In 1920-1939 he published the literary monthly Skamander, which gave its name to a group of leading Polish poets. In 1924-1939 he published an important literary weekly, Wiadomosci Literackie (Literary News). In 1940-1944 he edited in London the exiled continuation of Wiadomosci. For his adamant defense of Polish rights, he suffered restrictions from the British wartime authorities, who disapproved of his anti-Soviet editorial policy. M. Fik, Kultura Polska po Jalcie (Polish Culture aft Yalta) (London, 1989), 186, passim. GRZYBOWSKI SQUARE, marketplace in the western, industrial part of Warsaw* and a center of its Jewish district. From the second half of the nineteenth century, most important Jewish institutions of Warsaw had their offices and buildings in Grzybowski Square. It was also the location of several political

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demonstrations during the Revolution of 1905. The first and the most famous was on November 13, 1904, organized by the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socialistyczna [PPS])* as a protest against the drafting of young Poles into the Tsarist Army for the Russo-Japanese War. Ten persons were killed and many wounded in this violent encounter of the PPS fighting squads and the Russian police. Another famous Grzybowski Square demonstration, known as "Bloody Wednesday," took place on August 15, 1906. In the interwar period, communist agitators used the square frequently for their demonstrations. J. Lerski, "A Polish Chapter in the Russo-Japanese War," The Transactions of the Asia Society of Japan VII (1959), 69-9 GRZYMULTOWSKI TREATY (Eternal Peace), peace treaty between Muscovy and Poland negotiated and signed on May 1, 1686, by the Polish Governor (wojewoda) of Poznari,* K. Grzymultowski. The treaty confirmed the decisions of the Andruszow (Andrushovo) Treaty* of 1667. The Left-Bank Ukraine* with Kiev (for a compensation of 146,000 rubles) and the Zaporozhian Cossack* territories came under Russian control, and the religious freedom of the Orthodox population in Poland was to be guaranteed by the Tsars. Both sides promised not to sign a separate peace treaty with Turkey and announced the Polish-Russian border was "eternally" defined. The treaty was very unpopular in Poland and actually was first ratified in 1710. However, Poland had become relatively weak and was unable to regain the lost territories. CHP, I, 550-551 Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 1 (Toronto, 1984), 71, 838.

GUARDIANS OF THE LAW (Straz Praw), main executive body, a kind of Council of Ministers or Cabinet, established by the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* It was headed by the King and included the Primate*; five Ministers, in charge of foreign policy, war, treasury, police, and the Royal Seal; and the heir apparent and the Speaker of the Sejm,* both without voting rights. The Ministers were to be chosen by the King during a parliamentary debate. The Sejm could pass a vote of no confidence with regard to any of the Ministers. Also, with a two-thirds majority of both Chambers, the parliament could demand the dismissal of any of them. Each of the King's legal acts had to be discussed first by the Guardians of Law and had to receive the counter-signature of the Minister responsible for its implementation. The Guardians of Law also controlled the entire state administration. J. Obst-Kasparek, The Constitutions of Poland and of United States: Kinships and Genealogy (Miami, 19 GUILDS (Cechy), medieval organizations of craftsmen, transferred to Polish towns from Germany in the thirteenth century. They were to defend local crafts against the competition of merchants and village artisans. Permission to organize guilds was usually a part of urban law. The number of guilds grew fast. Each had its own by-laws, leadership and organizational structure and regulated the rights and duties of its members. Guilds also decided about rules dealing with

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competition among their members, the manner of purchasing raw materials, production techniques, quality, and conditions of sale. To protect their own producers, local guilds prohibited the sale of craft products from other towns. Guilds also performed social and religious functions by joint participation in ceremonies and church services. One of their main objects was mutual assistance, such as care of the sick and help to widows and orphans. Often guilds affiliated with identical organizations from neighboring towns. Initially, guilds were to unite all craftsmen of a city, but soon they started to limit their membership, and there were also unorganized craftsmen maliciously called partacze (bunglers). The gentry was unfriendly toward guilds, complaining about the high prices of their products. The Partitions* of Poland brought the decline of Polish guilds. The last of them were abolished in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in 1821. EHGP, I, 82-83. GUMPLOWICZ, LUDWIK (1838-1909), sociologist and legal philosopher, professor of public law at the University of Graz from 1875. Previously he earned his living as a criminal law attorney. He contributed articles to Lvov's* Dziennik Literacki (Literary Daily); Warsaw's* organ of Jewish assimilationists, Jutrzenka (Dawn); and Cracow's* Kraj (Country).* During 1873-1875 Gumplowicz served on the Cracow City Council and, in 1870-1875, ran a printing shop, which ended in bankruptcy. Though baptized, he retained an active interest in Jewish affairs as a proponent of assimilation and later returned to Judaism. He believed that people have a natural tendency to form groups, and relations between those groups are crucial for understanding of the development of human civilization. His theories, presented in his Outlines of Sociology, strongly influenced numerous outstanding sociologists. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. VII (Jerusalem, 1971), 975-976. GUROWSKI, ADAM (1805-1866), politician. In 1829 he joined a conspiracy of P. Wysocki* and fought in the November Insurrection.* He was one of its most radical left-wing journalists, and he criticized the leadership of the uprising. In March 1831, he was sent as an emissary to Paris and, after the collapse of the Insurrection, he was among the most energetic activists of the Great Emigration.* He helped J. Lelewel* to organize the Committee of the Polish Nation (Komitet Narodu Polskiego) but left it and founded the Polish Democratic Association (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie). He criticized A. Czartoryski* for his alleged paralyzing of the revolutionary enthusiasm of the Polish masses. In 1834 Gurowski changed his views, publicly declared that Poland could not survive without Russia, and called his country a political cadaver. His views took a messianic Pan-Slavist coloring with Russia as the leader. Gurowski returned to Poland and, later, moved to the United States, where he worked tem-

porarily at a minor governmental position. L. Fisher, Lincoln's Gadfly: Adam Gurowski (Norman, Oklahoma, 1964); PSB, IX, 162-

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GYPSIES (Cyganie), Indo-European nomadic ethnic group that emigrated from India to Europe in the late Middle Ages. In the fifteenth century Gypsies moved to Poland from Hungary. Polish rulers recognized the Kings of the Gypsies. The 1794 Sejm* granted them full civil rights under conditions of permanent settlement, which never materialized. After WW I the Kwiek dynasty secured their reign over 30,000 Gypsies in Poland. Though they lacked a* written language, they retained several dialects. During WW II the Nazis tried to exterminate them completely. In 1940 they were deported to the Jewish ghettos* in Germanoccupied Poland. On December 16, 1942, a Nazi decree ordered their incarceration in Auschwitz,* and the first transport arrived there on April 26, 1943. F. Proch, "The Liquidation of Gypsies," Poland's Way of the Cross, 1939-1945 (Brook n.d.), 103-104. GZOWSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1813-1898), bridge and railroad constructor. A scion of an impoverished Polish gentry family and an officer in the Russian Army Engineers Corps, he joined the Polish side during the November Insurrection.* After its fall in 1831, he crossed the Austrian border and was interned and deported by the Austrian authorities to the United States in 1833. In 1837 he graduated from a law school and began practice in Pennsylvania but, soon, he switched back to civil engineering, and worked for the Pennsylvania-Erie Canal. In 1842 he moved to Canada and became a Controller of roads, bridges and waterways in Ontario. He became a British subject and received several important governmental engineering positions in Canada. PSB, VIII, 209-211; V. Turek, Sir Casimir Gzowski (Toronto, 1957).

H HABSBURGS, German dynasty that ruled in Austria from 1276 until 1918. Its name is derived from the ancestral Castle Habsburg in Switzerland. In 1273, one of the Counts of Habsburg became King of Germany as Rudolf I. He bestowed Austria and Styria on his sons, and their descendants gained Bohemia and Hungary in 1526. In 1452 Frederick III was crowned Holy Roman Emperor, and the title remained in the family until the end of the Empire in 1806. In 1573, 1575 and 1587, the Habsburgs tried to be elected Kings of Poland (competing as candidates against Henryk Walezy,* Stefan Batory,* and Zygmunt III Waza* respectively) and had numerous supporters there. Habsburg princesses married Kings Kazimierz Jagielloriczyk,* Zygmunt (Sigismund) August,* Zygmunt III Waza, Wladyslaw IV,* Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki,* and August III.* After the Partitions* of Poland, the Habsburgs took a large part of that country, and Maria Theresa* (1740-1780), Joseph II (1780-1790), and their successors acquired the title of King of Galicia* and Lodomeria.* Wilhelm Habsburg won wide popularity in Eastern Galicia and served in the war ministry of the West Ukrainian Peoples' Republic during the Ukrainian-Polish War* in 1919, and Ukrainian monarchists planned to elect him King of Ukraine. The Habsburgs maintained a policy of centralization of the Empire and, even after the Compromise with the Hungarians in 1867, opposed plans for federalization.

R. Kann, The Habsburg Empire (New York, 1957); A. J. P. Taylor, The Habsburg Monarchy (London, 1948).

HADZIACZ (HADIACHE), TREATY OF, agreement between Poland and Hetman* J. Wyhowski (Vyhovsky)* and Cossack* elders signed in the small Ukrainian town of Hadziacz near Poltava on September 16, 1658. According to the treaty, the provinces (wojewodztwa) of Kiev, Czernichow (Chernihiv) and Braclaw (Bratslav) were to constitute the Grand Duchy of Rus', which would be an equal, third partner in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* under a

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commonly elected King. The Duchy, with its autonomous administration, law tribunal, and separate Army, was to be governed by a Hetman elected for life by the Ukrainian gentry and noble class of Cossacks and confirmed by the King. Poles who lost their properties during the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising* and its participants whose estates were confiscated after the Uprising would have them restored. In addition, a general amnesty was to be announced. The Orthodox Church was to enjoy the same rights as the Catholic, and the Orthodox Metropolitan of Kiev and the Bishops of Luck (Lutske),* Lvov,* Przemysl (Peremyshl),* Chelm (Kholm)* and Mscislaw (Mstislau) were to sit in the common Senate. Two Orthodox academies and a number of schools were to be opened, and no Uniate* monasteries or churches were to be built in the Duchy. It was to sever its relations with Russia established in the Treaty of Perejeslaw (Pereislav)* and to have a common foreign policy with Poland and Lithuania. They were obliged not to make any separate treaties with Russia which would undermine the decision of the agreement ratified on May 22, 1659. Its terms, however, were never implemented, because the Cossacks and peasants did not want the restoration of Polish rule and the pre-war status quo. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 2 (Toronto, 1988), 108-109; WEP, IV, HAECKER, EMIL (1875-1934), Socialist activist and historian. As a young man of Jewish origin he joined the Socialist movement in Galicia.* He edited Naprzod (Forward) and other Socialist periodicals. In 1914 he joined the Polish Legions.* Wounded in 1915, he returned to journalism. After the war he became a spokesman of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in the Cracow* Town Council and a leading member of the party. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* Haecker opposed the Sanacja* and concentrated on historical studies of the Socialist movement. PSB, IX, 228-230. HAIMAN, MIECZYSLAW (1888-1949), historian, poet, activist of Polish organizations in America. After five years in the Austrian Navy, he emigrated to the United States in 1913, edited several Polish periodicals, and co-founded the Polish Institute of Science and Learning in America. S. Logisz, "First Curator of the Polish Museum in America," Polish American Studies XX (1963), 87-92; PSB, IX, 236-238.

HAKATA, popular name of the anti-Polish, ultra-nationalist German Union for the Eastern Marches (Deutscher Ostmarkenverein); an acronym formed from the first letters of the names of its founders, F. Hansemann, H. Kennemann, and H. Tiedemann. The latter was the Governor of West Prussia* and drafted the Colonization Plan in 1886. Hakata was established on September 28, 1894, in Poznari* to Germanize the Polish population of Great Poland* and Pomerania.* Its activists were mostly German landlords from eastern Prussia. In 1913 it had about 54,000 members, including 12,100 in the Poznari region, 11,200 in Silesia,* and 9,500 in West Prussia. However, Hakata was not generally popular

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among all the Germans. Many of them understood that it would provoke fierce opposition from the Polish side. Among the anti-Polish bills issued under Hakata's pressure were the laws of 1904 forbidding the raising of buildings on newly acquired lands without special permission of state authorities and, in 1898, increasing funds for colonization of the ethnically Polish territory by German settlers. Hakata was patronized by the former Chancellor O. Bismarck, and it propagated a hatred of Polish and Slavic peoples as endangering German interests. It insisted on the Germanization of Polish schools and other institutions still using the Polish language and planned the systematic expulsion of the Poles from the Prussian territories. R. Tims, Germanizing Prussian Poland: The H Society and the Struggle for the Eastern Marches in the German Empire, 1894 (New York, 1941). HALECKI, OSCAR (1891-1973), outstanding historian. He taught at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* (1916-1918) and at Warsaw University* (1919-1939) and served as an expert on the Polish delegation at the Paris Peace Conference* after WW I. In 1939 he organized and presided over the Polish University in Exile in Paris. After the fall of France in 1940, he settled in America and taught at several universities there. He served as the first Executive Director and, later, President of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America.* He authored numerous books on Polish and European history in Polish, German, English and French. New York Times, September 18 (1973 HALICZ (Halych), one of the oldest towns of the Ukraine* on the Dniester River, first mentioned in the ninth century. Located on the trade route from Kiev to Germany, Halicz became an important commercial and artisan center. From 1144 it was the capital of the principality of Halicz and gave its name to the entire region. In 1241 it was destroyed by the Tatars,* and it never regained its previous status. In 1349 Halicz was incorporated into Poland by Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* and, in 1367, it was granted the rights of Magdeburg law.* Later, the city became the See of an Orthodox Metropoly and a Catholic Diocese, a capital of the Halicz Province, and an important fortress. Acquired by Austria in the First Partition* of Poland in 1772, it developed slightly toward the end of the nineteenth century. In the interwar period Halicz was again in Poland and, in 1939, it was incorporated into the Soviet Ukraine. Encyclopedi of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 1 (Toronto, 1988), 117-118; E. Hornowa, St ekonomiczno—spoleczne w miastach ziemi halickiej w latach 1590-1648 (Opole HALLER (DE HALLENBURG), JOZEF (1873-1960), General and politician. He served as an Austrian Artillery officer but, simultaneously, was active in the Polish independence movement and in the National Democracy (Narodowa Demokracja).* After the outbreak of WW I, he fought in the Polish Legions;* first, he commanded the Eastern Legion, later the Second Brigade. In February 1918 he crossed the front with his soldiers as a protest against the

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Brest-Litovsk Treaty* and commanded the Polish Second Army Corps on the Russian territories not controlled by the Bolsheviks. After the Germans disarmed his Corps during their offensive in spring 1918, he went to France, joined the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP]),* and, on October 4, 1918, became a commander of the Polish Army in France. In April 1919 he arrived with his army in Poland and participated in the Ukrainian-Polish War. During the Polish-Soviet War,* he commanded the Volunteers' Army and was a member of the Council of Defense of the State. During 1922-1926 he served as General Inspector of Artillery. In the same period he was also a Deputy of the Christian Democratic Party (Chrzescijariska Demokracja)* in the Parliament. As an opponent of Sanacja* he retired after the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat.* In 1936 he co-founded the Front Morges* and, in 1937, the Party of Labor (Stronnictwo Pracy).* In October 1939 Haller was reactivated by Gen. W. Sikorski* in France and served in the Polish Government-in-Exile.* T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of I pendent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 24. HALLER (DE HALLENBURG), STANISLAW (1872-1940), General. A Colonel of the Austrian Army, he joined the Polish Armed Forces after WW I and, in 1920, was promoted to General and Acting Chief of the Polish General Staff. He occupied various commanding positions during the Polish-Soviet War.* In 1923 he became Chief of Staff but retired in December 1925. In May 1926 he returned briefly to active service to stop Pilsudski's coup d'etat* and served as Chief of Staff of the Army supporting President S. Wojciechowski.* After 1926, Haller was briefly interned and then dismissed. Politically, he was close to the National Democracy (Narodowa Demokracja),* although he never joined it formally. In September 1939 he volunteered to serve against the Germans, but was not used. Arrested later by the Soviets, he was murdered in the Starobielsk Camp.* T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niep leglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 38; PSB, HAMTRAMCK, industrial city in Michigan within the greater Detroit area and a prominent center of Polish immigration and ethnic activities. M. Goodwin, "Hamtramck versus Ford: A Polish American Retrospect," North American Review CCXXIII (May, 1932), 450-459; A. Wood, Hamtramck Then and Now: A Sociological Study of a Polish-American Community (New York, 1955).

HANDELSMAN, MARCELI (1882-1945), outstanding historian. He served as professor at Warsaw University* from 1915 and head of its Historical Institute. His main areas of research were the Napoleonic period, the development of nationalism, methodology and interpretation of history. During WW II he converted to Catholicism, but because of his Jewish background he was forced to hide. He contributed to the underground press and education. Arrested in July 1944 by the Gestapo,* he was imprisoned in the Gross-Rosen camp and died

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in 1945. A. Boswell, "Marceli Handelsman," The Slavonic and East-European Re XXV (1946), 247-249; PSB, IX, 268-271. HANSEATIC LEAGUE, also called Hanse or German Hanse, medieval union of German towns, mostly on former Slavic territories, organized to defend mutual trading interests in the North Sea and Baltic regions. Originally, the word hanse meant "guild" or "association." Several hanses were active in medieval Europe. The most important was, however, the German one headed by Lubeck and also extending to Western Europe (London, Brugge and others). The Hanse quelled pirates, trained pilots, built lighthouses, and guarded established monopolies and trade privileges. The League became a real power, particularly in the Baltic region, where Lubeck, Rostok, Wiesmar, Bremen, Szczecin (Stettin),* Gdarisk (Danzig),* Elblag (Elbing),* Konigsberg, Riga, Rewel (Tallin), and Visby were the most influential members of the association. Toruri (Thorn),* Cracow,* Kolobrzeg (Kolberg), Wroclaw (Breslau),* and Braniewo (Braunsberg) also joined the Hanse. It did not have a permanent government nor its own army. Periodically, it organized conferences, which coordinated Hanse's policy. This monopolistic and protectionist policy antagonized the rulers of the Hanse region and its strength was reduced by the growing powers of Europe, including Poland and Lithuania.* The last conference of the Hanseatic members took place in 1669; however, Lubeck, Hamburg and Bremen were officially called "free Hanseatic cities" until 1934. EHGP, I, 248-249; The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 5 (Chicago, 1990), 6 HANSKA, EWELINA (b. Rzewuska) (1801-1852), H. Balzac's mistress and wife. Intelligent and beautiful, wife of W. Hariski, Marshal of Volhynian* nobility,* she was an intellectual follower of G. Sand and an enthusiast of Balzac. She established a personal relationship with him. After her husband died and after numerous problems with Russian authorities, she married Balzac in 1850. After his death in the same year, she paid his debts and took care of his publications. A. Arrault, Madamme Hanska (Tours, 1929); PSB, IX, 286-287; T. (Bo Zeleriski, Pani Hanska (Lvov, 1926 HARRIMAN, W. AVERELL (1891-1986), American businessman, statesman and diplomat. During 1943-1946, he served as Ambassador to the Soviet Union and played a key role in American-Soviet rapprochement during the Moscow, Teheran,* Yalta,* and Potsdam* Conferences, eventually supporting Stalin's demands for the incorporation of pre-war Eastern Poland into the Soviet Union. He was also involved in Polish affairs as an industrialist engaged in business in interwar Silesia.* EHGP, I, 249; International Who's Who 1944-45 (Lond HASIDISM (from Hebrew hasid "pious one"), Jewish pietist movement which began in southeastern Poland in the eighteenth century. It influenced millions of Jews* and continues its existence today in small groups in America and Israel.

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Among many factors which produced the movement, the most important were a tension prevailing in Jewish society in difficult circumstances created by the breakup of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* problems inherited as a result of the Cossack* massacres, a crisis of the Jewish leadership in Poland, and the false messianic movements of Shabbetai Zevi and J. Frank.* On the other hand, the cabala and the popular tradition of ecstasy and mass enthusiasm provided constructive elements for a new outlook in religious and social behavior. The founder of the movement, called in short, Besht,* started as a popular healer and attracted people with comforting homilies and mystical expositions of the Scriptures. In the 1730s, his fame started to spread all over Podolia* and Volhynia.* His students established dynasties of tzaddikim ("righteous ones"),* who moved to other parts of Poland and Eastern Europe and oversaw the entire life of their followers. In the mid-nineteenth century, Hasidism became the way of life and the worldview of the majority of the Jews in the Ukraine,* Galicia,* and the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* in spite of strong opposition from Orthodox rabbis and also from followers of the Jewish Enlightenment (Haskalah), socialism and Zionism.* Hasidim did not reject the Jewish faith and tradition but added new elements and emphases to them. They believed that piety is superior to scholarship, and every man, however poor or ignorant, can commune with God. Hasidic optimism and joy, new modes of praying, original literature, and numerous other phenomena make Hasidism one of the most colorful and

interesting elements of the Ashkenazic heritage. (Jerusalem, 1971), 1390-1432; G. Lerski and H. Lerski, "Hasidism," Jewish-Polish

Coexistence, 1772-1939: A Topical Bibliography (New York, 1

HAUKE, JOZEF ("BOSAK") (1834-1871), general and politician. A scion of a Polish family which rendered a public service and was related to the Tsars of Russia, Hauke received an elitist Russian education, joined the Russian Army, and became aide-de-camp of the Russian War Minister. Sent to Warsaw* and Paris as a diplomatic envoy, Hauke established secret contacts with Polish leaders. In 1862 he resigned from the Russian service, escaped to Galicia,* and participated in the January Insurrection* of 1863, occupying several important commanding positions. In April 1864 he left the struggle and emigrated to Italy, where he met Garibaldi and became his follower. Hauke tried to restore the Polish Legions* in Italy and, later, joined the League of Peace and Freedom, established by G. Mazzini. He was also very active in the political life of the Great Emigration.* After the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Hauke responded to Garibaldi's appeal and took command of a French Brigade; he was eventually killed in battle. PSB, IX, 305-306. HAYNT, Yiddish daily founded in Warsaw* in 1908 as a continuation of the Yiddishes Tagblot, published from 1906. With an impressive staff including S. Asch, I. Peretz, and S. Aleichem, Haynt supported Zionism; successfully competed with another Yiddish daily, Der Moment; and reached a circulation of

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about 100,000 in 1914. An official organ of the Zionist organization from 1919, Haynt was published until WW II. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. VII (Jerusa 1971), 1498-1499. HEL, narrow sandbar peninsula (40 kilometers long) separating the Puck Bay from the Baltic Sea*; also a fishing port at its tip. Military installations, built in Wladyslawowo and Hel, protected Gdarisk* from open sea attacks and played an important role during the conflicts with the Teutonic Knights* and the Swedish Wars.* In 1825 a lighthouse was built in the city of Hel, and after the construction of a railroad along the peninsula, several resorts developed there. In the interwar period the city of Hel developed as a naval base, fishing port, and center of marine research. During the September Campaign of 1939, Polish forces defended Hel until October 2. WEP, IV, 598. HELTMAN, WIKTOR (1796-1874), publicist and activist of the Great Emigration.* As a young man working in Warsaw,* he was involved in several secret anti-Tsarist organizations. In 1821, he was arrested for the distribution of the text of the Constitution of May 1791.* As a punishment he was conscripted into the Lithuanian Corps of the Russian Army as an ordinary soldier. In 1827 he was promoted to officer. During the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he switched allegiance when he was taken prisoner by Polish troops and joined the Polish Army. After the fall of the uprising, he emigrated to France and became active in the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]),* where he moved up from being a secretary to the Society's leadership. He became its main ideologue and co-authored its program. He favored "solidarism" to resolve class antagonism between peasants and nobility, and he recommended that the struggle for independence be based on the masses. PSB, IX, 370-372. HEMAR (HESCHELES), MARIAN (1901-1970), Polish satirist, poet and playwright of Jewish descent. He wrote for several Warsaw* theaters and cabarets, among them the "Qui Pro Quo."* In 1939 he left Poland and served with the Carpathian Brigade.* In 1942 he settled in London, worked for the BBC European service and Polish exile press, and ran a Polish cabaret. Encyclopaed Judaica, vol. VIII (Jerusalem, 1971), 320. HEMPEL, JAN (1877-1937), communist leader. An autodidact, he traveled extensively in Asia, Europe and South America. He edited a Polish periodical in Brazil and in Paris, where he joined the Polish Socialist Party-Left (PPSLewica)* in 1911. The next year, he returned to Lublin* and became active in trade unions, cooperative movements, and as a publicist in leftist periodicals. In 1914 he joined the Polish Legions,* but he refused to take an oath to the Austrian Emperor and was interned. Released in 1915, he continued his activities as a publisher and publicist of the PPS-Left. In 1921 he joined the Communist

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Workers' Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Robotnicza Polski [KPRP]) and worked as an editor of party publications. He was also active in various committees, trade unions and cooperatives and the party leadership. Jailed several times by the Polish authorities, he went illegally to Moscow in 1932, where he was arrested and killed in 1937. He was among the most outstanding and intelligent leaders of the Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP]),* and many communists, among them B. Bierut,* considered Hempel their teacher. M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Ca bridge, Massachusetts, 1959); J. Dominko, Jan Hempel, teoretyk i dzialacz spotdzielczosci robotniczej (Warsaw, 1960); PSB, IX, 380 HENRICIAN ARTICLES (Articuli Henrici), written summary and reaffirmation of all the privileges and rights acquired by the Polish nobility from the Pact of Koszyce (Kosice or Kassa) in 1374. They were formulated during the 1573 Interregnum and confirmed in writing by the newly elected King Henryk Walezy (Henri de Valois).* In contrast to pacta conventa, which changed with each new monarch, the Henrician Articles were obligatory for all sovereigns of Poland until its Partitions.* They provided for a calling of a Sejm* every two years, prevented the King from naming his successor or marrying without Sejm consent, restricted his authority over levee en masse* limited his power over legislation, and bound him to accept a permanent council of sixteen Senators who, in rotations of four every six months, resided at the Court and advised the King. In addition, the Henrician Articles included the Confederation of Warsaw,* guaranteeing tolerance for religious dissidents,* and the rule of 1501, known as the articulus de non praestanda oboedientia, which released the King's subjects from their oath of obedience if he should break the contract. CHP, II, 49-71. HENRICIAN BOOK (Liber fundationis claustri Sancte Mariae Virginis in Heinrichow), colloquial name of the chronicle of the Cistersian* monastery in Henry kow in Lower Silesia.* It is composed of two parts: the first written between 1268 and 1273, the second completed after 1310. The Book covers the foundation of the monastery, describes villages belonging to it, and includes copies of the documents concerning the purchase of these estates by the Order. It was written to protect the Cistersians' property titles and constitutes important information on social and economic conditions of Polish village life in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. K. Grodecki, Ksiega Henrykowska (Poznari, 1949). HENRYK I BRODATY (THE BEARDED) (11637-1238), Piast* Prince of Silesia* (1201-1238) and the most brilliant of the descendants of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth),* who divided Poland among his sons in 1138. Henryk, a cautious and energetic ruler, made Silesia the most powerful and most progressive state in Poland. He supported German colonization, reformed the currency, encouraged foreign artisans and merchants to settle in his towns, and

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adopted German methods of administration and numerous elements of German civilization. Henryk, a husband of St. Hedwig (Jadwiga),* founded numerous churches and convents and participated in Crusades against the pagan Baltic Prussians,* but, simultaneously, he strengthened his power and opposed episcopal interference in secular affairs. He also obtained control of Great Poland* and Cracow.* P. Jasienica, Piast Poland (New York, 1985); Poczet krolow i ksigzgt polskich (Register of Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 15 165. HENRYK II POBOZNY (THE PIOUS) (11917-1241), Piast* Prince of Silesia,* Great Poland,* and Cracow* (1238-1241). Son of Henryk I Brodaty (the Bearded),* he succeeded him in all his provinces without question and continued his policies of economic development and unification of Polish lands. He managed to stop German attempts to occupy some districts on the western border of Poland, and he recovered territories previously lost by Silesian princes. His successful reign was suddenly and unexpectedly broken by the Mongolian invasion. He was killed in the battle of Legnica* on April 9, 1241. With Henryk IPs death, his state was fragmented, and Silesia went through further divisions. CHP, I, 85-108; Poczet krolow i ksigzgt polskich (Register of Polish Kings and ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 165-171. HENRYK WALEZY (Henri de Valois) (1551-1589), Duke d'Anjou, King of Poland and Grand Prince of Lithuania* (1573-1574), and King of France (15751589). Active during the French Wars of Religion and partly responsible for the St. Bartholomew Massacre, he was given command of the Royal Army against the Huguenots. Learning of the death of Poland's Zygmunt (Sigismund) August* in 1572, and of the strong position of the Habsburg* party in Poland, King Charles IX of France sent an Embassy to Poland to promote the candidacy of his younger brother. On May 9, 1573, the Polish Sejm* elected Henri the King of Poland. His envoy, Bishop Montluc, signed three conventions with the deputies of Poland and Lithuania: the Confederation of Warsaw,* guaranteeing religious toleration of the dissidents*; the Henrician Articles (Articuli Henrici)*; and the Pacta Conventa,* which safeguarded the Polish Constitution and limited the power of the King. In the Pacta Conventa, among other conditions, Henri promised to maintain the Polish Army and Navy, pay the debts of the previous King, and marry Zygmunt's sister, the fifty-three-year-old Princess Anna Jagiellonka. Henri traveled to Cracow* and was crowned on February 21, 1574, but he delayed the wedding with Anna, shocking the Polish gentry. On the night of June 28-29, 1574, Henri secretly left Poland to claim the throne of France, which became vacant on the death of his brother. On February 15, 1575, he was crowned as King Henri III of France. Although he was succeeded in Poland by Stefan Batory,* he retained the title of King of Poland until his death. P. Champion, Henri III, Roi de Pologne (Paris, 1944); P. Skwarczyriski, "The Decretum

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Electionis of Henry of Valois," The Slavonic and East European Review XXXVII/89 (1958), 113-130. HENRYKOWSKI, GUSTAW (1898-1937), real name Saul Amsterdam, communist activist and publicist. A lawyer by profession, he joined the Union of Socialist Youth (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Socjalistycznej) in 1910, and the Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia (PPSD)* in 1911. During 1918-1921 he was a member of the Po'alei Zion Party* and, with others of its left wing, he joined the Communist Workers' Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Robotnicza Polski [KPRP])* in 1921. In 1928 he left for the USSR, where he worked in the Communist International, was arrested and was executed in 1937. WEP, IV, 622. HERALDRY, auxiliary science of history, studying the origins, development, legal meaning and rules of the formation of coats of arms, including genealogy. It began in the thirteenth century from the practical need to describe and design coats of arms and ensure their correctness. In the fifteenth century, J. Dlugosz* wrote works on heraldry, but a serious scientific research on heraldry was first initiated in Poland in the nineteenth century by F. Piekosiriski and A. Malecki. In the twentieth century its main exponent was W. Semkowicz. M. Paszkiewicz and J. Kulczycki, Polish Coats of Arms (London, 1990). HERCEN (HERZEN), ALEXANDER (1812-1870), Russian writer and political thinker. One of the most outstanding nineteenth-century Russian emigres in Paris, where he published several anti-Tsarist periodicals, including the famous Kolokol (Bell). Hercen originated the theory of the Russian path to socialism, called peasant populism, and took part in the organization of the Zemlya i Volya (Land and Will) revolutionary movement. He sympathized with the Polish struggle for freedom and cooperated closely with representatives of the Polish Great Emigration.* After the outbreak of the January Insurrection,* he organized the support of Russian exiles for the Polish cause. M. Malia, Alexande Hercen and the Birth of Russian Socialism, 1812-1855 (Cambridge, 1 HERMANN VON BALK (7-1239), first Provincial Master (Landmeister) of the Teutonic Knights* in Prussia.* He was instrumental in their eventual conquests, initiated by the Grand Master, Herman von Salza,* and built forts in conquered Toruri* (1231), Chelmno* (1232), and Kwidzyri (1233). In 1236 he conquered Pomerania.* E. Caspar, Herman von Salza und die Griindung des De Ordensstaates in Preussen (Tubingen, 1924); CHP, I, 125 HERMANN VON SALZA (1170-1239), Grand Master (Hochmeister) of the Teutonic Knights* and a founder of their power. He moved the activities of his Order from the Middle East, where the situation of the Crusaders had become uncertain, to Transylvania, where the Teutonic Knights obtained a big land grant

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in 1211. In 1225 they were expelled from that region, but, in 1226, they were invited by Conrad of Mazovia* to conquer and convert the Baltic Prussians. Hermann, a close associate of Emperor Friedrich II and Pope Gregory IX, received substantial support from the West, and he initiated a general campaign for the conquest of Prussia.* E. Caspar, Herman von Salza und die Griindung des Deutsch-Ordensstaates in Preussen (Tubingen, 1924); CHP, I, 125HETMAN (from the German Hauptmanri), title of a superior military commander in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* from the fifteenth century to the Partitions* of Poland. At first, the title was used for the local military leaders who were called into service during war only. The permanent position of Great Hetman (hetman wielki) was established in Poland in 1505 (in Lithuania* several years earlier). The 1527 nomination document of J. Tarnowski* defined for the first time the rights and duties of the hetman. He had complete power over the Armed Forces, including the right to issue orders and Army regulations, inspect troops, as well as judge and punish all criminal acts performed by armed personnel, including imposing the death penalty during a war. However, he was not in charge of the levee en masse. From 1581 his office was lifelong, and he could not be removed as the monarch's nominee. From the sixteenth century there were two Great Hetmans for Poland and for Lithuania and two Field (deputy) Hetmans for both these countries. The creation of the Military Department of the Permanent Council* in 1776 limited the hetman's power. The title was also used by the Cossacks.* WEP, IV, 645. HEWELIUSZ (HEVELIUS), JAN (1611-1687), outstanding astronomer who published an atlas of the moon containing one of the earliest exact maps of its surface. Heweliusz named numerous objects on the moon (mountains, craters), and a few of these names are still in use. He also made a catalog of 1,564 stars, the most complete of his time. A scion of a rich Gdarisk* family, a City Councillor and a brewer, he was fascinated with astronomy and built an observatory atop his house, which once was visited by King Jan Kazimierz.* Heweliusz also received grants from the French government and was a member of several prestigious international scientific organizations. He wrote numerous works, some of which were published posthumously by his wife, who participated in his astronomical observations. PSB, IX, 492-494. HIRSZFELD, LUDWIK (1884-1954), professor of microbiology and immunology. In 1907-1911 he worked in the Cancer Research Institute in Heidelberg, where, together with the German serologist E. Dungern, he established the foundation of knowledge of human blood types. During WW I Hirszfeld worked in Serbia, fighting the typhoid epidemic and introducing the new cholera vaccination. In 1920 he returned to Poland as head of Warsaw's* Institute of Serum Research and co-organized the State's Institute of Hygiene. He co-edited the first Polish medical periodical dealing with experimental medicine, founded the

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Polish Biological Association and taught at the Polish Free University (Wolna Wszechnica Polska). As a person of Jewish origin, he was moved to the Ghetto* in 1941. In 1943 he escaped from the Ghetto and survived by hiding under a false name. After WW II, he co-organized the Maria Sklodowska-Curie University in Lublin,* taught there and continued his research at the University of Wroclaw.* He authored numerous scientific works. PSB, IX, 533-535. HLOND, AUGUST (1881-1948), Cardinal. In 1897 he completed his novitiate and, in 1900, he began teaching in a Salesian house in Oswieeim.* In 1907 he became head of a Salesian house in Cracow,* and then he headed a similar institution in Vienna. There he met Pope Pius XI, who appointed him Bishop of Katowice* in 1925 and Archbishop of Gniezno* and Poznari* in 1926. The next year Hlond received his Cardinal's hat. As a Primate* of Poland, he was very active politically. In 1930 he organized Catholic Action (Akcja Katolicka),* which was to be a political leader of all the Catholics in Poland. He also established a Social Council at the Primate's office, supported the Sanacja* regime, and published several politically oriented proclamations. After the outbreak of WW II, he left Poland and spent the war in Rome, in Lourdes and in the Benedictine Abbey in Hautecombe in Vichy-France. He continued diplomatic and propaganda action on behalf of occupied Poland and, on February 3, 1944, he was arrested by the Gestapo.* Liberated in 1945, he went to Rome and then to Poland, where he concentrated on the rebuilding of churches and became a supporter of the anti-communist opposition. A, Baraniak and B. Filipiak, Na strazy sumienia narodu (New York, 1954); PSB, IX, 545-546. HLASKO, JOZEF (1856-1934), National Democratic activist and editor. Originally involved in socialist youth organizations, he changed his views, joined the Polish League (Liga Polska),* and was among the co-founders of the rightist National Democratic Party (Partia Narodowo-Demokratyczna).* Throughout his entire career he served as a party editor of Glos (Voice), the Przeglgd Wszechpolski (All-Polish Review), Gazeta Warszawska (Warsaw Gazette), and other national-democratic periodicals. PSB, IX, 547-548. HODO (7-993), German Margrave of the Eastern Mark on the Elbe River, created in 965 on the Lusatian territory conquered by Gero.* In 972 Hodo organized an expedition against Polish Duke Mieszko I,* who also planned a conquest of the Slavic territories between the Rivers Elbe and Oder.* Hodo's expedition was defeated by Mieszko in the Battle of Cedynia, when it crossed the Oder. This resulted in the intervention of Holy Roman Emperor Otto I. In 973 Mieszko and Hodo were summoned to the Emperor, where the conflict was settled. Mieszko was forced to give his eldest son, Boleslaw, as a hostage to guarantee peace, while a lock of the latter's hair was sent to the Pope as a symbol of Church protection. CHP, I, 18.

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HODUR, FRANCISZEK (1866-1953), founder and first Bishop of the Polish National Reformed Church (Polski Narodowy Reformowany Kosciol) in America. Ordained as a Catholic priest in 1893, he worked first as an assistant priest in Scranton, Pennsylvania. In the struggle of Scranton parishioners with their Bishop for control of Church property, Hodur took sides with the parishioners, who elected him their Pastor. In 1900, Hodur and representatives of other Catholic centers such as Cleveland, Buffalo and Chicago were excommunicated together with their parishioners. They then severed their relationship with Rome and established the independent Polish National Reformed Church in America. It retained the Roman liturgy, but in the Polish language. In 1925 the Church had four dioceses, 136 parishes, and 250,000 faithful. But it had only 25,000 followers in Poland on the eve of WW II. B. Bak, Short History of the Life and Struggles of Bishop Francis Hodur (Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1954); PSB, IX, 556-557.

HOENE-WRONSKI, JOZEF (1776-1853) philosopher and scientist. He participated in the Kosciuszko Insurrection* but, later, joined the Russian Army, in which he attained the rank of Major. In 1797 he resigned, and, after two years of studies in Germany, he settled permanently in France, where he devoted himself entirely to scholarly work. He concentrated on mathematics and philosophy, but he also wrote on sociology, politics, and economics. He was looking for a general philosophical rule which would explain all aspects of human activities. Disappointed with the negative response to his theories in the West, Wroriski appealed to the "youthful" Slavic nations to assume the task of moral

regeneration. Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, ed. by E. R. A. Seligman, vol (New York, 1934),' 504-505; WEP, IV, 708-709.

HOFFMANOWA, KLEMENTYNA (nee Tariska) (1798-1845), writer and educator. She authored numerous pedagogic works, mostly on the education of girls. She was also a pioneer of Polish literature for children and wrote historical novels of a patriotic character. B. Lorence-Kot, "Klementyna Tariska-Hoffmanowa: Cultural Nationalism and a New Formula for Polish Womanhood," History of European Ideas VIII/4-5 (1987); WEP, IV, 711-71 HOHENZOLLERN, German dynasty ruling in Brandenburg-Prussia (14151918) and in Imperial Germany (1871-1918). The name is derived from the Swabian castle of Zollern. One of its owners became a Burgrave of Nuremberg in 1192 and another representative of the family was appointed Elector of Brandenburg.* In 1511, a member of the Brandenburg electoral family, Albrecht Hohenzollern, was elected Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights.* He secularized the Order in 1525 and became hereditary ruler of Ducal Prussia.* In 1618 it passed under direct control of the Electors of Brandenburg, and the Great Elector, Friedrich Wilhelm (1640-1688), united the two countries into one state. His son, Frederick III, assumed the title of "King of Prussia" in 1701. Frederick II the Great* (1740-1786) seized the province of Silesia* from Austria and West

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(Royal) Prussia* from Poland after the First Partition.* In 1793 and 1795, after the Second and Third Partitions,* the Hohenzollerns gained further Polish territories, and Prussia included Polish areas of Silesia,* Pomerania,* and Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* until the twentieth century. F. L. Carsten, The Origins o Prussia (Oxford, 1954); C. A. Macartney, The Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dyna (London, 1970). HOLLENDER, TADEUSZ (1910-1943), poet, publicist and satirist. A moving spirit of young writers' circles in Lvov* and Warsaw,* he worked on the literary monthly Sygnaty (Signals),* satirical periodical Szpilki (Pins), and radical Glos Powszechny (General Voice). He was involved in the anti-authoritarian movement in interwar Poland. During WW II, his satirical works appeared in underground anthologies and periodicals. Arrested by the Gestapo,* he was executed at Pawiak* Prison. PSB, IX, 584-585. HOLOCAUST (1941-1945). See FINAL SOLUTION. HOLY ALLIANCE, loose alliance of European states (except Great Britain, Turkey and the Papal state) created by Alexander I* of Russia, Francis I of Austria and Frederick William III of Prussia* in September 1815 at the Congress of Vienna. The idea of the organization was conceived by Alexander I, and it was directed against the rising liberal and democratic movements in Europe. Officially, the Holy Alliance was to promote Christian principles in international relations, but, practically, it was to preserve the status quo created in Europe after the fall of Napoleon. This also included the Partitions* of Poland. The Alliance survived until the 1850s, when Russia faced the former allies during the Crimean War. CHP, II, 257-275; H. Nicholson, The Congress of Vienna (Lon 1946).

HOLY CROSS SERMONS (Kazania Swietokrzyskie), the oldest specimen of a Polish written text, including fragments of homilies. Written in the thirteenth or fourteenth century, they are probably a copy of an older work. They are named after the Holy Cross Benedictine Monastery, where they were discovered in a binding of a Latin text. They are devoted to the following topics: the angels; the feasts of St. Michael, St. Nicholas, and St. Catherine; Christmas homily; and Epiphany. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 12. HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, institution extending back to the Roman Empire. In 800 Charlemagne, King of the Franks, revived the Roman imperial title. After his line died out, the title, later known as the Holy Roman Emperor of the German Nation, was borne by German kings, and, from the fifteenth century, it was hereditary in the Habsburg dynasty. Initially, the territory of the Empire included Germany, Austria, Bohemia, Switzerland, Eastern France, parts of Northern Italy and the Low Countries. The relationships between the Empire

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and the first rulers of Poland are not quite clear, but it appears that some Polish dukes of the tenth to thirteenth centuries were temporary vassals of the Emperor. L. Koczy, "The Holy Roman Empire and Poland." Antemurale II (1955), 50-65. HOLOWKO, TADEUSZ (1889-1931), politician and publicist. A son of a Polish deportee to Siberia,* he joined the Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party at school in Alma-Ata. Later, while studying at St. Petersburg University and Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* he was active in the Progressive Independent Youth Association (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Post^powo-Niepodleglos*ciowej), the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]),* and the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC]).* During WW I, he co-organized the clandestine Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* and served in the Polish Legions.* After temporary imprisonment by the Germans, he was sent as a political agent of J. Pilsudski* to Russia to coordinate Polish activities there. In November 1918, he participated in the Lublin* government of I. Daszyriski* as a Vice-Minister of propaganda. After WW I, he co-edited Robotnik (Worker) and other publications of the PPS and was active in the party leadership. In 1925 he was appointed Director of the Institute of Research on Ethnic Questions in Warsaw and became Pilsudski's chief specialist on national minorities. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he was one of the most active proponents of the ruling Sanacja* block. In 1927 Holowko became director of the Eastern Division of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He supported Pilsudski's concept of East-Central European federation and tried to improve Polish-Ukrainian relations but was killed by Ukrainian nationalists who opposed reconciliation. PSB, IX, 600-602. HOME ARMY. See AK. HOMELAND NATIONAL COUNCIL (Krajowa Rada Narodowa [KRN]), clandestine organization established by the Soviet-sponsored Polish Workers' Party* on January 1, 1944, in German-occupied Warsaw.* The Council was arranged as an underground legislature and a representative body of the proSoviet left wing of the anti-German resistance. The Council claimed that the Polish Government-in-Exile* in London had no right to represent the Polish nation and conducted a policy contrary to the interests of Poland. The KRN adopted a programmatic declaration calling for radical land reform, nationalization of Polish industry, and the building of a new, people's Poland. The Homeland National Council became an important element of the legitimization of the sovietization of Poland after its "liberation" by the Red Army. On May 22, 1944, the Soviet government recognized the KRN as the representative body of the Polish people. On July 21, 1944, the Council formed the Polish Committee of National Liberation* (PKWN) as its provisional executive. On Dec. 31, 1944, the KRN transformed the PKWN into the Temporary Government of Poland

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and then, on June 28, 1945, into the Temporary Government of National Unity. The Council, with B. Bierut* as president, served as a parliament of communist Poland until the first post-war election on January 19, 1947. K. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943-48 (Berkeley, 1991), 37-61, 225 261.

HOOVER, HERBERT (1874-1964), thirty-first President of the United States (1929-1933). From 1900 he directed various American private and public relief institutions. In 1917 he was appointed National Food Administrator, then head of the Interallied Food Council, and furnished large amounts of food to thirty war-devastated European countries, including Poland. His philanthropic achievements were overshadowed by the Great Depression, but Hoover remained a staunch friend of Poland and opposed President F. Roosevelt's* accommodations of Stalin at the expense of Poland. G. Lerski, Herbert Hoover and Poland Documentary History of a Friendship (Stanford, California, 1 HOOVER INSTITUTION ON WAR, REVOLUTION AND PEACE, founded by H. Hoover* on the Stanford University campus in 1919. Conceived as a specialized collection of books and documents on WW I and humanitarian American relief during that war, the Hoover Institution has expanded to encompass all aspects of social, political and economic change throughout the world in the twentieth century, as a library, archive, and noted place for interdisciplinary scholarship. Research in the Polish subject area has played a significant role, and the Institution holds the largest collection of documents on Polish history outside Poland. M. Siekierski, "Hoover Institution's Polish Collections: An Overview and a Survey of Selected Materials on Polish-Soviet Relations," Polish Revie XXXIII/3 (1988), 325-332. HORBACZEWSKI, EUGENIUSZ (7-1944), military pilot. After the 1939 September campaign, he moved to England and joined the Royal Air Forces. He fought in Africa, over England and France; commanded several Polish and British fighter squadrons; and achieved a record in shooting down Nazi planes. He was killed in an air battle over Beauvais, France. PSB, IX, 619-620. HORODLO, UNION OF, an agreement signed by Duke Witold (Vytautas)* and the nobles of Lithuania* and King Wladyslaw Jagiello (Jogaila)* and the nobles of Poland on October 2, 1413, in the town of Horodlo on the Bug* River, which constituted a border between the two states. The agreement was to complete the Polish-Lithuanian Union of Krewo (Krevo)* and to strengthen the common front against the Teutonic Knights* then threatening the two countries. Both sides were to enjoy equal rights, agreed to support each other, and could choose their rulers, but, in addition, each was required to have the approval of the other on the choice of a single monarch. A common PolishLithuanian diet was to be called, and the Lithuanian state organization was to

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be restructured according to the Polish system. Hence, the personal union established by the marriage of Wladyslaw Jagiello and Jadwiga* took the shape of a real union. The act of Horodlo was the most important step in the process of the unification of the two countries before the Union of Lublin* in 1569, and it opened a period of growing Polish political and cultural influence in Lithuania. CHP, I, 216-218; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 1 HORZYCA, WILAM (1889-1959), writer and theater director. During 19141916, he fought in the Polish Legions.* After WW I, Horzyca co-edited the monthly Skamander* and belonged to the literary group of that name. From 1921 he worked as a Director of various theaters, and this became his main activity. He also taught in and headed the Warsaw* state drama school. A follower of J. Pilsudski,* he was elected to the Parliament in 1928 as a representative of the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR])* and supported the Sanacja* regime. During WW II, he lived first in Lvov,* then in Warsaw, teaching at a clandestine university and editing an underground periodical, Nurt (Current). PSB, X, 23-25 HOTEL LAMBERT, colloquial name for the aristocratic-conservative camp within the Great Emigration* led by Prince A. J. Czartoryski* from his residence of that name in Paris. After the fall of the November Insurrection,* A. Czartoryski left Poland in September 1831. In 1833, he settled in Paris, where he won the support of the majority of Polish notables in exile and other emigrants who respected authority. Czartoryski, later declared Polish "King de facto," began to organize an unofficial Polish "government," which sponsored schools, periodicals, and philanthropic and cultural work. The most important activity of Czartoryski's followers, organized initially as the Union of National Unity (Zwiazek Jednosci Narodowej), was diplomatic action. Czartoryski counted upon a European war, initiated by a conflict between the Western powers and Russia, and tried to make the Polish question a central issue of European politics. He attempted to influence European public opinion and gain support for Polish independence from European Courts, and he dispatched his representatives to important capitals. Czartoryski's agents were also notably active in European regions where conflicts could be used to Polish advantage. The messengers of Hotel Lambert followed and participated in the liberation movements in the Balkans; revolutionary events in Belgium, Spain, and Portugal; the anti-Russian uprisings in the Caucasus; the Crimean War; and the unification of Italy. Hotel Lambert had also its secret network in Poland and planned a new insurrection; in 1837, its followers called their organization the Insurrectionist-Monarchist Union "Yoke-Breaker" (Zwiazek Insurekcyjno-Monarchistyczny "Wyjarzmiciele"). In due course, Hotel Lambert changed its program from a conservative to a liberal one. From 1839 the official name of Czartoryski's organization was the Union of the Third of May (Zwiazek Trzeciego Maja), and its ideology turned back to the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* Independent Poland was to

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be a constitutional monarchy, and Czartoryski encouraged the Polish gentry to organize a limited agrarian reform. The democratic wing of the Great Emigration opposed Hotel Lambert. In 1834, 2,840 exiles signed a manifesto condemning Czartoryski as the "enemy of the Polish emigration." Hotel Lambert tried to maintain discipline among the emigres and attempted to organize Polish armed units in France, Turkey, Algeria, Belgium, and Portugal, which were criticized by the majority of exiles as mercenaries. In 1860 Hotel Lambert called into being the "Bureau des Affaires Polonaises," which was to coordinate activities of Czartoryski's followers at home and abroad and became a foreign representation of the Warsaw camp of the "Whites."* After the death of Adam Czartoryski in 1861, his son, Wladyslaw, succeeded him as a leader, acting as a representative of the National Government during the January Insurrection* of 1863. After 1870 Hotel Lambert ceased to operate. CHP, II, 311-324; WEP, IV, 752. HOUSE, EDWARD (1858-1938), American statesman and close associate of President W. Wilson.* House played a crucial role in Wilson's policy toward Poland and was most helpful to the Polish Delegation at the Paris Peace Conference* after WW I. A monument to House was erected in Paderewski Park in Warsaw.* J. E. Findling, Dictionary of American Diplomatic History (Westport, Connecticut, 1956), 246-247. HOZJUSZ (HOSIUS), STANISLAW (1504-1579), Cardinal and Bishop of Warmia.* A son of a Cracow* burgher, he was a graduate of the Jagiellonian University,* the University of Padua and the University of Bologna. Later, he served as secretary of Bishop P. Tomicki,* and, after years of work in the Royal Chancery, he became the Secretary of King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old)* in 1538, and head of the Chancery in 1543. Hozjusz was a political opponent of Queen Bona* and supported a pro-Habsburg party in Poland and the marriage of Zygmunt (Sigismund) August* and Barbara RadziwiH.* In 1549 King Zygmunt August made Hozjusz Bishop of Chelmno, and, in 1551, of Warmia. As a young man, Hozjusz was a follower of Erasmus of Rotterdam and a humanist, but as a Bishop and Cardinal (from 1561) he was increasingly conservative and became an important Papal loyalist within the Polish Episcopate and a pillar of the Catholic party in Poland. He authored numerous theological works of a polemical Counter-Reformationist* nature. Hozjusz participated in the Synod of Trent, presided over it in 1563, and implemented its decrees in Poland. He was among the most influential Polish politicians of his epoch and distinguished himself in the struggle against Protestantism. H. Wojtyska, Cardinal Hosius, Legate to the Council of Trent (Rome, 1967).

HRYNIEWIECKI, IGNACY (1855-1881), Polish revolutionary who assassinated Tsar Alexander II.* A scion of a minor Polish gentry family, he joined revolutionary secret organizations while studying at the Technological Institute

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in St. Petersburg. From 1879 he was active in the populist Narodnaia Volia (Peoples' Will) and participated in its terrorist and propaganda assignments. He belonged to a fighting unit, which prepared the assassination of the Tsar. On March 12, 1881, a bomb thrown by Hryniewiecki mortally wounded Alexander as well as the assassin. PSB, X, 59-60.

HUBAL, HENRYK. See DOBRZANSKI, HENRY HUBERMAN, BRONISLAW (1882-1947), Polish violinist of Jewish origin. He began performing at the age of eight and became one of the most outstanding violinists of his epoch. His concerts, given in most European countries, were always enthusiastically received. He settled in Vienna, where he taught violin at the State Academy of Music in 1934-1936. In 1936 he moved to Tel Aviv, where he established a philharmonic orchestra. Later, he lived in Switzerland and America. PSB, X, 77-78. HUMAN COMMUNE (Gromada Humari), radical organization founded on March 14, 1836, in England by the members of the Great Emigration* and affiliated with the larger movement of the Communes of the Polish People (Gromady Ludu Polskiego). The Gromada Humari closely cooperated with and endorsed the program of the Gromada Grudziaz.* The name Gromada Human was derived from the 1768 Ukrainian peasant revolt in the region of the small town of Humari. The organization was intended to serve as a bridge for a revolution-

ary alliance with the Ukrainian people and existed until 1846. P. Brock, Polis

Revolutionary Populism: A Study in Agrarian Socialist Thought from the 1830s to the 1850s (Toronto, 1977).

HURKO, IOSIF (1828-1901), Russian General and Governor of Warsaw* during 1883-1894, remembered for his attempts to Russify the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* His anti-Polish measures included the turning of the Polish bank into a branch of the Russian state bank in 1886 and the compulsory use of Russian in schools, courts, and administration. CHP, II, 395. HUSSARIA, Heavy Cavalry modeled on Oriental patterns, which made up about 90 percent of the Polish Cavalry in the late sixteenth century. In the thirteenth century Polish Armed Forces were challenged by Tatar* horsemen. In order to meet this challenge, a new type of cavalry was needed, modeled partly on the enemy's. The process of adopting and improving eastern military techniques gave rise to a new form of horsemen, the hussaria, which replaced previous types of Cavalry. The hussars were armed with plated cuirasses, sabers, shields, and helmets, and they bore lances five meters long. In the seventeenth century armor was reinforced by heavy swords and pistols. In addition to such weaponry, "wings" were added, at first attached to the saddle, later to the backpiece, which made an eerie whirring sound while storming forward. The

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hussaria also carried tiger or leopard skin on their shoulders. Used in battle as the main blow and attacking at full gallop, the hussaria was employed to break through enemy ranks. The most famous victories of the hussaria were those over the Swedes in Kircholm* (1605), Russians in Kluszyn (1610), Turks in Chocim* (1673) and Vienna (1683). In the mid-eighteenth century the hussaria was transformed into the lighter National Cavalry. B. Gembarzewski, "Husarze—ubior, oporzadzenie i uzbrojenie," Bron i Barwa 4 (1938), 6; Z. Zygulski, Broti w dawnej Polsce na tie uzbrojenia Europy i Bliskego Wschodu (Warsaw, 1975); Z. Zygulski, Stara w polskich zbiorach (Warsaw, 198

I IBRAHIM IBN YAQUB, Jewish merchant from Tortosa, Spain, who traveled in Central Europe in the mid-tenth century. In 965 Ibrahim arrived at the Court of Emperor Otto I and then went through the West Slavic lands of the Obodrites to Bohemia, where he met merchants from Eastern Europe and wrote a chronicle based on their relations. Ibrahim mentions the existence of a Polish state and its ruler, Mieszko,* "the King of the North," and calls his kingdom the most extensive of the four known Slavic states (the Obodrites, the Bohemians, the Bulgars, and the Poles). Ibrahim's vivid story is known from fragments cited by the Arab geographer Al Bakshi in al-Masalik wa-al-Mamalik (Book of Kingdoms). Ibrahim was especially interested in distances between towns, economic life, religious customs, and defense forces. His information became the first major source for knowledge on early Central Europe. Encyclopedia Judaica v VIII (Jerusalem, 1971), 1214; L. Koczy, "Relacja o Slowianach Ibrahima Ibn Jakuba," Teki Historyczne HI/1 (1949); T. Kowalski (ed.), Relacja Ibrahima b. Jakuba zpodrozy do krajow slowianskich w przekladzie Al Bekriego (Warsaw, 19 IGANIE, BATTLE OF, major clash between Polish and Russian Armies during the November Insurrection* on April 10, 1831, near the village of Iganie in the Siedlce* region. After the outbreak of the uprising, the Polish command played for time in hopes of a negotiated peace. It launched an offensive against the Russians when they threatened Warsaw* in the spring of 1831. After the Battle of Grochow,* Polish troops attacked the Russian Army at Wawer,* Dembe Wielkie,* and Iganie, where Gen. I. Pradzyriski* defeated the Russian troops under Gen. G. Rosen. The Russians lost 4,500 men, while the Poles lost only 500. However, the Polish command did not take advantage of the victory and withdrew to Warsaw. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 455; R. F. Leslie, Polish Politics and the Revolution of November 1830 (London, 1956);A. Sliwiriski, Powstanie Listopadowe (London, 194

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IKC (Ilustrowany Kurier Codzienny), largest interwar Polish daily published in Cracow* in 1910-1939 by M. Dabrowski.* A popular newspaper, originally close to the peasant movement, it supported J. Pilsudski* and Sanacja* after 1926. Dabrowski employed prominent writers and journalists such as Z. Nowakowski,* Z. Grabowski, and F. Zweig. IKC had foreign correspondents and sponsored additional tabloids. WEP, IV, 825. ILLAKOWICZ, KAZIMIERA (1892-1967), poet loosely connected with the Skamander* group. She made her debut in 1911 and wrote lyric poetry using motifs from Lithuanian folklore and describing life from the point of view of a woman. She worked as a nurse during WW I and served as J. Pilsudski's* private secretary in the interwar period. S. Bassnett (ed.), Ariadne's Thread (Bosto 1988); J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 577. IMMUNITIES, exemption from certain legal obligations imposed on others. Immunities existed in the late Roman Empire and were practiced under the Franks, becoming one of the main elements of the decentralization of state authority in the feudal system. In Poland, immunities appeared in the twelfth century (the first were documented in 1136). Originally, they were used mostly on church estates as economic immunities (exemption from taxation) and juridical immunities, which limited or canceled a prince's jurisdiction over subjects settled on exempted estates. From the thirteenth century, immunities were also issued as privileges to the knightly properties, usually as a reward for military service, and gradually spread to the entire nobility. Initially, immunities stimulated new settlements and contributed to the economic development of Poland. Later, they increased the dependency of tenants upon landlords, led to serfdom and weakened state authority, and hampered the creation of a modern state organization. EHGP, I, 269-270. INCOMPATIBILIA, legal restrictions in Poland prohibiting joint holding of two or more of the highest state offices. Formulated in the Czerwiriski Privilege of 1422, they were developed in the Nieszawa Privileges* of 1454 and the Diet resolutions of 1504 and 1562. The limitations were to prevent the magnates from amassing high positions. However, several kings disregarded the incompatibilia, and that led to growing tension between the Crown, supported by the magnates, and the middle gentry. The conflict became especially bitter in the 1530s, when Queen Bona* sought to strengthen the King's position by winning the support of the aristocrats. As a result, the gentry openly declared its opposition and started the "Hen's War" (Wojna Kokosza) in 1537. History of Polan ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 174-181; WEP, V, 5. INFELD, LEOPOLD (1898-1968), Polish-born physicist who earned his doctorate at the Jagiellonian University.* A Rockefeller Fellow at Cambridge University in 1933-1935, he worked with A. Einstein at Princeton University during

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1936-1938. In 1939 he settled in Canada as a professor at Toronto University. He was a prolific scholar whose main interest was in the theory of relativity. One of his books, co-authored with Einstein, formulated an equation describing star movements, which was more precise than Newton's equations. In 1950, he returned to Poland and continued his research in Warsaw. WEP, V, 50. INFLANTY. See LIVONIA. INGARDEN, ROMAN (1893-1970), philosopher. Educated at Lvov,* Gottingen, Vienna, and Freiburg, he taught at Lvov University* in 1933-1941 and edited Studia Philosophica from 1938. During WW II, he wrote his principal work, Spor o istnienie swiata (Controversy over the Existence of the World). He accepted the chair of philosophy at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* in 1945. One of the main representatives of phenomenological philosophy, he was among the most able pupils of Husserl, accepting his main analytical results and phenomenological method. However, Ingarden rejected Husserl's transcendental idealism and showed how phenomenology could lead to realism. A. Tymieniecka, Roman Ingarden: Nine Essays in Phenomenology (The Hague, 1 INOWROCLAW, town in north-central Poland in the Kujavia* region, first mentioned in 1185 as a trading settlement. In 1240, Inowroclaw received urban rights and later was capital of an independent Principality. In 1327, it was incorporated into the united Polish state by King Wladyslaw Lokietek.* From the fifteenth century it served as the capital of a province (wojewodztwo) but, destroyed during the Swedish Wars* in 1656, it lost much of its importance. Seized by Prussia* in 1772, it belonged to the Duchy of Warsaw* in 1807-1815 and was retaken by Prussia after the Congress of Vienna. From the mid-nineteenth century, it developed as a center of salt mining and the chemical, machine, and glass industries, as well as a modern spa. After WW I the city returned to Poland and reached 39,000 inhabitants in 1939. EHGP, I, 273. INTELLIGENTSIA, collective name for members of a social group or elite consisting of people with higher education; later also of professionally trained specialists and intellectuals. The Polish intelligentsia emerged as a separate social stratum in the last decades of the eighteenth century. Several factors contributed to the appearance of this class: the disintegration of the feudal estate society, the uprisings against Russia, the development of the Polish economy and a growing demand for trained specialists, and the modernization and development of the state administration, army, educational institutions, and cultural life. People who joined the intelligentsia in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were mostly of the nobility* and retained its ethos. In the Duchy of Warsaw* and the Congress Kingdom of Poland* intelligentsia members, working mostly in the state administration, education, and the Army, numbered about 10,000 people. In the territories occupied by Austria and Prussia, where the

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regime was initially harsher and German was the official language, the Polish intelligentsia numbered between 6,000 and 8,000 people. After the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, the intelligentsia was joined by specialists employed in the growing Polish industry. After the January Insurrection* of 1863 and the emancipation of the Polish peasants, thousands of nobles joined the class. Their estates were confiscated by the Tsarist administration as a punishment for participation in the uprising, or they were impoverished as a result of the agrarian reform. The intelligentsia, playing a prominent role in the Polish national independence movement, was also joined by a growing number of burghers, peasants, Jews* and Polonized foreigners. By the end of the nineteenth century there were about 150,000 intelligentsia members (of about twenty million Poles), who contributed greatly to the revival of the Polish state during and after WW I. The numerical force of the Polish intelligentsia grew to about 500,000 in 1921, and to some 850,000 (about 6 percent of the whole population of Poland) in 1939. However, the position of the intelligentsia was economically very unstable, dependent on the state and vulnerable to political changes. During WW II, both the Nazis and the Soviets attempted to exterminate the Polish intelligentsia, and it was virtually decimated. A. Gella (ed.), The Intelligentsia and the Intellectuals: Theory, Method and Case Study (Beverly Hills, California, 1976);A. Gella, "The Russian and Polish Intelligentsia: A Sociological Perspective," Studies in Soviet Thought, vol. 19 (1979), 397-420; J. Jedlicki, "Native Culture and Western Civilization: Essay from the History of Polish Social Thought in the Years 1764-1863," Acta Poloniae Historica, vol. 28 (1973), 63-86; S. Kieniewicz, "The Polish Intelligentsia in the Nineteenth Century," Studies in East European Social History, ed. by K. Hitchins (Leiden, 1977), 122-134. INTERREX, person substituting for the ruler after his death and up to the coronation of his successor. The office was created in ancient Rome. In Poland it appeared for the first time in 1382 after the death of the last Piast* monarch, Kazimierz Wielki (the Great),* and was of major importance after the death of the last Jagiellonian* King, Zygmunt (Sigismund) August,* in 1572. The organization of interregna was specified mostly during the Sejm of 1573. An interregnum lasted from the death of one King to the coronation of the next. During this period, the Primate* of Poland, an Interrex ex officio, represented royal power. The Primate proclaimed the King's death; summoned the Hooded Dietines, which were to maintain order in the counties; and opened the Convocation Sejm,* assembled as a confederation* under the Primate's Presidency. The Convocation Sejm was to safeguard the internal and external security of the state and to prepare for the Election Sejm,* which consisted of the deputies chosen by the Election Dietines. The Election Sejm, consisting of the Senate, the House of Deputies and the gentry as a whole, was to select a candidate for the throne. Then, the Coronation Sejm was summoned, and the Primate crowned the King, who took the coronation oath. Only after these procedures did the King-elect attain full royal power, and the interregnum end. The first Interrex acting in this way

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was Archbishop J. Uchariski,* elected in 1572, and the last was Archbishop W. Lubieriski,* who served in this capacity in 1763-1764 until the coronation of the last King of Poland, Stanislaw August.* P. Jasienica, The Commonwealth of Both Nations: The Silver Age (New York, 1987); CHP, I, 369-392. IRANEK-OSMECKI, KAZIMIERZ (1897-1984), Polish Army officer. During WW I, he served in the Polish Legions,* in the Austrian Army, and in the secret Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In November 1918, he joined the regular Polish Army. During the 1939 September Campaign,* he served in the Quartermaster's General Office and, from October 1939, as Deputy Intelligence Officer in the Polish Embassy in Bucharest. In 1940-1943, he traveled as an Emissary between the Polish Government-inExile* in London and the command of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* in Warsaw.* In 1943, he became Quartermaster and, later, Chief of the II (Intelligence) Bureau of the AK. In that capacity, he took part in the Warsaw Insurrection* of 1944 and served as a key Polish delegate to negotiate the city's capitulation with the Germans on October 2, 1944. Taken prisoner, he went to

London after liberation to continue his work in the Polish General Staff. J. Garliriski, Poland, SOE, and the Allies (London, 1969); The Unseen and Silent: Adven-

tures from the Underground Movement Narrated by Paratroops of the Polish Home Army (London, 1954).

IRZYKOWSKI, KAROL (1873-1944), writer and literary critic. A scion of Galician* landed gentry, he attended the University of Lvov* and earned his living as a Court and Parliamentary stenographer. He made his literary debut as a playwright and novelist and gradually moved to literary criticism and became a leading critic in interwar Poland. His sharp and penetrating works were frequently controversial (one of his targets was T. Boy-Zeleriski*), but he was among the most outstanding Polish intellectuals of the twentieth century. Irzykowski participated in underground cultural life during the Nazi occupation and died of wounds received during the Warsaw Uprising.* C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 362-364; PSB, X, 166-169. ISAAC BEN ABRAHAM OF TROKI (1533-1594), Karaite* scholar; secretary of the Karaite community in Troki,* Lithuania* (1533-1553); physician and theologian. He had a perfect knowledge of Latin and Polish, which enabled him to discuss theological issues with Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox clergymen. One result of these disputes was an apology of Judaism and an examination of Christian dogmas, Hizzuk Emunah (A Stronghold of Knowledge), translated into many languages. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. XV (Jerusalem, 1971), 1403; PSB, X, 193-194. ISAIAH (BONER) OF CRACOW (7-1471), Augustinian monk from the Kazimierz suburb of Cracow,* who set an example of rare simplicity, edifying

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people by his sanctity and learning. Butler's Lives of the Saints: Complete Edition, vol. I (New York, 1956). ISSERLES, MOSES BEN ISRAEL (1525-1572), philosopher and codifier. A rabbi of Cracow,* a senior of its kahal (religious community) and a Deputy in the Council of Four Lands,* he founded a great yeshiva (institution of Jewish learning) in his city. As a scholar, he was interested in philosophy, history, astronomy, and Biblical and Cabalistic studies, but his main achievement was a commentary to the great legal digest Shulhan arukh (The Well Laid Table) of the Sephardic codifier J. Caro. Isserles's work made this code an acceptable and authoritative guide for Ashkenazic Orthodox Jews to the present day. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. IX (Jerusalem, 1971), 1081-1085; PSB, X, 172. IVAN TV (THE TERRIBLE) (1530-1584), Prince of Moscow and the first formally proclaimed Tsar of Russia. He created a highly centralized administration, instituting a reign of terror against the boyars. In quest of warm water ports on the Baltic Sea, he tried to expand his control over Livonia* and engaged in long and unsuccessful Livonian Wars (1558-1583) against Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* Ivan tried to direct Russian expansion into Europe, a policy that resulted in a permanent Polish-Russian conflict, one that was continued by Peter I the Great. CHP, I, 348-369; G. Vemadsky, A History Russia, vol. 4-5 (1959-1969). IWASZKIEWICZ, JAROSLAW (1894-1980), outstanding poet and writer. He studied at the University of Kiev in 1912-1918, where he wrote his first stories and poems. After WW I he lived in Warsaw,* began writing for the Pikador cabaret, and became a co-founder of the poets' group Skamander.* In 1923-1925, he was private secretary to the Sejm Speaker M. Rataj.* In 19271932, he worked for the Propaganda Department of the Polish Foreign Ministry, and, in 1932-1936, he served as cultural attache in Denmark and Belgium. He contributed regularly to Wiadomosci Literackie (Literary News).* His home in Stawisko near Warsaw became a meeting place for intellectuals engaged in resistance during WW II. After the war he become a leading literary personality of communist Poland. Iwaszkiewicz received numerous literary prizes for his poems written in the style of "Young Poland."* He also wrote plays, novels, essays, biographies, short stories, translations, librettos and works on music. Many of his writings bear an autobiographical character or examine the turbulence of Polish history. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Wars 1978), 571-576; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 389K. Wyka, "Oblicze s*wiata," Pogranicze powiesci (Cracow, 194 IZYCKI, MATEUSZ (1898-1952), General of the Polish Air Force.* During WW I, he served in the Russian Army and then in the Third Polish Corps. After November 1918, he continued his service in the Polish Army, and, in 1926, he

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moved from the Cavalry to the Air Force. In the 1939 September Campaign* he served as Chief of Staff, Air Force Command, the Lodz Army, and later as a staff officer during the defense of Warsaw.* After the fall of the city, he moved to France and England. He fought in Africa and, in August 1943, he became the last Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Air Force in exile. Destiny Can Wait: The Polish Airforce in the Second World War (London, 1

I JABLONNA, military detention camp for the Jewish soldiers of the Polish Army set up during the Polish-Soviet War* in the summer of 1920. The fact that Jews* were prominent in the Soviet leadership created an atmosphere of suspicion toward Polish Jews, particularly when the Soviet offensive reached Warsaw* in August 1920. Polish military authorities ordered that Jewish volunteers and "in particular officers" should be detained in a closed camp, on the pretext that the detainees were not yet ready for active service. About 3,000 Jewish soldiers and officers were removed from their units and detained. In September 1920, after protests of the Jewish public and Polish intellectuals, the camp was liquidated on the initiative of the socialist Vice-Premier I. Daszyriski.* Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. IX (Jerusalem, 1971), 1175. JACEK, SAINT (HYACINTH) (1185-1257), Dominican friar from Silesia,* who founded several Dominican monasteries in Poland and Central Europe. Involved in missionary activities, he allegedly went as far as Scandinavia, Crimea and India. He preached a Crusade against the heathen Prussians. He was canonized in 1594. Butler's Lives of the Saints: Complete Edition, vol. Ill (New 1956), 338-339; WEP, V, 170. JACHOWICZ, STANISLAW (1796-1857), writer, pedagogue, and philanthropist. From 1818 he lived in Warsaw,* where he was active in the Charitable Association, worked as a teacher, and directed several schools for orphans. He is among the pioneers of Polish children's literature. PSB, X, 270-272. JACOBINS, originally a French political club established in 1789 in Versailles, identified with the most extreme and violent group of the French Revolution. In Poland, the name of the Jacobins was applied by the propaganda of Catharine the Great* and the Targowica Confederation* to a group of political activists

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demanding radical social and constitutional changes shortly before and during the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794. The Polish Jacobins were mostly young enthusiasts who wished to combine the struggle for independence with social and political revolution. Usually members of the impoverished lesser gentry, they included Army officers (J. Jasiriski,* J. Zajaczek*), lawyers and jurists (T. Maruszewski, T. Taszycki), journalists and writers (J. Pawlikowski,* F. Dmochowski*), and representatives of the lower clergy (J. Mejer, F. Jelski). Most of them considered H. Kollataj* their spiritual leader. The Jacobins demanded equal civic rights for burghers, abolition of serfdom, and assignment of lands to those who participated in the Kosciuszko Uprising. They wished Poland to become a republic, opposed tyranny, and proclaimed the principle of the brotherhood of nations, including the Russians and the Germans. On April 24, 1794, they formed the Jacobin Club in Warsaw,* officially named the Civic Association to Offer Assistance to the National Offices for the Good of the Country, and temporarily assumed power in Vilna.* They criticized the leadership of the Insurrection and pressed for radical measures, such as the punishment of the Targowica Confederates and a revolutionary war on the territories occupied by the enemies of Poland. The Jacobins contributed to the popular demonstrations in Warsaw, and, responding to their pressure, the criminal court sentenced several leaders of Targowica to death by hanging. After the fall of the Insurrection, numerous Jacobins continued their activities in exile or in secret organizations in Poland. Some were active in the Duchy of Warsaw.* The Jacobins became fragmented but initiated a radical stream within the Polish independence movement. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 384-390; B. Lesnodors Polscy Jakobini: Karta z dziejow Insurekcji 1974 roku (Warsaw, 1960).

JACWINGOWIE (Jatvingians, Sudavians), Baltic ethnic group closely related to Lithuanians, destroyed by the neighboring Slavs and the Teutonic Knights* in the thirteenth century. They lived between the Niemen and Biebrza Rivers, and Lakes Mamry and Sniardwy. J. Dlugosz* wrote about them in his chronicle and noted that they shared many common features with the Lithuanians and Prussians in language, religion and customs. They tried to establish their own state, but, in the second half of the thirteenth century, they were subjugated by the Teutonic Knights, Volhynia* and Mazovia.* Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 5 (Boston, 1976), 319-322; A. Kamiriski, Jacwiez, Terytorium, Ludnosc, stosunki g darcze i spoleczne (L6dz, 1953); WEP, V, 174-175. JADWIGA (HEDWIG) D'ANJOU (1374-1399), Queen of Poland (13841399), whose marriage to Wladyslaw Jagiello (Jogaila)* founded the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.* Jadwiga was the youngest daughter of Ludwik Wegierski (Louis d'Anjou),* King of Hungary and Poland. He had no sons and secured his daughters' succession in exchange for the Koszyce privileges given to the Polish nobility in 1374. According to the original plan, the older daughter of Ludwik, Maria, was to inherit the Polish throne, while Jadwiga was to be a

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Queen of Hungary. In addition, Jadwiga was betrothed to Habsburg* Prince Wilhelm, the oldest son of Emperor Leopold III, in 1378. The death of King Ludwik in 1382 changed these plans. His daughter, Maria, became a Queen of Hungary, and the Poles, who opted to terminate the personal union with Hungary, demanded that Jadwiga should be sent to Cracow* to be a Queen of Poland. The fact that she was a granddaughter of a Piast* Princess (one of her grandmothers, Queen Elisabeth* of Hungary, was Kazimierz the Great's* sister) made her attractive to the Polish nobility. In 1384, she traveled to Cracow and was crowned rex, "King," of Poland. Intelligent, well educated and beautiful, she became very popular; however, she was still too young to rule, and Poland's politics were conducted by old courtiers of Kazimierz the Great. They were looking for a husband for a young Queen and broke Jadwiga's engagement to Prince Wilhelm. They revived the earlier idea of King Wladyslaw Lokietek,* that a union with Lithuania,* which was also threatened by the Teutonic Knights,* would be advantageous for Poland. In 1385, Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania signed the Krewo Union.* He promised to Christianize his country and unite it with Poland. In 1386 Jogaila was baptized as Wladyslaw; married to Jadwiga, who was twenty years younger; and crowned as King of Poland. Jadwiga remained an equal co-ruler of the country. She participated in negotiations with the Teutonic Knights and supported a plan for a peaceful solution of the conflict with them. She led a military expedition, which regained the Halicz* Rus', taken by Hungary, for Poland. She founded many churches and hospitals and was a patron of religion and scholarship. She financed the restoration of the University of Cracow, later called the Jagiellonian University.* She died after giving birth to a premature daughter. The Catholic Church recognized her as Blessed Hedwig of Poland. O. Halecki, Jadwiga of Anjou and the Rise of East Central Europe (Boulder, Colorado, 1991) Kellog, Jadwiga, Poland's Great Queen (New York, 1931); PSB, X, 291-297.

JADWIGA, SAINT (Saint Hedwig) (ca. 1174-1243), wife of Prince Henryk Brodaty* of Silesia* and mother of Henryk Pobozny.* A daughter of Count Bertold of Diessen-Andechs in Bavaria, she was educated in a Benedictine convent near Wurzburg and was interested in books and educational matters. She established or persuaded her husband to fund about twenty monasteries and other ecclesiastical institutions in Silesia. She also organized an ambulatory hospital for the poor and a leper hospital. After twenty years of marriage and having borne seven children, Jadwiga obtained her husband's permission for separation, moved to a convent, and devoted herself to charitable work. She was canonized in 1267. PSB, X, 297-299. JAGIELLONIAN DYNASTY (1386-1572), branch of the Lithuanian monarchical family founded by duke Giedymin,* which ruled in Poland during 1386— 1572, in Lithuania* during 1377-1401 and 1440-1572, in Hungary during 1440-1444 and 1490-1526, and in Bohemia during 1471-1526. The dynasty

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was established by Grand Duke of Lithuania Jogaila, who married Queen Jadwiga* of Poland in 1386 and became King Wladyslaw II Jagiello.* Poland and Lithuania, united by the person of their ruler, constituted a great power and were able to defeat their main common enemy, the Teutonic Knights,* at the Battle of Grunwald* in 1410. After 1401 Lithuania was governed by Jagiello's cousin, Vytautas (Witold),* and brother, Svitrigaila (Swidrygiello).* Jagiello's son, Wladsylaw III Warnericzyk,* succeeded his father in Poland in 1434 and assumed the throne of Hungary in 1440. After he was killed by the Turks at the Battle of Varna* in 1444, he was succeeded in Poland by his brother, Kazimierz (Casimir) IV Jagielloriczyk (Jagiellon),* who had ruled in Lithuania since 1440. Kazimierz IV won the Thirteen Years' War* (1454-1466) against the Teutonic Knights and placed his son, Wladyslaw, on the thrones of Bohemia and Hungary. The dynasty was continued by Kazimierz's sons, Jan Olbracht,* Aleksander I,* and Zygmunt (Sigismund) I the Old,* who defeated Muscovy at the Battle of Orsza in 1514 and subjugated Ducal Prussia* as a fief of Poland in 1525. Zygmunt's nephew, Louis II, succeeded Wladyslaw as King of Bohemia and Hungary but was childless when killed by the Turks at the Battle of Mohacs in 1526. His death brought an end to Jagiellonian rule in both of these states. Zygmunt's son, Zygmunt (Sigismund) II August,* succeeded his father in Poland and Lithuania and reshaped them into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* by the real or Federal Union of Lublin* concluded in 1569. In 1572 Zygmunt August died, leaving no heirs and thereby ending the Jagiellonian dynasty. The main objectives of the Jagiellonian policy were the destruction of the Teutonic Knights, containment of Muscovy, and full control of East-Central Europe.* The Jagiellonian rule produced the Polonization of the Lithuanian and Ruthenian nobility, plus numerous privileges for the gentry of Poland and Lithuania. Both these countries went through an impressive cultural development. The "Jagiellonian idea," emphasizing Polish Eastern expansion and interests, was revived in the twentieth century by J. Pilsudski.* P. Jasienica, Jagiellonia Poland (Miami, 1978); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1 York, 1984), 115-159; WEP, V, 177. JAGIELLONIAN LIBRARY (Biblioteka Jagielloriska), one of the oldest libraries in Poland and Eastern Europe, established in 1364 as part of Cracow Academy. After it was renovated by King Wladyslaw Jagiello* in 1400, all its departments began to collect books. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the collections were growing mainly through faculty donations. The largest was the Library of Collegium Maius, built about 1517. In the seventeenth century the library went through a decline, but in 1775, the Committee on National Education* undertook a reform of the library by merging all department collections. The library flourished under the direction of K. Estreicher* (1869-1905), when collections were properly catalogued and enriched. Among other treasures the library acquired Copernicus'* De Revolutionibus orbium coelestium. In 1940 the Jagiellonian Library was moved to a modern building completed in the

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interwar period. Its total collections passed the one million mark in 1939, but, during WW II, the Nazis stole its valuable illuminated manuscripts, old prints and maps, which were partly restored after Hitler's defeat. S. Zimmer, "The Jagiellonian University Library in Krakow," Polish Review VIII/1 (1963), 56-77; WE I, 772-773. JAGIELLONIAN UNIVERSITY, oldest university in Poland and second oldest in Central Europe (after Prague), established in Cracow* by King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* on May 12, 1364, and modeled on the examples of Bologna and Padua. Initially it was called Cracow Academy and had eight chairs of law, two chairs of medicine, and one of liberal arts. Neglected by King Ludwik Wegierski (Louis d'Anjou),* it was reactivated by King Wladyslaw Jagiello* in 1400. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries it established its high reputation in the fields of astronomy, mathematics and geography. Its most famous scholars at that time were the astronomer M. Kopernik (Copernicus),* the political theorist A. Frycz Modrzewski,* and the poet J. Kochanowski.* In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the university went through a crisis, to be reformed by H. Kollataj* in 1777-1783 on the recommendation of the National Education Committee.* After the Partitions of Poland,* the university was Germanized by the Austrians but was re-Polonized in the Duchy of Warsaw* and the Republic of Cracow.* It remained the only Polish institution of higher learning until 1854, when it was again Germanized. After Galicia* gained autonomy in 1867, the university was Polonized and flourished as the most prestigious Polish institution of learning throughout the interwar period, with such prominent scholars as M. Bobrzyriski,* I. Chrzanowski,* J. Dietl,* K. Estreicher,* S. Kot,* S. Kutrzeba,*

and T. Lehr-Sptawiriski.* It was closed by the

II. In November 1939, 183 scholars from the university and other Cracow institutions of higher learning were deported to the Sachsenhausen* concentration camp, where many of them died. Old buildings and sophisticated laboratories were devastated by the Germans, but the university continued its instruction underground with 140 professors and 900 students from 1942 until it was reopened in 1945. SHP, 511-512; J. Tomicki, "The University of Cracow in the Period of Its Greatness, 1364-1549," Polish Review XVI/2 (1971), 25-44, and XVI/3 (1971 87-94. JAKUB STREPA (StrzemieJ (ca. 1340-1409), Archbishop of Halicz* from 1391, Deputy Chancellor* (podkanclerzy), and Franciscan friar. He was beatified in 1791. The Book of Saints (London, 1989), 291; WEP, V, 1 JAKUB SWINKA (7-1314), Archbishop of Gniezno* from 1283 and one of the most outstanding Polish medieval politicians, who favored unification of fragmented feudal Poland and supported King Wladyslaw Lokietek.* Jakub 3winka was against the infiltration of the German-speaking clergy into the Polish Church, and he strongly defended the use of the Polish language in religion and

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education. D. Buczek, "Archbishop Jakub Swinka (1283-1314): An Assessment," Studies in Polish Civilization, ed. by D. Wandycz (New York, n.d.); S. Matczak, " Archepiscopal Election in the Middle Ages: Jacob II Swinka of Gniezno," Polish Revie VIII (1963), 21-55. JAKUB Z PARADYZA (de Paradiso) (ca. 1380-1464), theologian, philosopher and religious writer. Descended from German colonists in Great Poland,* he joined a Cistercian* monastery in Paradyz in 1402 and enrolled in the Jagiellonian University,* known then as Cracow Academy, in 1421. In 1432 he became a professor of theology there. In 1447 he settled in a Carthusian monastery in Erfurt. He supported reform of the Church and wrote numerous works on that subject. PSB, X, 363-364. JAM ZAPOLSKI, village in the Pskov region in Northern Belorussia, where the Ten Years Armistice was signed on January 15, 1582, to terminate the Livonian War (1577-1582) between Poland and Russia. Russia gave up the Polotsk territory and evacuated the castles in Livonia* on behalf of Poland, which returned its former acquisition of Russian lands. CHP, I, 369-392. JAMESTOWN, town on the island in the estuary of the James River in Virginia, where the first Polish immigrants arrived in America in the early 1600s. They were mostly glassblowers and tar makers. A. Chandler, "The Poles at Jamestown," Polish Review II (Autumn, 1957), 3-7; P. Barbour, "The Identity of the Fir Poles in America," William and Mary Quarterly XXI (1964), 77-92; A. Waldo, Jamestown Pioneers from Poland: In Commemoration of the Arrival of the First Poles in America, 1608 (Jamestown, Virginia, 1958).

JAN I OLBRACHT (John I Albert) (1459-1501), King of Poland who granted new privileges to the gentry at the expense of the peasants and burghers, the second son of King Kazimierz IV Jagielloriczyk (Jagiellon).* Well educated by J. Dlugosz* and F. Kallimach,* he distinguished himself as a military leader and defeated the Tatars* in 1487 and 1491. In 1490 a faction of the Hungarian magnates elected him King of Hungary, but he was bypassed in favor of his older brother, Wladyslaw. After his father's death, Jan Olbracht was elected King of Poland in 1492, although his younger brother, Aleksander Jagielloriczyk,* retained the title of Grand Duke of Lithuania. Jan Olbracht recovered a part of Silesia* and Mazovia* and tried to improve relations with Moscow and his brother, Wladyslaw, who ruled in Hungary and Bohemia. The King also attempted to strengthen his political and financial position in Poland. During his reign, the Polish gentry received new privileges in Piotrk6w* in return for subsidies and, in 1493, a two-chamber national Sejm* (Parliament) was created. The King's ambition was to become a leader in the European counter-offensive against the Turks and to gain control over the Danubian Principalities. In 1497 a large Polish expedition entered Moldavia but met fierce resistance and suffered

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a heavy defeat. This encouraged the Tatars to renew their raids and, from 1498 to 1501, the King was busy with the defense of the Polish southern border. The King also planned a war against his recalcitrant vassal, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights,* but died suddenly. CHP, 1, 257-266; Poczet krolow i ksig polskich (Register of Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 305 315; PSB, X, 405-410. JAN II KAZIMIERZ (John II Vasa) (1609-1672), King of Poland and Grand Prince of Lithuania (1648-1668), son of King Zygmunt (Sigismund) III Waza,* pretender to the Swedish throne, who fought against the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising* and the Swedish, Russian, Transylvanian, Tatar* and Prussian invaders. He fought on the Habsburg* side against France during the Thirty Years' War and was arrested and imprisoned by the French in 1638-1640. Released, he went to Italy, joined the Jesuits,* and was nominated a Cardinal. However, he resigned from this honor, returned to Poland and, after the death of his brother, King Wladyslaw IV,* was elected King. He tried to reach an agreement with B. Chmielnicki,* but when it proved unrealistic, he organized two major campaigns against the Cossacks* and defeated them in the Battle of Beresteczko* in 1651. He also tried to strengthen the royal power but faced the first liberum veto* in 1652. After the Pereiaslav Agreement* of 1654, when the Cossacks* allied with the Tsar, a new Polish-Russian war broke out. While the Polish Army was fighting in the east, the Swedes invaded Poland, and the Swedish "Deluge"* started in 1655. The King, left by the most powerful magnates, who switched their allegiance to Sweden, fled abroad but returned soon, when Polish peasants and gentry rebelled against the Swedes. After the successful campaigns of S. Czarniecki,* the war was concluded with the Treaty of Oliwa* in 1660, when the King renounced his rights to the Swedish throne and to northern Livonia.* However, in the meantime, Jan Kazimierz had to repel a Transylvanian offensive and recognize the full sovereignty of Ducal Prussia* under Frederick William of Brandenburg in return for his support against the Swedes. In addition, the Polish-Russian war was renewed when the King signed the Hadziacz* agreement with the Cossacks in 1658. This long war was concluded with the truce of Andruszow* in 1667. After the wars, the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth* was exhausted economically and was falling into anarchy, shaken by rebellions of unpaid mercenaries and disputes among the military leaders. The King was looking for a remedy, and he proposed electing a successor to the throne while he himself was still alive, in order to prevent internal wars after his death. The Royal reform plans met with the opposition of the magnates. One of the most powerful of them, J. Lubomirski,* started a mutiny (rokosz), which defeated the Royal Army (1665-1666). In 1667 Queen Maria Ludwika (Louise Marie de Gonzague)* died. She was the chief source

of support for the King, who abdicated in 1668 and the following year left for

France, where he served as titular Abbot of a monastery until his death. CHP,

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I, 502-531; Poczet krolow i ksigzgt polskich (Register of Polish Kings and Princes), by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 379-387; PSB, X, 410-413. JAN III SOBIESKI (1629-1696), King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* from 1674, who briefly restored Poland's position as a great power in Eastern Europe. A scion of an old middle gentry family, he was one of the best educated Polish Kings of the seventeenth century. Jan's father, Jakub Sobieski, spent many years fighting with the Tatars* and reached the high state position of Castellan* of Cracow.* Jan was raised in the patriotic tradition, traveled extensively in Western Europe, and became an admirer of France. In 1648, he joined the Polish Army and participated in the military operations against the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising.* Sent with a diplomatic mission to Istanbul, Sobieski learned the Turkish and Tatar languages. After the Swedish invasion of Poland in 1655, he joined the pro-Swedish forces against the Polish King, Jan Kazimierz,* but, in the spring of 1656, he changed sides and became one of the main Commanders of the anti-Swedish military operations. After the Swedish "Deluge,"* he fought in the wars with Muscovy and the Cossacks.* In 1655 Sobieski established a romantic relationship with Maria Kazimiera (Marie-Casimire; also styled Marysierika),* a lady-in-waiting of the Polish Queen, Maria Ludwika.* He became a member of the Queen's pro-French party, and, in 1665, he married the ambitious Marysierika, who greatly influenced his career and politics. In 1655 Sobieski became Grand Marshal of Poland; in 1666, Field Hetman*; and, in 1668, Grand Hetman. Very popular because of his military victories over the Cossacks and the Turks and backed by the French party, Sobieski was elected King of Poland in 1674, after the death of Michal Wisniowiecki.* Sobieski tried to end the Turkish Wars,* cooperate with France, and strengthen the Polish position on the Baltic Sea. He realized, however, that he was treated by France more as a vassal than a partner. He reversed his alliances and concluded a treaty with the Habsburgs.* In the summer of 1683, when the Turkish Army approached Vienna, Sobieski moved with his Army to Austria, took command of the Vienna rescue,* and defeated the Turks. He continued the anti-Turkish campaign, intending to eject the Turks from Moldavia and Walachia and make them Polish vassals. His plans failed and the last years of his reign were filled with intrigues and conflicts between his sons and his wife and between him and a section of the Polish gentry, which was afraid that he wanted to attain absolute power. Sobieski was a great patron of art and built lavish residences in Z61kiew, Jaworow, and especially Wilanow* near Warsaw.* CHP I, 532-556; J. B. Morton, Sobieski, King of Poland (London, 1932); PSB, X, 413-4 JAN KANTY, SAINT (1390-1473), preacher and professor of the Jagiellonian University* who was canonized in 1767. A commoner, he studied and taught theology in Cracow* and was famous for his ascetic life and charitable activities. Butler's Lives of the Saints: Complete Edition, vol. IV (New York, 1956), 154-

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JAN OF DUKLA (1414-1484), Franciscan and Benedictine friar, preacher and missionary who, after years of hermitic life, became a zealous supporter of the stricter rules of observance and St. John Capistrano's teachings. He was beatified in 1739. Butler's Lives of the Saints: Complete Edition, vol. Ill (New York, 19 JAN OF STOBNICA (ca. 1470-1530), geographer and philosopher. Educated at the Jagiellonian University,* where he taught in 1498-1514. He authored numerous works on logic, ethics, grammar, astronomy, geography, mathematics, music, and natural science, of which the most famous was his Introductio in Ptholomei Cosmographiam, which included the first maps printed in Poland. PSB, X, 480-481. JANDOLOWICZ, MAREK (ca. 1713-1799), preacher and leader of the Bar Confederation,* known as "Father Marek." In 1734 he joined the Carmelites in Lvov,* and, in 1759, he became a Superior of a newly opened Carmelite monastery in Bar. Popular as a healer and preacher, who openly criticized King Stanislaw August,* he became a prophet of the Bar Confederation* (17681772), stimulating an intense mystical national-religious atmosphere among the confederates. After the fall of the Bar fortress, he was jailed for six years. Released in 1774, he devoted the rest of his life to Carmelite duties in Podolia.* He remained popular among various zealots, who believed in his supernatural character well into the nineteenth century. PSB, X, 499-501. JANICKI, KLEMENS (Janicius) (1516-1543), poet. A talented son of a peasant, he graduated from a college in Poznari (Posen)* and served as a secretary of Archbishop A. Krzycki. Later, he worked in the Chancery of the Palatine (wojewoda) of the Cracow* province P. Kmita, who helped him to undertake studies in Padua University. Janicki distinguished himself there as a poet and received a doctor's degree in philosophy and the title of Poet Laureate. In 1540 he returned to Cracow but fell into disgrace with Kmita, and an incurable illness took his life at an early age. Janicki is the most outstanding representative of Polish sixteenth-century Latin humanistic poetry. His lyric, melancholic poems, written in an exceptionally pure Latin and modeled on classic Roman literature, included moving personal and autobiographical tones. C. Milosz, The History o Polish Literature (London, 1969), 45-47; PSB, X, 504-5 JANIEWICZ (YANIEWICZ), FELIKS (1762-1848), musician. A court violinist of King Stanislaw August,* he studied in Vienna and gave concerts in Milan, Florence, Turin and Paris. In 1792 he settled in England, where he cofounded the London Philharmonic. From 1815, he lived in Edinburgh, where he directed the first musical festivals and wrote numerous violin and piano compositions. PSB, X, 512

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JANISZEWSKI, ZYGMUNT (1888-1920), mathematician who co-founded the Polish School of Mathematics. He focused on topology and was one of the first Polish researchers of this subject. During 1911-1914 he taught in Warsaw* and Lvov.* After the outbreak of WW I, he joined the Polish Legions* and was active in the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* A professor of Warsaw University* from 1918, he died after a long illness. PSB, X, 527-529. JANKO Z CZARNKOWA (ca. 1320-1387), lawyer, priest and chronicler who wrote the Chronicle of Great Poland, one of the first Polish works representing this branch of literature. He served as Vicar General of the Bishop of Schwerin, Mecklenburg. In 1356 Janko returned to Poland, where he became an ArchDeacon of Cracow* and Vice-Chancellor of King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great).* Janko supported a failed plan that envisaged Kazimierz IV (Kazko) of Slupsk (Stolp),* a grandson of Kazimierz, as his successor to the Polish throne. After the death of King Kazimierz, King Ludwik Wegierski (Louis d'Anjou)* terminated the career of Janko, who was accused of stealing the Royal insignia. After a period of banishment and deprived of private property, Janko concentrated on writing his noted chronicle, which covers the years 1333-1384. This unusual work, full of personal comments and colorful portraits of contemporary people, gives a vivid picture of the reigns of the last Piasts* and the Anjou* dynasty. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 7; PSB, X, 446-449.

JANKOWSKI, JAN S. ("KLONOWSKI," "SOBOL," "DOKTOR") (1882-1953), politician and delegate of the Polish Government-in-Exile* in occupied Poland during WW II. As a student in Warsaw,* he was active in secret youth organizations controlled by the National Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne).* After two years of studies in Prague, Bohemia, he obtained the degree of chemical engineer in 1908. Upon return to Warsaw, he became active in the leadership of the National Workers' Union (Narodowy Zwiazek Robotniczy [NZR]).* In 1909 he was forced to leave the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and settled in Galicia,* where he represented the NZR in the Temporary Commission of Confederated Independence Parties (TKSSN) before WW I. In 1915 he joined the Polish Legion,* and was delegated to the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* in 1916. Simultaneously, he served at the Supreme Welfare Council (Rada Glowna Opiekuricza [RGO]). In 1920 he was among the founders of the National Workers' Party (Narodowa Partia Robotnicza [NPR])* and had a dominant influence on its program. During 1921-1926 he served twice as a Minister of Labor and Social Welfare and occupied several other important positions in the administration. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he was relieved from the civil service. In 1928 and 1930 he was elected to the Sejm* as a leader of the NPR. After the outbreak of WW II, he worked again in the RGO and cooperated

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underground with the Labor Party (Stronnictwo Pracy).* Appointed Director of the Department of Labor and Social Welfare of the Polish underground state in 1940, he was nominated a Delegate of the Government-in-Exile* after the incarceration of J. Piekalkiewicz* (February 19, 1943). Jankowski opposed any cooperation with Polish communists active in the underground. In July 1944 he was appointed Vice-Premier of the Government-in-Exile in charge of the homeland's Council of Ministers and played a crucial role in the decision to start the Warsaw Uprising* on August 1, 1944. After the fall of the Insurrection, he continued secret anti-Nazi activities. In March 1945 he was arrested with fifteen other underground leaders by the NKVD and accused of creating diversions behind the Red Army's front lines. Tried and jailed in Russia, he died in a Soviet prison, generally thought to have been in 1953. S. Korboriski, The Polis Undergound State (New York, 1978); PSB, X, 539-54 JANOWSKI, JAN NEPOMUCEN (1803-1888), radical activist of the Great Emigration* of peasant origin. A librarian of the Society of Friends of Learning, he met with the intellectual elite of Warsaw.* He began to be an active publicist, especially during the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, when he was a pillar of the Patriotic Society.* After the fall of the uprising, he settled in Paris and was among the most energetic activists of the Great Emigration. He cofounded the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP])* and became its main publicist. In the late 1850s, he attacked the Hotel Lambert,* opposed the formation of Polish military units in exile, and criticized the "Whites"* during the January Insurrection* of 1863. On the other hand, he opposed the engagement of Poles in the Paris Commune of 1871 and never became a socialist. B. Baczko, Poglgdyfilozoficzno-spoleczneTowarzystwa Dem ratycznego Polskiego (Warsaw, 1956); PSB, X, 564-5 JANUARY INSURRECTION (1863), unsuccessful Polish national uprising against Russian rule on the territories of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* ruled by Russia after the Partitions* of Poland. The insurrection broke out on January 22, 1863, lasted until 1865, and was followed by persecutions, Russification, and imposition of a tighter Russian regime. After the previous unsuccessful November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, a repressive government had already been imposed on the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In addition, Russia was then subject to the strict and autocratic rule of Tsar Nicholas. The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1854-1856 revealed the weakness of the Tsarist Empire. The new Tsar, Alexander II,* began relatively liberal reforms in Russia. Censorship was relaxed, an amnesty released political prisoners, an Agricultural Society*—a sort of makeshift self-government—was established in Warsaw, and a Medical Academy was opened there. In 1851 the Kingdom was incorporated into the Russian customs area, which opened large Russian markets for Polish industry and stimulated faster development of the Polish economy and growth of a Polish workers' class. Polish public opinion,

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filled with hopes during the Crimean War and electrified by the Franco-Austrian War and the unification of Italy, welcomed the new Tsar and his reforms. The Great Emigration* also intensified its activities. However, Alexander II disappointed Polish hopes, and the political groups formed in the more liberal atmosphere of the post-Crimean period began to re-organize themselves into an underground. Radical students, artisans and members of the intelligentsia* formed the "Red" party, which drove toward armed insurrection tied with social reforms. More cautious and conservative circles, mostly of aristocratic and bourgeoisie background, formed the "Millenary Group," so called for its desire to postpone the fight for freedom for a thousand years. The "Millenaries" or "Moderates" re-organized themselves later into the "White" party.* Throughout 1860 and 1861, Warsaw,* Lodz,* Vilna* and other Polish cities witnessed a series of mass patriotic demonstrations, clashes with the Russians, and bloody massacres. The Russian government retreated and a State Council and an Administrative Council were nominated. But when their leading member and virtual head, Margrave A. Wielopolski,* disbanded the Agricultural Society and Warsaw's Municipal Delegation, the demonstrations continued and martial law was proclaimed in the Kingdom in October 1861. The "Reds" formed a conspiratorial City Committee of Warsaw and a National Central Committee; expanded their clandestine network; built a "secret Polish state" with underground administration, press and national tax; started preparations for the uprising; and intensified cooperation with the revolutionary movement in Russia. Wielopolski answered with an announcement of military conscription, which was designed to smash the Red organization. The night before the levy, on January 14-15, 1863, the young conspirators left Warsaw and hid in the neighboring woods. On January 22, the Central Committee, as the Temporary National Government, issued the Manifesto calling the nation to arms and promising the peasants land and freedom. Small guerrilla units attacked Russian garrisons and started to operate in the countryside. The "Whites" joined the Insurrection, the Hotel Lambert asked the Western powers for military assistance, and the partisan movement embraced all of the Kingdom, Lithuania and part of Belorussia. But the guerrillas were poorly armed, the Russians mobilized 300,000 regular soldiers, the West did not intervene, and the Polish peasants hesitated and embraced the Tsarist land reform of March 2, 1864. The insurrectionists were exhausted. An energetic new dictator, R. Traugutt,* failed to revive the uprising, was arrested in April 1864 and was executed soon after. The resistance was broken. Altogether, more than twelve hundred battles and skirmishes were fought throughout the uprising, almost 1,000 of them in the Kingdom and over 200 in Lithuania. The last insurgents, led by S. Brzoska,* were caught in the Podlasie region in spring 1865. The remnants of Polish autonomy were wiped out, the Tsarist administration attempted to eradicate the Polish element in Lithuania, and the Kingdom was incorporated into the Russian administrative system as a "Vistula Land"* and subjected to Russification. The Insurrection was among the gravest catas-

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trophes of the Polish nation. S. Bobr-Tylingo, "The January Uprising and the American Civil War," Antemurale XX (1976), 51-73; CHP, II, 365-386; S. Kieniewicz, "Polish Society and the Insurrection of 1863," Past and Present, no. 37 (Oxford, 1967), 139-148; I. M. Roseveare, "Wielopolski's Reforms and Their Failure before the Uprising of 1863," Antemurale,vol. V (Rome, 1971), 82-214; S. J. Zyzniewski, "The Futile Compromise Reconsidered: Wielopolski and Russian Policy 1861-3," American Historical Review vol. 70, no. 2 (1964), 395-412. JANUSZ I (1340-1429), Prince of Mazovia* and a vassal of King Wladyslaw Jagiello.* Janusz participated in the Battle of Grunwald,* developed Warsaw,* and made it capital of his Duchy. WEP, V, 204. JANUSZ III (1502-1526), last Prince of Mazovia.* After Janusz's death, the Duchy was incorporated into Poland by King Zygmunt (Sigismund) the Old,* in spite of the resistance of part of the Mazovian gentry. WEP, V, 204. JANUSZ SUCHYWILK (1310-1382), Royal Chancellor* from 1357 and Archbishop of Gniezno* from 1374. Educated in Bologna, Italy, he worked in the Royal Chancery, was appointed a Chancellor, and became a close assistant of King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great).* Janusz was involved in the establishment of the Cracow Academy and the organization of the state salt mines in Wieliczka.* He opposed the succession of Ludwik W^gierski (Louis d'Anjou)* to the Polish throne and supported a failed plan that the Polish crown be inherited by King Kazimierz's grandson, Kazimierz IV (Kazko) of Slupsk (Stolp).* When King Ludwik was crowned, Janusz was removed from his position of Chancellor and appointed Archbishop of Gniezno. He remained in opposition to the Anjou dynasty. PSB, X, 583-585.

JANUSZAJTIS, MARIAN (1889-1973), General. Before WW I, he was active in Polish patriotic paramilitary organizations controlled by the National Democrats.* He commanded the Polish Riflemen Squads (Polskie Druzyny Strzeleckie)* and the "Polish Army" (Armia Polska). In 1914 he joined the Polish Legions* and briefly commanded its First Brigade* after J. Pilsudski's* resignation in 1916. In January 1919 he co-organized an unsuccessful coup d'etat against Pilsudski and Premier J. Moraczewski.* He participated in the PolishSoviet War* of 1919-1921 and served as Governor (wojewoda) of the Nowogrodek* province in 1924-1926. He was forced to retire in 1929. In 1940 he was deported by the NKVD from Lvov* for his role in the military underground in the territories occupied by the Soviets. Released from prison, he moved to England in 1941. WEP, V, 204-205. "JAPANESE" CHILDREN, nickname given to almost 1,000 Polish orphans from Siberia* saved by the Japanese Red Cross in Vladivostok after the Bol-

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shevik Revolution. G. Lerski, " 'Japanese' Children," Polish Review XXXII/3 (1987), 281-285. JARACZ, STEFAN (1883-1945), outstanding actor and theater director. He began his career in 1904 in Cracow* and later performed in Poznari (Posen),* Lodz,* and Warsaw.* In 1915 he was deported to Russia, where he joined Polish theaters in Moscow and Kiev. Back in Warsaw in 1918, he co-founded the Actors' Union (Zwiazek Arty stow Seen Polskich [ZASP]) and created numerous memorable roles in Warsaw theaters. From 1930 he directed Warsaw's Theater Atheneum. His popularity was strengthened by twenty-six movies and a remarkable radio series on the defense of Socrates (1938). Arrested in 1941 by the Gestapo,* he was sent to Auschwitz* and died shortly after WW II as a result of injuries received in the camp. SBTP, 252-254. JAROSLAW, town on the San* River called after its eleventh-century founder, Kiev Prince Yaroslav the Wise. In 1349 Jaroslaw was incorporated into Poland by King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)*; it was granted the Magdeburg urban rights in 1375 and became an important trade center with annual international fairs. With its own river port and warehouses, Jaroslaw developed textile and tanning industries. In 1625 the town was ruined by fire and in 1656 by the Swedes. It deteriorated in the eighteenth century, and later, during 1772-1918, it was part of Austrian-occupied Galicia.* In the interwar period Jaroslaw had a total population of about 25,000 Polish and Jewish people, and it was a center of a fertile agricultural region. EHGP, I, 281. JASIENSKI (ZYSKIND), BRUNO (1901-1939), futurist poet who moved from a revolt against orthography and the political establishment to social-protest revolutionary poetry. In 1925 he moved to Paris, where he published his famous novel Je brule Paris (I Burn Paris) in the Communist daily UHumanite. Expelled from France, he lived in the USSR from 1929. He was active in the leadership of the Union of Soviet Writers and wrote one of the first socialist realist novels. Arrested by the Soviet authorities in 1937, he died near Vladivostok on his way to the forced labor camp of Kolyma. N. Kolesnikoff, Bruno Jasienski: His Evolution from Futurism to Socialist Realism (Waterloo, Ontario, 1982); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 398-399. JASINSKI, JAKUB (1761-1794), General, engineer, poet, and a leader of the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794 in Vilna.* He graduated from the Cadet Corps in Warsaw* and was appointed an instructor at this school. Later, he headed a similar institution in Vilna and was involved in construction of the Royal Canal (Kanal Krolewski) linking the Vistula* and Dnieper basins. He participated in the 1792 war with Russia. After the war, he joined an anti-Russian conspiracy. After the outbreak of the Kosciuszko Insurrection, he liberated Vilna and started military operations against the Russians. Jasiriski was a follower of the Jaco-

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bins,* and his policies were opposed by the local gentry. Kosciuszko* replaced Jasiriski as a commander of insurrection troops in Lithuania* with another general. Jasiriski continued guerrilla war in the region of Grodno,* and he died in battle during the defense of Warsaw. Jasiriski also wrote poetry influenced by the Enlightenment, frequently criticizing the existing political and social order. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 184; PSB, XI, 42-45.

JASNORZEWSKA-PAWLIKOWSKA, MARIA (1891-1945), poet, daughter of the well-known painter W. Kossak.* After her poetic debut in 1922, she became a member of the Skamander* group and was recognized as the best Polish poetess of the interwar period. At the first glance, her charming lyrics could give an impression that she treated poetry as a toy, but in fact she was a philosophical, sophisticated poet deeply involved in serious existential matters. She also wrote several comedies. During WW II, she emigrated to France and then to England. S. Bassnett and P. Kuhiwczak (eds.), Ariadna's Thread (Boston, 1988); J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 577-580; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 184. JASTROW, MARCUS MORDECAI (1829-1903), rabbi and lexicographer. In 1856 he was appointed a preacher of the progressive German-Jewish congregation in Warsaw.* There he participated in the Polish independence movement of 1861-1863. Imprisoned by the Russians, he was expelled from the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and, after two years in Worms, he emigrated to America. Encyclopaedia Judaica,vol. IX (Jerusalem, 1971), 1296. JAWOROWSKI, RAJMUND (1885-1941), socialist politician and faithful follower of J. Pilsudski.* He joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1901 and, from 1905, was active in the party's Fighting Organization (Organizacja Bojowa). On the eve of WW I, he was a member of the Temporary Commission of Confederated Independence Parties (Tymczasowa Komisja Skonfederowanych Partii Niepodleglosciowych) and of the Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki). During WW I he served in the Polish Legions* and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* During the interwar period, he was a member of the Sejm* (19221930) and headed the right wing of the PPS, supporting Pilsudski. In 1928 Jaworowski's group left and split the party. During WW II, he was active in the anti-Nazi underground. SHP, 147. JAWORSKI, WLADYSLAW L. (1865-1930), conservative politician, publicist, lawyer, and professor of the Jagiellonian University* from 1898. In 1901— 1914 he was a member of the Sejm* of Galicia* and, in 1911-1918, he was a Deputy of the Austrian Reichsrat. He believed that the Poles had a chance to survive as a nation only within a liberal Habsburg* Empire. Therefore, he supported Pilsudski's* policy of forming the Polish Legions* under the Austrians

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and accepted the Presidency of the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]),* which united Polish Austrophile politicians and propagated a program of uniting the Congress Kingdom of Poland* with Galicia under Austrian sponsorship. In protest against the Brest-Litovsk Treaty* and facing the bankruptcy of the pro-Austrian policy, Jaworski resigned as a secret Hofrat (court councillor). After WW I, he withdrew from politics and concentrated on research on constitutional law. PSB, XI, 115-118. JESUITS, members of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic Order founded by St. Ignatius Loyola in 1534 and approved by Pope Paul III in 1540. The Jesuits, who quickly assumed a prominent role in the Counter-Reformation,* introduced several innovations in monastic life, such as highly centralized authority within the Order, gradation of members, and special emphasis on the virtue of obedience. They specialized mostly in missionary and educational work. Their preeminent and controversial role made them numerous enemies. Under the pressure of various critics, Pope Clement XIV dissolved the Order in 1773. However, Pope Pius VII re-established the Society in 1814. The Jesuits were invited to Poland by Cardinal S. Hozjusz* in 1564. Initially, they supported strong monarchical power, but, when they realized that it was very unpopular among the Polish gentry, they became promotors of the nobility's "Golden Freedom."* Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Jesuits educated a majority of the Polish gentry youth, and they instilled in it principles of religious intolerance and near-fanaticism in devotion. A. Pollard, The Jesuits in Poland (New York, 1971). JEWS, one of the largest national minorities in Poland before WW II, when they were almost totally exterminated by the Nazis. The first Jews, mostly merchants and craftsmen, settled in the Polish lands before the Polish state was established. The main wave of Jewish German-speaking or Ashkenazim immigrants moved to Poland in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when they were persecuted in Western Europe during the Crusades. They obtained special privileges from the Polish rulers. The most famous of these was the Kalisz (Calisia) Statute of 1264 issued by Boleslaw the Pious* of Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* Gradually, the Jews formed a separate estate and developed a unique form of autonomy within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* with their own parliament and representation known as the Council of Four Lands.* The PolishLithuanian Commonwealth* became the main concentration of the Jews in Europe and a leading center of the Ashkenazi culture with the Yiddish language as a major bond. After the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising* of 1648, when the insurrectionists massacred masses of Jews, the Polish-Jewish relationship deteriorated. The Jewish situation became particularly hard after the Partitions* of Poland. The Jews were persecuted in Russia, were mostly assimilated in Prussia,* and lived under extremely hard economic conditions in Austrian Galicia.* The ec-

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onomic and spiritual crisis within the Polish Jewish society generated rapid changes in the Jewish communities: assimilationists,* Hasidim,* Frankists, Zionists,* and Jewish socialists (Bund* and Poale-Zion*) looked for a solution to the Jewish problem. Polish-Jewish relations deteriorated further by the end of the nineteenth century as a consequence of the economic competition between the two nations, the negative attitude of the Catholic Church, and the militant activities of Polish anti-Semites, encouraged by R. Dmowski* and the National Democracy.* In interwar Poland, over 3.3 million Jews constituted about 10 percent of the entire population. The Jews participated in Polish political life, had numerous political parties, developed an intense and interesting cultural life, and contributed greatly to the Polish culture and economy. However, their economic situation was hard, and they were frequent objects of anti-Semitic harassment and governmental restrictions. During WW II, over 90 percent of Polish Jews were exterminated when Hitler put into practice his final solution.* Encyclopaedia Judaica,vol. 13 (Jerusalem, 1971), 710-790; G. Lerski and H. Lerski, Jewish-Polish Coexistence, 1772-1939: A Topical Bibliography(Westport, Connectiu, 1986); Y. Gutman, E. Mendelsohm, E. Reinharz, and C. Shmeruk (eds.), The Jews of Poland between Two World Wars(London, 1989). JEZIERSKI, FRANCISZEK SALEZY (1740-1791), politician, publicist and writer. After a short military career, he became a priest, studied in Italy, and served on the Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej)* in 1781-1788. In this period, he became a close assistant of H. Kollataj* and one of the publicists of the "Kollataj Forge." He supported a plan of radical social reforms, opposed the gentry's privileges, defended the rights of peasants and burghers, and expressed sympathy for the French Revolution. He criticized the methods of Polish Royal elections and stressed the need for better arrangements for succession. He also wrote historical novels. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 171; WEP, V, 280. JEZIORANSKI, ANTONI (1827-1882), General and one of the leaders of the January Insurrection* of 1863. During the Springtime of Nations* in 1848, he participated in the anti-Austrian Hungarian uprising. In 1857 he returned to Warsaw* and, later, he fought against the Russians in the January Uprising. He commanded a guerrilla unit in the Rawa region, then joined Gen. M. Langiewicz's* forces, and, finally, commanded insurrection forces in Lublin* province. After the fall of the Insurrection, he emigrated to France but finally settled in Lvov.* WEP, V, 281. JEZ, TEODOR TOMASZ (ZYGMUNT MILKOWSKI) (1824-1915), writer, publicist, and politician. Involved in a clandestine democratic group as a student at the University of Kiev, he went to Hungary and joined its revolutionary antiAustrian Army during the uprising of 1848-1849. After the fall of the insurrection, he moved to Turkey, joined the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo

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Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]),* and became its agent in the Balkans. During the January Insurrection* of 1863, he organized a small Polish unit there, but he did not manage to join insurrection forces fighting in Poland. In 1887 he cofounded and became the first President of the Polish League (Liga Polska).* However, later he did not support its successor, the National Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne [SND]).* He authored about eighty works, mostly novels on the history of Poland and the struggle of the Southern Slavs against the Turks. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 376; PSB, XXI, 263-268. J^DRUSIE, underground guerrilla unit organized after the defeat of Poland in 1939 in the Sandomierz,* Tarnobrzeg, and Mielec areas by a local teacher, W. Jasiriski, who used "Jedrus" as a pseudonym; hence, the name of the partisans acting under his command. Initially, a small conspiratorial group gathered around the underground periodical Odwet (Revenge). In 1942, the founder of the unit died in battle with the Germans, and its command was taken over by J. Wiacek. His unit joined the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* in the fall of 1943, but it remained an autonomous organization until the end of WW II. Polskie Sify Zbrojne w Drugiej Wojnie Swiatowej; Tom HI Armia Krajowa (London, 1950); WEP, V, 289.

JEDRZEJEWICZ, JANUSZ (1885-1951), politician, a Premier of interwar Poland and a faithful follower of J. Pilsudski.* He studied in Cracow,* Warsaw,* and Paris. In 1904 he joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* During WW I he fought in the Polish Legions* and was one of the leaders of the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa).* He served as Pilsudski's aide-de-camp and was a member of several secret elitist organizations of Pilsudski's supporters. After WW I, he worked as a Polish Army staff officer and co-edited a Pilsudskiite periodical, Droga (The Way). In 1923 he retired from the Army to become head of the Warsaw Teachers' Training College. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he was attached to the Cabinet Office. Elected to the Parliaments of 1928-1930 and 19301935, he served as a Vice President of the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (BBWR).* Jedrzejewicz was particularly interested in youth problems and attempted to win young Poles for the Sanacja. In 1931-1934, he served as a Minister of Education and Religious Affairs and enforced some controversial educational reforms, followed by the restricting of academic freedoms and the purging of 52 university professors who opposed the Sanacja regime. In 1933-1934, he was Premier of Poland and took part in the preparation of the authoritarian Constitution of April 1935.* In 1939 Jedrzejewicz left Poland for Romania and, later, for Palestine and England. PSB, XI, 231-235. JEDRZEJEWICZ, WACLAW (1895-1993), politician and Minister of Education whose life was tied closly to the career of his brother Janusz J^drze-

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jewicz.* During WW I he served in the Polish Legions* and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* After the war he was a staff officer in the Polish Army and participated in the Polish-Soviet War.* Sent as military attache to Japan in 1925, he was in charge of the Polish Legation there in 1926-1928. After his return to Poland, he worked at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, served as Vice-Minister of Finance (1933-1934), and was Minister of Education and Religious Affairs in his brother's Cabinet (1934-1935). In 1939 he left Poland and, in 1940, he took the funds of national defense from Romania to Paris. In 1941, he settled in New York, where, in 1943, he cofounded and directed the Pilsudski Institute. He wrote several important works on the history of Poland. W. Pob6g-Malinowski, Najnowsza Historia Polityczna Polski (Contemporary Political History of Poland), vol. 2 (London, 1985), 30, 47, passim. JEDRZEJOWSKI, BOLESLAW ANTONI ("B.A.J.") (1867-1914), socialist activist. He joined the Polish revolutionary movement as a fifteen-year-old student and was active in the First and Second Proletariats.* In 1891, jeopardized by a possible arrest, he left Poland and attended the International Socialist Congress in Brussels as a member of the Polish Delegation. Later, he lived in several West European countries; belonged to numerous organizations of Polish Socialists abroad, including the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]),* and worked mostly for their publishing institutions. In 1903 he moved to Galicia* and, in 1905, to Warsaw,* where he published socialist pamphlets and periodicals. After the split in the PPS in 1906 he joined its Revolutionary Fraction led by J. Pilsudski.* PSB, XI, 239-242. JODKO-NARKIEWICZ, WITOLD ("JOWISZ") (1864-1924), Socialist politician, publicist, and diplomat, and close associate of J. Pilsudski.* He was a member of the Second Proletariat* and participated in the founding Conference of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1892 in Paris. As one of its Secretaries, he co-authored the party's first program. He was one of the leaders of the Union of Polish Socialists Abroad (Zwiazek Zagraniczny Socjalistow Polskich [ZZSP]),* edited the Socialist periodical Przedswit (Daybreak), and was a member of the Central Committee of the PPS. As a close associate of J. Pilsudski, he co-organized the Revolutionary Fraction of the PPS, and was co-founder of the Temporary Commission of Confederated Independence Parties (Tymczasowa Komisja Skonfederowanych Stronnictw Niepodleglosciowych) in 1912. During WW I, he led the secret Polish National Organization (Polska Organizacja Narodowa) and was a member of the Central National Committee (Centralny Komitet Narodowy). After the war, he served as Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1918 and as an envoy to Istanbul and Riga. He authored numerous works on Polish socialism and international affairs. PSB, XI, 253-257. JORDAN (7-984), first Bishop of Poland, consecrated in 968, who probably arrived in Poland in connection with its baptism in 966. His ethnic background

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is unclear, though it is possible that he was of Italian origin and born near the Slovenian border. Most likely he was sent directly from Rome on a request of Piast* Prince Mieszko* to bypass the Archbishopric of Magdeburg, which was politically involved on the German side. PSB, XI, 270; Z. Sulowski, "Pierwszy Kosci61 Polski," Chrzescijanstwo w Polsce, ed. by J. Kloczowski (Lublin, 1980). JORDAN, HENRYK (1842-1907), physician, pioneer of physical education in Poland, and professor of gynecology and obstetrics at the Jagiellonian University.* As a member of Cracow's* City Council, he founded the first Polish "Jordan city park," to create a place where children could play and exercise. PSB,XI, 273-275. JOSAPHAT, SAINT (Jan Kuncewicz) (1580-1623), Uniate* Archbishop of Polotsk. He entered the Basilian Monastery of the Holy Trinity at Vilna* in 1604 and gained a reputation as an effective advocate of re-unification with Rome. Murdered by an angry anti-"Papist" mob in Vitebsk, he was canonized in 1867. Butler's Lives of the Saints, vol. IV (New York, 1956), 337-340; D. Guepin, Saint Josaphat—Archeveque martyr et I'Eglise grecque unie en Pologne (Paris, 1874). JOSELEWICZ, BEREK (1764-1809), Cavalry officer. Initially a horse trader and estate manager, he joined the Kosciuszko Insurrection* and organized a Jewish Light Cavalry Regiment. After the defeat of the Insurrection, he emigrated, and, in July 1798, he joined the Polish Legions* of Gen. Dabrowski* in Italy, where he again formed a Jewish Cavalry Unit. He was killed in the Battle of Kock. M. Balaban, Memorial Album to Honor Berek Joselewicz, Colonel of the Polish Army on the 125th Anniversary of His Heroic Death (Warsaw, 1934); PSB, I, 446-447. JOZEFSKI, HENRYK ("OLGIERD") (1892-1981), politician. During 1914-1920, he was a member of the Command of the Ukrainian Section of the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In 1920, in the period of the Polish-Ukrainian alliance, he served as Vice-Minister of Interior in the Ukrainian government of S. Petlura. In 1927, he became chief of the personal cabinet of J. Pilsudski,* and, in 1928, because of his familiarity with Ukrainian problems, he was appointed Governor (wojewoda) of Volhynia.* In 1929-1930, he served as Minister of Interior of Poland, and, later, he resumed his previous post in Volhynia, where he tried to overcome the animosity between Poles and Ukrainians. Criticized by the Endeks,* other rightists and the Army, he was transferred as a Governor to Lodz* in 1938. After the September Campaign* of 1939, he was active in the anti-Nazi underground. Encyclopedia of Ukraine,ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 2 (Toronto, 1988), 395. JUDENRAT (pi., Judenrate), Jewish councils established by the Nazis in the Jewish communities of occupied Europe during WW II. The first Judenrate were

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organized in occupied Poland between September and December 1939 on instructions issued by the Deputy Head of the Gestapo* and Head of the Reich Central Security Office (RSHA), R. Heydrich, on September 21, 1939, and, later, in other countries controlled by the Third Reich. Officially, Judenrate were elected by members of their communities but, practically, the Germans decided about their composition. In some cases, Jewish activists refused to join the Judenrate, but mostly they constituted a continuation of the previous community leadership and included the most prominent personalities. The Judenrate were to draft people for forced labor, take a census of the Jewish population, transfer Jews* into the ghettos,* collect Jewish valuables which were confiscated by the Nazis, distribute food rations permitted by the Germans, supply quotas of the Jews to the labor and concentration camps, control the Jewish police, and in other ways support the German administration. Simultaneously, the Judenrate tried to delay German administrative and economic measures, lighten the burdens imposed, obtain more food, organize medical aid, and defend the Jews. Initially, most Judenrate cooperated with the Germans. Jewish leaders believed that the Jews would survive if they could prove their importance to the German economy. Gradually, especially when the mass extermination of 1942 started, more and more Judenrate started to organize secretly and support the resistance in the ghettos.* The question of the Judenrate is among the most controversial issues of Holocaust* history. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 2 (New York, London, 1990), 762-771; I. Trunk, Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation(New York, 1972). JUNGINGEN, ULRICH VON (7-1410), Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights* from 1407, who tried to reduce a growing conflict between the monkknights and their subjects. He also attempted to break up the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and started a war against it in 1409. He commanded the Teutonic forces in the Battle of Grunwald* of July 15, 1410, and was killed on the battlefield. SHP,150. JUNOSZA-ST^POWSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1882-1943), outstanding actor and stage director. He made his stage debut in 1901 and, later, performed in all major Polish cities, most frequently in Warsaw's* Teatr Polski, and in over sixty films. During WW II, he worked in Warsaw's cafes and, from 1940, in Komedia Theater. He was executed by the Polish anti-Nazi resistance under unclear circumstances. SBTP, 270-271. JUNOSZA-SZANIAWSKI, KLEMENS (1849-1898), popular novelist and short story writer. He wrote about the poor gentry of Mazovia* and people of Warsaw's* suburbs. He learned Yiddish, translated several important Jewish authors into Polish, and vividly described the life of the poor Jewish masses in his works. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 407^08.

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JURYDYKA, privately owned districts or suburbs of Royal cities excluded from city administration. The first jurydyki were established in the fifteenth century. In particular, a 1550 law eliminating the limitations on noblemen's rights to purchase urban lots and buildings boosted their development. Frequently they were founded in the cities of great importance, where magnates had their permanent residences, which needed a base of suppies: tailors, smiths, carpenters, shoemakers and other artisans. Jurydyki had their own selfgovernment, obtained the right to distill liquors, and became centers of independent commerce which attracted craftsmen who did not belong to guilds* ("partacze"). Lublin* had twenty-three jurydyki in the seventeenth century, Warsaw* fourteen, and Cracow* twenty-one in the eighteenth century. Their growth had a detrimental effect on the spatial coherence of the cities but stimulated the economy. The Great Sejm* of 1788-1791 suspended jurydyki, which disappeared after the Partitions* of Poland. EHGP, I, 285.

K KADEN-BANDROWSKI, JULIUSZ (1885-1944), writer and well-known journalist of the political camp of J. Pilsudski.* Kaden studied music in Lvov,* Cracow,* and Brussels, where he worked as a correspondent for the Polish press and made a literary debut with a volume of short stories. During WW I, he joined the Polish Legions* and served as Pilsudski's aide-de-camp and chronicler of the First Brigade.* One of his essay collections, Pilsudczycy (Pilsudskiites), published in 1915, popularized this title as a name of Pilsudski's political camp. After the war, Kaden joined the editorial staff of the literary periodical Skamander* was President of the Polish Writers' Union in 1923— 1926, and became a Secretary General of the Polish Academy of Literature in 1933. After the outbreak of WW II, Kaden refused to leave Poland, continued to write in hiding, and was fatally wounded during the Warsaw Uprising* of 1944. As a writer, he depicted the main currents of Polish life in the first half of the twentieth century. He wrote about ordinary people, but his main field of literary activity was the political novel. He depicted the Polish way to genuine independence before 1918 and the political jungle of interwar Poland. His characters were modeled on well-known personalities. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 615-620; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature

(London, 1969), 425-426; PSB,XI, 401-404. KADLUBEK, WINCENTY (11507-1223), chronicler. Educated in Italy and France, he held several ecclesiastical offices in Poland and was elected Bishop of Cracow* in 1208. He was actively involved in politics, but, in 1218, he resigned and retired to the Cistercian* monastery of Jedrzejow. There he completed the Polish Chronicle (Kronika Polska), a four-volume work written in medieval Latin. It includes events known to Kadlubek from his own experience, mixed with fantastic legends on the beginning of the Polish state. Although the Chronicle is unreliable as a scholarly study, it was very popular in medieval

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Poland, was used as a university textbook, and is an interesting literary work. Kadlubek also gained a great reputation for his holiness, and, in 1764, he was confirmed by the Papacy as Blessed Vincent. Butler's Lives of the Saints, vol. I (New York, 1956), 528-529; R. Godecki, "Mistrz Wincenty," Rocznik KrakowskiXIX (1923); J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 6. KAJKA, MICHAL (1858-1940), poet and Polish national activist in the Mazurian (Mazury) region in East Prussia. A carpenter and small farmer by profession, he wrote Polish folk poetry, which contributed to the awakening of the Polish national consciousness among the Mazurian population of German East Prussia. WEP, V, 369. KAJSIEWICZ, HIERONIM (1812-1873), preacher, religious writer and poet. As a young man he participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. After its fall he moved to France and participated in the activities of the Great Emigration.* In 1841 he became a priest, and, a year later, he founded the Association of the Lord's Resurrection ("Zmartwychwstaricy"*), the status of which was confirmed later by the Papacy in 1850. Probably the greatest Polish preacher since P. Skarga,* he participated in missionary activities in several European countries and in the struggle against A. Towiariski's* mysticism and socialism. PSB, XI, 424-426. KAKOWSKI, ALEKSANDER (1862-1938), Archbishop of Warsaw,* Cardinal (from 1919), and Primate* of Poland. He was educated at Catholic institutions of higher learning in Warsaw, St. Petersburg, and Rome. Later he headed and taught at Warsaw Seminary and was professor and Rector of the Religious Academy in St. Petersburg. Supported by the Tsarist regime, he was promoted to the position of Metropolitan Archbishop of Warsaw in 1913. After the outbreak of WW I, he assumed an anti-German and pro-Russian attitude. This changed after the February Revolution in Russia, and he recommended cooperation with the German authorities. In October 1917, he joined the Regency Council* (Rada Regencyjna) of a puppet Polish Kingdom organized by the Germans. In November 1918, he was reluctant to accept J. Pilsudski* as head of the revived Polish state. He helped to conclude the 1925 Concordat* with the Vatican. He supported the political right in Poland and participated in the organization of Catholic Action* in 1927. PSB, XI, 426-428. KALECKI, MICHAL (1899-1977), outstanding economist. During 1929-1935 he worked in the Research Institute of Business Forecasts and Prices (Instytut Badania Koniunktur Gospodarczych i Cen). In 1936 he moved to England, and, from 1939, he continued his research at the Oxford Institute of Statistics. His Studies in Economic Dynamics was highly appreciated, and he was credited with an early exposition of Keynesian economic theory. After WW II, he worked as

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an economic adviser in several countries. J. Osiatyriski, Michal Kalecki on a Socialist Economy (London, 1988). KALENKIEWICZ, MACIEJ ("KOTWICZ") (1906-1944), officer of the Polish Army and the underground Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* Military engineer and specialist on fortifications, he participated in the September Campaign* of 1939 and fought in the first partisan unit organized after the September debacle by Maj. Hubal-Dobrzariski.* In December 1939 he reached France and was assigned to the Supreme Command of the Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ]).* In December 1941, he was parachuted into Poland, where he joined the command of the Home Army. In February 1944, he was sent to the Nowogrodek region and co-organized the operation to liberate Vilna* in 1944. He refused to surrender to the Soviets and was killed in a battle with them. J. Erdman, Droga do Ostrej Bramy (London, 1984); PSB, XI, 436-437; The Unseen and Silent, ed. by G. Iranek-Osmecki (London, 1954). KALINKA, WALERIAN (1826-1886), conservative politician and historian. He studied at the Jagiellonian University in Cracow,* participated in the antiAustrian Cracow Uprising* of 1846, and, after its failure, he emigrated to Brussels. There, he began his historical research under J. Lelewel.* However, later Kalinka opposed his professor's political and historical views. During the Springtime of Nations* in 1848, he returned to Cracow and joined the editorial staff of the conservative periodical Czas (Time). In 1851, he left Galicia* for Paris; became a secretary of one of the leaders of the Hotel Lambert,* W. Zamoyski;* and accompanied him on political missions to Turkey and England. After the outbreak of the January Insurrection* of 1863, the Hotel Lambert sent Kalinka on a political assignment to Stockholm. After the fall of the Uprising, Kalinka, disappointed with Polish national political failures, devoted himself to historical research, became a priest in 1870, and settled in the city of Jaroslaw* in 1875. His studies concentrated on Polish history in the eighteenth century. Kalinka criticized the Polish reformers of that time and praised the policies of King Stanislaw August.* According to Kalinka's interpretation, the fall of Poland and its Partitions* were caused not by a wrong Polish political system but by a moral deterioration of the Polish nation. Great Historians of the Modern Age, ed. by L. Boia (New York, 1991), 481-482. KALINOWSKI, J6ZEF (1835-1907), Polish nobleman, officer of the Russian Army, and one of the leaders of the January Insurrection* of 1863 in Lithuania.* He graduated from and taught at the military Academy of Engineering in St. Petersburg. Later, he participated in various military construction projects. In 1863 he retired from the Army, joined the January Insurrection,* and was appointed a Director of the War Department of the Lithuanian Executive Department (Wydzial Wojny Wydzialu Wykonawczego Litwy) in Vilna.* Arrested by the Russians on March 24, 1864, he was sentenced to death, but, eventually, he

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was deported for ten years to Siberia.* In 1874, he returned to Warsaw,* published notable historical and religious works, and joined the Carmelite Order in 1876. He was canonized in 1991 by John Paul II. PSB,XI, 457-458. KALINOWSKI, WINCENTY KONSTANTY ("KASTUS") (1838-1864), leader of the January Insurrection* of 1863 in Lithuania* and Belorussia.* He attended the universities in Moscow and St. Petersburg, where he joined Polish and Russian revolutionary movements. Together with W. Wroblewski,* Kalinowski founded a secret revolutionary organization in the Grodno* region to prepare the peasants for a popular uprising against the Tsarist regime. For propaganda purposes, he published the clandestine paper Muzyckaja Prauda (Peasants' Truth) in 1862-1863. The paper was printed with Latin letters in Belorussian. In the summer of 1862, Kalinowski moved to Vilna,* where he became one of the leaders of the uprising and one of the most active members of the radical "Reds."* He supported the independence of Vilna as an insurgent center from the Warsaw* uprising leadership, and it was mainly through his efforts that a substantial number of Belorussian peasants participated in the armed struggle. Arrested in February 1864, he was sentenced to death and hanged in Vilna. He is considered the first revolutionary leader of the Belorussian masses, and there is a long-lasting controversy whether he was of Polish or Belorussian nationality. PSB,XI, 460-461. KALISZ, town on the Prosna River in Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* mentioned as Calisia by the astronomer-geographer Ptolemy in the second century A.D. and considered the oldest city in Poland. It was located on the Amber Route* from the Mediterranean to the Baltic Sea.* Archaeologists discovered in Kalisz one of the largest settlements of the European Iron Age. In the ninth century, a fort was erected there. In the twelfth century, it was rebuilt into a powerful castle, which included a large basilique with the tomb of Mieszko the Old.* In the thirteenth century, Kalisz obtained city rights from Boleslaw the Pious,* who also issued the first Polish charter of privileges for permanent Jewish settlement. During the thirteenth century, the town became a capital of one of the Piast* Principalities and, after the unification of the Polish lands, it served as a capital of a province (wojewodztwo). In 1343 a peace treaty between the Teutonic Knights* and Poland was signed in Kalisz. During the fourteenth through sixteenth centuries the city thrived as a center of textile and woodworking industry, but it was damaged by the epidemics and wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. After a short period of revival under King Stanislaw August,* Kalisz fell into Prussian hands as a consequence of the Third Partition* of Poland in 1795. During 1807-1815 Kalisz belonged to the Duchy of Warsaw* and, after the Congress of Vienna,* it became a part of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In 1867 Kalisz became a capital of a Russian guberniya, with population of 54,000 in 1914. Early in the twentieth century it was an important railroad junction with a growing textile industry. After the outbreak

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of WW I it was destroyed by German troops. Rebuilt in the interwar period, it reached almost 100,000 people in 1939. During WW II, Kalisz was incorporated into the Third Reich, and over half of its population, including the entire Jewish community, was exterminated. L. Flockerzie, "Poland's Louvain: Documents on the Destruction of Kalisz, August 1914," Polish ReviewXXVHI/4 (1983), 73-87;SHP,151152. KALISZ PEACE TREATY, agreement between Poland and the Teutonic Knights* signed on July 8, 1343. King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* recognized the rights of the Order to the Chelmno and Michalow regions and Gdarisk* Pomerania* but regained the lands of Kujavia* and Dobrzyri. The Knights agreed to pay substantial indemnities to Poland, by which they recognized Poland's sovereign rights to the territories left in their possession. CHP, I, 171, 177, passim. KALISZANIE (Polish, "people from the city of Kalisz*), liberal politicians from the Kalisz region of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* active during 18201831. They represented wealthy landed gentry in introducing rules of capitalist economies to the predominantly feudal Polish agriculture. Kaliszanie gathered around the Reading Association (Towarzystwo Czytelnicze) in the 1820s. They defended the Kingdom's Constitution of 1815* and stressed human rights, including the abolition of the corvee* system. They opposed the authoritarian trends of the Kingdom's government, which was controlled by the Russians; however, they were also against secret subversive activities. Led by W. Niemojowski and B. Niemojowski,* they were very active in the Sejm* of 1820. During the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, they joined the National Government (Rzad Narodowy) and played an important moderating role between the political left and right. They were also active in that vein in the Great Emigration.* History of Poland,ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 427-480. KALKSTEIN-STOLINSKI, LUDWIK (16307-1672), Prussian nobleman and a leader of the opposition against the government of the Brandenburg Elector Friedrich Wilhelm in Ducal Prussia.* Kalkstein served in the French, Prussian and, then, Polish-Lithuanian Armies. He supported the idea of a union of Ducal Prussia with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and tried to convince the Polish King to break the Welawa-Bydgoszcz Treaties, which allowed the unification of Brandenburg and Ducal Prussia. Kidnapped from Poland by agents of the Elector, Kalkstein was executed in Klaipeda (Memel). PSB, XI, 485-488. KALLENBACH, JOZEF (1861-1929), historian of Polish literature and professor at several universities in Switzerland and Poland. He also served as a Director of the Krasiriski Library (Biblioteka Ordynacji Krasiriskich) in Warsaw* (1901-1904) and of the Czartoryski Museum in Cracow* (from 1917). As a scholar, he was interested in medieval Polish literature, particularly the work

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of J. Kochanowski,* and, later, in Romanticism. His scholarly analysis of literary works was strongly influenced by his Polish patriotism and conservative worldview. PSB, XI, 492-493; WEP, V, 388. KALLIMACH OR CALLIMACHUS (FILIPPO BUONACCORSI) (14371496), Italian humanist, poet, political writer, historian, and diplomat, who lived and propagated the ideas of the Renaissance* in Poland from 1470. Involved in a plot against Pope Paul II and endangered by the Papal police, he fled to Poland. Initially, he settled at the court of Bishop Gregory of Sanok.* Later, he became a tutor of the sons of King Kazimierz IV Jagielloriczyk* and a personal adviser and diplomat of the King and his successor, Jan Olbracht.* Kallimach supported Jagiellonian dynastic policy and opposed Papal plans to use Poland as a weapon in a European crusade against Turkey. He also taught at the Jagiellonian University.* was one of the leading humanists of Poland, and contributed greatly to the development of Renaissance poetry and culture in Poland. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978); PSB, XI, 493^99; H. B. Segel, Renaissance Culture in Poland: The Rise of Humanism, 1470-1543 (Ithaca, New York, 1989), 36-83. KALUSSOWSKI, HENRYK (1806-1894), one of the leaders of the Polish community in the nineteenth-century United States. He participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, and, after its fall, he emigrated to Belgium, where he collaborated with J. Lelewel.* In 1837-1838, he co-founded the first Polish printing shop and a bookstore in Brussels. In 1838, he left for the United States. He co-organized the Society of Polish People in America in 1842 and, in 1852, the Democratic Society of Polish Exiles in America. PSB, XI, 505-506; J. Wieczerzak, A Polish Chapter in Civil War America (New York, 1967).

KAMIENIEC PODOLSKI (Kamianets-Podilskyj), city on the Smotrych River in eastern Podolia,* Ukraine.* It was mentioned for the first time in the eleventh century, when it belonged to the Halicz (Halycz)* Principality. In 1240, it was destroyed by the Mongols, in the 1360s it was incorporated into Lithuania,* and in 1430 into Poland. In 1423, the city was granted the rights of Magdeburg law,* and, in 1463, it became a capital of Podolia province (wojewodztwo). In the fifteenth century, a powerful fortress was built in Kamieniec; it became a strategic outpost in the defense of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* against the Tatars* and Turks. The city also became an important center of trade and artisanship. However, its importance diminished during the period of Turkish occupation in 1672-1699. In 1793, after the Second Partition* of Poland, the city was incorporated into Russia. On several occasions in 1919 and 1920, it was the seat of government of the Ukrainian National Republic and the Western Ukrainian National Republic. In November 1920 it was taken by the Soviets. Encyclopedia of Ukraine,ed. by V. Kubijovyc (Toronto, 1988), 409-410.

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KAMIENSKI, HENRYK (1813-1866), philosopher and publicist. He participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. Wounded and temporarily taken prisoner of war by the Russians, he settled at his family estate. However, still a member of a secret anti-Tsarist society, he was arrested in November 1845 and deported to northern Russia. In 1850, he returned to Poland, but, in 1852, he emigrated and settled in Switzerland. He sought to create a system of national Polish philosophy based not on metaphysical but on social and economic principles, which would rejuvenate the Polish nation. He believed that the success of a Polish uprising against the Russians depended on the emancipation of the peasants, and that independent Poland should achieve an understanding with Russia. Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, ed. by E. R. A. Seligman, vol. 8 (New York, 1932), 536-537; PSB, XI, 534-536. KAMINSKA, ESTER RACHEL (1870-1925), outstanding Yiddish* actress, and wife of Abraham Isaac Kamiriski, who founded his own theatrical company in Warsaw* in the 1880s. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 10 (Jerusalem, 1971), 730. KAMINSKA, IDA (1899-1981), prominent Yiddish* actress, daughter of A. I. and E. R. Kaminski.* Ida began her artistic career in her father's company in 1916, and, from 1933, she was in charge of her own group. In 1939, she left Poland for the Soviet Union. After WW II, she returned to Poland and served as a director of the Jewish State Theater until 1968. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 10 (Jerusalem, 1971), 730. KAMINSKI, ALEKSANDER ("HUBERT") (1903-1980), Scout leader and educator. One of the top instructors of the Union of Polish Scouts (Zwiazek Harcerstwa Polskiego [ZHP]), he specialized in pre-Scout training of children between eight and eleven years old. During WW II, under the Nazi occupation, he co-organized the underground Scout movement, the "Gray Ranks" (Szare Szeregi). He described their "small sabotage" struggle with the Germans in a book, Kamienie na Szaniec (Stones on the Rampart), published underground in 1943 and translated into many languages. During 1939-1944, he served as an Editor-in-Chief of the largest circulation underground weekly, Biuletyn Informacyjny, published by the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* G. Mazur, Biuro Informacji i Propagandy SZP-ZWZAK, 1939-1945 (Bureau of Information and Propaganda of the Home Army) (Warsaw, 1987). KAMINSKI, FRANCISZEK (1902-), activist of the Polish peasant movement and guerrilla leader during WW II. In 1934 he was elected President of the Peasant Youth Movement "Wici" (Call to Arms)* for the Mazovia* region. In December 1939, he joined the leadership of the clandestine anti-German peasant movement (ROCH) in charge of the Kielce* and Lublin* regions. In November 1940, he was appointed Commander of the Peasant Battalions (Bataliony

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Chlopskie). He served successfully in this position until the end of the war, making the Peasant Battalions one of the strongest armed components of the Polish underground (170,000 soldiers in eighty-four partisan units). The Peasant Battalions distinguished themselves particularly with the spectacular reprisal action against the Nazis for their ruthless pacification of the Zamosc* region. S. Korboriski, "Franciszek Kamiriski (pseudonym Zenon, Trawiriski)," Bohaterowie Paristwa Podziemnego jak ich znalem (New York, 1987). KAMPINOS, large forest west of Warsaw* with an area of about 560 square kilometers covered by a variety of pine trees and swamps. Originally it was linked with other forest complexes, and, until the sixteenth century, various nowextinct wild animals such as bears and bisons thrived there. Its main part was turned into a national park in 1959. Kampinos, located close to Warsaw, traditionally served as a gathering place for various resistance groups against foreign occupiers. In 1863, the first guerrilla units of the January Insurrection* were formed there and, subsequently, the first battles of the uprising were fought in the forest. Also during WW II, Kampinos was a refuge of numerous partisan units. J. Krzyczkowski, Konspiracja i powstanie w Kampinosie (Conspiracy and Uprising in Kampinos) (Warsaw, 1963). KANIOW (Kaniv), town on the right bank of the Dnieper River, in central Ukraine.* One of the most important towns of Kievian Rus', it was incorporated into Lithuania* in 1362. During the seventeenth century Kaniow was an important center of the Cossacks.* In May 1787 Catherine II* met King Stanislaw August* there to discuss relations between the two countries and plans for a war against Turkey. Incorporated into Russia in 1793, after the Second Partition* of Poland, Kaniow became a county town in Kiev* guberniya. During WW I, the Second Polish Army Corps under Gen. J. Haller* fought a battle with the Germans near the city. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by J. Kubijovyc, vol. 2 (Toronto, 1988), 414-415; WEP,V, 429. KAPELE, vocal-instrumental bands of the Renaissance and Baroque periods at the royal and aristocratic courts. Many cathedrals and monasteries had their own bands performing religious music. The name was also used by peasant bands in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. SHP,155-157. KAPISTS, group of Polish painters, members of the Paris Committee (Komitet Paryski [KP], hence the name) founded at the Cracow* Academy of Fine Arts by students of J. Pankiewicz* in 1923. The Kapists, among them J. Cybis, J. Czapski,* T. Potworowski, and Z. Waliszewski, decided to go together to Paris to study post-Impressionist French painting. In 1925, they organized a Paris branch of their academy and were strongly influenced by P. Cezanne and P. Bonnard. They were active as a group until the mid-1930s. From 1931, they

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published Glos Plastykow (Voice of the Plastic Art). H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (London, 1942), 70-73; WEP, V, 440-441. KARAITES, Jewish sect (its name is usually explained as "people of the Scriptures") which appeared early in the eighth century in Iraq. The most important and the only basic difference between Karaite and rabbinic belief is that the Karaites rejected the post-Biblical Jewish tradition, the so-called oral law, incorporated in the Talmud. The first center of Karaite learning was Iraq, then Palestine, the Byzantine Balkans, Cyprus, Spain and the Crimea. Lithuanian Grand Duke Witold,* after he defeated the Mongols in 1392, brought large numbers of Tatars to his country, including numerous Karaite families. They spoke a Turkic dialect and were settled in Troki* and Poniewiez near Vilna,* in Luck* in Volhynia,* and in Halicz,* where they survived to the present. They also spread to other places in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the main Karaite cultural centers shifted from the Ottoman Empire to Poland and Lithuania, where outstanding scholars, such as Isaac ben Abraham Troki (1533-1594), were active. After the Partitions* of Poland, most Karaites lived within the Russian borders. Unlike in other places, the Karaites in Russia renounced all kinship with Rabbinic Jewry and received full civil rights. In 1932, there were about 12,000 Karaites all over the world. The majority lived in Poland with the Karaite spiritual leader, Serajah Khan Shapsal, hakham of Troki.* During WW II, the Nazi authorities considered them a protected non-Jewish group. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 10 (Jerusalem, 1971), 762-786; A. Zajaczkowski, Karaims in Poland (Warsaw, 1961). KARASIOWNA, JANINA (1903-1948), anti-German resistance leader during WW II. Before the war, she worked in the Institute of Education for Adults in Warsaw* and was active in the Theosophism movement. After the outbreak of the war, she participated in the formation of the Polish resistance and became the senior-most woman in the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]),* with the rank of Major. She served as Chief of the Liaison Department of the AK Staff and was sent on secret missions to Belgrade and Bucharest. After the Warsaw Uprising,* she was taken prisoner by the Germans. After the war, she settled in London. S. Korboriski, "Major Janina Karasi6wna," Bohaterowie Panstwa Podziemnego jak ich znalem (New York, 1987).

KARASZEWICZ-TOKARZEWSKI, MICHAL. See TOKARZEWSKIKARASZEWICZ, MICHAL. KARLOWITZ (CARLOWITZ) TREATY, peace settlement between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League (Austria, Poland, Venice, and Russia) signed on January 26, 1699. The treaty was preceded by a war started in 1683, an unsuccessful Turkish expedition led by Sultan Mustafa II in 1697, and a peace congress in the same Karlowitz (today Sremski Karlovci) in northern Serbia.

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The settlement gave the entire area of Hungary (except the Banat of Temesvar), Transylvania, Croatia and Slovenia to Austria, and the Peloponnese and most of Dalmatia to Venice. Poland regained Podolia* and an area of Ukraine west of the Dnieper River, which Turkey had conquered in 1672. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 242-312. KARLOWICZ, MIECZYSLAW (1876-1909), composer and alpinist. He began his musical education in Heidelberg, Prague, and Dresden and later studied composition in Warsaw* and Berlin, where he wrote his first short piano pieces, songs and serenades. After completing his studies in Berlin, he returned to Warsaw, where, from 1902, he served as a Board member and, from 1905, as Director of the Warsaw Music Society. In 1907, he settled in Zakopane,* in the Tatra* Mountains. There he completed his greatest works, several symphonic poems and concertos. As a composer, he was representative of the "Young Poland"* artistic movement. One of the most eminent "Young Poland" poets, K. Tetmajer,* wrote words to over twenty songs of Karlowicz. He was one of the first Polish composers of great symphonies and brought the most advanced compositional techniques to Polish music. Karlowicz died in the Tatra Mountains in an avalanche. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. by S. Sadie, vol. 9 (London, 1980), 810-811; PSB, XII, 57-59. KARNKOWSKI, STANISLAW (1520-1603), Archbishop of Gniezno* and Primate* of Poland, active politician and leader of the Counter-Reformation* in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* Educated in Cracow,* Padua and Wittenberg, he started his career as a Chancellor of the Bishop of Chelm.* In 1555 he became one of the secretaries at the Court of King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August,* and, in 1563, he received the position of Great Secretary (Sekretarz Wielki Koronny). He collaborated closely with the leader of the Polish CounterReformation,* Cardinal Hozjusz,* who helped Karnkowski to advance his career. His efforts to revivify the Catholic religion were directed mainly toward the northern, partly Lutheran provinces of Poland. Karnkowski fought particularly hard against the dissidents in Gdarisk* and became an expert and the main Royal adviser in Baltic matters. After the King's death, Karnkowski led the Catholic party and supported the candidacy of Henryk Walezy (Henri of Valois).* Later, after the election of Stefan Batory,* Karnkowski became one of his closest associates and unsuccessfully tried to move the center of gravity of Polish policy from Eastern to Baltic matters. In 1581, he became Archbishop of Gniezno, and, as Primate of Poland, he served as an "interrex"* after Batory's death. Initially, he supported the Habsburg* candidacy to the Polish throne, but, eventually, he joined the party of Zygmunt (Sigismund) III Vasa.* Karnkowski, the "hammer on heretics," did much to reform and strengthen the Catholic Church in Poland. CHP, I, 392-415; New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 8 (New York, 1967), 133; PSB, XII, 77-82.

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KARPINSKI, FRANCISZEK (1741-1825), poet. Educated by the Jesuits* in Stanislawow* and Lvov,* he earned his living as a private tutor and leaseholder of landed estates. He served as secretary of A. K. Czartoryski* and librarian in Czartoryski's Blue Palace. At the same time he was a prolific writer and the most popular sentimental lyricist of the Polish Enlightenment,* producing noted poems and Christmas carols. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 185-186; PSB, XII, 103-108; WEP, V, 490. KARSKI (KOZIELEWSKI), JAN (1914- ), Emissary of the underground Polish secret state during WW II who brought to the West the first comprehensive report of the Nazi extermination camps in Poland. Before the war, he worked at the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He participated in the 1939 September Campaign.* Taken prisoner by the Russians, he escaped and joined the resistance movement. Early in 1940, he was sent as one of its first couriers to the Polish Government-in-Exile* in France and returned as its emissary. On his way back to Warsaw,* he was caught by the Gestapo.* Liberated by the Polish resistance, he continued his clandestine service with the Headquarters of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* in Warsaw. He was the first underground envoy who was an eyewitness of the liquidation of the Jews* at the Belzec* gas chambers. In the fall of 1942, he crossed German-occupied Europe and arrived in London as emissary of the Polish underground authorities. He reported directly to Churchill and Roosevelt on the Nazi persecutions of the Jews and Poles. For his heroic services, he received the Jewish Righteous Gentile award. S. Jankowski, Emisariuisz "Witold" (New York, 1991); J. Karski, Story of a Secret State (Boston, 1944). KARWICKI, STANISLAW (1640-1724), parliamentarian and political writer. A scion of a noble Calvinist family, he studied abroad and spent many years in the Army, where he entered into close relations with the future King, Jan Sobieski.* Karwicki, an active member of the Sejm,* propagated quasi-republican reforms of the state. In 1705-1707, he wrote an important treatise, De ordinanda Republica. The work showed that the constant wrestling between the King and the "Golden Freedom"* weakened the nation. Karwicki, one of the brightest Polish publicists of the pre-Partition era, proposed to shorten the Royal election period, eliminate the liberum veto* create a permanent Parliament, concentrate the government in the hands of republican organizations, and reduce the King to the position of a Venetian Doge. CHP, II, 12, 30; PSB, XII, 154-156. KASPROWICZ, JAN (1860-1926), poet, translator, literary critic, professor of comparative literature. He taught at the University of Lvov* from 1909 and was its Rector in 1921-1922. In Lvov he worked for several periodicals and became a prominent member of a local literary society. He also earned his doctorate at the university, where he stayed till the end of his life. He also fell in love with and spent most of his free time in Zakopane* in the Tatra* Moun-

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tains, and part of his poetry is devoted to the cultural tradition and nature of the highlands. Most of his poems depict the suffering and poverty of the Polish peasants. However, he also authored symbolic, religious works and was regarded by Catholic journalists as a "truly Polish" poet. Kasprowicz translated several classical and modern European writers into Polish. His poetry went through various stages during the fifty years of his creativity: from the positivist tradition through the modernistic "Young Polish"* style. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 338-340; PSB, XII, 185-190. KASPRZAK, MARCIN (1860-1905), activist of the Polish revolutionary movement. In 1885-1886, he co-organized the Socialist movement in Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* and, in 1888, he co-founded the Party of the Second Proletariat.* He also co-organized the first May 1st workers' parade in Warsaw* in 1890. Active in the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in the Prussian-occupied Poland, he moved to the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in 1904 and joined the Social-Democracy of the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL]).* Arrested in an illegal party printing shop, he shot several Russian policemen and was sentenced to death. WEP, V, 506. KASPRZYCKI, TADEUSZ (1891-1968), General. In 1910, he joined the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC])* and the Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki),* organized by J. Pilsudski's* partners in Galicia.* In August and September 1914, Kasprzycki commanded the First "Cadre" Company (I Kompania Kadrowa) of the Polish Legions,* which had crossed the frontier between Galicia and the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* even before the Austrian Army started its operations against Russia. In 1915, he co-organized and, later, commanded the secret Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* During the interwar period, he continued his career in the Polish Army. From 1931, he served as Deputy Minister and, from 1935, as Minister of Military Affairs. On September 18, 1939, during the Nazi invasion of Poland, he moved with the Polish government to Romania, where he was interned. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 41. KASZUBI (Kashubians), indigenous West Slavic ethnic group living in the Gdarisk (Danzig)* region. Today about 200,000 Kashubians live near Puck, Wejherowo, Kartuzy, Koscierzyna, Chojnice and Bytow. Originally, they constituted an eastern branch of the Pomeranians.* Incorporated into the Polish state in the tenth century, they were subjugated by the Teutonic Knights* in 1309. After 1454, most of the Kashubian territories were back in Poland, to be incorporated into Prussia after the First Partition* of Poland in 1772. They were exposed to intense Germanization, but, through the efforts of F. Ceynowa*, S. Ramult, and a group of poets, such as H. Derdowski and A. Majkowski, they

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preserved their language and separate ethnic identity. Particularly at the beginning of the twentieth century, a strong "Young Kashubian" movement developed. I. Gulgowski, Kaszubi (Cracow, 1924); Z. Topoliriska, A Historical Phonology of the Kaszubian Dialects of Polish (The Hague, 1974). KATOWICE (Kattowitz), industrial city and major center of heavy industry in Upper Silesia,* one of the seven large towns located on the coalfields of this region. Katowice was mentioned in a written document for the first time in 1598. It remained a small village until the mid-nineteenth century. In 1818— 1820, three zinc* foundries were established there, and, in 1823, the first iron foundry started operation. In the 1840s and 1850s, Katowice received a railway connection with Wroclaw (Breslau),* Cracow,* and Warsaw.* The town began to grow rapidly in the 1860s, when coal mining developed in the area. In 1865, Katowice had only 5,000 inhabitants; in 1900, about 32,000 and, in 1939, 140,000. The Katowice region was incorporated into Prussia* in 1742, during the Silesian Wars. Most of the local enterprises belonged to Germans. However, the city became a strong center of the Polish national movement by the end of the nineteenth century. In 1922, after three anti-German Silesian Uprisings,* a part of Upper Silesia around Katowice was incorporated into Poland as an autonomous Silesian province (wojewodztwo slaskie)* with its own Parliament and Constitution (Statut Organiczny Wojewodztwa 3laskiego). During WW II, Katowice was included in the Third Reich, and large numbers of the Polish people, especially those involved in the Silesian Uprisings, were exterminated by the Nazis. In 1945, Katowice and its region again became part of the Polish state. SHP, 160-161. KATYN, wooded place in the Dnieper River valley near Smolensk,* where, in April and May of 1940, the NKVD executed about 4,230 Polish officers. They were taken prisoners of war during the September Campaign* of 1939 and kept in the Kozielsk* camp in the same region until they were transported to Katyri, used previously by the NKVD as an execution place. The prisoners, mostly reserve officers, were killed by pistol shots to the back of their heads and thrown into ditches. The graves were discovered by the advancing German Army in March 1943. The Polish Government-in-Exile* intended to use the Polish officers from the Russian POW camps to organize the Polish Army in the Soviet Union according to the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement* of July 1941. However, both the Soviet authorities and the Polish embassy in the USSR were not able to locate about 15,000 officers initially kept in the camps of Kozielsk, Starobielsk,* and Ostaszkow.* After the Germans discovered the graves and accused the Soviets of the crime, the Polish Government-in-Exile, which had other evidence of Soviet guilt, asked the International Red Cross to investigate on the spot. The Soviet authorities declared that the Polish government collaborated with the Nazi propaganda, and Moscow severed relations with the Polish Government-in-Exile. The Katyri crime was a part of Stalin's plan to eliminate the

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elite of the Polish nation, in order to make it vulnerable to rapid Sovietization. Stalin had already planned to create a Polish Communist semi-government before the discovery of Katyri, and he used it as a comfortable pretext to break with the "London Poles" and weaken the position of their government. P. Allen, Katyri: The Untold Story (New York, 1991); L. Fitzgibbon, Katyn (New York, 19 S. W. Slowes, The Road to Katyri (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1992); J. Zawodny, De in the Forest: The Story of the Katyri Forest Massacre (Notre Dame, Indiana, 1 KATZENELLENBOGEN, OSKAR ("OSTAP ORTWIN") (1876-1942), lit erary critic. From 1906, as director of the B. Poloniecki Polish Bookstore and Publishing House, he published, among others, valuable works of L. Staff* and S. Brzozowski,* whom he defended against accusations of cooperation with the Tsarist "Okhrana" counter-intelligence. During the interwar period he served as chairman of Lvov's* branch of the Union of Polish Writers* from 1934. He published numerous review articles in literary periodicals, considered masterpieces of literary criticism. He was killed in 1942 by the Gestapo* in Germanoccupied Lvov. PSB, XII, 225-226. KAUNITZ, WENZEL ANTON (1711-1794), Austrian Chancellor who convinced the Habsburg* Empress Maria Theresa* to participate in the First Partition* of Poland. S. Padover, "Prince Kaunitz and the First Partition of Poland," Slavonic and Eastern European Review XIII (1935), 384-398; Harvey L. Dyck, "P dering the Russian Fact: Kaunitz and the Catherinian Empire in the 1770s," Canadia Slavonic Papers, XXII (December, 1980), 451-469. KAZIMIERZ (CASIMIR), SAINT (1458-1484), second son of Kazimierz Jagielloriczyk (Casimir Jagiellon)* and Elizabeth of Austria. Educated by the historian J. Dlugosz,* he was acclaimed King by the Hungarian nobles, unhappy with their ruler, Matthew Corvinus. Kazimierz went to Hungary with a military expedition but was forced to withdraw. Later, he served as Viceroy of Poland ("secundogenitus Regis Poloniae") during his father's absence and dedicated his life to prayer and studies. He was canonized in 1602 and became patron saint of Lithuania. PSB, XII, 286-288; S. Umiriski, The Royal Prince: A Story of Casimir (New York, 1971). KAZIMIERZ DOLNY, town on the Vistula* River in Lublin* province. It was mentioned for the first time in the twelfth century as a village belonging to the Norbertine Order. According to Polish tradition, Kazimierz was rapidly developed by King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great*) in the fourteenth century. In 1406, the city received the Magdeburg municipal rights.* In the sixteenth century, it became one of the main ports on the Vistula and an important center of the grain trade. The wars of the mid-seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries caused a decline in the trade and splendor of the city. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, Kazimierz, with its art monuments and pictur-

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esque setting, became an attractive tourist resort. During WW II, the city was 80 percent destroyed. The Germans killed many Poles and exterminated the entire local Jewish community. SHP, 161. KAZIMIERZ I ODNOWICIEL OR MNICH (Casimir I the Restorer or Monk) (1016-1058), Duke of Poland, only surviving son of Duke Mieszko II* and Richeza (Ryksa) of Palatine Lorraine. There is only vague information on several parts of his life. He was educated in a monastery or possibly joined it, but, in 1034, he ascended to the Polish throne after his father's death. At that time, the Polish central government, founded by the Piast* dynasty, was crushed by a popular revolt against the landowners, an anti-Christian uprising by pagan tribes, and a mutiny of local feudal lords in Mazovia* and Pomerania.* Kazimierz escaped to Germany, or he simply was there during the catastrophe. In 1038 or 1039, he returned to Poland and, thanks to substantial military help from the German King, Henry III, he managed to re-establish the central Polish government and the Roman Catholic Church. Since the previous center of the Polish state, Great Poland,* was devastated, the new capital was located in Cracow.* Kazimierz married the Russian Princess Dobronega and, supported by her brother, Grand Prince Yaroslav the Great of Kiev, regained Mazovia. He also took back Silesia* from the Bohemians in 1050. He was never crowned King, and he had to accept German suzerainty over Poland. CHP, I, 39, 67-69; PSB, XII, 261-262. KAZIMIERZ II SPRAWIEDLIWY (Casimir II the Just) (1138-1194), Duke of Cracow,* Kujavia,* Mazovia,* and Sandomierz* from 1177. Youngest son of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth),* he did not receive any land when his father died and divided Poland among his sons in 1138. Kazimierz grew up during the fraternal struggles for power among his older brothers. In 1166, when his other older brother, Henryk of Sandomierz,* died heirless, Kazimierz received a part of his Principality with the capital in Wislica.* In 1177, the feudal lords of the Principality of Cracow* revolted against their Duke, Mieszko Stary (the Old),* the oldest son of Boleslaw Krzywousty. According to Boleslaw's testament, the oldest living brother was to be a Grand Duke and, in addition to his own hereditary district (in Mieszko's case Great Poland*), he was to hold Pomerania* and the Cracow region (Little Poland*). Kazimierz was asked by Cracow's Lords to replace Mieszko, and he became the so-called Princeps. At the 1180 Synod of Leczyca, he was recognized as the sovereign in Poland by the nobility and clergy, who received important privileges in exchange. Kazimierz lost control over Pomerania and spent much of his reign fighting Mieszko. But he was a powerful ruler, intervened in Ruthenian dynastic struggles, received substantial help from Ruthenia, and extended Polish power over the Jatvingians* in the northeastern borderlands. CHP, I, 76-89; PSB, XII, 263-264. KAZIMIERZ III WIELKI (Casimir III the Great) (1310-1370), King of Poland from 1333 and last representative of the Piast* dynasty. Son of King

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Wladyslaw Lokietek* and Jadwiga, daughter of Kalisz* Prince Boleslaw Pobozny (the Pious),* Kazimierz was the second King of reunited Poland and continued his father's policy of gathering Polish lands. Crowned immediately after Lokietek's death, Kazimierz inherited two geographically disconnected regions, Little Poland (Malopolska)* and Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* During his reign, Poland grew from 106,000 to 270,000 square kilometers. As King, he preferred diplomacy to war. He dropped his claims to Silesia,* and, in exchange, the Bohemian King dropped his claims to the Polish crown. In 1325, Kazimierz married Aldona, the daughter of Duke Giedymin (Gediminas)* of Lithuania, thereby effecting a reconciliation with that country. In 1339, Kazimierz gained the support of Hungary, when he signed a treaty with the Hungarian King that his son, who was also Kazimierz's nephew, Ludwik (Louis), would succeed Kazimierz in case the Polish King had no heirs. In 1343, Kazimierz signed the Kalisz Peace Treaty* with the Teutonic Knights* and regained Kujavia* and the Dobrzyri* region in exchange for Eastern Pomerania.* In 1351-1353, the regions of Plock,* Zakroczym, and Wizna were incorporated into Poland after their Prince died heirless, and the Duke of other parts of Mazovia* declared himself Kazimierz's vassal. Kazimierz was an outstanding military leader. Having good relations with Hungary and secure western frontiers, he occupied the Red Ruthenian Principalities of Halicz* and Vladimir* in the 1340s; thus began the Polish expansion to the southeast. The domestic achievements of the King also were important. He strengthened Poland economically, supporting internal colonization and mining, founding about seventy cities and building more than fifty castles. He unified the legal and currency systems. He appreciated the importance of education and founded the University of Cracow* in 1364. According to a Polish proverb, Kazimierz found Poland built of wood, and he left it constructed of bricks. The prestige of Poland grew under his reign, and, when he died, there were no attempts to restore the former Duchies. Kazimierz had four wives and five daughters, but left no son. After his death, the throne of Poland was inherited by Ludwik Wegierski (Louis d'Anjou of Hungary).* A.

Bruce-Boswell, "Casimir the Great," Great Men and Women of Poland, ed. by S. Mizwa

(New York, 1942); CHP, I, 167-187; P. Knoll, The Rise of the Polish Monarchy: Piast Poland in East-Central Europe, 1320-1370 (Chicago, 1972); PSB, XII, 264-269.

KAZIMIERZ IV, "KAZKO" (Casimir of Slupsk) (1351-1377), Duke of Slupsk (Stolp) in Western Pomerania from 1374, son of Duke Boguslaw V of Slupsk and Elzbieta (Elizabeth), daughter of King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great)* of Poland. Kafko was raised at the court of Kazimierz, who adopted his grandson and wanted him to inherit the throne of Poland. WEP, V, 558. KAZIMIERZ JAGIELLONCZYK (Casimir Jagiellon) (1427-1492), King of Poland (1447-1492) and Grand Duke of Lithuania (1440-1492), the second son of King Wladyslaw Jagiello (Jogaila)* and his fourth wife, Zofia Holszariska. His older brother, Wladyslaw III,* succeeded their father on the throne of Poland

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in 1434 and, in 1440, sent twelve-year-old Kazimierz to Vilna* as a Governor. However, the leading Lithuanian boyars organized a coup d'etat, proclaimed Kazimierz Grand Duke and, consequently, severed the ties between Lithuania and Poland. The ties were restored when Wladyslaw III was killed in the battle of Varna* and the Polish nobles elected Kazimierz King of Poland to save the Union. Kazimierz was crowned in 1447 but maintained the independence of Lithuania. In 1454, he married a Habsburg* princess, Elizabeth, called "mother of Jagiellons," because of her six sons and seven daughters. The eldest son, Wladyslaw,* became King of Bohemia (1471) and Hungary (1490); Jan Olbracht (John Albert),* Aleksander Jagielloriczyk,* and Zygmunt Stary (Sigismund the Old)* were Kazimierz successors on the Polish throne. Another brother, St. Kazimierz,* became an Archbishop and Cardinal, and his five sisters were married to German Princes. In foreign policy, Kazimierz was very cautious. He incorporated into Poland the Duchy of Oswiecim* and the Mazovian* lands of Gostyri,* Rawa, and Sochaczew and made the Duchy of Zator vassal of Poland. His main success, however, was the great victory in the Thirteen Years' War* against the Teutonic Knights.* In 1454, the Prussian gentry and towns organized in the Prussian Union (Zwiazek Pruski) revolted against the Order and placed themselves under the protection of Kazimierz, who issued the act of incorporation of Prussia. As a result, war broke out and, after many reversals of fortune on both sides, the second Treaty of Toruri (Thorn)* was signed in 1466. Poland retook eastern Pomerania, called Royal Prussia,* and the entire territory of Warmia,* regaining control of the entire Vistula* valley up to the estuary. The remaining Prussian lands of the Knights, later called Ducal Prussia,* became a vassal state of Poland. During the war, Kazimierz was forced to grant Polish gentry the Privileges of Nieszawa.* Kazimierz preserved the Polish-

Lithuanian Union and substantially strengthened its position in Europe. CHP,

232-272; P. Jasienica, "Casimir Jagielloriczyk," Jagiellonian Poland (Miami, 197 PSB, XII, 269-274.

KEDYW, acronym of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* Directorate of Diversion (Kierownictwo Dywersji) against the Nazi occupiers. Called into being by Gen. S. Rowecki's* order of January 22, 1943, it was originally based on the Union of Revenge (Zwiazek Odwetu) commanded by Lt. Col. F. Niepokolczycki. Kedyw's duty was "to press the enemy by inflicting ever stronger blows through guerrilla and sabotage activities as retaliation against the occupant's terror." Those operations were undertaken by special squads attacking railroad transports or vicious police officers. Kedyw excelled in freeing political prisoners and in waging partisan warfare. It was commanded by Col. E. Fieldorf ("Nil")* and, from March 1944, by Col. J. Mazurkiewicz ("Radoslaw").* "Kedyw," Polskie Sity Zbrojne w Drugiej Wojnie Swiatowej (Polish Armed Forces during WW II), vol. 3 (London, 1950), 462-482; S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978).

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KELLES-KRAUZ, KAZIMIERZ (1872-1905), sociologist and theoretician of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* He was also active as a journalist and usually wrote under the pen name "Michal Lusnia." Educated in Paris, he taught there and later in Brussels. He was an exponent of the materialistic interpretation of history; however, he appreciated the role of psychological factors as well. He stressed ethical aspects of revolutionary ideologies. He opposed R. Luxemburg's* program and emphasized Poland's role in the revolutionary struggle against the Tsarist regime. G. Ekiert, "Kazimierz Kelles-Krauz: From Marxism to Sociology," Masters of Polish Sociology, ed. by P. Sztompka (Wroclaw, 1984); Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, ed. by E. R. A. Seligman, vol. 8 (New York, 1932), 598. KETTLER, GOTTHARD (1517-1587), last Grand Master of the Livonian* branch of the Teutonic Knights* from 1559, and the first hereditary sovereign of Courland* after 1561. Jeopardized by the Muscovite invasion of Ivan the Terrible,* Kettler asked the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* for help, ceded to it a portion of Livonia, secularized the Order, and accepted Lutheranism. His dynasty ruled in Courland* until 1737. CHP, I, 353-354; SHP, 163-164. KJJTRZYN, town in north Poland (former East Prussia*), founded as Rastenburg near the Teutonic Knights'* castle in the fourteenth century. During WW II, Hitler's military headquarters Wolfschanze was located in the forests near Ketrzyn. WEP, V, 583. K^TRZYNSKI, STANISLAW (1876-1950), historian, son of the historian Wojciech Ketrzyriski.* A specialist in the medieval history of Poland, archival problems and auxiliary sciences of history, he authored several fundamental works on these subjects. From 1905, he served as Director of the Krasiriski Library in Warsaw,* and during 1919-1923 and from 1931, he taught at Warsaw University.* In 1920-1931, he served at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. During WW II, he participated in clandestine education. Arrested by the Gestapo,* he was sent to Auschwitz* but survived. PSB, XII, 374-376. K?TRZYNSKI, WOJCIECH (1838-1918), historian. Though initially he hardly spoke Polish, he returned to the original family name and emphasized his Polishness in youthful poems. He participated in the January Insurrection* of 1863. In 1868, he became Librarian of the Zamoyski* family's Kornik collection. In 1873 he moved to Lvov* as Secretary of the Ossolineum* Library. He authored numerous works on the history of the Slavic people, medieval Poland, Pomerania,* Warmia,* and Mazury.* PSB, XII, 376-379. KIELBASSA, PIOTR (1838-1905), activist of Polish immigrant organizations in America, who established a Polish bookstore in Chicago and was one of the leaders of the Polish National Alliance (Zwiazek Narodowy Polski). Busyn,

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"Peter Kielbassa: Maker of Polish America," Polish American Studies VIII/3-4 (1951), 65-84. KIELCE, city in central Poland. Mentioned for the first time in 1084, it belonged to the Bishops of Cracow.* In 1240, it was destroyed by the Tatars*; in 1346, it received the Magdeburg city law* and became an important center of silver, lead and copper mining. Ruined during the Swedish Wars* in 1655, the city regained its importance in the eighteenth century. The Kielce region was taken by Austria in the Third Partition* of Poland in 1795 and, from 1815, belonged to the Congress Kingdom of Poland* as capital of a province. In 1900 its population was 18,200 and, in 1939, about 70,000. During WW II, four extermination camps for the Jews and Russian war prisoners were located in Kielce. The wooded region around the city was a center of guerrilla activities during the January Insurrection* of 1863 and during WW II. SHP, 164. KIEPURA, JAN (1902-1966), singer. World-famous Polish tenor. He made his debut at the Warsaw Opera in 1925 and, later, performed in Vienna, Milan, Paris, London, and both Americas. He also played major roles in ten musical films. During WW II, he settled in New York. E. Kusielewicz, "The Polish Caruso," Polish American World, May 17, 1963; L. Kydryriski, Opera na cafy rok ( for the Whole Year), vol. 2 (Warsaw, 1989), 98-99. KIETLICZ, HENRYK (11507-1219), Archbishop of Gniezno* and Papal Legate for Prussia.* He fought with Polish Princes, particularly Wladyslaw Laskonogi,* for the separation of the Church from secular power. CHP, I, 81-83. KILINSKI, JAN (1760-1819), leader of the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794 in Warsaw.* In 1780, he moved from his native Trzemeszno to Warsaw, where he opened a shoe-repair shop. Elected to the city's council in 1792, he was a spokesman of the artisans, and he mobilized them during the fighting against the Russians at the beginning of the uprising. T. Kosciuszko* promoted Kiliriski to Colonel in charge of the Mazovian* Militia. As its Commander, Kiliriski participated in the 1794 defense of Warsaw and was twice wounded. After the fall of the Insurrection, he was arrested by the Prussians, sent to Russia, and imprisoned in the Petropavlovsk fortress in St. Petersburg. Released, he joined a clandestine organization in Vilna*; he was rearrested and deported to Russia. Eventually, he settled in Warsaw and wrote interesting memoirs. PSB, XII, 453455. KINGA OR CUNEGUND, BLESSED (1224-1292), Princess of Cracow,* daughter of King Bela IV of Hungary, married in her sixteenth year to Prince Boleslaw the Chaste (Wstydliwy).* She asked her husband to observe continence, led an austere life, founded numerous churches and monasteries, and

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joined a convent after Boleslaw's death. Kinga's cult was approved by Rome in 1690. Butler's Lives of the Saints, vol. Ill (New York, 1956), 178. KIRCHOLM (Salaspils), village near Riga, Latvia, where a battle was fought on September 27, 1605, between the Swedes, led by King Charles IX, and the Polish-Lithuanian forces, led by Hetman* J. K. Chodkiewicz,* during the Swedish Wars.* The Swedes outnumbered the Commonwealth forces, having 11,000 soldiers against 4,000, but were attacked unexpectedly by the Polish hussaria,* lost two-thirds of their Army, and had to abandon the siege of Riga. M. Kujawski, "The Battle of Kircholm: A Masterpiece of Early XVIIIth Century Military Tactics," Polish Review XI/1 (1966), 40-61. KISIEL (KYSIL), ADAM (1600-1653), statesman and diplomat in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.* A scion of a prominent Orthodox family from Volhynia,* he studied at Zamosc Academy, joined the Army, and participated in the wars against Turkey, Muscovy, and Sweden. An effective negotiator, he represented King Zygmunt (Sigismund) III Vasa* at the Orthodox Synod in Kiev in 1629 and negotiated the end of the Pavliuk Cossack* rebellion in 1637, and the end of the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) uprising.* He contributed to the agreements of Perejeslaw (Pereislav)* and Zbor6w (Zboriv)* in 1649, and Biala Cerkiew (Bila Tserkva) in 1651. An ardent spokesman of Othodoxy and Ukrainian gentry in the Polish Parliament, he was considered "head" of the Ukrainian population in Poland. A wealthy landowner, he founded three monasteries and supported the Kiev Academy. He held important offices: Castellan,* Senator, and Palatine (wojewoda) of Kiev. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 2 (Toronto, 1988), 735; F. Sysyn, Between Poland and Ukraine: The Dilemma of Adam Kysil (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1985). KISIELEWSKI, JAN AUGUST (1876-1918), playwright and literary critic. His naturalistic dramas portrayed Cracow's* artistic coffeehouse society of snobs and bourgeoisie. He was also active as satirist and co-founder of the famous artistic cabaret Little Green Balloon (Zielony Balonik)* in 1905. Politically, he supported the National Democracy* and contributed to its periodicals. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 359; PSB, XII, 495-496. KITOWICZ, JgDRZEJ (1728-1804), historical writer and participant in the Bar Confederation.* His memoirs are an important primary source on eighteenth-century Polish history. PSB, XII, 525-527. KLACZKO, JULIAN (1825-1906), publicist, literary critic, and writer. A scion of a Jewish family from Vilna,* he wrote originally in Hebrew. After studies in Konigsberg and Heidelberg, he published in German. In 1848, he participated in the anti-Prussian uprising in Great Poland,* where he converted to Catholicism and conservatism. After the fall of the uprising, he emigrated to

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Paris, where he contributed to the most prestigious French periodicals. Supported by the Hotel Lambert,* he wrote on European history, art, and Polish politics and literature, particularly Romanticism.* In the 1860s, he moved to Vienna, served at the Imperial Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and became member of the Galician* Parliament and Austrian Reichsrat. In 1888, he settled in Cracow,* where he established close relations with the Galician conservatives. He was one of the most prolific of the Polish literati of the nineteenth century. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 260-261; PSB, XII, 531536. KLEEBERG, FRANCISZEK (1888-1941), General. An officer of the Austrian Army from 1908, he was assigned to the Polish Legions* in 1915. He spent the interwar period in the Polish Army participating in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, studying at the Ecole Superieure de Guerre in Paris, and holding several important posts. During the September Campaign* of 1939, he organized the operational group "Polesie," which fought the last battle of the campaign near Kock on October 2-6, 1939. Taken prisoner of war, he died in a German camp. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 42; PSB, XII, 571-572. KLEINER, JULIUSZ (1886-1957), historian of Polish literature, professor of Warsaw* University (from 1916) and Lvov* University (1920-1941). Extensively educated in Lvov, Berlin and Paris, he was simultaneously an outstanding philologist, fine writer, and prolific publicist. He specialized in the Romantic period in Polish and European literature, particularly in A. Mickiewicz,* J. Siowacki,* and Z. Krasiriski.* After the outbreak of WW II, he tried to continue his work as a professor of Lvov University, then under Soviet control. After the German invasion in July 1941 and the closing of the university, he was forced to hide because of his Jewish background. After the war, he settled in Lublin* and, then, Cracow as a professor of the Catholic and Jagiellonian Universities, respectively. PSB, XII, 580-583. KLONOWIC, SEBASTIAN (1545-1602), poet from Great Poland,* who settled in Lublin,* worked in its local government and, eventually, became Mayor of the city. Well educated, he wrote various kinds of poetry in Latin and Polish. He also published pedagogical, moralistic, and anti-clerical works and was one of the most interesting literary burghers in the history of Polish literature. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 86-88; PSB, XIII, 4-6. KMITA, PIOTR (1477-1553), statesman. After years at the court of Habsburg* Emperor Maximilian I, he returned to Poland and participated in the wars with the Tatars,* Muscovy, and the Teutonic Knights.* He also served as a diplomat and, at the court of Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old), became a pillar of Queen Bona's* party. He supported Bona's anti-Habsburg policy, opposed plans

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for an anti-Turkish Crusade, and was particularly interested in Hungary. He did not want that country to become a part of the Habsburg domain and encouraged the King to compete for the Hungarian and Bohemian thrones. Kmita held numerous important government offices, among them Grand Crown Marshal (Marszalek Wielki Koronny) and Provincial Governor of Cracow* (wojewoda krakowski). He assumed the position of the gentry's tribune. Initially, he opposed King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August's marriage to B. RadziwiH* and supported the nobility against the magnates. Kmita was a patron of artists and scholars, and his luxurious Wisnicz castle became a center of humanistic studies and a large library. PSB, XIII, 97-100. KNIAZIEWICZ, KAROL (1762-1842), General. Educated in the Knights School* established in Warsaw,* he served in the Polish Army; participated in the 1792 war with Russia and in the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, when he was promoted to General; defended Warsaw; and fought in the Battle of Maciejowice.* Later called by Gen. J. Dabrowski,* he moved to Italy and joined the Polish Legions* in 1797. He distinguished himself in the Italian campaigns and, in 1799, organized the Danubian Polish Legion. In 1812, he joined the army of the Duchy of Warsaw* and participated in Napoleon's invasion of Russia. He served on the Military Committee in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* but, in 1817, emigrated to Dresden. During the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he represented the Polish National Government in Paris, where he later established close relations with the Hotel Lambert.* PSB, XIII, 117-120. KNIAZNIN, FRANCISZEK (1750-1807), poet, playwright and translator. Educated at Jesuit* colleges, he joined the Order and taught in its school in Warsaw.* After the Order was disbanded, he worked at the Zaluski* Library and, then, as a secretary and tutor in the Czartoryskis' "Family."* He spent many years at the Czartoryskis' court in Pulawy. He wrote plays for the Pulawy court's theater, short melancholic poems, rococo style Erotica, and sentimental Latin Carmina. PSB, XIII, 122-126. KNIGHTS OF THE CROSS. See TEUTONIC KNIGHTS. KNIGHTS SCHOOL (Szkola Rycerska, or Korpus Kadetow), high school for young noblemen of predominantly military character established by King Stanislaw August* in Warsaw* in 1765 and closed in 1794. Its main purpose was the preparation of young nobles for civic life and their education in the culture of the Polish Enlightenment.* The school was actually organized and headed by A. K. Czartoryski,* who also authored the Katechizm Kadecki. Its teachers were exclusively secular and mainly foreigners. Its program was divided into a preparatory period, which lasted four years and included general education with an emphasis on foreign languages, and two-year professional training in military engineering for future officers or law for civil service can-

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didates. The students' education was supplemented by fencing, equestrianship, dancing, and music. Among pupils of this excellent school were T. Kosciuszko,* K. Kniaziewicz,* J. Niemcewicz,* M. Sokolnicki,* and J. Jasiriski.* WEP, V, 231. KNOLL, ROMAN (1888-1946), diplomat and politician. Educated in Kiev, he co-founded the Polish Democratic Association (Polski Zwiazek Demokratyczny) there in 1917. The organization was actually led by the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In 1918, he joined the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, but he also fought in the Polish-Soviet War* in 1920. In 1920-1921, he served as Secretary of the Polish Delegation at the Riga Peace Conference.* Later, he went to Moscow as the Polish Legation's Councillor and, eventually, Minister Plenipotentiary. In 1924, he was appointed with the same title in Ankara. In 1926, he participated in the coup d'etat on J. Pilsudski's side and became Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs. Later, he was sent as Minister to Rome and Berlin. He resigned in 1931, broke with the Sanacja* regime, and supported the political opposition. During WW II, he was hiding in Warsaw and, in 1943, he was appointed head of the Foreign Affairs Department under the Delegatura* of the Polish Government-in-Exile.* G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy, 1939-1945 (New York, 1988); PSB, XIII, 130-131. KOC, ADAM (1891-1969), politician, one of the most trusted followers of J. Pilsudski* and a representative of the right wing of the Sanacja* regime. Before WW I, he belonged to the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC])* and the Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki),* organized by Pilsudski's partners in Galicia.* During the war, he co-organized the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* and served in the Polish Legions.* During the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-1921, he commanded an Infantry Division. From 1928 he was among the leaders of the NonParty Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR]),* and he also represented it in the Parliament. In 1936, he organized the semi-totalitarian Camp of National Unity (OZN).* During 1936— 1939, he served as President of the Bank of Poland* and, in 1939, managed to evacuate its gold to the West. During 1939-1942, he was a member of the Polish Government-in-Exile and, in 1943, he moved to America. W. Pob6g-Malinowski, Najnowsza Historia Polityczna Polski, 1864-1945 (Contemporary Polish History) (London, 1956), passim. KOCHANOWSKI, JAN (1530-1584), the most outstanding Polish poet of the pre-Partition* era. Educated in Cracow,* Konigsberg and Padua, he lived at the courts of such magnates such as the Tarnowskis and Teczyriskis. In 1564, he joined the Royal Court as one of the King's secretaries. Living among humanist intellectuals in Cracow, Kochanowski became the most prominent Polish literary figure of the century. In 1591, he moved to his Czarnolas estate near Lublin.* In 1579, his happy life of a wealthy landowner was interrupted by the sudden

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death of his daughter, Ursula, movingly deplored in the greatest of his poems, Treny (Laments), published in 1580. Starting with Latin poetry in Italy, Kochanowski developed into a master of the Polish language, and he had a decisive influence on succeeding generations of poets. He was also active as a translator and playwright, and his Odprawa poslow greckich (Dismissal of Grecian Envoys) is considered the finest Polish humanist drama. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 60-80; T. D. Walsh, Jan Kochanowski (New York, 1974); W. Weintraub, "The Latin and Polish Kochanowski: The Two Faces of the Poet," Proceedings of the Vth Congress of International Comparative Literature Association, Belgrade 1967 (Amsterdam, 1969). KOCHANSKI, ADAM (1631-1700), mathematician, Jesuit from Vilna,* professor at several Polish and German universities. In 1677, he returned to Poland when invited by King J. Sobieski* as mathematicus regius (Royal Mathematician). PSB, XIII, 205-208. KOCHOWSKI, WESPAZJAN HIERONIM (1633-1700), poet, writer, and historian. A deeply religious nobleman, he spent ten years in the Polish Army, participating in the wars against Cossacks,* Swedes, and Hungarians. After the end of the "Deluge,"* he settled in his family estate and devoted himself to writing. He described in biblical verses the Battle of Vienna of 1683 and also wrote Baroque, religious poems. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 141-145. KOLANKOWSKI, LUDWIK (1882-1956), historian, professor of Vilna* University (from 1929) and Lvov* University (from 1936). He specialized in the history of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* during the Jagiellonian period. He was also active in interwar politics as an activist of J. Pilsudski's* Sanacja.* During WW II, he continued his research and teaching underground. After the war he organized the University of Toruri.* PSB, XIII, 289-292. KOLBE, SAINT MAKSYMILIAN MARIA (1894-1941), Franciscan priest (real name Rajmund Kolbe) canonized in 1982, who volunteered his life in Auschwitz* in the place of a condemned inmate, a father of several children. Kolbe joined the Franciscans* in 1907 and, after studies at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, founded the Sodality of the Militia of Mary Immaculate in 1917. He published the popular Catholic monthly Rycerz Niepokalanej (The Knight of Mary Immaculate) and, in 1927, established Niepokalandw (the City of Mary Immaculate), a religious center near Warsaw.* In 1930, he went to East Asia and organized dynamic Franciscan centers in Japan and India. In 1936, he returned to Niepokalanow, where he was arrested by the Nazis in 1939. Released, he was re-arrested on charges of aiding Jews and the Polish underground, then sent to Auschwitz in 1941. PSB, XIII, 296-297; P. Treece,

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A Man for Others: Saint of Auschwitz in the Words of Those Who Knew Him (San Francisco, 1982). KOLBERG, HENRYK OSKAR (1814-1890), ethnographer and composer. He studied music with J. Eisner in Warsaw* and turned his attention to the folk music of Poland. He also began researching folk customs and, during fifty years of trips across Poland, gathered a gigantic collection depicting the life of Polish peasants in various parts of the country. Kolberg is considered the father of Polish ethnography. PSB, XIII, 300-304. KOLISZCZYZNA (KOLIIVSHCHYNA) REBELLION, popular uprising in Ukraine,* west of the Dnieper River, against Polish landlords and their Jewish intermediaries in 1768. The name of the rebellion was derived from lances called kolii used by the rebels. The uprising was also directed against the religious oppression of the Orthodox Cossacks* and peasants by the Polish Catholic Church. The rebels, called haidamaks and supported by local Orthodox monasteries, captured several towns in the Kiev and Braclaw (Bratslav) regions and then in Podolia* and Volhynia,* killing Polish nobles, Catholic clerics, and Jewish traders and artisans. The leaders of the uprising intended to restore the Cossack Hetman* state created by B. Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky).* Catherine the Great,* afraid that the uprising might spread into the Russian-controlled Ukraine, ordered an end be put to the rebellion. The Russian Army, supported by Polish troops, brutally suppressed Koliszczyzna, which, idealized, became a part of Ukrainian national tradition. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 2 (Toronto, 1988), 586-587; W. Serczyk, Koliszczyzna (Warsaw, 1968). KOLLATAJ, HUGO (1750-1812), priest, writer, reformer, and politician, who played a crucial role in the movement for the reconstruction of the Polish political system under King Stanislaw August.* A scion of a noble family, he studied in Cracow,* Vienna, Naples, and Rome. After his return to Poland in 1774, he served on the Commission of the National Education,* reformed the Jagiellonian University,* and was its Rector during 1782-1786. He also elaborated a plan for the reform of the entire educational system in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth*: The Universities of Cracow and Vilna* were to control two networks of high schools, which in turn were to supervise larger networks of elementary schools. Active in a political party supporting the King, Kollataj received the office of Lithuanian Referee in the Polish central administration and he moved from Cracow to Warsaw.* There he gathered a group of publicists called "Kollataj's Forge," who supported a program of reforms and the "Familia"* party of the Czartoryskis* and Potockis.* Kollataj was especially active during the Great Sejm* (1788-1792). In this period he produced two famous books: Anonymous Letters to Stanislaw Malachowski (Do Stanislawa Malachowskiego anonima listow kilka, 1788), written as letters to the Speaker of the Great Sejm, and Political Laws of the Polish Nation (Prawo

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polityczne narodu polskiego, 1790). In these works Kollataj presented his reform plan: the strengthening of the Royal power and the Army, the elimination of the liberum veto,* the establishment of universal taxation, and the emancipation of burghers and peasants. Kollataj criticized the traditional Polish political system dominated by large magnate families and autonomous dignitaries, and he clearly intended to transform the Commonwealth into a modern society led by the class of property owners. He co-organized the burghers' demonstration of December 1789, coauthored the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* became Vice-Chancellor of the Crown, and tried to gain the support of Prussia and revolutionary France for the proposed Polish reforms. After the Russian intervention and the Polish-Russian War of 1792, he emigrated to Leipzig and Dresden but returned to Poland to participate in the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794. Kollataj co-authored the manifesto announcing the uprising and the proclamation of Polaniec,* which gave freedom to those peasants who participated in the Insurrection. He also served as Chairman of the Treasury Department in Warsaw and supported the leftist leaders of the uprising, the Polish Jacobins.* After the collapse of the Insurrection, he escaped to Galicia,* where he was arrested by the Austrians and, at the request of Russia, as "an extremely dangerous man" was imprisoned for eight years in the harshest prisons of the Habsburg* monarchy. Released in 1802, he settled in Volhynia,* where he established an excellent school in Krzemieniec* In 1807, he was deported by the Russians to Moscow. In 1808, he returned to the Duchy of Warsaw,* where he spent the last years of his life as a publicist and writer. He was one of the greatest minds of his epoch. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 188-190; PSB, XIII, 335-346.

KOMENSKI (COMENIUS), JAN AMOS (1592-1670), Czech educational reformer and religious leader. His parents belonged to a Protestant group known as the Bohemian Brethren.* When the Habsburg* Emperor Ferdinand II began to re-Catholicize Bohemia during the Thirty Years' War, Komenski had to hide. Then he escaped with a group of his co-religionists to Poland and settled in Leszno,* Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* in 1628. There, he led a school of dissidents,* worked on his educational theories, and traveled to Western and Northern Europe. In 1655, during the "Deluge,"* the Swedish invasion of Poland, the Bohemian Brethren took the Swedish side, and, after the Swedish defeat, they were expelled from Poland. Komenski spent the rest of his life in Amsterdam. He believed that all of humanity could be reformed through education; introduced numerous new methods of teaching, especially of languages; and became a founding father of modern pedagogics. W. Monroe, Comenius and the Beginnings of Educational Reform (New York, 1971); PSB, XIII, 385-389; M. Spinka, John Amos Comenius (Chicago, 194 KOMITET NARODOWY POLSKI. See POLISH NATIONAL COMMITTEE.

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KON, FELIKS (1864-1941), Communist politician and journalist. Son of a wealthy Jewish family, he joined the Proletariat* Party and, in 1884, was arrested and sentenced to eleven years of hard labor in Siberia.* There he met Russian revolutionary leaders, including Lenin. In 1904, Kon returned to Warsaw* and became a leader of the left wing in the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* In 1906, he was exiled to Galicia,* where he collaborated with the Polish Social-Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia (PPSD).* In 1917, Kon went to Russia, joined the Bolshevik Party and became a member of its Polish bureau. During the Polish-Soviet War* of 19191921, he was a member of the Polish Provisional Revolutionary Committee,* established in Bialystok* in August 1920. In interwar period, Kon was a prominent journalist in the Soviet press. After the German invasion of the USSR in 1941, Kon participated in Polish broadcasts from Moscow. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. X (Jerusalem, 1971), 1178; PSB, XIII, 439-443. KONARSKI, STANISLAW (1700-1773), priest, political writer, and reformer of education. He entered the Order of the Piarist Fathers* in 1718 and was educated and taught at their schools. He published a collection of Polish laws, Volumina Legum. After the death of King August II Mocny (the Strong),* Konarski supported the candidacy of Stanislaw Leszczyriski.* In 1740, Konarski founded the Collegium Nobilium, a school for young men of prominent families in Warsaw.* The school offered a new curriculum, stressed patriotic education and the teaching of the Polish language and natural sciences. During 17501755, Konarski, as Provincial General of the Piarist Fathers in Poland, reformed their entire educational system. Konarski is considered a harbinger of the Polish Enlightenment,* and the Committee of the National Education.* His book On the Means of Effective Counsels (O Skutecznym Rad Sposobie) criticized the liberum veto* and other conservative features of the Polish political system. PSB, XIII, 471-477; W. Rose, Stanislaw Konarski, Reformer of Education in 18th Century Poland (London, 1929). KONARSKI, SZYMON (1808-1839), activist of the Polish independence movement. He participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and, within the Great Emigration,* he supported the political group gathered around J. Lelewel.* In 1833, he co-organized a guerrilla movement in Galicia* with J. Zaliwski.* In 1835 he crossed the Russian border illegally and founded a secret anti-Tsarist organization in Volhynia.* Arrested in 1838 by the Russian authorities, he was executed in Vilna.* WEP, V, 786. KONASZEWICZ-SAHAJDACZNY, PIOTR (Konashevych-Sahaidachny, Petro) (1570-1622), Cossack* Hetman.* A member of the Orthodox nobility of Ukraine,* he led several expeditions against the Turkish ports on the Black Sea, which caused the Polish-Turkish conflict. He also commanded a 20,000-strong Cossack army operating under Wladyslaw IV Waza* against Muscovy in 1618.

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Konaszewicz represented the conservative faction of the Cossack elders and supported a conciliatory policy toward the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* which caused dissatisfaction and rebellions among the Cossacks. In 1621, he commanded 40,000 Cossacks in the Battle of Chocim (Khotyn)* and contributed greatly to the Polish victory over the Turks. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc\ vol. 4 (Toronto, 1988), 494-495; WEP, V, 786-787. KONIC (KONITZ), HENRYK (1860-1934), lawyer, specialist on civil law. A prolific writer and journalist, he was active in the political life of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* He co-founded the Polish Progressive Party (Polska Partia Poste/powa) in 1906 and, in 1907, he was elected to the Russian State Duma,* where he fought for the autonomy of Poland. During WW I, he served on both the Warsaw* and the Central Citizens' Committees and, in 1915, was interned by the Germans. After the war, he was one of the leaders of the state Codification Committee and the Main Attorneys' Council of Poland. From 1924 he taught at the University of Warsaw* and published a noted multi-volume work on comparative law. PSB, XIII, 503-506. KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAW (1594-1646), Great Crown Hetman* (hetman wielki koronny) from 1632, and one of the most outstanding military and political leaders of pre-Partitions Poland. After studies at the Cracow Academy, he participated in the 1609-1611 war with Muscovy. In 1618, he was appointed Field Hetman (hetman polny), fought the Turks in Moldavia under Hetman Zolkiewski,* but was captured during the Battle of Cecora (Tutora)* in 1620 and spent three years as a prisoner in Istanbul. In 1623, he returned to Poland and defended its southern borders against Tatar* invasions. During the 16271629 war against Sweden, he commanded Polish forces in Royal Prussia* and defeated the Swedes at Puck,* Gniew, Hamersztyn and Trzcianka. In the 1630s and 1640s, he suppressed two Cossack* rebellions and stopped several Tatar invasions against Poland. After the election of Wladyslaw IV Waza,* Koniecpolski became his close adviser and encouraged the King to carry out a more aggressive policy against the Tatars and Turks. PSB, XIII, 523-527. KONOPACKA, HALINA (1900-1988), athlete and the first Polish gold medalist in discus throwing at the Amsterdam Olympics in 1928. WEP, V, 813. KONOPCZYNSKI, WLADYSLAW (1880-1952), outstanding historian, professor of the Jagiellonian University* from 1917, and member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci)* from 1922. He started to study history under the influence of T. Korzon* and continued his studies under S. Askenazy.* In 1906, he established a close relation with the leaders of the National Democracy* and contributed greatly to National Democratic periodicals. This political orientation affected his writings. Konopczyriski served as a historical expert of the Polish delegation during the Peace Conference in Paris

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in 1919. In 1922 he was elected to the Parliament. After the 1926 Pilsudski* coup d'etat,* Konopczyriski edited Try buna Narodu (National Tribune), a periodical opposing strongly the Sanacja* regime, in Cracow* during 1926-1928. In the late 1930s, he sympathized with the anti-Sanacja group, Front Morges.* In November 1939, he was arrested together with 120 other professors of the Jagiellonian University by the Nazis and spent seventy days in the Sachsenhausen* concentration camp. In 1940, he returned to Cracow and participated in clandestine education. An expert on eighteenth-century Polish history, he published numerous works. He initiated the publication of the Polish Biographical Dictionary (Polski Slownik Biograficzny [PSB]), and he was its Editor-in-Chief during 1935-1948. Great Historians of the Modern Age, ed. by L. Boia (New York, 1991), 482-483; PSB, XIII, 556-561. KONOPNICKA, MARIA (1842-1910), poet. A daughter of a lawyer from the small town of Suwalki, she married a much older landowner and bore him six children. In 1875, she published her first poem, which was received favorably by literary critics. Konopnicka rebelled against her previous life-style and, in 1877, she left her husband's estate for Warsaw* to live on her own. She worked as a publisher and participated in illegal patriotic activities. She wrote mostly lyric poems and short stories devoted to the life of the oppressed classes. As an anticlerical and an emancipated woman, she was criticized by conservatives and closely watched by the Tsarist censorship. In 1890, she left Warsaw and spent most of her time abroad. She visited the Prussian provinces of partitioned Poland, and, in response to Prussian attempts to Germanize Polish children, she published her famous strongly anti-German Rota (Oath). Konopnicka was considered the most outstanding Polish poetess of her time. However, later critics were less enthusiastic, and only some of her poems and short stories, especially those for children, are still considered interesting. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 318-320; PSB, XIV, 576-581.

KONOVALETS, EVHEN (1891-1938), Ukrainian nationalist politician. He served as an Austrian officer during WW I and, in 1915, he was taken prisoner of war by the Russians. After the Bolshevik revolution, he organized the Galician-Bukovinian Battalion of Sich Riflemen, which later played an important role during the creation of the independent Ukrainian states in 1918. In December 1919, the Sich Riflemen were disarmed and interned by the Poles, and Konovalets left for Prague. He returned to Poland in 1921 and founded the secret Ukrainian Military Organization (UVO). In 1922, he left Poland again and, living in Berlin, Geneva, and Rome, tried to win support from Western governments for the cause of Ukrainian independence. In 1929, he united various groups of Ukrainian nationalists active in Poland into the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). He led this clandestine, militant anti-Polish organization for ten years and tried to extend its activities into the Sovietcontrolled Ukraine. He was assassinated by a Bolshevik agent in Rotterdam.

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Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 2 (Toronto, 1988), 599-600; WEP, V, 816. KONRAD, name used frequently in the Piast* dynasty in the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, especially in its Silesian* and Mazovian* branches. The most important Silesian Piast Princes of this name were Konrad I of Glogow, Konrad I of Namyslow and Kluczbork, Konrad II, Konrad III the Old, Konrad IV the Older, Konrad V Kacki, Konrad VII Bialy (the White), Konrad IX Czarny (the Black), and Konrad X Bialy Mlodszy (the Younger White) of Olesnica and Kozle. Among the Princes of Mazovia there were three important princes by this name: Konrad I Mazowiecki (Mazovian),* Konrad II of Czersk, and Konrad III the Red. WEP, V, 816-817. KONRAD, MAZOWIECKI (1187-1247), Piast* Duke of Mazovia* and Kujavia.* He inherited these lands as a younger son of Duke Kazimierz Sprawiedliwy (the Just).* Konrad's main concerns were plans to unite Poland and to conquer the lands of the heathen Baltic Prussians, the northern neighbors of Mazovia. Konrad was looking for a permanent ally against the pagans. In 1225, he invited the Teutonic Knights* to Poland, and, in 1228, he settled them in the Chelmno* Land. In 1227, he settled the Order of the Dobrzyri Brethren in Dobrzyri,* also on Mazovia's northern border. The Teutonic Knights took in the Dobrzyri Brethren in 1235 and created a powerful state, which soon jeopardized Poland and Lithuania.* In 1229 and again in 1241, Konrad seized Cracow,* the symbolic capital of Poland. However, he was not able to defend it against other Dukes of Poland, did not terminate the feudal fragmentation of Poland, and even intensified it, dividing Mazovia among his sons in his testament. CHP, I, 82-90, passim; Poczet krolow i ksiazat polskich (Book of the Kings and Dukes of Poland), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 178-185; PSB, XIII, 584-586. KONSKIE, town in the Kielce* region of central Poland, medieval center of iron mining and, from 1867, capital of a district (powiat). During WW II, numerous Polish guerrilla units operated in the wooded Koriskie region. WEP, VI, 18. KOP, Polish acronym for the Corps of Border Defense (Korpus Obrony Pogranicza). This was a special army formation established in 1924 to protect a frontier between Poland and the USSR. The frontier was actually open after the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, and numerous armed groups crossed it into Poland, attacking the Polish population and especially landowners. KOP, supervised by the Ministry of Interior, controlled a thirty-kilometer-wide strip of borderland in five eastern provinces (wojewodztwa) of interwar Poland. During the September Campaign* of 1939, some KOP units fought the Soviet invaders. WEP, VI, 65.

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KOPANSKI, STANISLAW (1894-1971), General. In 1917, he joined the First Polish Army Corps in Russia and, in 1918, the Polish Army, where he spent the interwar period. He participated in the September Campaign* of 1939 as Chief of the Operational Department of the Polish General Staff. After the campaign ended, he left Poland and, in April 1940, became Commander of the Carpathian Brigade in Syria. Later Kopariski distinguished himself in North Africa in the Battles of Tobruk* and el-Ghazala. In July 1943, he became Chief of General Staff of the Polish Army in the West. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 43. KORBONSKI, STEFAN ("ZIELINSKI," "NOWAK") (1901-1989), resis tance leader and politician. He joined the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* in 1917 and participated in the Battle of Lvov* against the Ukrainians in November 1918. In 1919, he volunteered for the Polish Army and participated in the Third Silesian Uprising.* In 1930, he joined the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL]) and became its Chairman in Bialystok* province. He fought in the September Campaign* of 1939; after its end, he joined the anti-Nazi resistance. He co-founded the underground Political Council attached to the command of the Service for the Victory of Poland (Sluzba Zwyciestwu Polski [SZP]). During 1940-1941, he represented the Peasant Party in the Political Coordinating Committee (Polityczny Komitet Porozumiewawczy [PKP]) of the Polish underground state, and, from the spring of 1941, he was in charge of the civil struggle in the leadership of the Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ]).* He organized systematic sabotage of German factories and transports, secret courts and trials of traitors and collaborators, and short-wave radio communications with the Polish authorities in London. He participated in the Warsaw Uprising* and was the last

Delegate of the Polish Government-in-Exile. S. Korboriski, Fighting Warsaw: The

Story of the Polish Underground State, 1939-1945 (New York, 1956); G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy, 1939-1945 (New York, 1988).

KORCZAK, JANUSZ (1878-1942), writer, educator, doctor. He was born Henryk Goldszmit into an assimilated Jewish family. After medical studies in Warsaw,* Berlin, Paris, and London, he practiced as a pediatrician in the Jewish Children's Hospital. In 1907, he became Director of the Jewish Home for Orphans at Krochmalna Street, and, in 1919, he co-founded an orphanage for Polish children, "Nasz Dom" (Our House). He elaborated his own new methods of directing orphanages and raising children, especially orphans. From 1901, he published several novels about and for children and numerous pedagogical essays and articles. In the 1930s, he had a popular radio program, Discourses of an Old Doctor. Korczak was particularly concerned with children's rights and emphasized the importance of a warm attitude toward them as a crucial element of his pedagogical method. After the outbreak of WW II, he joined the Polish

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Army but, soon, he was again with his Jewish orphans. In 1940, he moved with them to the Warsaw Ghetto,* was jailed by the Gestapo* and, eventually, in August 1942, voluntarily joined his children of the orphanage on their final walk to the gas chambers in Treblinka.* M. Falkowska (ed.), A Chronology of the Life, Activities and Works of Janusz Korczak (New York, 1980); H. Olczak, Mr. Doctor: The Life of Janusz Korczak (London, 1965); PSB, XIII, 213-215. KORDECKI, KLEMENS ("AUGUSTYN") (1603-1673), Prior of the Jasna Gora Pauline Monastery, who refused to let a Swedish garrison enter it and organized its defense against the Swedish siege in November and December 1655. The defense became a symbolic beginning of popular resistance against the Swedish "Deluge"* and was transformed into a national legend. Kordecki, ordained in 1634 in Wieluri, was elected several times a Prior of the monastery and, in 1657, 1660 and 1661, served as a Provincial General of the Pauline Order in Poland. He described the siege of Jasna Gora in his epic Nowa Gigantomachia published in 1658. PSB, XIV, 53-55. KORFANTY, WOJCIECH (1873-1939), politician and publicist who contributed greatly to the national reawakening of the Poles of Upper Silesia* and their struggle for independence. A son of a miner, he studied in Berlin and Wroclaw (Breslau)* and became a member of the Liga Narodowa (National League)* and a very active journalist. He advocated autonomy for the Poles in Upper Silesia, protested against its Germanization, and fought for the improvement of working conditions and the democratization of the Prussian state. In 1903, he was elected as the first Polish member from Upper Silesia to the Reichstag. Reelected in 1907 and 1918, he also served in the Prussian Diet during 19041918. In October 1918, he demanded in the Reichstag that Royal Prussia,* Gdarisk (Danzig),* Great Poland,* parts of Ducal Prussia,* and Upper and Middle Silesia* be re-united with reborn Poland. In 1919, as Polish Plebiscite Commissioner in Silesia, he proposed the Korfanty Line, which was not accepted but became a basis for the future compromise between Poland and Germany. Korfanty was among the leaders of the three Silesian Uprisings* in 1919, 1920 and 1921. During 1919-1930, he was a member of the Polish Parliament, temporarily chaired the parliamentary club of the Popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy [ZLN])* and, later, led the Christian Democratic Party (Partia Chrzescijarisko-Demokratyczna).* In 1923, he served as Vice-Premier in W. Witos's* cabinet and, then, published two influential dailies, Rzeczpospolita (Republic) in Warsaw and Polonia in Katowice.* An adversary of J. Pilsudski,* Korfanty was arrested together with the leaders of the Centrolew* in 1930 and jailed in the Brest-Litovsk* Fortress. In 1935, he went into exile in Czechoslovakia and co-founded the "Front Morges"* and the Labor Party (Stronnictwo Pracy).* In 1939, he returned to Poland, was arrested, and died soon after he was released. PSB, XIV, 67-70.

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KOROLEWICZ-WAYDOWA, JANINA (1876-1955), singer (soprano). She made her debut in 1894 in Cracow* and, then, performed in numerous operas in Western Europe, America and Australia. In 1917, she became director of Warsaw's Great Theater and, in 1928, she established her own school in Warsaw.* SBTP, 316. KORSUN, BATTLE OF, one of the major battles of the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising.* On May 26, 1648, the 20,000-strong Polish Army led by Hetmans* M. Potocki and M. Kalinowski was defeated by 15,000 Cossacks* commanded by B. Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) and 4,000 Tatars* near the town of Korsuri. As a result, the Cossack uprising spread to other regions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* CHP, I, 511-516; Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyd, vol. 2 (Toronto, 1988), 619. KORZENIOWSKI, APOLLO (1820-1869), poet, translator, and playwright, father of the novelist J. Conrad.* After studies in St. Petersburg, he settled in Podolia.* Involved in the Polish patriotic movement, he was arrested during a secret mission to Warsaw* in 1861 and deported to Russia. In 1868, he settled in Lvov.* He began to write late Romantic poetry under the influence of Z. Krasiriski.* He also authored several dramas, usually criticizing the Polish gentry in the Ukraine, and translated the works of some French writers into Polish. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 263-266. KORZENIOWSKI, JOZEF (1797-1863), writer, playwright, and educator. He was educated at the Krzemieniec Lyceum, where he later taught. In 1819, he moved to Warsaw,* where he worked as a tutor of Z. Krasiriski* and as Librarian at the Zamoyski Library. In Warsaw, he was at the center of literary life, contributed to the Gazeta Literacka (Literary Gazette), and co-organized the Principal School (Szkola Glowna).* During 1833-1838, he was professor of the University of Kiev. He wrote satirical comedies ridiculing the Polish aristocracy and several realistic novels. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 257-258; PSB, XIV, 169-172. A KORZON, TADEUSZ (1839-1918), outstanding historian. After studies in Moscow, he worked as a teacher in Kaunas, where he was arrested by the Russians for his involvement in illegal Polish patriotic activities. Sentenced to death, he was eventually deported to Russia. In 1869, he settled in Warsaw,* where he taught in various schools. He specialized in eighteenth-century Polish social and economic history. According to Korzon, Poland was on the road to recovery before the Second Partition,* and the neighboring powers divided Poland because they were afraid of its revival. Korzon, a leading representative of the Warsaw historical school, opposed the Cracow school, especially M. Bobrzyriski,* accusing them of being too pessimistic and interpreting history in a way useful to the Galician* oligarchy. During the last decades of his life, Korzon

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supported the National Democratic* political position and opposed socialism and the 1905 revolution. Great Historians of the Modern Age, ed. by L. Boia (New York, 1991), 483-484; PSB, XIV, 178-181. KORZYBSKI, ALFRED (1879-1950), philosopher and founding father of general semantics. During WW I he served in the Russian Army. Sent on a military mission to America in 1915, he remained there after the Russian Revolution of 1917 and steadily elaborated the doctrine of "general semantics." PSB, XIII, 183-184; C. Read, "Alfred Korzybski: His Contributions and Their Historical Development," Polish Review XIII/2 (1968), 5-13. KOSSAK, JULIUSZ (1824-1899), painter. Educated in Lvov,* Paris, and Munich, he spent several years traveling across Ukraine* and Russia, notably painting horses and hunting scenes. During 1862-1868, he was artistic editor of Tygodnik Ilustrowany (Illustrated Weekly). He was appreciated as the best Polish painter of horses and battle scenes, and a master of fresh, light and lively colors. Allgemeines Lexikon der Bildenden Kunstler, ed. by H. Vollmer, vol. 21 (Leipzig, 1927), 336-337; W. Jaworska, Polish Painters (1850-1950) (New York, 1984), 58-60; PSB, XIII, 244-246. KOSSAK, WOJCIECH (1856-1942), painter, son of Juliusz Kossak.* Educated in Warsaw,* Cracow,* and Munich, he developed his talent under the strong influence of his father and J. Brandt.* He too mainly painted horses and battle scenes, especially from the history of the Napoleonic era and the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. Together with J. Styka, he painted the monumental Raclawice* Panorama in Lvov,* depicting Kosciuszko's* victory over the Russian Army in 1794. During 1894-1902, he worked in Berlin as Wilhelm II's Court painter and, in 1913, he became professor of the School of Fine Arts in Warsaw. During WW I, he first served as a Cavalry officer in the Austrian Army and, from 1916, in the Polish Legions.* Allgemeines Lexikon der Bildenden Kunstler, ed. by H. Vollmer, vol. 21 (Leipzig, 1927), 338-339; PSB, XIV, 248-251. KOSSAKOWSKI, JOZEF (1738-1794), Bishop of Livonia* from 1781. A close associate of O. Stackelberg,* the Russian Envoy and actually Viceroy in Poland, he opposed reform attempts of the Great Sejm* of 1789-1792 and became one of the main leaders of the treacherous Targowica Confederation* in 1793. After its victory, together with his brother, Szymon Kossakowski,* he ruled Lithuania on behalf of Russia. During the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, he was sentenced to death and hanged in Warsaw.* CHP, II, 163; PSB, XIV, 268-272. KOSSAKOWSKI, SZYMON (1740-1794), Grand Hetman* of Lithuania* (wielki hetman litewski), brother of Jozef Kossakowski.* One of the pillars of the pro-Russian party in Poland, he joined the Russian Army in 1790. He co-

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organized the Targowica Confederation* in Lithuania. During the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, he was sentenced to death and hanged in Vilna.* CHP, II, 166. KOSSAK-SZCZUCKA, ZOFIA (1890-1968), writer. A granddaughter of Juliusz Kossak,* she married a landowner in Volhynia,* where she witnessed the Bolshevik Revolution and the Civil War in Russia. She described it vividly in her first great book, Pozoga (Conflagration). In 1922, she settled in a family estate, Gorki Wielkie in Silesia,* where she produced most of her works. Her novels were usually devoted to medieval or Biblical times or based on realistic, autobiographical motifs. During the interwar period, she became the most popular woman writer in Poland. After the outbreak of WW II, she joined the antiNazi Polish resistance movement. She edited clandestine journals and co-founded a Catholic underground organization, the Front of Poland's Revival (Front Odrodzenia Polski). She was among the first underground leaders, who protested against the Holocaust* and co-organized the Council of Help for Jews "Zegota" (Rada Pomocy Zydom "Zegota"*). Arrested by the Germans in November 1943, she spent several months in Auschwitz* and the Pawiak* prison. Ransomed by the underground, she participated in the Warsaw Uprising* of 1944. C. Giffuni, "Zofia Kossak: An English Bibliography," Polish Review XXXV

3/4 (1990), 289-293; S. Korboriski, "Zofia Kossak-Szczucka," Bohaterowie Panstwa

Podziemnego—jak ich znalem (New York, 1987), 96-99; PSB, XIII, 251-255.

KOSTIUCHNOWKA, village in Volhynia* where the Polish Legions* fought with Russian troops from October 1915 to July 1916. This exhausting campaign ended with the withdrawal of the Legions westward to the Stochod River line. WEP, VI, 89. KOSTKA NAPIERSKI, ALEKSANDER LEON (1620-1651), officer of the Polish Army and a leader of the largest peasant uprising in pre-Partition* Poland in the Podhale* region in 1651. WEP, VI, 89. KOSTRZEWSKI, FRANCISZEK (1826-1911), painter and draftsman, whose realistic works illustrated prestigious Warsaw* journals, including Tygodnik Ilustrowany (Illustrated Weekly) and Klosy (Spikes). WEP, VI, 92. KOSTRZEWSKI, JOZEF (1885-1970), outstanding archaeologist, founder of the Polish school of archaeology, co-organizer of Poznari (Posen)* University in 1919 and its first professor of archaeology. He specialized in Slavonic archaeology and claimed the Slavs were indigenous peoples of the Oder and Vistula River basins. K. Jazdzewski, "Seventy-Year-Life of Jdzef Kostrzewski," Palaeologia IV/3^t (1955), 225-228; WEP, VI, 92.

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KOSZALIN (Koslin), town in northern Poland, ten kilometers south of the Baltic coastline. First mentioned in 1214, it was a property of the Bishops of Kamieri. In 1653, it was incorporated into Brandenburg.* In 1945, the town was heavily damaged during the Red Army offensive. After WW II, Koszalin was regained by Poland. WEP, VI, 93-94. KOSZUTSKA, MARIANNA (Kostrzewa, Wera) (1876-1939), Communist publicist, activist and ideologue. She joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1902 and became a leader of its left wing. She participated in the Revolution of 1905 and was arrested several times by the Russian police. She supported the unification of the PPS-Left (PPS-Lewica)* with the Social Democracy of the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania (SocjalDemokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL]).* In 1918, she co-founded the unified Communist Workers' Party of Poland, reorganized later into the Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP]).* Arrested twice by the Polish police in 1920, she left Poland and moved to Moscow. There she worked in the KPP leadership, in the Peasant International (Kriestintern) and in the Institute of World Economy and International Politics. Arrested in 1937, she died in a Soviet prison. M. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, 1959); PSB, XIV, 375-379. KOSCIALKOWSKI, MARIAN ("ZYNDRAM") (1892-1946), politician and assistant of J. Pilsudski.* He co-organized the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC])* and, in 1914, the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* Later, he served in the Polish Legions* and participated in the disarming of the Germans in Warsaw* in November 1918. As a Major of the Polish Army, he worked in its General Staff's Intelligence Department during the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. He played a prominent role in the Vilna* expedition of Gen. Zeligowski* in October 1920 and, until 1922, served in the Army Staff of "Central Lithuania."* From 1922, he was a Pilsudski man in the leadership of the Peasant Party "Wyzwolenie" (Liberation)* and represented it in the Parliament. In 1928, he joined the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR])* and was its Vice President and a Parliament Deputy. During 1934-35, he served as Minister of Interior, during 1935-1936, as Prime Minister of Poland and, during 1936-1939, as Minister of Social Welfare. After the September Campaign* of 1939, he moved to England. Prezydenci i Premierzy Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Presidents and Prime Ministers of the Second Polish Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wr6bel (Warsaw, 1992), 345-358; PSB, XIV, 392-394. KOSCIELSKI, JOZEF (1845-1911), politician, poet and playwright. In 1881, he became a member of the Upper Chamber of the Prussian Parliament and, in 1884, he was also elected to the Reichstag. A representative of large landowners

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of the Poznari (Posen)* province, he favored a conciliatory policy toward Prussia,* active participation in that state's domestic affairs, and a joint GermanPolish struggle against Russia. This policy met with the opposition of Polish public opinion. In 1894, Koscielski withdrew from the Reichstag, and he then concentrated on writing and on supporting Polish economic and cultural organizations. PSB, XIV, 420-424. KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ (1746-1817), General, statesman, and the leader of the Polish national Insurrection of 1794. A scion of a noble family from Lithuania,* he was educated and taught at the Knights School* in Warsaw.* Later, he went to Paris for further studies in military and civil architecture and in painting. In 1774, he returned to Poland but, after an unhappy love affair, left for France and, in 1776, for America. There he distinguished himself during the War of Independence and was given U.S. citizenship and promoted to Brigadier General of the American Army. In 1784, he returned to Poland but did not receive any appointment in the Army and settled in his family estate in Lithuania. With the beginning of the reforms in Poland, Kosciuszko was accepted in the Army and promoted to Major General by King Stanislaw August* in 1789. When in 1792 the Russian Army entered Poland to suppress the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* Kosciuszko participated in the war and distinguished himself in the Battles of Zielerice and Dubienka.* He opposed the King's capitulation to the Russians and left for Saxony and France, where he asked for help against the Russians. He returned to Poland, where he participated in the preparations for an uprising. On March 24, 1794, he proclaimed himself Head (Naczelnik) of the Insurrection. He mobilized American-like militia, sent orders to Polish troops throughout the country, and began marching toward Warsaw. The first battle of the campaign was fought at Raclawice* village, where Kosciuszko's forces destroyed a Russian column. The decisive moment was an attack by peasants armed with scythes. At the village of Polaniec, Kosciuszko proclaimed a Manifesto suspending serfdom, which caused some resistance among the nobility. Outnumbered and defeated by the Russians and the Prussians, Polish forces retreated to Warsaw. Kosciuszko fortified and defended the city for two months, but after his defeat at Maciejowice,* he was taken prisoner, and the uprising collapsed. Kosciuszko, gravely wounded, was imprisoned by Catherine the Great* in the Petropavlovsk Fortress in St. Petersburg, where he spent two years. In 1796, the new Tsar, Paul I, granted him freedom, and Kosciuszko left for America. Enthusiastically greeted there, he engaged in an active social and political life. However, in 1798, he left America for France, having received some news about fresh opportunities for Poland. His return to Paris was disappointing. Napoleon was not ready for any political commitments on Poland's behalf. Kosciuszko refused to command the Polish Legions,* retired from political life, and did not leave France for the newly created Duchy of Warsaw.* He also later refused the invitation of Tsar Alexander I* to move to the Congress Kingdom of Po-

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land,* created after the Congress of Vienna.* He settled in Switzerland and died there. Kosciuszko became one of the most popular Polish national heroes, and a symbol of fighting "for our freedom and for your freedom." D. Abodasher, Warrior on Two Continents: Thaddeus Kosciuszko (New York, 1968); M. Gardner, Kosciuszko (London, 1942); J. Johns, Kosciuszko: A Biographical Study with a Historical Background of the Times (Detroit, 1965); PSB, XV, 430-440. KOT, STANISLAW (1885-1975), politician and historian, professor at the Jagiellonian University* from 1920, and member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU])* from 1921. He specialized in the history of education and culture. An activist and one of the leaders of the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL]),* he strongly opposed the Pilsudski* Sanacja* regime and was dismissed by it from his professorship in 1933. He joined the centrist opposition coalition, "Front Morges."* During WW II, he served as Ambassador of the Polish Government-in-Exile* in the USSR (19411943), Minister of State in the Near East and, eventually, Minister of Information. R. Buczek, Stronnictwo ludowe w latach 1939-1945 (London, 1975); S. Kot, Listy z Rosji do Gen. Sikorskiego (London, 1956); W. Soroka, "Professor Stanislaw Kot: Scholar," Polish Review XXI/1-2 (1976), 93-112. KOTARBINSKI, TADEUSZ (1886-1981), philosopher and logician. Professor of Warsaw University* during 1918-1961, he was a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU])* and many international scholarly organizations. He enjoyed unique intellectual prestige and was one of the most influential philosophers in twentieth-century Poland. He specialized in formal logic, philosophy of language, methodology of science, and theory of knowledge. In 1920-1935, he transformed logic into an exact mathematical science and produced a system known as reism or concretism. Kotarbiriski was a staunch defender of the autonomy of ethics. Inspired both by theoretical interests and by a desire to help his fellow man, he produced a general theory of efficient action known as praxiology. Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. by P. Edwards, vol. IV (New York, 1967), 361-363; M. Jakubiak, Tadeusz Kotarbihski: Filozof, Nauczyciel, Poeta (Warsaw, 1987). KOTSIS, ALEKSANDER (1836-1877), painter. Born in a proletarian family, he studied in Cracow* and Vienna and lived in Cracow, Paris, Brussels, Munich, and Vienna, where he won a gold medal during the 1873 exhibition. He painted in oil with rather dark tones, creating landscapes, portraits, and small town scenes, mostly in his native Cracow region. H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (London, 1943), 47-48; W. Jaworska, Polish Painters (1850-1950) (New York, 1984), 64-65.

KOWALEWSKI, JOZEF (1801-1878), Orientalist. As a student at Vilna University* he was active together with A. Mickiewicz* and T. Zan* in the clandestine Filomaci (Philomacy).* Arrested with other Philomats, he was deported

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to Kazan, where he became a professor of Mongolian language and literature, and the first Polish specialist in these fields. From 1862, he taught at Warsaw* Principal School (Szkola Glowna)* and, later, at the Russian Warsaw University. PSB, XIV, 525-528. KOZICKI, STANISLAW (1876-1958), politician. He joined the National League (Liga Narodowa)* in 1899 and, from 1902, belonged to the National Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne).* Throughout his entire life, he edited and contributed to the most important National Democratic periodicals. In 1905, he co-founded the National Workers' Union (Narodowy Zwiazek Robotniczy [NZR]).* During WW I, he was a member of the antiGerman Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP]).* In 1919, he became Secretary of the Polish Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference.* He specialized in the problems of Polish borders and devoted many works to this subject. During 1922-1925, he represented the Popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy [ZLN])* in the Polish Parliament, and, during 1928-1935, he served as a Senator. A member of the leadership of the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe),* he was also active in the anti-Nazi resistance during WW II. PSB, XIV, 609-612. KOZIELSK, Soviet POW camp in an old convent 240 kilometers southeast of Smolerisk,* where a large group of Polish officers were imprisoned after the September Campaign* of 1939. The officers were interrogated and indoctrinated by the NKVD, which sorted out a small group ready to collaborate with the Soviets or scheduled for further investigation. The rest, about 4,500, were transported to the forest of Katyri* and executed there in April and May 1940. B. KuSnierz, Stalin and the Poles: An Indictment of the Soviet Leaders (London, 1949); J. Zawodny, Death in the Forest (South Bend, Indiana, 1980). KOZIETULSKI, JAN (1781-1821), officer of the Polish Army, who distinguished himself during the Napoleonic Wars. He joined the Polish Legions* in 1806. In 1808, during the Spanish campaign, he led the famous charge of Somosierra,* which became a symbol of Polish bravado. He also distinguished himself in the Battle of Wagram in 1809. Napoleon honored Kozietulski with the title of Baron of the French Empire. In 1812, he participated in the invasion of Russia and, later, in the last campaigns of Napoleon. Kozietulski also served in the Army of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* M. Brandys, Kozietulski i inni (Kozietulski and Others) (Warsaw, 1967); PSB, XIV, 629-632. KOZLOWSKI, LEON (1892-1944), archaeologist and politician. A member of the Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWC])* and other paramilitary organizations created by J. Pilsudski,* he joined the Polish Legions* and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* during WW I. An ardent supporter of J. Pilsudski, Kozlowski joined

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the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR])* in 1928. During 1930-1935, he was a member of the Parliament and, from 1935, of the Senate.* During 1930-1932, he served as Minister of Agricultural Reforms and, during 1934-1935, as Prime Minister. In 1937, he joined the semi-totalitarian Camp of National Unity (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego [OZN]).* During 1921-1931 and from 1935, he taught archaeology at the University of Lvov,* where he was arrested by the Russians when they occupied the city in 1939. Released after the MaiskySikorski Pact* of 1941, he joined the newly created Polish Army in Russia, commanded by Gen. W. Anders,* but he deserted to the Germans. Interned in Berlin, he died during an Allied bombing. Prezydenci ipremierzy Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Presidents and Prime Ministers of the Second Polish Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wrobel (Warsaw, 1992), 335-334; PSB, XV, 19-21. KOZMIAN, KAJETAN (1771-1856), poet, translator, literary and theatrical critic. A rich landowner and conservative high-ranking civil servant in the Duchy of Warsaw* and the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* he was the most important representative of the Polish classicists. He condemned Romanticism, which, in his opinion, was responsible for the unfortunate November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, and propagated legitimist views. Among his numerous classicist verses, the most remarkable is a long descriptive poem, Polish Husbandry (Polskie ziemiaristwo). C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 203-204. KOZMIAN, STANISLAW (1836-1922), politician, publicist, critic, theater director, and grandson of Kajetan Kozmian.* Educated in Paris, he met A. Czartoryski* there, became his follower and, after returning to Cracow,* was a Galician* correspondent of the Hotel Lambert.* During the January Insurrection* of 1863, he directed an insurrectionist press office in Cracow. In 1866, with J. Szujski,* S. Tarnowski* and L. Wodzicki, he co-founded Przeglgd Polski (Polish Review), in which they published an important anonymous pamphlet, Teka Staiiczyka (Stariczyk's Portfolio). It presented the program of Galician conservatives who called themselves "Stariczycy"; supported Polish loyalism toward Austria, Prussia,* and Russia; and condemned clandestine Polish independence activities. Kozmian was elected to the Galician Parliament and to the Viennese Reichsrat, served as an adviser of the Viceroy of Galicia and the Austrian Prime Minister, and became an eminence grise among Cracow conservatives. Besides politics, he was very active in Cracow's theatrical life. He directed the Cracow Theater for many years, coached the best actors, and followed the West European patterns of the Comedie Franchise and Vienna's Burgtheater. PSB, XV, 61-66; SBTP, 328-329. KPP. See COMMUNIST PARTY OF POLAND.

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KRAJ (Country), conservative weekly edited in St. Petersburg during 18821909 by E. Piltz* and W. Spasowicz,* who were succeeded by B. Kutylowski in 1906. It represented a Polish political camp loyal to Russia, which recommended a rapprochement with the Russian liberals and also supported PanSlavism. In economic matters, it espoused the program of Polish positivism. Among its contributors were B. Prus* and E. Orzeszkowa.* WEP, VI, 134. KRAJ (Country), liberal daily edited in Cracow* during 1869-1874, founded by A. Sapieha. Among its contributors were W. Anczyc, M. Balucki,* L. Gumplowicz,* and J. I. Kraszewski.* WEP, VI, 134. KRAKOW. See CRACOW. KRASICKI, IGNACY (1735-1801), Bishop and poet. Educated by Jesuits* in Lvov* and, then, in Warsaw* and Rome, he served as secretary of the interrex* Primate* W. Lubieriski after the death of King August III.* Later, he became a close associate and favorite of the new King, Stanislaw August.* On his inspiration Krasicki co-founded and edited an official organ called Monitor. In 1766, he was appointed Bishop of Warmia* and, after the Third Partition* of Poland in 1795, became the Archbishop of Gniezno.* Krasicki was a leading poet of the Polish Enlightenment,* with a special talent for satire. His mock-heroic poem Mouseiad (Myszeidos), describing a war between cats and mice in the legendary time of King Popiel,* included many details from contemporary political life. Another mock-heroic poem, Monachomachia, or the War of the Monks (Monachomachia albo wojna mnichow), condemned the abuses of contemporary religious orders. Krasicki also wrote "revisionist" historical work, edited an encyclopedia, and published the first Polish modern novel. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 181-193; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 176-181; PSB, XV, 144-150; D. Welsh, Ignacy Krasicki (New York, 1970). KRASICKI, JAN (1919-1943), activist in the workers' movement in Poland. During 1939-1942, he was active in the Communist youth organization "Komsomol" in the USSR. In 1942, he was sent to Poland, where he joined the leadership of the Polish Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza [PPR]).* Later, he was arrested and killed by the Gestapo.* WEP, VI, 156. KRASINSKI, WINCENTY (1782-1858), General and father of Zygmunt Krasiriski,* a scion of an old aristocratic family. He participated and distinguished himself in the wars of Napoleon, who promoted him to Brigadier-General and made him Count of the Empire. After its fall, Krasiriski put his unit under the command of Tsar Alexander I* and declared his readiness to serve Russia. He was appointed Commander of Polish Guards, aide-de-camp of the Tsar, and Senator of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and was elected Speaker of the

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Parliament. Reactionary, ultra-loyal and dedicated to Tsarist Russia, he became very unpopular in Polish public opinion. He opposed the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and, after its fall, retained a high position in suppressed Poland. He hosted a famous literary salon in Warsaw* and founded the Krasiriski Library. PSB, XV, 195-204. KRASINSKI, ZYGMUNT (1812-1859), Romantic prophetic poet, and son of Gen. W. Krasiriski,* who terrorized his son, chose a wife for him, forbade him to participate in the November Insurrection,* and tried to force him to start a career at the Tsarist Court in St. Petersburg. Krasiriski, excellently educated and brilliant, spent most of his life abroad, mainly in Italy and France. As a young man, he wrote novels in a style influenced by Walter Scott and Lord Byron. Moved by the French revolution of 1830 and influenced by his father, twentyone-year-old Krasiriski wrote The Undivine Comedy (Nieboska Komedia). It presented a dark, gloomy picture of the future European revolution, which would wipe out aristocracy and nobility. Irydion, another drama written in prose, showed the decay of society. Later, Krasiriski turned to poetry, dealing often with matters of philosophy of history. Throughout his life, he wrote innumerable and very interesting letters. M. Giergielewicz, "Zygmunt Krasiriski, 1812-1859: A Biographical Sketch," Polish Review IV/3 (1959), 81-89; W. Lednicki, Zygmunt Krasiriski, Romantic Universalist: An International Tribute (New York, 1964); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 243-247. KRASZEWSKI, JOZEF (1812-1887), writer whose work is the best example of the historical novel in Polish literature. After two years of studies in Vilna,* he was arrested for patriotic activities by the Russians in 1830 and spent two years in prison. Later, he settled in Volhynia* as a tenant farmer and landowner. He contributed to Tygodnik Petersburski (St. Petersburg Weekly) and edited the literary review Atheneum. In 1853 he moved to Zytomierz, where he served as Superintendent of Schools and director of a Polish theater. Later he edited L. Kronenberg's* Gazeta Codzienna (Everyday Gazette) and Gazeta Polska (Polish Gazette) in Warsaw.* In 1863, he emigrated to Dresden. In 1883 he was arrested by the Prussian authorities in Berlin; after spending a few months in prison, he left Germany for Italy. Kraszewski was undoubtedly the most prolific Polish writer. He left several hundred volumes of his works, including over 220 novels. He specialized in historical novels and almost realized his plan of writing a series of novels that would show the entire history of Poland. He also wrote poetry, dramas, "peasant novels," and works depicting problems of the intelligentsia and criticizing the wealthy gentry. His chief accomplishment was the popularizing of Polish history. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 318-332; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 256257; PSB, XV, 221-229. KRAUSHAR, ALEKSANDER (1842-1931), historian, publicist, and poet. Born in a Jewish family, he participated in the January Insurrection* of 1863.

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After graduation from Warsaw* Principal School (Szkola Glowna),* he practiced law, but his hobby was writing poetry and biographies. He co-founded the Association of History Lovers, financially supported learned societies and their periodicals in Warsaw, and published several historical works, such as his Historia lydow w Polsce (History of the Jews in Poland). S. Koczorowski, "Bibliography of Aleksander Kraushar's Works, 1861-1930," Przeglad Historyczny XXX (1930), 278-300; PSB, XV, 241-244; J. Szacki, "Aleksander Kraushar on the Total Assimilation," YIVO VII (1952). KREWO (KRIAVAS), UNION OF, agreement signed in the castle of Krewo located in present Belorussia* by the Grand Prince of Lithuania,* Jagiello (Jogaila),* and his relatives on August 14, 1385. After the death of King Ludwik Wegierski (Louis d'Anjou),* the dynastic union between Poland and Hungary was terminated, and the Polish throne was inherited by Ludwik's daughter, Jadwiga (Hedwig),* a minor betrothed to the Habsburg* Prince Wilhelm. Polish nobles opposed the union with Austria, looked for another match, and finally chose Jagiello. Both Poland and Lithuania were jeopardized by the powerful Teutonic Knights.* The Poles were interested in an expansion eastward, namely toward territories already controlled by Lithuania. Jagiello, engaged in a struggle with his cousin, Witold (Vytautas),* hoped to find help in Poland. In Krewo, Jagiello accepted the Polish throne, promised to marry Jadwiga, and also pledged to baptize Lithuania, free Polish prisoners of previous wars, recover lands taken from Poland, pay Wilhelm for the breaking of the betrothal, and unite Poland and Lithuania. However, not all of these pledges were fulfilled. The act of Krewo, supplemented later by the unions of 1401, 1413, and 1569, began the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* CHP, I, 189, 200, passim; Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 2 (Boston, 1973), 195-198. KR£POWIECKI, TADEUSZ (1798-1847), revolutionary and journalist. He fought in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and led the left wing of the Patriotic Society (Towarzystwo Patriotyczne).* He opposed Gen. J. Chlopicki's* dictatorship and the National Government of A. Czartoryski,* favored peasant enfranchisement, and agitated for a social revolution. After the fall of the Insurrection, Krepowiecki went into exile in Paris, where he was elected to J. Lelewel's* Polish National Committee, and he established close contacts with French Carbonaris.* In 1832, he co-founded the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP])* and formulated a new revolutionary-democratic program for emigrants. It advocated a social revolution as the only way of reviving Polish independence. He co-founded the Grudziaz* and Humari* communes in Great Britain. P. Brock, "The Socialists of the Polish Great Emigration," Essays in Labour History (London, 1960); W. Lukaszewicz, Tadeusz Krepowiecki, zolnierz rewolucjonista (Warsaw, 1954).

KRIDL, MANFRED (1882-1957), historian of literature, specialist in nineteenth-century Polish literature, especially Romanticism. During 1928-1932, he

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taught Slavic languages at the University of Brussels. During 1932-1939, he was professor of Polish literature at Vilna* University. From 1940, he taught in America. PSB, XV, 303-305. KROMER, MARCIN (1512-1589), historian and Bishop of Warmia.* He served as secretary of King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August* and was frequently used in diplomatic missions. He authored several works on Polish history, among them the large Latin De origine et rebus gestis Polonorum libri XXX (Thirty Books on the History and Matters of Poland). A German burgher by origin, he was one of the finest representatives of the Renaissance in Poland. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 41-42; PSB, XV, 319-324.

KRONENBERG, LEOPOLD (1812-1878), financier and industrialist. Born in a wealthy banking Jewish family, he received both a traditional Jewish and a general education. In 1846, he abandoned Judaism for Lutheranism but remained in close touch with Jewish society and was prominent in the assimilationist circle of Warsaw.* Politically active, he supported the party of the "Whites"* during the era of the January Insurrection,* and, later, he was among the most important exponents of positivism. His main concerns, however, were his financial and industrial activities. He leased the tobacco monopoly in the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* served as President of the Stock Exchange Commission, co-founded the Commercial Bank of Warsaw, and became a leading figure in the sugar industry and railroad construction. One of the wealthiest men in Poland, he became related to the Polish aristocracy and attempted to improve the relationship between the Jews and Poles. F. Dolezal (ed.), Leopold Kronenberg: A Collective Monograph (Warsaw, 1922); Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. X (Jerusalem, 1971), 12751276; PSB, XV, 325-327.

KROSNO, town in southern Poland, which thrived as a trade and textile center between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. As a result of the First Partition* of Poland, Krosno found itself in poverty stricken Austrian Galicia,* but it recovered economically by the end of the nineteenth century, thanks to the discovery of nearby oilfields. SHP, 198-199. KRUCZKOWSKI, LEON (1900-1962), writer, socialist activist and publicist. He worked in the oil and cement industries, and taught in the professional schools of the Dabrowa coal basin. In 1933, he settled in Cracow* and devoted himself to literary work, particularly after his novel Kordian i Cham (Kordian and the Boor, 1932) became a literary event. The novel showed how the representatives of nobility and peasantry, involved in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, had two different visions of Polish history and two different notions of patriotism. Class perceptions of history and politics were also the main topic of other works of Kruczkowski. He participated in the September Campaign* of 1939 as a Polish officer and spent five years in a POW camp in

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Germany. After WW II, he became a leading literary figure in Communist Poland. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 427-428; PSB, XV, 384-387. KRUKOWIECKI, JAN STEFAN (1772-1850), General. He started his military career in the Austrian Army. During 1807-1814, he was an officer and later General in the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw* and, in 1815, he transferred to the Army of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* He joined the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, together with his Infantry Division, and became Governor of Warsaw. He resigned, however, after he clashed with two subsequent Dictators of the uprising, Generals J. Chlopicki* and J. Skrzynecki.* In August 1831, Krukowiecki became President of the National Government and an actual Commander-in-Chief of the insurgent Army. However, he did not believe in the possibility of victory of the uprising, was seeking a compromise with the Russian authorities, failed to defend Warsaw, and capitulated on September 7, 1831. PSB, XV, 392-396. KRUSZWICA, one of the oldest Polish towns on Goplo Lake in the Kujavia* region. According to Polish oral tradition, Kruszwica was the seat of the legendary King Popiel,* who was eaten by mice. The Mouse Tower (Mysia Wieza), where it allegedly happened, is still intact. Kruszwica existed as a fort-settlement and artisan center in the eighth century. In the fourteenth century, King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* erected a castle there. Kruszwica received urban rights in 1422 but was ruined during the Swedish "Deluge"* of 1655. The town was in Prussian hands between the First Partition* of Poland in 1772 and the end of WW I. SHP, 201. KRZEMIENIEC (Kremianets or Kremenets), town of southern Volhynia,* one of the oldest settlements in the Ukraine.* In the thirteenth century, it was one of the strongholds of the Halicz*-Volhynia Principality. In 1336, it came under Lithuanian and, in 1569, under Polish rule. It played an important role in Poland's wars against the Turks and Tatars,* and it flourished in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In the second half of the seventeenth century, the city declined and, in 1793, during the Third Partition* of Poland, it was incorporated into Russia. With the establishment of the Krzemieniec Lyceum by T. Czacki,* the city became a center of Polish culture, generally known as the "Volhynian Athens." The Lyceum served as a modern college for the young nobles of Volhynia, Podolia* and the Kiev region. After the students of the Lyceum, who were mostly Polish, took part in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, the Russian authorities closed the school. In 1920, Krzemieniec was regained by Poland and, in the same year, another Lyceum was opened there. Krzemieniec was an important Orthodox center with a theological seminary, a brotherhood, and a religious press publishing periodicals and liturgical literature. In Septem-

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ber 1939, the town was incorporated into the USSR. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 2 (Toronto, 1988), 668-669. KRZYWICKI, LUDWIK (1859-1941), sociologist, publicist and social activist. During 1878-1884, he studied mathematics and medicine in Warsaw.* He was fully involved in the socialist movement, co-edited its numerous periodicals, translated and edited the first Polish edition of Marx's Capital, and popularized Marxist ideas. Persecuted by the Tsarist police, he moved temporarily to Leipzig, Zurich, and Paris in 1884-1885, and to Berlin and America in 1891-1893. Abroad, he continued his research, participated in the activities of socialist organizations, and co-edited their journals. He participated in the revolutionary events of 1905 in Poland. Later he concentrated on ethnographic studies and organization of workers' education. After WW I, he became a professor at Warsaw University, served as Vice-Director of the Central Statistical Office, and headed the Institute of Social Economics (Instytut Gospodarstwa Spolecznego). He was among the most outstanding Polish scholars and Marxists of his era. He specialized in many fields: economics, statistics, psychology, anthropology, archaeology, ethnography, and history of culture. His main interest, however, was in sociology, and he used his versatile knowledge to analyze contemporary society. H. Kozakiewicz, "Ludwik Krzywicki: Sociologist and Activist," Masters of P-olish Sociology, ed. by P. Sztompka (Wroclaw, 1984), 53-65; A. Pragier, "Ludwik Krzywicki," Straty Kultury Polskiej, vol. I (Glasgow, 1945); PSB, XV, 572-577. KRZYZANOWSKI, ADAM (1873-1963), economist, professor of the Jagiellonian University* from 1912, and member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU])* from 1920. During the interwar period, he was an economic adviser of Polish governments and influenced their financial policies. In 1928 and 1930, he was elected to the Parliament as a representative of the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR]).* In 1931, he left this party and resigned from the Parliament as a protest against the persecution of the "Centrolew"* politicians, who opposed the policy of J. Pilsudski.* As a leader of the liberal "Cracow school of economics" he criticized economic state control and intervention. EHGP, I, 396-397. KRZYZANOWSKI, ALEKSANDER ("WILK") (1895-1951), officer of the Polish Army and a leader of the Polish anti-Nazi and anti-Soviet resistance. During WW I, he fought in the Russian Army and, in 1917, he joined the First Polish Corps of Gen. J. Dowbor-Musnicki.* From November 1918, he served in the Polish Army, and, in 1939, he participated in the September Campaign.* In October 1939, he joined the Service for the Victory of Poland (Sluzba Zwyciestwu Polski [SZP]),* the nucleus of the Polish armed resistance during WW II. He was sent to Vilna* to organize the underground in the Soviet-occupied part of Poland. In 1941 he became Commander-in-Chief of the Union of Armed

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Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ])* and, later, the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* in the Vilna region. In 1944 he commanded over ten thousand AK soldiers. His units, together with the advancing Soviet troops, liberated Vilna. However, the Soviets broke an agreement with the AK. Krzyzanowski was imprisoned and spent four years in Soviet camps. E. Banasikowski, Na zew ziemi wilenskiej (Paris, 1988); J. Erdman, Droga do Ostrej Bramy (London, 1984); PSB, XV, 597-599. KRZYZANOWSKI, JULIAN (1892-), historian of Polish literature. He taught at universities in London, Riga and, from 1934, Warsaw.* He specialized in the literature of medieval Poland, Romanticism, and the history of the Polish novel. He wrote numerous works, among them classical textbooks on the history of Polish literature. WEP, VI, 252. KRZYZANOWSKI, WLODZIMIERZ (1824-1887), General of the American Army. He left Poland for America in 1846 to avoid arrest for conspirational activities. In New York he joined the new Republican Party, was active in the anti-slavery movement and, in 1861, volunteered to serve in the Union Army as a private. He soon became a staff officer and distinguished himself as a brave commander. In August 1862, he was promoted to General. He participated in the Battle of Gettysburg on July 1-3, 1863, fought near Atlanta in 1864, and was appointed wartime Governor of Alabama. In 1865, he resigned from the Army, joined the Civil Service and, in 1867, was appointed the first U.S. Governor of Alaska. PSB, XV, 624-625; J. Pula, For Liberty and Justice: The Life and Times of Wlodzimierz Krzyzanowski, Polish General and Civil War General (Chicago, 1978); J. Wieczerzak, A Polish Chapter in Civil War America (New York, 1967). KUBALA, LUDWIK (1838-1918), historian. A high school teacher in Lvov* during 1875-1906, he was a prolific writer and very popular historian. His Szkice historyczne (Historical Essays), depicting the events of 1648-1660, were widely read and strongly influenced H. Sienkiewicz* when he worked on his Trylogia. Kubala clashed with the conservative Cracow school of history and, therefore, did not manage to receive an academic position. PSB, XVI, 2-5. KUCHARZEWSKI, JAN (1876-1952), historian and politician. After university studies in Warsaw* and Berlin, he worked in Warsaw as a civil servant, lawyer and teacher. From 1905, he became active in politics. An active publicist, he supported the Polish League (Liga Polska)* and the National Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne).* However, in 1908, he turned against its leader, R. Dmowski,* mainly because he opposed the Pan-Slavic ideas of the National Democrats. After the outbreak of WW I, Kucharzewski lived in Switzerland, where he supported the Polish case with numerous publications. In 1917, he returned to Warsaw and worked in the Department of Education under the German occupation. In November 1917, he became Prime

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Minister of the Polish Kingdom, a half-fictitious state announced by the German and Austrian Emperors in their Act of November 5, 1916.* Kucharzewski resigned after the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty* in February 1918. However, in October 1918, the Regency Council* called him again for the Premiership but he resigned shortly. During the interwar period he retired from politics and concentrated on his historical research and editing. He specialized in nineteenthcentury Polish history. Z. Nagorski, Ludzie mego czasu: Sylwetki (Paris, 1964), 7991, PSB, XVI, 58-61. KUJAVIA (Kujawy), fertile lowland region in central Poland on the Notec and Vistula* Rivers, in which the main towns are Inowroclaw,* Kruszwica,* Wloclawek and the resort of Ciechocinek.* Kujavia is one of the oldest integral parts of the Polish state. Its name appeared in a written source for the first time in 1136. In 1138, when Boleslaw III the Wrymouth* divided Poland among his sons, Kujavia became a part of the Mazovian-Kujavian Duchy, later subdivided into smaller units. In 1363, they were incorporated into the re-united Polish state. In 1772, as a result of the First Partition* of Poland, the northern parts of Kujavia were taken by the Prussians, who also gained southern Kujavia after the Second Partition of Poland in 1793. During 1807-1815, the whole province was within the Duchy of Warsaw.* At the Congress of Vienna Kujavia was divided again into the western part belonging to Prussia and the eastern part given to the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* After WW I, Kujavia was re-united within Polish borders. The region is known for a rich folk culture, symbolized by the celebrated kujawiak dance. SHP, 204. KUKIEL, MARIAN (1885-1973), General, politician and historian. He joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1905 and cofounded the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC])* and the para-military Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki)* before WW I. After its outbreak, he served in the Austrian Army, was active in the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]),* and then transferred to the Polish Legions.* After their abolition, he joined the Polish "Wehrmacht," a military unit created by the Germans. After WW I, Kukiel participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921 and, later, became Chief of the Operational Department of the Polish General Staff and its Historical Bureau. Dismissed from the Army after the Pilsudski* coup d'etat, he taught at the Jagiellonian University,* was Curator of the Czartoryskis' Museum, and concentrated on historical research. After the September Campaign* of 1939, he left Poland and was appointed Vice-Minister by his old friend, Gen. W. Sikorski,* and, later, Minister of Defense in the Polish Government-in-Exile.* As a historian, he specialized in Polish military history and the Napoleonic period. S. Biegariski, "The Late General Marian Kukiel," Antemurale XVIII (1974), 243-246; T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodlegtej (Generals ofIndependent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 44.

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KUL, Polish acronym for the Catholic University of Lublin (Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski). It was established in 1918 and worked under the supervision of the Bishop of Lublin.* Though not equal in student enrollment or academic level to the five major state universities (in Cracow,* Warsaw,* Lvov,* Vilna,* and Poznari*), it developed during the interwar period into a respected Catholic center of higher learning with special strengths in Thomistic philosophy, theology and philology. 50th Anniversary: Catholic University of Lublin (New York, 1968). KULCZYCKI, LUDWIK (1866-1941), politician, sociologist, and publicist. He became active in the socialist movement as a student in Warsaw* and Geneva. He co-founded the party known as the Second Proletariat* in 1888 and Third Proletariat in 1900, and was among the leaders of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* Arrested several times by the Russians, he was deported to Siberia.* He escaped to Lvov,* where he taught at its University's School of Political Science. In the last years before WW I, he moved politically to the right, and, in the 1920s, he was active in the National Workers' Party (Narodowa Partia Robotnicza [NPR]).* During 1918-1932, he was a professor in the School of Political Sciences in Warsaw and, during 19241932, also in the School of Journalism. Throughout his entire life, he was a very active publicist and writer. His main scholarly interest was in sociology and history of the social movements. PSB, XVI, 129-132. KULTURKAMPF (German: struggle for civilization), Chancellor O. Bismarck's struggle to subject the Roman Catholic Church and any form of ethnocentrism to state control during 1871-1887. Bismarck wanted to make the newly united Germany a homogeneous state and opposed any type of separatism. He did not trust the loyalty of the Catholics to the German Empire, and he drastically limited the independence of Catholic institutions. Priests were forbidden to support political parties from the pulpit, religious schools were subjected to state inspection, religious teachers were excluded from the state schools, the Jesuit* Order was dissolved, and diplomatic relations with the Vatican were severed. In the Polish territories under Prussian control, the Kulturkampf meant intensified Germanization and a campaign against Polish national economic, political and cultural organizations. Paradoxically, it stimulated the growth of Polish solidarity and the national movement. L. Trzeciakowski, The Kulturkampf in Prussian Poland (New York, 1990). KUNA, HENRYK (1881-1945), Polish sculptor of Jewish background, cofounder of the "Rytm" group in 1922, and professor at the Department of Fine Arts at the University of Vilna* in 1932-1939. PSB, XVI, 177-178. KUNCEWICZ, JAN. See JOSAPHAT, SAINT.

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KUNCEWICZ, MARIA (1899-1989), outstanding writer. She studied music in the conservatories of Warsaw* and Paris and literature in Nancy, Cracow* and Warsaw. She made her literary debut in the journal Pro Arte et Studio in 1918. After the organization of the Polish PEN Club in 1924, she was among its leading members. After the German aggression of 1939, she left Poland for Paris. During 1940-1955, she lived in Great Britain and later in America and Poland. She did not follow the Polish patriotic and historical literary tradition, but wrote psychological short stories and novels, such as Cudzoziemka (The Stranger), which focused upon the individual. She also authored the first Polish "radio novel" and was considered by many one of the most "Western" of Polish writers. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 430-431; Mary Smith, "The Stranger: A Study and Note about Maria Kuncewicz," Polish Review XVII/1 (1972), 77-86.

KUNICKI, STANISLAW (1861-1886), activist in Russian and Polish revolutionary movements. He was a member of Narodna Vola (People's Will) from 1881, and of Polish revolutionary student organizations in St. Petersburg. He was a leader of the party known as the Proletariat.* Arrested by the Russians in 1884, he was executed in Warsaw. WEP, VI, 301. KURIER WARSZAWSKI, conservative daily established by B. Kiciriski in 1821 in Warsaw,* lasting until WW II. From 1887, it became the property of a Jewish financier, F. Lewenthal, with A. Piatkiewicz and W. Szymanowski as partners. The latter edited it ably in the late nineteenth century and had many Polish writers as contributors. During 1924-1939, it was edited by K. Olchowicz and F. Hoesick. Kurier, the first paper publishing current local news, ended as a prestigious but dull daily. WEP, VI, 312. KURPIE, region and ethnic group in northern Mazovia,* in the Lomza,* Ostrol^ka,* and Mlawa regions. The area was covered with a dense forest (Puszcza Kurpiowska) until the twentieth century, and the local population, rather isolated, developed a rich folklore, a sense of independence, and an economy related to the forest. This was best exemplified by such occupations as hunting, beekeeping, and tar production. The region was also a center of guerrilla activities during national uprisings and wars. WEP, VI, 314. KURPINSKI, KAROL (1785-1857), composer, director of the Great Theater in Warsaw.* His operas, among them Krakowiacy i Gorale (Cracowians and Mountaineers), constituted the most important phase in the development of the Polish national opera before S. Moniuszko.* WEP, VI, 315. KURYLOWICZ, JERZY (1895-1978), linguist. During 1927-1941, he held a chair of Indo-European linguistics at the University of Lvov.* He specialized in phonology and morphophonemics. Generally considered the greatest Polish

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linguist of the twentieth century, he was a member of many international scholarly organizations. E. Stankiewicz, "Jerzy Kurylowicz—Polish Linguist," Polish Review XXXIII/4 (1978), 39-46. KUSOCINSKI, JANUSZ (1907-1940), Olympic champion, who won a gold medal in the Los Angeles Olympics in the 10,000-meter race in 1932. During the German occupation, he was active in the underground, caught by the Nazis, and killed in a mass execution in the Palmiry* Forest. WEP, VI, 319-320. KUTRZEBA, STANISLAW (1876-1946), historian of law and editor of primary sources on the history of Polish law. He was a noted professor of the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* from 1908 and a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU])* from 1914 and its President in 1939. He participated in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 as a Polish expert on Lithuanian, Belorussian and Ukrainian affairs. In 1925 he chaired the Polish Delegation to terminate border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia. A Rector (1932-1933) and one of the most prominent scholars of the Jagiellonian University, he was imprisoned with other professors by the Nazis in Sachsenhausen* in 1939. In February 1940, he returned to Cracow and joined the clandestine University as Dean of Law. In June 1945, he went to Moscow to participate in negotiations, which led to the creation of the Temporary Government of National Unity (Tymczasowy Rzad Jednosci Narodowej). Kutrzeba, one of the most outstanding specialists in the history of Polish law and trade, authored many works. His Historia ustroju Polski w zarysie (The Outline of the History of the Polish Governmental System) is a classic textbook, one used by generations of Polish scholars and lawyers. Great Historians of the Modern Age, ed. by L. Boia (New York, 1991), 486-487; PSB, XVI, 314-318.

KUTRZEBA, TADEUSZ (1886-1947), General. He started his military career in the Austrian Army. After WW I, he joined the Polish Army and participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. Later, he served on the Polish General Staff and as a Commander of the Warsaw* Higher War School. During the September Campaign,* he was in charge of the Poznari Army and proved to be one of the most competent Polish Generals. He commanded the Polish troops during the Battle of Bzura* and later negotiated the capitulation of Warsaw. Taken prisoner of war, he spent the rest of WW II in German POW camps. Liberated in April 1945, he went to London. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 45; PSB, XVI, 318-320. KUZNIA MLODYCH (Youth's Forge), monthly published in Warsaw during 1932-1939. It was edited by A. Skwarczyriski, one of the ideologues of J. Pilsudski's* political camp. The periodical's objective was to develop an elite of high school students for service to the Polish state and also to defend them

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from the influences of R. Dmowski's* National Democrats and class warfareoriented leftists. Kuznia was related to the "Vanguard" (Straz Przednia), an elitist organization of the followers of Pilsudski. K. Kozniewski, Historia co tydzieri: Szkice o tygodnikach spoleczno-kulturalnych (Warsaw, 1976), 137-176. KUZNICA KOLLATAJOWSKA. See KOLLATAJ, HUGO. KWAPINSKI, JAN (1885-1964), Socialist politician (real name Piotr Chalupka). He joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1901 and was active in its Fighting Organization (Organizacja Bojowa) and the PPS-Revolutionary Fraction (PPS-Frakcja Rewolucyjna)* led by J. Pilsudski.* Arrested by the Russian police in 1906, he was first sentenced to death and then sent to a labor camp in Siberia.* He returned to Poland in 1918 and, throughout the entire interwar period, belonged to the PPS's leadership. During 1922-1930, he represented the party in the Parliament. After the outbreak of WW II, he was deported to Soviet Central Asia. Freed after the MaiskySikorski Agreement,* he moved to England. During 1943-1944, he was a member of the Polish Government-in-Exile.* J. Kwapiriski, 1939-1945: Z Pamietnika, (1939-1945: From the Memoir) (London, 1947); PSB, XVI, 333-335. KWIATKOWSKI, EUGENIUSZ (1888-1967), statesman. During WW I, he fought in the Polish Legions.* A chemical engineer by profession, he directed state-owned fertilizer factories in Chorzow* and Moscice in 1923-1926 and 1931-1933, respectively. During 1928-1930, as Minister of Industry and Trade, he strongly supported the construction of Gdynia,* which grew from a fishing village to the largest Baltic port. During 1935-1939, as a close associate of President I. Moscicki,* Kwiatkowski was Vice-Premier and Minister of Finance. He advocated the industrialization of Poland as the only real means of strengthening the country's defense and economic independence, as well as improvement in agriculture and the reduction of unemployment. He favored state intervention and introduced elements of economic planning. He supported the development of the Central Industrial Region around Stalowa Wola and Starachowice. During WW II, he was interned in Romania. Z. Landau and J. Tomaszewski, The Polish Economy in the Twentieth Century (London, 1985), 65, 117-119,13.

L LABOR PARTY (Stronnictwo Pracy [SP]), political party established on October 10, 1937 by the merger of the National Workers' Party (Narodowa Partia Robotnicza [NPR]),* the Polish Christian Democratic Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Chrzescijariskiej Demokracji [Chadecja]), and the Union of Haller Veterans. Discussed from 1932, the merger was the result of consolidation attempts by the Front Morges.* The party's program stressed the need for parliamentary democracy and a social-economic system based on the Papal Encyclicals Rerum novarum and Quadragesimo anno. The party stressed the need for alliance with France and the Central European countries and strongly opposed the regime created by J. Pilsudski.* Led by W. Korfanty,* K. Popiel,* and Gen. J. Haller,* it had most of its electorate in Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* Pomerania,* and Upper Silesia.* During WW II, the party supported and participated in Gen. W. Sikorski's* exiled government, and it played a role disproportionate to its actual strength, with C. Ratajski* and J. Jankowski* as governmental Delegates in the anti-Nazi underground in Poland. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 19211939 (Oxford, 1972); WEP, XI, 53. LALEWICZ, MARIAN (1876-1944), architect, representative of academic classicism. He designed several buildings in St. Petersburg and in Warsaw* and other Polish cities. During the interwar period, he taught at Warsaw's Academy of Fine Arts and the Polytechnical University. WEP, VI, 362. LAM, JAN (1838-1886), writer, journalist and humorous chronicler of Lvov's* provincial scene. He participated in the January Insurrection* of 1863 and, after his return to Lvov, edited Dziennik Polski (Polish Daily). His Kroniki Lwowskie (Lvov's Chronicles) and other works depicted Galician* society. WEP, VI, 363364.

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LAMPE, ALFRED (1900-1943), communist leader and ideologue. Initially active in the Po'alei Zion Party,* he joined the Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP])* and became a member of its leadership. Arrested several times by the Polish police, he was sentenced for fifteen years in 1933 and was not able to go to the USSR in the 1930s. Therefore, he was the only member of the KPP Central Committee who survived the Stalinist Great Purge. After 1939, he was active in the Soviet Union, co-founded the Union of Polish Patriots (Zwiazek Patriotow Polskich [ZPP]),* and drafted its manifesto. WEP, VI, 369. LANCKORONA PACT, pact signed by the Popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy [ZLN]),* the Christian Democrats,* the Polish Peasant Party-Piast (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe-Piast),* and the Catholic Peasant Party on May 17, 1923, in Warsaw.* The Christian National Party refused to sign the pact but promised to support the new government, which was based on the Parliamentary majority created by the signatories. The pact, known as the Lanckorona Pact from the estate where it was allegedly signed, included conditions agreed on by the future ruling coalition: the "Polish national character" of the state and its government was to be maintained; national minorities were to be convinced "that they are permanently linked to Poland"; a policy of quotas was to regulate national proportions among representatives of the Polish nation and enrollment of national minorities at institutions of higher education; the Versailles Treaty* was to be the basis of Polish foreign policy, while the Germans were to be seen as the main enemy of Poland. Simultaneously, the National Democrats* from the ZLN compromised on land reform and agreed to redistribute about 200,000 hectares of state holdings and large estates yearly. As a result of the pact, the government of W. Sikorski* had to resign on May 26, 1923, and the new government of the right-of-center coalition of the pact signatories, known as the Chjeno-Piast* government, was formed under W. Witos* on May 28, 1923. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 113-116.

LAND REFORM, change in the way in which agricultural land is held, owned, and cultivated. Frequently, the purpose of land reform was the abolition of feudal or colonial forms. In Europe, the new era in the history of land reform was started by the French Revolution, which abolished the feudal order and freed all peasants from serfdom. The lands of the clergy and political emigrants were sold at public auction, and small farmers became the cornerstone of French democracy. In the nineteenth century, most other European countries implemented land reforms. In the Prussian-controlled Grand Duchy of Poznari (Posen),* they took place in the early 1800s, and in Galicia* in 1848. In 1861, the first major Russian reform was started and, in 1864, the peasants of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* were freed and received lots of the land they had used as serfs. However, some relics of the feudal order survived in Poland, where most

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farms were small and several agricultural regions were dominated by huge latifundia.* The Parliament of interwar Poland passed two Land Reform Bills, preceded by the resolution of July 10, 1919, which outlined the principles of the proposed reform. The Sejm* proposed to break up estates of more than 400 hectares. The offensive of the Red Army increased the willingness of the political right in Poland to accept more radical reform. On July 15, 1920, a bill mandating the redistribution of government land and the parcelling of private estates over 180 hectares was passed. Compensation at 50 percent of the market price of the land was provided. The law was only implemented partially, and, on December 28, 1925, the Sejm set a minimum target of 200,000 hectares per year to be parceled out among the peasants at full market value. The pace of land reform, however, was slowed during the Great Depression and, between 1919 and 1938, a total of 2,655,000 hectares passed into peasant hands. Only about one-fifth of the land estates of the Church, state, and private owners was lost in the creation of 734,000 new holdings. Though a considerable achievement, the reform did not do enough to relieve the poverty of the rural masses, who supported the radical land reform announced by communists on September 6, 1944, in Lublin.* N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. II (New York, 1984), 393-434; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 15, 104, 117-19. LANDAU, LUDWIK (1901-1944), economist. In interwar Poland, he worked in its central institutions dealing with statistics, prices and economy. After the outbreak of WW II, he became an economic expert in the Propaganda and Information Bureau of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* His Kronika lat wojny i okupacji (Chronicle of War and Occupation) is a unique primary source describing everyday life under the Nazi occupation. He was arrested by the Gestapo* in 1944. WEP, VI, 373. LANDOWSKA, WANDA (1879-1959), Polish-born harpsichordist. She was particularly active in France and America, where she revived interest in the harpsichord. B. Gavaty, Wanda Landowska (Geneva, 1957); J. Holcman, "Wanda Landowska: 1879-1959," Polish Review IV (Summer, 1959), 3-6; PSB, XVI, 470-471. LANGE, OSCAR (1904-1965), Marxist economist. He was active in the socialist movement from his university years, and, in 1928, he joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* In 1934, he moved to America, where he continued his research and taught at several universities. In 1944, he began a campaign for the rapprochement between Poland and the USSR, antagonizing American Polonia and the Polish Government-in-Exile.* He supported the Union of Polish Patriots in the USSR (Zwiazek Patriotow Polskich w ZSSR [ZPP]),* organized in the USSR in 1943 by the Stalinist administration, and, in 1945, he returned to Poland to be the first Communist Polish Ambassador to the United States. He specialized in the economic theory of socialism and was considered one of its founders. His economic model em-

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phasized the role of central planning, full employment, just distribution of incomes, and protection against the concentration of economic power in either the hands of private capital or the state bureaucracy. PSB, XVI, 490-495; C. Sandier,, "Pro-Soviet Polish Americans: Oskar Lange and Russia's Friends in Polonia," Polish Review XXII/4 (1977); A. Zaubermann, "A Universal Economist: Oskar Lange, Papers in Economics and Sociology," Polish Review XVII/3 (1972). LANGIEWICZ, MARIAN (1827-1887), General and one of the dictators of the January Insurrection* of 1863. After a year in the Prussian Army as an Artillery officer, he taught at Polish military schools in Paris and Cuneo, Italy. After the outbreak of the January Insurrection, he successfully commanded guerrilla units in the Sandomierz* region and was declared by his political friends in the party of the "Whites"* as a dictator of the insurrectionist regime on March 10, 1863. However, a few days later, his troops were defeated by the Russians, and Langiewicz fled to Austria, where he was imprisoned. In 1865, he left for Switzerland, and, later, he joined the Turkish Army. A. Sliwiriski, Powstanie Styczniowe (London, 1945); PSB, XVI, 503-505. LASKI, village near Warsaw* on the border of the Kampinos* Forest, where a noted institution for blind children was established by R. Czacka, Fr. Kornilowicz, and A. Marylski in 1922. Originally built for 300 blind children, it contains a kindergarten, elementary school, facilities for the children of blind adults and the mentally ill, and a rich library. Gradually, with American help, Laski grew as a model of charity and a spiritual center. Institute for the Blind: Laski Warszawskie (New York, n.d.); J. Lerski, "Oaza Milosierdzia," Przeglad Polski (New York, 1988); J. Moskwa, Antoni Marylski i Laski (Cracow, 1987).

LATIFUNDIA, originally, great landed properties in ancient Rome. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* the name applied to large feudal estates created from the sixteenth century on as semi-independent economic and administrative units. These "states within the state," located primarily in the Ukraine* and Belorussia* and owned by the magnates, frequently had their own armies. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the best known latifundias belonged to the RadziwiH,* Zamoyski,* Potocki,* Sapieha,* and Lubomirski* families. Latifundias produced most of the Polish corn and wheat for export along the Vistula* River to Gdarisk (Danzig),* and then to Scandinavia and Western Europe. Latifundia constituted a political as well as an economic basis for the magnates' privileged position in the Commonwealth. EHGP, I, 404-406; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 223-226. LATIN, language of ancient Rome. It became the lingua franca of learned medieval Western Europe. It was also the official language of the Polish Parliament and Royal Court until 1533, when it was replaced with the Polish language. Latin constituted an important link, not only with the Roman Church but

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with the entire medieval heritage of Western civilization. In certain fields, such as law, medicine, and natural sciences, knowledge of Latin was a prerequisite for those who sought higher education. WEP, VI, 683. LATVIA, Baltic country along the Dvina River. Previously known as Livonia* and Courland,* it belonged to Poland from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. A. Bilmanis, History of Latvia (Princeton, New Jersey, 1951). LAW, POLISH. The evolution of Polish law is traceable to before the fifteenth century and remains a complex subject. It is compounded by the various influences known and legal systems experienced by Poland, notably during the foreign occupations from the late eighteenth century through 1918. In medieval law the King or Duke was ruler and lawgiver, with almost unlimited power. But by the fourteenth century a distinct upper class of knights had obtained charters called Immunities,* which, among other things, granted them freedom from royal officers and jurisdiction over the inhabitants on their lands. As selfgoverning Polish towns appeared, the municipal law of Magdeburg* was extended. In addition to the growth of customary and statutory legal rules, commonly influenced in private and public law by Roman law, canon law in Poland developed and was eventually codified in 1630. A noteworthy achievement in the early period occurred during the reign of King Kazimierz III Wielki* (Casimir the Great), who unified the existing legal as well as currency systems. However, fragmentation characterized succeeding years. The relative commonality of the laws of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* through the eighteenth century was, in effect, shattered by the Partitions* of Poland in 1772, 1793, and 1795. With regard to constitutional law, the nationally symbolic but short-lived Constitution of May 3, 1791,* remains a major subject of discussion and celebration. Until Poland was reborn as an independent state in 1918, four different legal systems would exist in historic Polish territories: the parts of Poland incorporated within Austria, Prussia and Russia were governed by the laws of the respective occupying powers, while elements of the Napoleonic Code were introduced into the Duchy of Warsaw.* Austrian legal impositions were the least onerous and Russian Tsarist codes were not heavily applied to the Congress Kingdom of Poland* until the 1840s, but Polish opposition to the legal systems and procedures established contributed to the struggle for national independence. National pride would confront the diversities in civil, commercial and criminal laws, as well as their invidious enforcement. With the rebirth of Poland in 1918, the new state faced the obvious need for creating a unified and national legal system. This was no mean task. In June 1919 a Codification Commission was established and divided into departments and sections to deal with civil, commercial, and criminal law and procedure. A number of distinguished jurists and legal scholars served on the commission and subcommissions, producing drafts for the President and legislature, including

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W. Jaworski,* K. Lutostariski, J. Makarewicz,* and F. Zoll. Much was accomplished in the several areas of creating unified Polish law by the mid-1930s. However, WW II and foreign occupation meant a malevolent period of lawlessness, only to be followed by another legal transformation under Communistdominated governments beginning in 1945. W. Wagner (ed.), Polish Law throughout the Ages (Stanford, California, 1970). LEAGUE OF NATIONS, organization for international cooperation established after WW I. The idea of an international institution which would mediate and prevent international conflict became popular in Great Britain and the United States and was strongly advocated by the American President W. Wilson.* A League Covenant was formulated by the victorious Allied Powers at the Paris Peace Conference* and was signed as a part of the Versailles Treaty* on June 28, 1919. The League of Nations, with its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, was formed in 1920 with only seven members but grew to more than forty by 1939. The League was weakened by the fact that it was never joined by the United States. Poland was an active member of the League from 1920, with Foreign Minister A. Zaleski* prominent Polish spokesman. In the 1930s, he was replaced by Minister J. Beck,* who was less favorably inclined toward international cooperation. The League's Council settled in Poland's favor the dispute with Lithuania* over the Vilna* region, and with Germany over the Upper Silesia* controversy. The League's Commissioner resided in the Free City of Gdarisk (Danzig)* and supervised its administration. In 1926, Poland was elected a non-permanent member of the Council, to be re-elected every three years. However, in 1938, Poland withdrew its candidacy. In 1927, the Council ruled in favor of Poland in the controversy over German schools in Silesia and in the Lithuanian-Polish conflict. The League became inactive during WW II and was replaced by the United Nations in 1946. D. Buzinkai, "Poland and the League of Nations, 1934-9: A Political Analysis," Polish Review X/4 (1965), 52-83; W. Drzewieniecki, "Poland and the League of Nations," Polish Review XI/1 (1966), 109-120. LEBENSRAUM (German: living space), one of the main principles of Nazi foreign policy and the pseudo-scientific basis of the Third Reich's eastward expansion, including conquest of Poland. The concept, developed in the geopolitical works of H. Mackinder, F. Ratzel, K. Haushofer, and H. Grimm, was embraced and reshaped by A. Hitler, who added falsely to initial assumptions (autarky and self-sufficiency achieved by military conquest) a mythological blood-and-soil mystique, anti-Semitism,* anti-Bolshevism, and anti-Slavic racism. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 3 (London, 1990), 857858. LECHON, JAN (LESZEK SERAFINOWICZ) (1899-1956), poet. He made his debut as a teenager in 1913 and was acclaimed a genius. Later he started

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writing regularly for the magazine Pro arte et studio and became the youngest member of the main poetic group of interwar Poland, known as Skamander.* He wrote on themes related to recent Polish history and published collections of political satire. From 1924, he was one of the chief contributors to the prestigious monthly Wiadomosci literackie (Literary News).* In the 1930s, he served as cultural attache in the Polish Embassy in Paris. After the fall of France, he moved to New York. He published sophisticated poetry with a strong nostalgic strain in the main Polish periodicals but finally, depressed, committed suicide. Z. Folejewski, "Jan Lechori's Poetic Work," Polish Review 1/4 (1956), 3-7; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 397-398; PSB, XVI, 600-603. LEDNICKI, ALEKSANDER (1866-1934), politician and attorney active in Moscow and prominent in Russian jurisprudence. Elected to the Moscow Lawyers' Council in 1903 and President of Moscow United Bank from 1910, he began to play a leading role in Polish politics in Russia as Vice President of the Progressive Democratic Union (Stronnictwo Postepowo-Demokratyczne). He advocated close cooperation with liberals in Russia in order to transform it into a constitutional monarchy with autonomy for Poland. In 1905, he joined the Russian party of Constitutional Democrats ("Cadets") and represented them in the First Duma.* He headed the faction known as the Union of AutonomistFederalists, which supported territorial autonomy for national minorities within the Empire. During WW I, he was active in the Central Civic Committee and as organizer and President of the Polish Committee of Assistance to War Victims (1914-1917). In 1917, he headed a special commission for the "liquidation" of legal and property relations between Russia and Poland. In 1918, the Polish Regency Council* appointed Lednicki its representative to the Bolshevik government. Upon his return to Poland in 1919, he edited Tydzien Polski (Polish Weekly), remained a prominent lawyer, and published several books dealing with international and domestic politics. CHP, II, 468-476; PSB, XVI, 610-613. LEDOCHOWSKA, BLESSED MARIA TERESA (1863-1922), missionary, founder and Superior General of the Sodality of St. Peter Claver for African Missions. A descendant of the aristocratic Ledochowski family, a sister of W. Ledochowski,* and niece of Cardinal M. Ledochowski,* she dedicated herself to the abolition of slavery and to the evangelization of Africa. She was beatified in 1975. V. Bielak, Mary Theresa Countess Ledochowska: Foundress of the Sodality of Saint Peter Claver (St. Paul, 1944); New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 8 (New York, 1967), 601; PSB, XVI, 617. LEDOCHOWSKI, MIECZYSLAW HALKA (1822-1902), Cardinal and Archbishop. A scion of the aristocratic Ledochowski family, uncle of M. T. Ledochowska* and W. Ledochowski,* he served in the Papal Secretariat of State, in the Nunciature in Portugal and Colombia, and as a Nuncio in Belgium. In 1866, Pope Pius IX appointed him Archbishop of Gniezno* and Poznari

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(Posen).* Initially, he was not popular in Poland, and he was considered by many a cosmopolitan and pro-Prussian. He was against the singing of Polish religious-patriotic songs in churches and, in 1867, forbade the clergy to publish any articles without his sanction. He replaced the Polish language with Latin at the Poznari seminary and appointed a German priest as its head. However, during the period of the Kulturkampf,* Ledochowski refused to be subservient to the secular Prussian authorities, insisted on the use of the Polish language for religious instruction in grammar schools, and defended the independence of the Roman Catholic Church in Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* This activity led to the closing of the Poznari and Gniezno seminaries and the imprisonment of Ledochowski. After two years in a Berlin prison, he moved to Prague, Cracow and, finally, Rome. New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 8 (New York, 1967), 601-602; PSB, XVI, 626-628. LEDOCHOWSKI, WLODZIMIERZ HALKA (1866-1942), twenty-sixth Superior General of the Jesuits* from 1915. A scion of the aristocratic Ledochowski family, brother of M. T. Ledochowska,* and nephew of Cardinal M. Ledochowski,* he studied at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* and at the Gregorian University in Rome. Later, he joined the Jesuits and became the Galician Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial in 1902. As a Superior General, he greatly extended the Order, including its missionary activities abroad. New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 8 (New York, 1967), 602; PSB, XVI, 635-636. LEGIA NADDUNAJSKA. See DABROWSKI LEGIONS. LEGIA NADWISLANSKA. See DABROWSKI LEGIONS. LEGION OF YOUTH (Legion Mlodych), youth organization of the followers of J. Pilsudski* established in 1930 by J. Jedrzejewicz* and other activists of the Sanacja* regime under the official name Union of Labor for the State (Zwiazek Pracy dla Paristwa). Its members were predominantly university students and young civil servants, but the Legion also had a high school branch. It emphasized dedication to the Polish state against narrow-minded nationalism. After J. Pilsudski's death in May 1935, the Legion split. The left-oriented Legion Mlodych-Frakcja joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1937, and the right-oriented group joined the Camp of National Unity (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego [OZN]).* A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 359. LEGION PULAWSKI. See PULAWY LEGION. LEGION WSCHODNI. See POLISH LEGIONS. LEGION ZACHODNI. See POLISH LEGIONS.

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LEGIONY. See POLISH LEGIONS. LEGNICA (Liegnitz), town in Lower Silesia.* One of the early medieval Polish strongholds in this region, it became a capital of an autonomous Principality in the twelfth century and was developed by the Piast* Duke Henryk Brodaty (the Bearded).* At the Battle of Legnica* on April 15, 1241, the Mongols defeated Henryk's son, Henryk II Pobozny (the Pious).* Legnica, an important trade and artisan center, was ruled by the oldest Piast dynasty branch until 1675, when it was gained by the Habsburgs.* In 1741, the town and the whole region passed to Prussia. It was regained by Poland in 1945. SHP, 216. LEGNICA, BATTLE OF, major encounter between the Mongolian and Polish Armies on April 9, 1241, during the Mongolian invasion of Central Europe. The Mongols entered Poland and Hungary from the Kiev region. Kaidu, the great-grandson of Genghis Khan, was to protect the northern flank of the attacking Mongolian forces. His 20,000 horsemen smashed the Army of Cracow* led by Duke Boleslaw on March 3 and, a month later, met a mixed army of 40,000 Germans and Poles led by Silesian* Duke Henryk Pobozny (the Pious).* The Europeans fought bravely but, finally, were defeated, and their remnants fled westward. In this way Kaidu eliminated all possible danger to the right flank of the main Mongolian Army, and he joined it in Hungary. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History, ed. by R. E. Dupuy and T. N. Dupuy (New York, 1993), 375-378. LEHR-SPLAWINSKI, TADEUSZ (1891-1965), linguist and specialist in Slavic languages. He taught at the University of Poznari (Posen)* from 1918, at Lvov* University from 1922 and, in 1929, received a chair in Slavic philology at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* where he served as Rector in 19381939 and 1945-1946. In November 1939, he was imprisoned together with a group of Cracow professors in Sachsenhausen* concentration camp. He authored many monographs on Slavic grammar and dialects and is best known for his book on the origin and development of the Polish language. PSB, XVII, 6-8. LELEWEL, JOACHIM (1786-1861), outstanding historian. Educated by the Piarists* in Warsaw* and at the University of Vilna,* he taught in the Krzemienec* Lyceum and worked as a civil servant in the Ministry of Interior in Warsaw.* After 1815, he lectured on history at Vilna University* and on bibliography in Warsaw. In 1821, he obtained the history chair in Vilna. He was very popular among the Polish patriotic students and, in 1824, he was removed from his post in connection with the trial of the Filareci ("Filarets.")* He returned to Warsaw, where he became a member of the Patriotic Association (Towarzystwo Patriotyczne)* and an idol of young revolutionaries. In 1828, he was elected to the Sejm.* After the outbreak of the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he was appointed Vice-Minister of Education and Religious Affairs in the insurgent National Government. However, he was in permanent conflict

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with the conservative ruling elites and with the dictator Gen. J. Chlopicki.* Lelewel considered the Polish social and national revolution part of the European struggle "for your freedom and ours!" After the fall of the Insurrection, he left Poland for Paris, where he was elected to the provisional committee of the Great Emigration* and, then, co-organized and led the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski). In 1833, he was expelled from France by its authorities as a consequence of his revolutionary activities and contacts with the Carbonari.* He settled in Brussels, where he spent the rest of his life, maintaining contacts with Polish emigrants in various countries. In 1837, he organized the Union of Polish Emigration (Zjednoczona Emigracja Polska),* which unsuccessfully tried to unite all the various groups of Polish emigres. After the 1848 Springtime of Nations,* Lelewel concentrated on his scholarly work. The first Polish modern historian, he broadened the scope and methodology of history and wrote on bibliography, Asian history, and contemporary and medieval history. In his work on early modern Spain and Poland, he developed the comparative approach to history. He rejected the traditional divisions into separate political, economic, cultural and law histories, and the monarchical periodization of Polish history. He made a pioneering contribution in the study of medieval numismatics and historical geography. His history of Poland had twenty editions in the nineteenth century. He influenced generations of Polish historians and democratic politicians. The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians, ed. by J. Cannon (Oxford, 1988), 241-242; PSB, XVII, 21-25; W. Rose, "Lelewel as Historian," Slavonic Review XV (1936), 649-662; M. Serejski, "Joachim Lelewel, (1786-1861)," Acta Poloniae Historica VI (1962), 35-54; J. Skurnowicz, Romantic Nationalism and Liberalism: Joachim Lelewel and the Polish National Idea (Boulder, Colorado, 1981).

LEMKOS (Lemkowie), ethnic group related closely to the Ukrainians and located on both sides of the Carpathian Mountains. Their region formed an ethnographic peninsula 140 kilometers long and 25 to 50 kilometers wide on the border between Poland and Slovakia, west of Przemysl (Peremysl)* and east of Nowy Sacz. The Lemkos came from the East and settled in their region in the Middle Ages. First, their territories belonged to Kiev's sphere of influence. Then, they were part of Halicz* Principality and, in the 1340s, they were incorporated into Poland by Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great).* The Lemkos lived by sheep and cattle raising. In the nineteenth century, they switched to agriculture, growing rye, oats and potatoes. They were also involved in lumbering. They called themselves Rusnaks or Rusyns (Ruthenians), and most of them did not have a modern national consciousness until WW II. They were exposed to intense Ukrainization, Polonization, and Russification. The Ukrainian national movement originated in the second half of the nineteenth century, and it was developed considerably during the struggle for Ukrainian statehood by the end of WW I. However, it was weakened by strong Russophile tendencies. During the interwar period, the Polish government tried to turn the Lemkos into a Polish

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ethnic group. After the partition of Poland between Germany and the USSR in 1939, several thousands of Lemkos were moved from the German-occupied regions into the Soviet Ukraine. Under the Polish-Soviet agreement of August 16, 1945, the resettlement was resumed, and about 80 percent of Lemkos were deported. The rest were dispersed by the Poles on former German lands of postwar Poland in 1947. P. Best, "The Lemkos as an Ethnic Group," Polish Review XXXV 3/4 (1990), 255-260; Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 3 (Toronto, 1988), 77-82.

LENARTOWICZ, TEOFIL (1822-1893), poet. Employed as a government clerk in Warsaw,* he had some contacts with the revolutionary patriotic Polish conspiracy. In 1848, he left the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* since he was threatened with arrest by the Tsarist police. He lived subsequently in Poznari (Posen),* Cracow,* Brussels, Paris, and Italy, where he taught Slavic literature at the University of Bologna and practiced sculpture in Florence. He wrote on Polish history, religious themes, and his Italian experiences. His main contributions to Polish literature were his naive, idyllic, "folkish" poems on the Mazovian* landscape and country life as preserved in remembrances of his childhood. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 267; PSB, XVII, 39^2. LENINO, BATTLE OF, the first battle of the First Polish Kosciuszko Division near the village of Lenino in the Mohylew region in Belorussia* on October 12-13, 1943. The Division was organized in the summer of 1943, after the Polish Army of Gen. Anders* had left the Soviet Union. It was supervised by the Communist-controlled Union of Polish Patriots (Zwiazek Patriotow Polskich)* and became the nucleus of the future army of the People's Republic of Poland. During the Battle of Lenino, the Division fought as a component of the Third Soviet Army. Commanded by Gen. Z. Berling,* it broke the German lines but lost about one-third of its soldiers. W. Sokorski, Polacy pod Lenino (Warsaw, 1971). LENNO (Czech: leno, German: Lehen, English: fief), in medieval Europe, a grant made to a dependent in return for payments or support and services, usually of a military, administrative, and political character. The most common grant was that of land or an estate, a village or part of a village including its peasants. A fief could also be the right to hold a court or an office or to take profit from a mill or foundry. A feudal Lord might have several vassals under him and was himself a vassal of a Duke, who, in turn, was a vassal of a King or an Emperor. This feudal structure, created in Western Europe, was less developed in Poland, except in the borderlands. However, there was a Lord-vassal relationship between the Kings of Poland and some rulers of Walachia, Mazovia,* Silesia,* and Pomerania.* After the Toruri (Thorn)* Peace Treaty* of 1466, the Teutonic Knights* became vassals of Poland, and Courland* ac-

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cepted the same status after the subjugation of Inflanty (Livonia)* to King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August.* Dictionary of the Middle Ages, ed. by J. R. Strayer, vol. 5 (New York, 1985), 57-59; SHP, 111. LEO, JULIUSZ (1862-1918), politician and economist. He taught finance at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* from 1891 to 1904, when he was elected Mayor of Cracow. In this capacity, he focused on the financial reform of the city government, he regulated the Vistula* River and arranged acquisition of Wawel Castle* from the Austrian Army. In 1909, he enlarged "Great Cracow," including suburban areas, and expanded the original seven square kilometers to forty-seven square kilometers. From 1901, he represented his city in the Galician* Sejm,* and, in 1911, he was elected to the Austrian Parliament, first as a member of the Conservative Club, then the liberal Democratic Circle. In March 1912, he became head of the Polish Circle in the Reichsrat. After the outbreak of WW I, Leo helped to legalize the Polish Legions* and, in August 1914, he was elected President of the Supreme National Council (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]),* a body uniting the pro-Austrian Polish parties in Galicia and supervising the Legions. PSB, XVII, 66-69. LERSKI, JERZY (GEORGE—"JUR") (1917-1992), historian and WW II Special Emissary. Born in Lvov,* he was active in several Polish youth and political organizations before WW II, including "Kuznia Mlodych" (Youth Forge), "Straz Przednia" (The Vanguard) and "Filarecja" (Lovers of Virtue), and studied law at Lvov University. He was a co-founder of the Polish Social Democratic Youth (PMSD) in Lvov and was the youngest member of the Supreme Council of the Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Demokratyczne [SD]).* Always considerate of the Jewish minority, he was severely beaten in 1938 by a militant group of Endek* student-members for his stand against the "Bench Ghetto"* imposed on Polish institutions of higher learning. He fought against the Germans during the September Campaign* of 1939, joined the Polish resistance group "Wolnosc" (Freedom) in Lvov and, in December 1939, traveled overland via southeast Europe to France in response to Gen. W. Sikorski's* appeals. There he joined the Polish Army and fought against the Germans in the spring of 1940. After the fall of France, Lerski was evacuated with his unit to Britain, where he served as an educational officer in Scotland. Then he was trained as an Envoy (Emissary "Jur") and a paratrooper and parachuted into German-occupied Poland in February 1943. On completing his duties as Special Emissary, he worked in the Department of Information of the Polish underground, which subsequently sent him with a vital mission back to London in late 1943. Disguised as a German and loaded with important information for Allied Headquarters in London, he made a hazardous journey through Germany, France, Spain, and Gibraltar, eventually reaching London in March 1944. While preparing for his next trip to Poland, Lerski lectured to Allied Armed forces until the Warsaw Uprising* intervened, when he was posted instead to Scotland

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as the Information Representative of the Polish Government. Later, he worked for the Polish Government-in-Exile,* becoming the Private Secretary to Prime Minister T. Arciszewski* during 1944-1945. Lerski was a co-founder and Vice President of the movement Independence and Democracy (Niepodleglosc i Demokracja [NiD]), and, in February 1945, he co-authored the Polish denunciation of the Yalta decisions which betrayed Poland. He was awarded British, Polish and Jewish decorations, including the Yad Vashem Medal for Righteous Gentiles and, posthumously, the Polonia Restituta with Commander's Cross and Star. [Professor Lerski completed his Ph.D. degree in history at Georgetown University in 1953, and he taught with distinction at several institutions in America and Asia, notably in Japan, and joined the faculty of the University of San Francisco in 1966. He published various noted books and, in September 1992, died in San Francisco while in the process of revising the present Historical Dictionary of Poland.] S. Korboriski, "J. Lerski (pseudo Jur)," Bohaterowie Paristwa Podziemnego—jak ich znalem (New York, 1987), 118-12; J. Lerski, "Lwowska Mlodziez Spoleczno-Demokratyczna 1937-1939," Zeszyty Historyczne XLVII (1979), 149-181; G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy, 1939-1945 (New York, 1988). LESZCZYNSKA, MARIA KAROLINA (Marie-Catharine) (1703-1768), Queen of France and daughter of Stanislaw Leszczyriski.* Her father was elected King of Poland in 1704 but was deposed in 1709. She left Poland in 1708 to live in Sweden and, then, in Zweibrucken and in Wissemburg, Alsace. In 1725, she married King Louis XV and bore him ten children. She had no direct influence on French politics, but her Polish dynastic connection contributed to the fact that France entered the War of the Polish Succession* against Austria in 1733 to support Stanislaw Leszczyriski's claims to the Polish throne. In the 1730s, Louis XV left his wife for Madame Pompadour. A. Leroy, Marie Leszczinska et ses files (Paris, 1948). LESZCZYNSKI, JERZY (1884-1959), actor and theater director, son of the prominent actors Boleslaw Leszczyriski and Honorata Leszczyriski. He performed in Warsaw,* Lodz,* and Cracow.* During WW II, he earned a living as a waiter in Warsaw cafes. SBTP, 378. LESZCZYNSKI ("LENSKI"), JULIAN (1889-1937), Communist leader. A son of a laborer from Plock, he joined the Social Democratic Party of the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL])* in 1906. As a philosophy student at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* he headed the Union of Socialist Youth (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Socjalistycznej "Spojnia"). During WW I, he was an elected member of the Central Executive Committee of SDKPiL in Russia and edited its organ, Trybuna. During the Bolshevik Revolution, he served on the Military Revolutionary Committee and All-Russian Central Executive Committee. He was also Commissar

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for Polish Affairs in the Commissariat of Nationalities, Commissar of Education for the Lithuanian-Belorussian Soviet Republic, and a member of the Party Central Committee of Lithuania and Belorussia. During the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, he served as Polish adviser to the Bolshevik armies in Poland and cooperated with the Polish Provisional Revolutionary Committee (Tymczasowy Komitet Rewolucyjny Polski [TKRP]).* In 1924, he went to Berlin, Paris, and Poland, where he was arrested. He escaped and returned to Moscow. He was elected to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP])* in 1925 and to its Politburo in 1927. A prominent member of a dogmatic, Stalinist "Minority Group," he was promoted to General Secretary of the KPP in 1929. Active in the Third International, he was one of the proponents of the Popular Front coalition with the Socialists after 1934. Arrested by the Soviet secret police in 1937, he died in prison. M. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, 1959); The Modern Encyclopedia ofRussian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 19 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1981), 195-196; PSB, XVII, 122-125. LESZCZYNSKI, STANISLAW. See STANISLAW I LESZCZYNSKI. LESZEK, name popular in the Piast* dynasty. According to a legend recorded in the Chronicle of Gallus Anonymus,* Leszek, son of Ziemowit, was a grandfather of Mieszko I.* CHP, I, 16; T. Manteuffel, The Formation of the Polish State (Detroit, 1982), 45-47. LESZEK BIALY (THE WHITE) (1186-1227), member of the Piast* dynasty, Duke of Cracow* and Sandomierz,* who united Little Poland (Malopolska)* and the Sandomierz region into one principality. A son of Kazimierz Sprawiedliwy (Casimir the Just),* he inherited Sandomierz and, after a long struggle with his senior brother, Mieszko Stary (the Old),* and Mieszko's son, Wladyslaw Laskonogi (Cane-Legged),* Leszek took Cracow* in 1206. He was supported by Cracow's magnates and the Church, which received some privileges from Leszek. He used the title "Prince of All Poland" and planned the unification of Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* with Little Poland (Malopolska).* He led an active Ruthenian policy, tried to stop Hungarian expansion into the Halicz* region and sought to conquer it. Involved in the problems of Pomerania,* he was killed during a congress of Polish and Pomeranian Princes in Gasawa. CHP, I, 93; PSB, XVII, 155-157. LESZEK CZARNY (THE BLACK) (1240-1288), member of the Piast* dynasty, Prince of L^czyca,* Sieradz, Cracow,* and Sandomierz.* During his reign, several raids of the Jatvingians,* Lithuanians, and Mongolians spread ruin over Poland. Leszek fortified some towns, including Sandomierz and Cracow, to stop the invaders; defeated the Jatvingians; and intervened in Halicz* Ruth-

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enia. After his death, Leszek's possessions were divided among his relatives, and Cracow was left to its magnates, who had constantly opposed Leszek during his reign. CHP, I, 98-99, 108; PSB, XVII, 157-159. LESZNO (Lissa), town in Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* which belonged to the Leszczyriski* family until 1738. It received urban status in 1547. During 15161548 and in 1628, about 2,000 Bohemian Brethren* settled in Leszno and, during 1628-1633, several thousand Protestants moved there from Silesia.* The city became an important center of the Reformation, with Protestant printing shops and a school, headed by J. A. Komenski (Comenius).* A noted textile industry was developed in the city. However, in 1656 and 1707, it was burned during the Swedish "Deluge"* and the Northern War,* respectively. The city deteriorated, and, in 1793, it was incorporated to Prussia* after the Second Partition* of Poland. In 1856 the city received a railroad connection with Poznari (Posen)* and Wroclaw (Breslau),* and it developed again into an important industrial town. After WW I, it was regained by Poland. During WW II, Leszno was incorporated into the Reich, and 80 percent of its population of 21,000 was deported to the General Government.* SHP, 218-219. LESMIAN, BOLESLAW (1877-1937), poet. Born in Warsaw* into a Jewish middle-class family, he was educated and became a lawyer. Underestimated by his contemporaries, he is among the most outstanding Polish poets of the twentieth century. His unique untranslatable language, linguistic experimentation and inventions made his work hard to compare to other poets'. He began his career as a lyric poet of "Young Poland"* and developed his own style. His poems are full of fantastic creatures and unusual descriptions of nature. Existentialism and Slavic folklore, religious themes, satire, erotic poetry, fairy tales, metaphysical reflections, some grotesque, and many other elements are mixed in his writings. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 347-351; R. Stone, Boleslaw Lesmian, the Poet and His Poetry (Berkeley, California, 1976).

LESNIEWSKI, STANISLAW (1886-1939), philosopher, logician, and mathematician. He studied at various Western European universities and completed his dissertation under K. Twardowski* in Lvov* in 1912. A professor of philosophy of mathematics at Warsaw* University* during 1919-1939, he became a co-founder and a leading figure of the Warsaw school of logic. Initially, he was interested in the antinomies in logic and mathematics. Then, he turned to mathematical logic and created its new foundations. He constructed three interrelated logical systems, called by him protothetic, ontology, and mereology. Encyclopedia of Philosophy, vol. 4 (New York, 1967), 441-443. LEVEE EN MASSE (Polish: pospolite ruszenie), medieval form of the organization of armed forces based on the principle that each nobleman, regardless of the size of his estate, is obliged to participate in his monarch's war expedi-

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tions. Already by the mid-fifteenth century, it had proved to be an ineffective concept of national defense because of the lack of discipline of the Polish gentry and their ignorance of modern methods of warfare. During the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, peasants and burghers also participated in levee en masse. Some of its forms survived well into the nineteenth century. In the interwar period, this designation was used for the defense service of males forty-one to fifty years old. WEP, IX, 316. LEWIATAN (1919-1939), nickname of the Central Union of the Polish Industry, Mining, Commerce and Finances (Centralny Zwiazek Polskiego Przemyslu, Gornictwa, Handlu i Finansow), the association of manufacturers and big businesses in interwar Poland. It was organized in 1919 by the representatives of twenty-nine economic enterprises of the former Congress Kingdom of Poland.* Its influence in Silesia* and Great Poland (Wielkopolska) was relatively weak. In 1932, under the impact of the Great Depression, Lewiatan merged with the Supreme Organization of the United Industry and Agriculture of Western and Southern Poland. The new organization, dominated by the leaders of Lewiatan and called the Central Union of Polish Industry (Centralny Zwiazek Przemyslu Polskiego), became the most powerful organization of big capital in the Second Republic. It had at its disposal press organs, civil servants in central state institutions, and parliamentary deputies, and even developed its own economic program, based on the principles of classical liberal economics. EHGP, I, 91-92; J. Holzer, "Powstanie Lewiatana," Zeszyty Historyczne Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 1961, vol. II; Z. Landau, "Rozwiazanie kartelu cementowego w Polsce w 1933," Studia Historyczne, 1972, vol. I; A. Wierzbicki, Wspomnienia i dokumenty 1877-1920, vol. I (Warsaw, 1957). LIBELT, KAROL (1807-1875), philosopher. He studied in Berlin and Paris but, in 1830, returned to Poland to fight in the November Insurrection.* After the fall of the uprising, he moved to Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* where he was active as a tenant farmer, teacher and publicist and wrote his philosophical works. Involved in Polish patriotic activities, he was arrested in 1846 and sentenced to twenty years in prison. Freed by the Springtime of Nations of 1848, he participated in related events in Great Poland. He also took part in the Slavic Congress in Prague and established good contact with the Czech national leaders. Later, he was a member of the German Reichstag and the Prussian Parliament and edited the progressive Dziennik Polski (Polish Daily) in Poznari. Libelt, together with B. Trentowski and A. Cieszkowski,* was among the main exponents of "national" philosophy. He believed that the Polish nation possessed a special intuition and imagination, best represented among all the Slavs, and was destined to play a messianic role in modern times. PSB, XVII, 274-279. LIBERUM VETO (Latin: Free Veto), legal right of each member of the Sejm* (Parliament) in pre-Partition Poland to veto any bill or to dissolve the legislature,

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nullifying all acts passed during the session. According to Polish constitutional tradition, all Polish nobles were politically equal, and every Parliamentary bill had to be passed unanimously. Liberum veto was used for the first time in 1652 and, as subsequently practiced more and more frequently, paralyzed the Polish political system. The neighboring powers repeatedly bribed Sejm members and negatively influenced Polish politics. The Polish reform movement of the late eighteenth century attempted to eliminate the liberum veto several times, and the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* abolished it. But each of these attempts provoked foreign intervention, which led to the Partitions* of Poland. N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1 (New York, 1982), 321-372; W. Konopczyriski, Liberum Veto (Cracow, 1918). LIEBERMAN, HERMAN (1870-1941), lawyer and socialist politician. He joined the Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia (Polska Partia Socjal-Demokratyczna Galicji i Slaska Cieszyriskiego [PPSD])* in 1896, and he became one of its leaders and a close associate of I. Daszyriski.* During 1907-1918, he represented his party in the Austrian Parliament. At the outbreak of WW I, he joined the Polish Legions.* After their dissolution, he returned to legal practice and defended those legionnaires who tried to cross the front as a protest against the Brest-Litovsk Treaty.* In interwar Poland, he was part of the leadership of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* He played an important role as a Parliament member (1919-1930), especially after the Pilsudski coup d'etat,* when he strongly opposed the Sanacja* regime. As a consequence, he was arrested in November 1930 together with other opposition leaders and sentenced to three years in prison. He left for Czechoslovakia and, then, France, where he engaged in international socialist activities and also contributed to the PPS press. After the outbreak of WW II, he became a member of the exiled Polish Parliament, the National Council (Rada Narodowa)* and, in 1941, was Minister of Justice in the Polish Government-inExile.* A. Leinwand, Posel Herman Lieberman (Warsaw, 1983); PSB, XVII, 303-307.

LIGA NARODOWA (National League), clandestine organization established in April 1893 by former leaders of the Liga Polska (Polish League)* headed by R. Dmowski.* The National League was organized as a small elitist group, which aimed to control the Polish national movement and penetrate various Polish political camps. Its program was formulated in a series of brochures authored by R. Dmowski and Z. Balicki.* The program criticized Polish proRussian, pro-Prussian, and pro-Austrian loyalists and condemned the Tsarist oppression, which had retarded the political, economic, and cultural development of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* The League called for pressure on the Russian authorities and organized patriotic demonstrations in Warsaw. In 1897, it called into being the National Democratic Party ("Endecja")* in Russian-occupied Poland; in 1904, in Prussian Poland, and, in 1905, in Galicia.* The League published two main organs: Przeglgd Wszechpolski (Pan-Polish Re-

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view) and Polak (The Pole), which propagated the National Democratic program based on social solidarity, anti-Semitism, and a hostility to socialism. The organization was governed by a Secret Council and its Executive Committee, namely R. Dmowski, Z. Balicki,* J. Poplawski,* T. Waligorski, J. Htasko, S. Kozicki,* and M. Seyda.* There were also a Committee in Exile and individual Country Committees in the three parts of partitioned Poland. In 1905-1907, the League actively opposed the revolution in the Congress Kingdom of Poland. R. Dmowski had switched to a pro-Russian orientation, opposed an armed struggle for Polish independence, and saw the Tsarist Empire as a bastion against socialism and the German threat to the Slavic nations. After the outbreak of WW I, the League espoused a pro-Tsarist policy but, after the 1917 revolution in Russia, it shifted its support to the Entente. National Democratic leaders played a crucial role in the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP])* in Paris and later during the Paris Peace Conference. After the war, the League inspired the activities of the (National Democratic) Popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy),* which won 37 percent of the votes in the 1919 election to the Constitutional Assembly, and it became the largest political party of the reborn Polish Republic. The League was dissolved in 1928. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 576-632; S. Kozicki, Historia Ligi Narodowej (Okres 1887-1907) (London, 1964); WEP, VI, 512-513. LIGA POLSKA (Polish League), secret organization established on the initiative of Z. Milkowski (T. T. Jez)* at a Conference of Polish politicians in Hilfikon, Switzerland, in 1887. The organization condemned Polish conservatives and positivists for their loyalty to the powers occupying Poland, and it formulated a program of reconstruction of a Polish state within the pre-Partition borders. Initially, the League anticipated a major conflict between the great powers. In 1888, one of the leaders, Z. Balicki,* wrote a new program emphasizing the importance of the defense of Polish national rights and social and political development under the contemporary political conditions. The League stood against social revolution and international socialism. Its main organs were Przeglgd spoleczny (Social Review) in Lvov* and the weekly Glos (Voice) in Warsaw.* Originally, the League was controlled by a central authority, but, after 1888, committees were formed in each of the Partitions. The Union of Polish Youth (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej [Zet])* was also organized. In 1893, R. Dmowski* transformed the League into the Liga Narodowa (National League).* CHP, II, 391-414; WEP, VI, 514. LILPOP, STANISLAW (1817-1866), industrialist. He co-founded a Warsaw* agricultural machinery factory in 1844. In 1865, he took over a large machine plant established by the Evans brothers in 1818 in Warsaw, and re-organized it into a shareholding company known as Lilpop, Rau & Loewenstein. Lilpop extended the range of its production and employed about 700 workers. He improved the American McCormick reaping machine and designed the universal

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sowing machine. He was also known as an art connoisseur and patron. His family contributed greatly to the industrial and cultural life of Poland. PSB, XVII, 338-339. LIMANOWSKI, BOLESLAW (1835-1935), socialist activist, historian, sociologist, and publicist. After studies in Moscow and Dorpat and a short stay in Paris, he participated in patriotic demonstrations in Vilna* in 1861. Arrested and deported to Northern Russia, he returned to Warsaw* in 1867. In 1870, he moved to Lvov,* where he was active in socialist and democratic circles and also earned his doctorate. In 1878, he emigrated to Switzerland and, then, to Paris, where he presided over the organizational congress of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1892. After the split in the party, he supported the PPS-Revolutionary Fraction* of J. Pilsudski.* Limanowski supported the Polish Legions* during WW I. In interwar Poland, he represented the PPS in the Senate during 1922-1935. He opposed the Pilsudski coup d'etat* and the Sanacja* regime. He was an exponent of reformism in the Polish socialist movement. However, his ideological worldview also included elements of Utopian socialism. He became a living legend of Polish patriotic socialism and a moral authority for the Polish left. K. Cottam, Boleslaw Limanowski (18351935): A Political Biography (Boulder, Colorado, 1978); PSB, XVII, 340-346. LINDE, SAMUEL BOGUMIL (1771-1847), lexicographer. Born in a Lutheran family in Toruri (Thorn),* he became an instructor of Polish language at Leipzig University in 1791. A member of the Warsaw* Association of Friends of Learning, he headed the Warsaw Lyceum from 1804. In 1813 he was elected President of Warsaw's Lutheran Church. He served in various educational governmental agencies in the Duchy of Warsaw* and in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In 1818, he became director of the Public Library. However, it was his Dictionary of the Polish Language (Slownik jezyka polskiego) that made him famous. It was the first modern Polish dictionary and included sixty thousand entries. It was enthusiastically received by specialists, some of whom, working on other Slavic dictionaries, took Linde's work as a model. PSB, XVII, 358-364. LIPINSKI, EDWARD (1888-1986), economist. He joined the Polish Socialist Party-Left (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna-Lewica or PPS-Left)* early in his life, and he was also active in an association promoting commercial and industrial knowledge. After WW I, he did statistical research for the city of Warsaw* and the Central Statistical Office (G16wny Urzad Statystyczny). From 1923, he taught at the Main Commercial School (Szkola Glowna Handlowa), and, in 1928, he founded the Institute of Research of Economic Forecasts and Prices, which was directed by him until 1939. During WW II, Lipiriski co-organized clandestine education. He specialized in theories of business outlook and economic growth. WEP, VI, 537-538.

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LIPPOMANO, LUIGI (1500-1559), Papal diplomat, theological writer, Bishop of Verona and Bergamo. He was one of the Presidents of the second session of the Council of Trent in 1548 and a Nuncio in Portugal and Germany. In 1555, Pope Paul IV sent him to Poland, where he established a permanent Nunciature, organized the Counter-Reformation,* and tried to convince King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August* to undertake strong measures against the Protestants. New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 8 (New York, 1967), 783-784. LIPSKI, JOZEF (1894-1958), diplomat. A lawyer by profession, he joined the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP])* in Paris in 1918 and worked for the Polish delegation during the Peace Conference in Paris in 1919. In the same year, he entered regular service in the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and served as secretary of the Polish legations in London, Paris, and Berlin. From 1925, he worked in Warsaw's diplomatic headquarters and, from 1928, headed its Political Economic Department. Supported by Minister J. Beck* and J. Pilsudski,* he became Legate (from 1933) and Ambassador (from 1934) in Berlin. His assignment was to seek a rapprochement with Hitler's Germany. On January 26, 1934, he signed the Non-Aggression Treaty* with the Third Reich. Lipski, the youngest among Polish Ambassadors, gained considerable popularity in Berlin, though he had no illusions regarding the long-range Nazi policy toward Poland. After the outbreak of WW II, he left Berlin and, via Poland, went to France and, later, to England, serving as a volunteer in the Polish Army in both countries. A. Cienciala, Poland and the Western Powers 19381939 (London, 1968); W. Jedrzejewicz (ed.), Diplomat in Berlin, 1933-1939: Papers and Memoirs of Jozef Lipski, Ambassador of Poland (New York, 1968).

LISKE, KSAWERY (1838-1891), historian. Persecuted for his patriotic Polish activities in Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* he settled in Lvov.* He taught at Lvov University from 1869, was its Rector, and made it the main center of historical studies in Poland. In 1878, he became a member of the^ Academy of Learning in Cracow.* He specialized in sixteenth-century Polish history and the reign of Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund the Old).* In 1876, Liske established the Polish Historical Association and its organ, Kwartalnik Historyczny (Historical Quarterly). PSB, XVII, 462-465. LIS-KULA, LEOPOLD (1896-1919), officer of the Polish Legions* and Polish Army. Born into a patriotic family, he joined the para-military Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki),* where he met J. Pilsudski,* who exercised a great influence on him. During WW I, Lis-Kula distinguished himself as an exceptionally brave officer of the Polish Legions. After their dissolution, he was drafted into the Austrian Army, and, later, he served in the secret Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In 1918 he was sent by the POW to the Polish military units formed in Russia, particularly to coordinate their activities with J. Pilsudski's plans. This operation failed, but Lis-Kula be-

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came a Commander of the POW in Ukraine.* He died in battle as an officer of the Polish Army fighting against the Ukrainians. He became a legendary figure and model for Polish patriotic youth. F. Demel and W. Lipiriski, Pulkownik Lis Kula (Warsaw, 1932); PSB, XVII, 447-449. LISOWSKI, ALEKSANDER (1575-1616), officer of the Polish Army. A scion of a family of the middle nobility, he started his military career as an ordinary soldier during the Polish-Walachian War of 1599. Later, he fought against the Swedes in Livonia,* but he became famous during the "Time of Troubles" and Polish military intervention in Russia during 1605-1618. Lisowski formed well trained and fast Cossack* units, which became crucial in operations against the Russian armies, especially in reconnaissance and semiguerrilla activities behind the enemy's lines. Lisowski's soldiers distinguished themselves with cruelty and looting, and he was considered a hero and a villain at the same time. He died unexpectedly during the operations in Russia, but his units were so useful that Hetman* J. K. Chodkiewicz* formalized the existence of the "Lisowczycy," who gained fame during the Thirty Years' War and survived until the end of the seventeenth century. PSB, XVII, 470-472. LITAUER, STEFAN (1892-1959), journalist. He served in Polish diplomatic missions in Berlin, Charkow, and Moscow. From 1925, he worked in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Warsaw,* but he was accused of pro-Sovietism and dismissed in 1932. He became correspondent of the Polish Telegraph Agency in London and was later elected President of the Foreign Press Association there. He remained in that position till 1941, cooperating closely with the Soviet TASS Agency. Nevertheless, in 1939, he was empowered by Gen. W. Sikorski* to act as a political propagandist on behalf of the Polish Government-in-Exile.* Litauer worked for Polish-Soviet rapprochement, and he recommended military cooperation and formation of the Polish Army in the USSR. In 1941 he was appointed Head of the Press Department in the Ministry of Information and Documentation of the Government-in-Exile. In 1944 Litauer was dismissed, and then became an expert on Eastern Europe with the News Chronicle. In 1945, he moved to Lublin to work for the Polish communist regime. A. Cienciala, "The Question of the Polish-Soviet Frontier in British, Soviet and Polish Policy in 19391940," Polish Review XXXIII/3 (1988), 295-323; G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy, 1939-1945 (New York, 1988), 140, 170-174. LITHUANIA, country on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea* and along the Niemen River. The Lithuanians, who belong to the Baltic group of IndoEuropean "'nations, settled in the area in the first millennium B.C. Between the ninth and twelfth centuries A.D., a group of tribal states emerged on the Lithuanian territories. They were united by Prince Mendog (Mindaugas) in the 1220s. He took advantage of the disintegration of Rus', invaded by the Mongols, and conquered large Ruthenian areas of today's Belorussia.* After Mendog's

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death, Lithuania was divided among his successors and re-united again by Prince Giedymin (Gediminas)* (1316-1341). He and his sons extended the Lithuanian borders to the Black Sea and the outskirts of Moscow. Lithuania covered about 900,000 square kilometers, controlled a half of the former Kievian Rus', and was one of the most powerful states of Eastern Europe. Only one-tenth of the state was inhabited by Lithuanians, who were less developed socially and culturally than their new Ruthenian subjects. As a consequence, Ruthenian culture and language, administrative, financial, military, and legal systems became a model for Lithuania. Ruthenian principalities retained their Orthodox religion and a broad autonomy within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the late fourteenth century, it was jeopardized by Muscovy, which had recovered after the Mongolian invasion; by the Teutonic Knights* and Tatars*; and by internal

conflicts among the successors of Giedymin.

One of those successors, Duke Jogaila, decided to strengthen his power and concluded the Union of Krewo* with Poland in 1385. He agreed to accept the Catholic faith, marry Polish Queen Jadwiga (Hedwig),* become King of Poland, and unite both countries. He took the name Wladyslaw Jagiello* and established a Catholic Bishopric in the Lithuanian capital of Vilna.* The joint Armies of Poland and Lithuania defeated the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Grunwald* in 1410. The personal Union of Krewo, based on royal marriage, was supplemented by the Union of Horodlo* in 1413, and by the real Union of Lublin* in 1569, based on a federal agreement. The latter completed the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* also called the Commonwealth of Both Nations (Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodow).* Lithuania maintained its autonomy; however, both nations had a common ruler and Parliament. Ruthenian influence in Lithuania was followed by Polonization. Ruthenian-Lithuanian nobility accepted the Polish language, culture and, particularly in the ethnically Lithuanian part of the Duchy, the Roman Catholic religion. Simultaneously, the Polish culture accepted numerous eastern elements and Polish political elites frequently neglected problems of the western borders and concentrated on expansion in the east. The Constitution of May 3, 1791, eliminated separate institutions of the Grand Duchy and attempted to reshape the Commonwealth into a homogeneous state. After the Partitions* of Poland, Lithuania (except a small region in East Prussia) found itself within Russian borders. However, the Polonization of Lithuania continued. In the first years of the nineteenth century, Vilna was a most lively center of Polish culture. However, after the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, when Lithuania joined Poland in its struggle against the Tsarist oppression, intense Russification of Lithuania began. Thousands of Polish nobles were deported to Russia, but the Vilna region and some other areas of the former Grand Duchy preserved their Polish character. This occurred in spite of brutal Russian prosecutions, including those after the January Insurrection* of 1863, when Lithuania again became a center of anti-Russian guerrilla activities. In the second half of the nineteenth century, Lithuanian-speaking intelligentsia

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started the Lithuanian national movement. Its objective was to create a Lithuanian state, free of Russian and Polish control. Members of the movement were especially afraid of Polish cultural domination, and the independent Lithuanian state, a republic created in 1918, was unfriendly and suspicious toward Poland. Interwar Polish-Lithuanian relations were also bad because of the conflict about Vilna, the historic Lithuanian capital but a predominantly Polish city. In April 1919, Polish troops took Vilna from the Red Army, which had moved into the city after the evacuation of the Germans. During the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, the Red Army occupied Vilna again and gave it to the Lithuanians. In October 1920, Polish troops commanded by Gen. L. Zeligowski* and consisting of Poles from Lithuania, re-took the Vilna region and proclaimed the formation of an independent Central Lithuania (Litwa Srodkowa).* This was, in fact, a puppet state, which was merged into Poland in 1922. But the Lithuanian Republic refused to recognize it and remained in a state of war without actual armed clashes with Poland throughout most of the interwar period. In 1939, after the Nazi-Soviet partition of Poland, Stalin gave the Vilna region to Lithuania, but, in June 1940, the entire area of Lithuania was incorporated into the USSR along with Latvia and Estonia. CHP, II, 512-534; A. Senn, The Emergence of Modern Lithuania (New York, 1959). LITTLE (LESSER) POLAND (MALOPOLSKA), historic region and upland, hilly area in southern Poland between Silesia,* Mazovia,* Podlasie,* Ukraine,* and Slovakia, with the main cities of Cracow,* Czestochowa,* Sandomierz,* Kielce,* and Lublin.* The region, almost identical to the upper and middle Vistula* River basin, has about 10,000 square miles (25,000 square kilometers) and is bordered by the Tatra Mountains* on the south, the San and Bug Rivers on the east, and the Pilica River on the north. The name Little Poland was coined after the re-unification of Poland in the fourteenth century in opposition to Great or Old Poland (Wielkopolska).* In the tenth century, a large part of Little Poland was controlled by the State of Great Moravia and, then, by the Czech Premyslid dynasty. In the 990s, the region was conquered by the Polish Piast* dynasty, and it became one of the two most important segments of the formative Polish state. About 1040, Kazimierz Odnowiciel (the Restorer)* moved his residence to Cracow,* which became the capital and the main cultural center of Poland until the end of the sixteenth century. A mild climate and fertile soils allowed the development of intense agriculture there. Rich deposits of salt and other minerals, especially iron, constituted a basis for local industry. In the fourteenth century, Little Poland, located at the junction of trade routes from the Baltic Sea to Hungary and from Germany to Rus', became the richest and politically most important region of re-united Poland. The development of the region was accelerated when Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* conquered Halicz* Ruthenia. Both regions, united into one economic entity, became an economic bridge between Poland and the Black Sea region. Little Poland distinguished itself among other provinces of Poland with a high density of population and a

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developed network of cities. After the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising* of 1648-1654, the Swedish "Deluge"* of 1655-1660, and the Northern War* of 1700-1721, Little Poland deteriorated. Incorporated into the Habsburg* Empire after the First Partition* of Poland as the Kingdom of Galicia* and Lodomeria,* it became one of the poorest and most underdeveloped Polish regions. Re-gained by the re-born Polish state after WW I, it improved somewhat during the interwar period. In the 1930s, some parts of Little Poland were industrialized, especially in the area of the Central Industrial District. However, during WW II, the region, merged into the Nazi-controlled General Government,* was devastated. EHGP, I, 461-464. LITWAKS, nickname for Russian-speaking, partly assimilated Jews* from the historical Duchy of Lithuania* and Russia proper, who moved to the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in the second half of the nineteenth century. They were very unpopular among Polish people, who believed that Litwaks contributed to the Russification of Poland. They were also unpopular among Polish Jews, who did not understand Russian and spoke a different Yiddish* from the Lithuanian dialect, were more religious, and believed that Litwaks had a disrespect for them as backward and uneducated. In Warsaw,* all the Jews from the eastern parts of Poland were nicknamed Litwaks. According to popular belief, they were very numerous, although the census of 1891 listed only 4,000 Russian-speaking Jews in Warsaw. I. Lewin, The Jewish Community in Poland (New York, 1985); P. Wrobel, "Jewish Warsaw before the First World War," Polin: A Journal of Polish-Jewish Studies vol. 3 156-187. LIVONIA (Polish: Inflanty, German: Livland), historical region on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea* along the Bay of Riga and the Gulf of Finland, north of Lithuania,* identical with modern Latvia and Estonia. Inhabited by several Baltic and Finnish tribes, Livonia was conquered and Christianized by Germans and Danes. After the conquest, the territory was organized into a loose confederation of the Order of the Brothers of the Sword (which united with the Teutonic Knights* in 1237 and bought Estonia from the Danes in 1347), various autonomous cities and Bishoprics. Numerous German settlers immigrated to Livonia, whose upper classes were Germanized, while the peasantry remained Latvian- or Estonian-speaking. In 1558, Livonia was invaded by Russia, which wanted to prevent Poland from gaining dominance over these lands and was looking for warm-water ports. In 1561, the last Master of the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order, G. Kettler,* unable to defend his state, secularized it and recognized the Polish King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August* as sovereign. After the Livonian Wars, 1558-1583, the northern part of Livonia was taken by Sweden, the southern part became a Polish fief as the Principality of Courland ruled by G. Kettler and his descendants, and the rest was controlled jointly by Poland and Lithuania. In the seventeenth century Livonia became a battlefield of the Swedish Wars.* The Peace Treaty of Oliva* of 1660 gave a greater share of

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Livonian territories to Sweden. In 1721, after the Northern War,* Sweden ceded this land to Russia, which also took Polish Livonia in the First Partition of Poland* in 1772. Up till then, the southeastern regions of Livonia had remained under Polish control for 200 years. A part of the German-speaking gentry of Livonia was Polonized. CHP, I, 475-478; EHGP, 1, 272-273. LOCARNO, PACT OF, series of agreements among Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, and Italy initiated at Locarno and signed in London on December 1, 1925. The treaty guaranteed that the German-Belgian and FrancoGerman frontiers, established by the Versailles Treaty* of 1919, would be inviolable, and disputes among those countries would be settled by pacific means. The treaty left open the question of the eastern German borders, between Poland and Germany and also Czechoslovakia and Germany. Germany agreed only to arbitration in these cases. Great Britain promised to defend Belgium and France but not Poland and Czechoslovakia. Only France guaranteed the integrity of Germany's eastern neighbors, who saw the treaty as a betrayal and an attempt to direct German expansion eastward. The treaty divided Europe into two classes of countries from a security viewpoint, and it encouraged the Germans to violate conditions imposed on them in Versailles. P. Wandycz, France and Her Eastern Allies, 1919-1925 (Minneapolis, 1965). LODOMERIA, Latinized name of Wlodzimierz (Vladimir)* area coined by the Hungarians, when they temporarily occupied the Volhynia* and Halicz* Principalities in the thirteenth century. After the Habsburg* Empire took the southern parts of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* during the First Partition* of Poland in 1772, the Austrians officially called their gains the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria to legitimize this occupation. The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria was supposed to be a restoration of a medieval realm which once belonged to Hungary, as a part of the Empire in the eighteenth century. N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 2 (New York, 1984), 139; P. Wandycz, "The Poles in the Austrian Empire," Austrian History Yearbook, vol. 3, part 2, 1967, 261. LOMPA, JOZEF (1797-1863), writer and Polish national activist in Silesia.* He authored numerous Polish school textbooks, popularized Polish folklore in Silesia, and co-edited several Polish periodicals in that region. WEP, VI. 553. LONDZIN, JOZEF (1863-1929), Polish national leader from Cieszyn Silesia,* Catholic priest, and historian. He established several Polish national institutions in Cieszyn,* a capital of a separate Principality under Habsburg* rule during 1772-1918. He also served as a member of the Austrian Parliament. In 1918— 1920, he presided over the Polish National Council of Cieszyn Silesia (Polska Rada Narodowa na &lasku Cieszyriskim), and, on its behalf, he participated in the Peace Conference in Paris, where he defended Polish rights in his region.

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During 1919-1928, he represented it in the Sejm* and, after 1928, in the Senate.* In 1927, he was elected Mayor of Cieszyn and contributed greatly to its development. PSB, XVII, 538-539. LORD, ROBERT (1885-1954), professor of European history at Harvard University, member of President W. Wilson's "Inquiry" in American preparation for the Paris Peace Conference* in 1919, and a friendly expert on Poland. He authored the classic monograph The Second Partition of Poland (1915). The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, vol. 41 (New York, 1956), 278-279. LUBART DYMITR (Liubartas) (7-1384), Duke of Luck (Lutske)* and Wlodzimierz (Vladimir),* son of Grand Duke of Lithuania* Giedymin (Gediminas).* He fought several wars with Poland. In 1340, he conquered Volhynia* and tried unsuccessfully to capture the Principality of Halicz (Halycz),* taken by Poland. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 3 (Boston, 1973), 411-412; PSB, XVII, 576577. LUBECKI-DRUCKI, FRANCISZEK (1778-1846), statesman. During 17971800, he fought in the Russian Army against France. In 1800, he settled on his family's estate and served in the Grodno* provincial government. He opposed the Napoleonic orientation common in Poland, instead supporting a program of autonomy within the Tsarist Empire for the lands of the former PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.* During Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, Lubecki was at the Tsar's headquarters and assisted in arranging supplies for the Russian armies. In 1815, he became a member of a provisional government of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In 1816, he represented it during the settling of its alleged debts to Austria and Prussia.* He concluded the negotiations so successfully that Alexander I* made him Minister of Finance in the Kingdom in 1821. Lubecki reorganized the Kingdom's finances, which were previously in very bad condition. He brought the budget into balance, successfully negotiated the lowering of the custom taxes between the Kingdom and both Prussia and Russia, and established the national Bank Polski (Polish Bank)* and the Agrarian Credit Association (Towarzystwo Kredytowe Ziemskie). He began to invest the budgetary surplus, starting the industrial revolution in Poland. In particular, he contributed to the rapid development of the mining, textile, iron and steel industries. A shrewd politician, he believed in the importance of a strong executive and knew how to handle the parliamentary liberal opposition, which criticized him for his arbitrary decisions. Though pro-Russian and loyal to Tsar Nicholas I, who trusted him more than any other Pole, Lubecki was not afraid to fight for real autonomy of the Kingdom and to confront its Viceroy, Russian Grand Duke Constantine.* He condemned the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, and, after its fall, he participated in the re-establishment of Russian authority in Poland. R. Leslie, "Politics and Economics in Congress Poland, 1815-1863," Past and Present (London, 1955), 43-62; PSB, XVII, 582-588.

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LUBIENIECKI, STANISLAW (1623-1675), Protestant writer, historian of the Reformation,* and astronomer. After graduation from the Arian Academy in Rakow,* he studied in France and Holland. In 1649, he returned to Poland and served as an Arian* minister. During the Swedish "Deluge"* of 1655, he declared support for the Swedes on behalf of his Arian co-religionists. He left Poland with the Swedish Army in 1657 and settled in Hamburg. He wrote poetry and authored numerous theological and historical treaties. PSB, XVII, 603-607. LUBLIN, city in eastern Poland. Initially a market settlement located on an important trade route between Little Poland (Malopolska)* and Kievian Rus', Lublin developed into a stronghold in the twelfth century. In the thirteenth century, it was destroyed several times by the Tatars,* Jatwingians,* and Russians and temporarily belonged to the Principality of Halicz.* In 1317, it was given the Magdeburg city rights by King Wladyslaw Lokietek.* His successor, Kazimierz Wielki (the Great),* surrounded the city with walls. In the late fourteenth century, Lublin received special trade privileges and became the main trade center between Poland and Lithuania.* It also served as a meeting ground for both states, and the Polish-Lithuanian Union of Lublin* was signed there on June 28, 1569. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Lublin became a site of international fairs, and a lively center of intellectual and cultural life, influenced by humanism and the Reformation.* After the Swedish "Deluge"* of 1655, the city deteriorated; it did not recover until the end of the eighteenth century. In 1795, as a result of the Third Partition* of Poland, Lublin was incorporated into Austria. In 1809, it was regained by the Duchy of Warsaw,* and, from 1815, it was in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In the late nineteenth century, a machine tool industry developed in the city. During WW I, it was the seat of the Austrian occupational authorities. On November 7, 1918, the first provisional government of independent Poland under I. Daszyriski* was created there. In the interwar period, the city's population reached 122,000. Lublin, with the Catholic University (Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski [KUL])* and many artists and writers, was again a cultural center and, as in pre-Partition Poland, a capital of a province (wojewodztwo). During WW II, the Germans established the second largest concentration and extermination camp of Poland at Lublin's Majdanek suburb. Simultaneously, the old castle of Lublin was used as a prison. The Lublin region was a center of intense guerrilla activities. In 1944, the city was the seat of the Soviet-controlled Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego [PKWN]).* WEP, VI, 629630. LUBLIN REGIME. See POLISH COMMITTEE OF NATIONAL LIBERATION. LUBLIN, UNION OF. See UNION OF LUBLIN.

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LUBOMIRSKI, JERZY SEBASTIAN (1616-1667), Grand Crown Marshal (marszalek wielki koronny) from 1650, and Crown Field Hetman* (hetman polny koronny) from 1657. An heir of the aristocratic Lubomirski* family and one of the richest magnates in Poland, he was educated at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* and traveled extensively during 1629-1636. Later he became involved in Polish political life as a member and Marshal of provincial legislative assemblies and holder of numerous offices. In 1643 he was elected Speaker of the Sejm.* He opposed plans for a war against Turkey and assumed a conciliatory position toward the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky)* uprising.* He participated, however, in the fighting against the Cossacks,* and after the initial defeat of Pilawce,* he proved to be an outstanding military commander. He also distinguished himself during the Swedish "Deluge"* of 1655, during the war with the Transylvanian allies of the Swedish invaders, and during the operations against the Russian armies in Ukraine* in 1660. As a consequence of his growing conflict with the King and the Queen, Lubomirski was tried by the Sejm Tribunal and sentenced to loss of life and property. He escaped to Silesia,* established contacts with the Habsburg* Empire and the Brandenburg* Elector, returned to Poland, organized a private Army, and started the anti-Royal confederation in 1664. After several bloody battles and three years of civil war, he reconciled with the King and retired from all state offices. One of the most controversial figures of modern Polish history, he became a symbol of an ambitious magnate who gave priority to his career over Poland's good. CHP, I, 514-539; PSB, XVIII, 14-19. LUBOMIRSKI, STANISLAW HERAKLIUSZ (1642-1702), Grand Crown Marshal from 1676, politician, and writer. A son of Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski, he was also one of the most powerful and ambitious magnates* of his time and played an important political role during the reign of Jan III Sobieski.* He maintained a private theater on his estate, contributed to it as an author, and wrote the first Polish comedy in prose. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 151-152. LUBOMIRSKI, ZDZISLAW (1865-1943), politician. Born in East European Russia, where his parents were deported after the January Insurrection* of 1863, he was educated in Cracow* and Graz, Austria. In 1893, he moved to Warsaw* and became active in political, philanthropic and educational organizations. After the outbreak of WW I, he became the chief leader of Warsaw's Civic Committee and, in November 1914, he joined the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP]).* He refused to leave Warsaw with the Russians, who were withdrawing in the summer of 1915, and became President of the Central Civic Committee, which played the role of a substitute Polish government. The German occupying forces confirmed him as Mayor of Warsaw. He was convinced that Russia would lose the war, but he did not support the Central Powers, opposed the creation of a Polish Army under German and Aus-

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trian command, and ably defended the interests of the Warsaw population against the occupying authorities. Popular among the Polish population, he was appointed by the Emperors of Germany and Austria a member of the Regency Council (Rada Regencyjna)* on October 15, 1917. The council, which also included Cardinal A. Kakowski* and Count J. Ostrowski, was to be the supreme authority in the puppet Kingdom of Poland, announced by the German and Austrian Emperors in their Act of November 5, 1916. In the fall of 1918, Lubomirski started the process of political emancipation of the Polish government from Austria and Germany. In November 1918, he welcomed J. Pilsudski,* who had returned from German internment, and transferred to him the supreme power in Poland. During the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* Lubomirski tried to mediate political differences and became one of J. Pilsudski's candidates for the President of the Republic. During 1928-1935, Lubomirski represented the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR])* in the Senate* but opposed the Brest-Litovsk* trial and, after Pilsudski's death, became very critical of the "Colonels' regime." Arrested by the Gestapo* in 1942, he died after his release from prison. PSB, XVIII, 66-68. LUBRANSKI ACADEMY, humanistic college established by the Bishop of Poznari (Posen),* J. Lubrariski, in that city in 1519. Lubranscianum, one of the first humanist schools in the Polish Kingdom, was to be a new educational center for Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* Initially a branch of the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* it gradually became independent, and even more progressive with its program of humanistic studies. In 1780, the academy was closed by the Committee of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej),* which replaced it with another educational institution. WEP, VI, 633. LUD POLSKI (Polish People), radical democratic organization of Polish exiled soldiers of the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, established by the secessionists from the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP])* in England in 1835. The organization consisted of two sections: Grudziaz* and Human.* Lud Polski demanded dissolution of large estates and radical land reform in Poland, together with the abolition of the nobles' privileges. Its program criticized capitalism, claiming that private property should be limited to the products of one's own work. The organization, led by S. Worcell,* T. Krepowiecki,* and Z. Swietoslawski, cooperated with the British Chartist movement. In the 1840s, the organization was less active, and, in 1846, it was dissolved. The name was used again in 1881 by exiled socialists led by B. Limanowski.* They appealed to a patriotic character in Polish socialism and opposed the Marxist doctrine of class struggle. Their organization survived only one year. P. Brock, Geneza Ludu Polskiego w Anglii (London, 1962); P. Brock, "Polish Democrats and English Radicals, 1832-62: A Chapter in the History of Anglo-Polish Relations," Journal of Modern History, vol. 25 (1953), 139-156; H. Temkinowa, Gromady Ludu Polskiego: Zarys ideologii (Warsaw, 1962).

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LUDWIK I WEGIERSKI (Louis d'Anjou) (1326-1382), King of Hungary from 1342 and of Poland from 1370, the third son of Hungarian King Charles Robert d'Anjou and the Piast* Princess Elzbieta (Elizabeth), daughter of Polish King Wladyslaw Lokietek* and sister of his successor, Kazimierz Wielki (the Great).* In 1335, King Kazimierz and King Charles signed the Wyszehrad (Visehrad) Treaty.* Poland was in the process of conquering Halicz* Ruthenia (East Galicia*), which was also an object of Hungarian plans. The treaty stipulated, therefore, that in exchange for Polish freedom of action in that region one of the Charles's sons would succeed to the Polish throne, if Kazimierz were to die without a male child. In 1370, Ludwik d'Anjou indeed became King of Poland. During his reign, Poland went through a period of economic development. However, he concentrated mostly on Hungarian wars with Venice and Naples. Poland was governed by his mother, Elzbieta, who used the title regina Poloniae, and by Polish magnates,* who frequently quarreled with the regent. The magnates agreed that, after Ludwik's death, the Polish throne would be inherited by one of his daughters in exchange for the Koszyce privilege of 1374. This first general privilege for the Polish gentry and, later, the clergy reduced their taxes to a symbolic sum. In 1384, two years after Ludwik's death, his daughter, Jadwiga (Hedwig),* became Queen of Poland. S. Varady, G. Grosschmid, and L. S. Domenkos (eds.), Louis the Great: King of Hungary and Poland (Boulder, Colorado, 1986).

LUNEVILLE TREATY (1801), peace treaty between Napoleonic France and Habsburg* Austria, signed in the capital of Lorraine on February 9, 1801. Austria reaffirmed all cessions made to France previously and put Tuscany at the disposition of France. The treaty, like the previous one signed in Campo Formio in 1797, did not change the situation of partitioned Poland and was supplemented by the Paris treaty with Russia, which included obligations to foil all activities which might cause damage to the other contracting party. Both agreements caused bitter disappointment in the Polish Legions,* who fought under Napoleon. The Legions were transformed into small troops in the Italian service. Numerous officers left the ranks and returned to Poland. Some joined Italian and French anti-Napoleonic conspiracies. As a consequence, two Polish HalfBrigades, totaling almost 6,000 men, were sent to the French colony of Santo Domingo* (Haiti) to fight against a black slave uprising. Only 300 of them returned to Europe. CHP, II, 225.

LURIA, SALOMON BEN JEHIEL (1510-1573), Jewish theologian, rabbi and head of yeshivas (Jewish religious high schools) in Ostrog, Brest-Litovsk,* and Lublin, where he guided many pupils who became rabbis in Poland and Lithuania.* He was the founder of critical study of the Talmud as the only source of Jewish traditional law (halacha) and opposed traditional scholastic, hairsplitting theology. He wrote numerous theological works and a volume of religious

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poetry. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. XI (Jerusalem, 1971), 572-578; PSB, XVIII, 134135. LUSATIA, historical region between the Elbe and Neisse* Rivers with the main cities of Dresden, Budziszyn (Bautzen), and Chociebuz (Kottbus). In the tenth century, Slavic tribes of Lusatians and Milchans were subjugated by German feudal rulers. In 1002, the Polish ruler Boleslaw Chrobry (the Brave)* took advantage of internal German conflicts and occupied part of Lusatia, thereby causing a war between Poland and the German Empire. In 1018, Lusatia was incorporated into Poland by the Peace of Budziszyn, but, in 1031, during a political crisis in Poland under Mieszko II,* the region was taken back by the Germans. Later, it was divided between Bohemia and Germany. Remnants of the Slavic population survive in Lusatia to the present time. CHP, I, 24-34; WEP, VI, 733. LUSATIAN CULTURE, prehistoric culture which appeared in Lusatia (Lausitz),* Silesia,* and Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* in the Middle Bronze Period (1300-1100 B.C.) and, then, extended to Pomerania,* Prussia,* central Poland, Moravia, and Slovakia. The culture declined about 400 B.C., as a consequence of the Scythian invasion. It was characterized by burning of the dead and a specific style of pottery. The tribes of the Lusatian Culture were sedentary, agricultural and cattle raising. Their ethnic origin is not clear, however. Numerous scholars believe that the culture was established by the Slavic people. Others support German, Illyrian, and Thracian theories. Scholarly discussions on the culture were frequently politically motivated and subjugated to a simplistic question: What population was autochthonous in Poland? SHP, 238. LUTHERANS, members of the branch of the Western Christian church which adopted the religious principles of Martin Luther. Lutheranism appeared in Poland in the 1520s, several years after Luther announced his famous Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. Most of the early Polish Lutherans were burghers of Royal and Ducal Prussia,* Silesia,* Pomerania* and Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* They were predominantly of German origin, and religious services of that denomination were in the German language. At the end of the sixteenth century, the Lutherans established their academic schools in Toruri (Thorn)* and Gdarisk (Danzig).* Polonization of the Lutherans was slowed by the CounterReformation,* which linked Lutheranism with loyalty to Germany. After the Partitions* of Poland the largest group of Polish Lutherans (300,000) found itself in Prussia. A new group of Lutheran immigrants appeared in Polish territories in the nineteenth century. During the interwar period, Lutheranism was the largest denomination among Polish Protestants, totaling about 500,000 persons in 194 parishes. About 50 percent of the Lutherans in interwar Poland were ethnic Germans. SHP, 231-232.

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LUTOSLAWSKI, WINCENTY (1863-1954), philosopher. Educated in Dorpat, Rome, Paris, and London, he began teaching at the Kazan University in 1890. He specialized in Plato and wrote extensively on his logic. In 1895, he settled in Spain, where he elaborated his own philosophical theory, one based on Polish Romantic messianism and claiming that the nation represents the highest metaphysical value. He also taught in Cracow,* Lausanne, Geneva, London, Paris and, from 1919, Vilna.* PSB, XVIII, 153-156. LUTOSLAWSKI, WITOLD (1913-1994), outstanding composer. His early, interwar works were rather conservative in style and used elements of Polish folk music. His best known orchestral works were composed after WW II. 77**? New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. by S. Sadie, vol. 11 (London, 1980), 372-374; New York Times (February 9, 1994), A-16. LUXEMBOURG, HOUSE OF, dynasty established by Conrad, a Count residing at Lutzelburg Castle in the Ardennes, who took the title of Count of Luxembourg about 1060. His successors enlarged their possessions, mostly by dynastic intermarriages, and, in 1308, one of them became German King and Holy Roman Emperor as Henry VII. His son, John of Luxembourg, married a daughter of the last representative of the Czech Pfemyslid dynasty and became King of Bohemia (1310-1346). He undertook several expeditions against Poland to advance the Pfemyslid claim to the Polish Crown and subjugated most of the Silesian* principalities. In 1335, Polish King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* recognized Czech overlordship over Silesia in exchange for the renunciation by King John of the title of King of Poland. John's son, Charles IV, King of Bohemia (1346-1378) and Holy Roman Emperor (1342-1378), one of the most remarkable of all Czech rulers, signed two peace treaties with Kazimierz, married his granddaughter, and was friendly to Poland. The Luxembourg dynasty was continued on the imperial throne by Wenceslas IV (1378-1419) and Sigismund (1419-1437). The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. VII (Cambridge, 1949), 155-182; CHP, I, 181-185. LUXEMBURG, ROSA (Rozalia) (1870-1919), revolutionary, theoretician of Socialism, and activist of Polish and German workers' movements. Born into a lower-middle-class Jewish family in Zamosc,* she joined the Socialist movement in a Warsaw* high school. Faced with prison, in 1889, she left for Zurich, where she studied law and political economy, received a doctorate, and became involved in the international Socialist movement. She disagreed with the leaders of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* She underrated national aspirations, opposed Polish patriotic elements in its ideology, was openly against the very idea of Polish independence, condemned Parliamentary democracy as a bourgeois sham, and claimed that the Congress Kingdom of Poland* was so economically linked with Russia that a reconstruction of Poland would make the situation of the Polish proletariat even worse. Challenging the

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PPS, she co-founded the Social Democratic Party of the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL]),* which became a nucleus of the future Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP]).* She was the key figure in the SDKPiL, co-authored its program, and co-edited its organ, Sprawa Robotnicza (Workers' Matter), and other propaganda publications. In 1898, she moved to Germany and became very active in German Social Democracy (SPD). She attacked E. Bernstein's revisionist theory and defended the necessity of revolution. She also cooperated with the Polish Socialist movement in Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* In 1905, she returned to Warsaw to participate in the first Russian revolution and was imprisoned. Released in 1906, she taught in SPD's party school. She disagreed with Lenin on the necessity of a tight party structure, believed that organization would emerge naturally from the struggle, and considered the mass strike, which resulted spontaneously from "objective conditions," the most important weapon of the proletariat. Jailed several times during the war, she spent almost three years in German prisons. She continued, however, her anti-war Socialist activities, co-founded the leftist Spartakus Group within the SPD and, later, the Communist Party of Germany. She was among the most energetic leaders of the revolution, which started in Germany in November 1918. She was arrested and murdered by members of the counter-revolutionary Freikorps in Berlin in early 1919. R. Abraham, Rosa Luxemburg: A Life for the International (Oxford, 1989); E. Ettinger, Rosa Luxemburg (New York, 1987); L. Kolakowski, Main Currents in Marxism, vol. 2 (Oxford, 1978); G. Netl, Rosa Luxemburg (Oxford, 1969); PSB, XVIII, 119-129. LVOV (Polish: Lwow, Ukrainian: Lviv, German: Lemberg, Russian: Lvov), a cosmopolitan city and the historic capital of Galicia* and Western Ukraine* on the Peltew River (a tributary of the Bug River). It was established in the midthirteenth century by the Prince of Halicz (Halych)* and Volhynia,* Daniel Romanowich (Danylo Romanovych). The name of the city is first mentioned in the Galician-Volhynian Chronicle under the year 1256; however, a settlement already existed in that place by the tenth century. Lvov is located at the intersection of trade routes from the Baltic* Sea to the Black Sea, and from Cracow* to Kiev, also notably at the meeting place of three regions, Roztocze (Roztochia), Podolia,* and the Bug (Buh) River Basin. The city strategically controlled the passes across the Carpathians.* In the 1260s, Lvov became the capital of the Principality of Halicz and Volhynia* and, in 1349, it was captured by Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* and incorporated into Poland. In 1356, Lvov received the city rights of Magdeburg law.* King Kazimierz fortified the city, which became a flourishing trade and artisan center with Ruthenian, Polish, German, Armenian,* Jewish, Tatar,* Karaite,* and Hungarian populations. Lvov, the most important city of the southeastern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* a military stronghold, and a center of Polish and Ruthenian culture, was the capital of Rus' province (wojewodztwo ruskie) and a seat of

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the Roman Catholic Archbishopric (from 1412), the Armenian Bishopric (from 1626), and the Orthodox Bishopric (from 1539), which became the Uniate* Bishopric in 1700. Consequently, it developed various attractive cathedrals, characterized by Gothic and Baroque architecture. From the mid-seventeenth century, the city declined, having been attacked and captured several times by the Cossacks,* Tatars, and Swedes. In 1772, as a result of the First Partition* of Poland, it was incorporated into the Austrian Empire and became the capital of the Crownland of Galicia* and Lodomeria.* Lvov developed rapidly, especially in the second half of the nineteenth century, when it became the capital of autonomous Galicia, a center of Polish administration and politics, industry, culture, and education, and a junction of several railways. After 1905, Lvov became known as a most lively center of the Polish freedom movement led by J. Pilsudski and his associates, K. Sosnkowski,* M. Kukiel,* W. JodkoNarkiewicz,* and W. Sikorski.* A very dynamic Ukrainian national movement also developed in Lvov, which became the headquarters of major Ukrainian political and other organizations. After the outbreak of WW I, Lvov was occupied by the Russians (from September 1914 to July 1915). In October 1918, the Ukrainian National Rada (Council) proclaimed a Ukrainian state in the east Galician territories and, on November 1, 1918, Ukrainians took military control over Lvov. The city was predominantly Polish (in 1910, Poles constituted 51.2 percent of the entire population, Ukrainians 19.2 percent and Jews* 27.8 percent), and the Polish inhabitants answered with a spontaneous uprising, which started the Ukrainian-Polish War* of 1918-1919. During the interwar period, Lvov, which had reached 340,000 people on the eve of WW II, was again the capital of a Polish province (wojewodztwo lwowskie) and a center of a strong Ukrainian national movement. In 1939, as a result of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact,* Lvov was incorporated into the Soviet Ukraine. In June 1941, it was captured by the Germans and merged into the Nazi occupation General Government.* Under both the Soviets and the Nazis, a large section of Lvov's population was deported and exterminated. The Germans annihilated the entire Jewish community, which constituted 31.9 percent (99,600) of the city population in 1931. After WW II, Lvov was again incorporated into the Soviet Ukrainian Republic, with most of the remaining Poles leaving for the western parts of liberated Poland. R. Bailly, A City Fights for Freedom (London, 1956); Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc,vol. 3 (Toronto, 1988), 217-228; Lviv: A Symposium on Its 700th Anniversary (New York, 1962); S. Mekarski, Lwow: A Page of Polish History (London, 1991). LVOV-WARSAW SCHOOL, group of Polish philosophers, mathematicians, and logicians active mainly in Lvov* and Warsaw.* The school emerged around K. Twardowski* before WW I in Lvov and developed further during the interwar period, when J. Lukasiewicz and T. Kotarbiriski taught at Warsaw University* and K. Twardowski and K. Ajdukiewicz continued their scholarly activities in Lvov. Their pupils, including K. Banach, L. Chwistek,* T. Czezowski, W.

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Sierpiriski,* H. Steinhaus, A. Tarski* and Z. Zawirski, played an increasingly important role among Polish philosophers and taught at almost all Polish universities. They specialized particularly in logic and semantics. They were united more by similar methods of solving their problems than by specific ideology and tried to avoid excessive speculations in their anti-irrational, precise style of expression. They emphasized strict logic and specified that the clearest possible language be used in philosophy, as it is practiced in the "hard sciences." Z. Jordan, The Development of Mathematical Logic and Logical Positivism in Polandbetween the Two Wars (London, 1945); W. Sierpiriski, "The Warsaw School of Mathematics," Polish Review IV/1-2 (1959), 51-63. LANCUCKI, STANISLAW (1882-1937), activist in the Polish workers' movement. A railway worker, he joined the Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia (Polska Partia Socjal-Demokratyczna Galicji i Slaska Cieszyriskiego [PPSD])* in 1900. During WW I, he was active in the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In 1919, he joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and represented it in the Parliament, but, in 1921, he transferred to the Communist Workers' Party of Poland, later renamed the Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP]).* Imprisoned by the Polish police in 1924, he moved to the USSR in 1929. Arrested by the NKVD in 1937, he died in a Soviet prison. WEP, VI, 688. LANCUT, small city founded in the fourteenth century in the Rzeszow* region in southern Poland. During 1629-1641, an impressive castle was built there by S. Lubomirski.* The seat of the Lubomirski family, it passed to the Potocki* family in the nineteenth century, and, during 1885-1915, it was rebuilt in the neo-Baroque style. Surrounded by one of the most beautiful English-style parks in Poland, it was in the Potockis' hands until 1944 and, later, it was reorganized into a museum. Encyclopedia of World Art, vol. 11 (Toronto, 1967), 414; WEP, VI, 688. LASKI, JAN (1456-1531), Grand Chancellor* of Poland during 1503-1510, Archbishop of Gniezno* from 1510 and, thereby, Primate* of Poland, and uncle of Jan Laski (Joannes a Lasco).* Born into the family of a middle nobleman, he became a priest and started his career in 1502 as the King's secretary. One of the leaders of the "Execution-of-the-Law"* movement, he supported the middle gentry against the magnates. At the Sejm* of Radom* in 1505, he contributed greatly to the passage of the Constitution nihil novi* which completed the rudimentary parliamentary system in Poland. An ardent foe of the Teutonic Knights* and the Habsburgs,* he demanded the direct incorporation of Ducal Prussia* and Mazovia* into Poland. In 1505, he compiled the "Laski Statutes," the first official edition of Polish law. Under his aegis, the Counter-Reformation*

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began in Poland. New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 8 (San Francisco, 1967), 395-396; PSB, XVIII, 234-237. LASKI, JAN (Joannes a Lasco) (1499-1560), religious reformer, nephew of Jan Laski.* Excellently educated under the guidance of his uncle in Cracow,* Bologna and Padua, he traveled extensively throughout Western Europe, where he befriended Erasmus of Rotterdam, Zwingli and Melanchton. In 1539, he left Poland, parted with Catholicism, and organized a Protestant church in Emden, Friesland. Later, he converted to Calvinism* and moved to London, where he became head of the Ecclesia Peregrinorum, the congregation of refugees. In this position, he influenced the development of Puritanism and Anglicanism. Deported by Queen Mary Tudor, who sought to re-establish Catholicism in England, he went to Denmark and, then, to Emden and Frankfurt. Invited by the Polish Calvinists, in 1556 he returned to Poland, where he tried unsuccessfully to win the King and the Lutherans* to Calvinism and became the head of Calvinists in Poland. H. Dalton, John a Lasco (London, 1936); H. Kowalska, Dzialalnosc Reformatorska Jana Laskiego w Polsce, 1556-1560 (Wroclaw, 1969); New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 8 (San Francisco, 1967), 396; PSB, XVIII, 237-244. LAZIENKI, Warsaw's* attractive park and neo-classic palace built in the second half of the eighteenth century along the main thoroughfare Ujazdowskie Boulevard as an English-style park with pavilion. In the Middle Ages, a zoo by the castle of Mazovian* Dukes was located there. From the early seventeenth century, there was a pavilion with an elegant bath (lazienki), hence the name of the entire place. By the end of that century, S. Lubomirski,* then owner of the Ujazdow suburb-estate, had hired Tylman of Gameren to reconstruct the object into a larger pavilion, called Ermitage. In 1764, King Stanislaw August* purchased Ujazdow to make it his summer residence with a new palace on the lake island. The work was completed in 1795, but even before its completion, the new palace hosted the famous Thursday dinners* for Warsaw's literati. An art gallery, the Orange House and the Amphitheater were simultaneously erected by D. Merlini and J. Kamsetzer. In 1817, the Cadet Officers School was moved there, while part of Lazienki was turned into a Botanical Garden. In 1926 Chopin's monument was erected in Lazienki by W. Szymanowski. The Germans burned the palace in 1945. Encyclopedia of World Art, vol. 11 (New York, 1967), 390; M. Kwiatkowski, Lazienki and Belweder (Warsaw, 1986); W. Tatarkiewicz, Lazienki Warszawskie (Warsaw, 1957). L£CZYCA, town in central Poland. Established in the eleventh century, it was a seat of Castellans.* During the appanage fragmentation of Poland in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Leezyca was the capital of a Principality. Located in the center of Polish territories, it hosted several important meetings, including state and Catholic Church synods, up to the eighteenth century. In 1180 at the L^czyca Congress, Kazimierz Sprawiedliwy (Casimir the Just)*

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persuaded magnates of Little Poland (Malopolska)* and the Bishops of Poland to abolish the principle of Seniorate* and to create a new hereditary province of Cracow* for him. In exchange for their support, he surrendered certain rights to the Church, which gained a unique position and sometimes even preponderance in Polish affairs. In 1267, L^czyca received city rights; in 1331, it was burned by the Teutonic Knights*; and, in 1353, it was rebuilt by King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* as an important stronghold. Virtually destroyed during the Swedish "Deluge"* of 1655, the city then deteriorated. In the nineteenth century, it lost its favored position to neighboring Lodz.* On the eve of WW II, Leezyca had about 11,000 inhabitants. SHP, 234-235. LOBODOWSKI, JOZEF (1909-1988), poet and translator. During 19171922, he lived with the Kuban Cossacks,* and because of his feelings toward the Ukraine,* he can be considered an inheritor of the Romantic "Ukrainian school."* He spent the 1920s and 1930s in Lublin* and Volhynia,* where he initially supported the communist movement but, then, disillusioned, assumed an anti-communist position and published "catastrophic" poems. In 1937, he received the Youth Award from the Polish Academy of Literature.* He fought in the September Campaign* of 1939 and, later, escaped to Hungary and Paris. After the fall of France, he settled in Spain, where he wrote a powerful book of patriotic poetry, Z Dymem Pozarow (With the Smoke of Fires), and was active as one of the best Polish translators from Ukrainian, Russian, and Spanish. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 528. LOMZA, town in Eastern Mazovia.* First chronicled in the thirteenth century, it received city rights in 1428 and developed into one of the largest towns of Mazovia and a local trade and crafts center. It carried on commercial relations with Gdarisk (Danzig)* and dense nearby forests were a favorite royal hunting place. In the second half of the seventeenth century, the city deteriorated, and it had only 2,000 inhabitants at the beginning of the nineteenth century. In 1795, after the Third Partition of Poland, Lomza fell into Prussian hands. Later, it belonged to the Duchy of Warsaw* and the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* where it served as a capital of a province. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the city gradually developed, receiving cloth, sugar, beer and leather factories. After WW I, Lomza was regained by Poland and, in 1920, became the seat of a Catholic Bishopric. In 1939, the city was occupied by the Soviets, and, in 1941, it was taken by the Nazis. Destroyed 70 percent, it was liberated in September 1944 with 12,000 people left. SHP, 235. LOWICZ, town in central Poland on the Bzura River. From the twelfth to the eighteenth century, it was subject to the Archbishops of Gniezno.* About 1300, it received city rights and became a prosperous commercial center on the trade route from Toruri (Thorn)* to Lvov.* The Gothic Collegiate and parish church, both reconstructed later in the Baroque style, were erected there during the

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period of prosperity. Lowicz became also a capital of one of the most important Polish regions of folk art. A residence of the Archbishops of Gniezno, the city and its neighborhood were ruled by them as an absolute princedom. After the Third Partition* of Poland, it was seized by the Prussian government. In 1807, Napoleon presented the Lowicz region to Marshal L. N. Davout and, in 1820, Tsar Alexander I* gave the "Lowicz Principality" to Grand Duke Constantine* and his wife, J. Grudziriska.* In 1845, Lowicz was linked with Warsaw* by railroad and acquired a more industrial character. In 1939, it had about 18,000 inhabitants. The city was seriously damaged during the Battle of Bzura* in September 1939. Encyclopedia of World Art, vol. 11 (New York, 1967), 398; SHP, 235-236. LODZ, second largest city of Poland. It was chronicled for the first time as the village of Lodzia in 1332. In 1423, King Wladyslaw Jagiello* granted it Magdeburg city rights but, until the nineteenth century, Lodzia had never had more than about 200 inhabitants. The economic development of the modern city, renamed L6dz, began in 1823, when the government of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* started to support the building of large manufacturers in that region. In 1840, the population of Lodz reached 20,000. In 1850, trade barriers between Russia and the Kingdom were lifted. In 1866, the city was connected by a railway with Warsaw* and Silesia,* and it became a "Polish Manchester." One of the main textile centers of the Russian Empire, with substantial foreign capital, West European specialists, and huge markets, Lodz was noted for its export products to Russia, China, and the Orient. In 1900, about 310,000 people lived in Lodz, which was a center of the workers' movement and one of the main arenas of revolutionary events in the Russian Empire in 1905-1907. After the outbreak of WW I, a major battle between Russian and German armies was fought near Lodz, which declined under the German occupation. In interwar Poland, Lodz, with 672,000 inhabitants in 1939, was a capital of a province (wojewodztwo). During WW II, the city, renamed Litzmannstadt by the Nazis, was incorporated into the Third Reich. In 1940, the Nazis organized a ghetto* for 300,000 Jews* in Lodz, and they exterminated the Jewish population before the Red Army took the city on January 19, 1945. L. Dobroszycki, Chronicle of the Lodz Ghetto, 1941-1944 (London, 1987); A. Ginsbert Lodz, Studium monograficzne (L6dz, 1962). LUBIENSKI, FELIKS (1758-1848), lawyer, Minister of Justice in the Duchy of Warsaw,* father of Henryk Lubieriski.* Member of the Parliament of 1778 and of the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792, he was the Civil-Military Commissar during the Kosciuszko Insurrection* in 1794. In 1807, he served on the Government Committee (Komisja Rzadzaca) of the Polish territories occupied by Napoleon and was in charge of judicial and religious affairs. After the Duchy of Warsaw was created, he became its Minister of Justice, and he initiated the decree of December 1807 confirming the peasants' personal freedom. He intro-

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duced the Napoleonic Code, which remained in effect in central Poland as civil law until 1939. In 1808, he established the Law School, later transformed into the Law Department of Warsaw University.* WEP, VI, 723. LUBIENSKI, HENRYK (1793-1883), banker and industrialist in the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* son of Feliks Lubieriski.* A co-founder of the Land Credit Association (Towarzystwo Kredytowe Ziemskie) in 1825 and Vice President of the Polish Bank (Bank Polski),* he supported the politics of industrialization and was a pioneer of the sugar industry in Poland. Accused of corrupt financial practices in 1842, he was imprisoned and deported to Russia. WEP, VI, 723. LUCK (Lutske), town in Volhynia* on the Styr River. First mentioned in the twelfth century, it was probably a much older tribal center. It belonged to the Principality of Wlodzimierz Wolyriski (Volodymyr-Volynskyi)* and, later, to the Principality of Halicz (Halych)* and Volhynia. In 1340, it was incorporated into Lithuania* by Giedymin's (Gedyminas's) son, Lubart,* who built a powerful castle there. After the Union of Lublin* in 1569, the city came under Polish rule as the capital of a province (wojewodztwo). It became an important trade center with Jewish, Armenian,* and Karaite* settlement; a center of Polish and Ruthenian culture and education; and an important stronghold against the Tatars* and Cossacks.* In the late seventeenth century, the city declined. In 1795, as a result of the Third Partition* of Poland, it was merged into Russia. In 1897, its population was 14,800 (79 percent Jewish). After WW I, Luck returned to Poland and was again a capital of a province as well as a center of the Ukrainian national movement. Its population reached 60,000 in 1939, when it was annexed by the Soviets. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 3 (Toronto, 19 212-213. LUKASIEWICZ, JAN (1878-1956), logician. Educated in Lvov* under K. Twardowski,* and in Berlin, Louvain, and Graz, he became a professor of Lvov University in 1911. As an author of the "Polish notation," he became the founder of the "new triple logics" and member of Lvov-Warsaw School* of mathematical logic. He made a number of original contributions to its methodology, of which the most important was his critical study on contradictions in Aristotle's philosophy. Lukasiewicz also dealt with the theory of probability. A professor at Warsaw University* from 1920, he became its Rector in 1922-1923 and 1931. He also served as Director of the Department of Higher Learning in the Ministry of Education and Minister of Education and Religious Affairs in the government of I. Paderewski.* During the interwar period, Lukasiewicz concentrated on formal logic and its history. His main achievements are the creation of multi-value logic and his deliberations on determinism. Encyclopedia of Ph losophy III, 104-107; Z. Jordan, The Development of Mathematical Logic and of Positivism in Poland between the Two Wars (Oxford, 1945); PSB, XVIII, 523

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LUKASIEWICZ, IGNACY (1822-1882), inventor. He participated in the preparation of the Cracow Insurrection* and was arrested in 1846. After his release, he worked in a pharmacy, completed his studies in Cracow* and Vienna, and focused on petroleum and its fractional distillation. In 1852, he developed a new product, which he called "nafta" kerosene. He invented the petroleum lamp, established the world's first oil "mine" in Bobrka near Krosno in 1854, and built the first refinery in Ulaszowice near Jaslo. In 1862, he replaced hand mining with drilling machinery and steam power. He chaired the first petroleum congress in Lvov* in 1877 and developed the first enterprises of Galicia's oil industry. PSB, XVIII, 520-523 LUKASIEWICZ, JULIUSZ (1892-1951), diplomat. He was active in Polish youth organizations in Russia before WW I, in the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC])* and, after 1914, in the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW].* In 1917, he served as a secretary of A. Lednicki* in a commission for the "liquidation" of legal and property relations between Russia and Poland. In 1918, he volunteered to the newly created Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, where he served until 1939. First, he worked as an expert on Russia in the Ministry's Eastern Department. In 1921, he became Secretary of the Paris Legation, where he befriended the future Foreign Minister, J. Beck.* Then, he served as Director of Political and Economic Department of the Ministry and, subsequently, as Minister to Riga and Vienna, and Ambassador in Moscow and Paris from 1936. He shared J. Beck's distrust of the West European attitude toward Poland, which made them both unpopular in France. He supported the partition of Czechoslovakia and advised the French government against assistance to that country. On the eve of WW II, he energetically pursued the preparation of the Franco-Polish alliance signed on September 4, 1939. He helped in the appointment of Gen. W. Sikorski* as Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army in France and the nomination of W. Raczkiewicz* to succeed Pres. I. Moscicki.* Lukasiewicz was dismissed on French request and became a leader of the opposition to the new Premier of the Polish Government-in-Exile,* W. Sikorski. In July 1940, Lukasiewicz and a group of exiled politicians in London tried to convince President Raczkiewicz to dismiss Sikorski. Lukasiewicz also opposed the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement* of summer 1941 and the appointment of S. Mikolajczyk* as new Premier. In 1945, Lukasiewicz co-founded the Independence League (Liga Niepodleglosci) of the political heirs of J. Pilsudski.* W. Jedrzejewicz (ed.), Diplomat in Paris, 19 1939: Papers and Memoirs of Juliusz Lukasiewicz, Ambassador of Poland (New 1970); PSB, XVIII, 527-529. LUKASINSKI, WALERIAN (1786-1868), Polish officer and patriotic activist. He joined the military in 1807 and participated in most Napoleonic campaigns as an officer of the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw.* Temporarily imprisoned by the Austrians in 1813, he joined the Army of the Congress Kingdom of

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Poland* in 1814. Serving under Grand Duke Constantine,* he tried to counteract the Russification program and created a clandestine national freemasonry (Wolnomularstwo Narodowe) organization and the Patriotic Society (Towarzystwo Patriotyczne). The organizations planned a national insurrection leading to the full independence of Poland. In 1822, Lukasiriski was arrested and, later, sentenced to nine years in prison. In 1825, he co-organized a rebellion of prisoners and received a harsher sentence. After the outbreak of the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he was moved to the Schliesselburg prison near St. Petersburg, where he spent almost forty years. He became a symbol of unlimited patriotic devotion. S. Askenazy, Lukasiriski (Warsaw, 1929); PSB, XVIII, 532LUSKINA, STEFAN (1725-1793), Jesuit.* After studies in Vienna and Rome, he taught mathematics and physics in a Jesuit* college in Vilna* and in the Collegium Nobilium in Warsaw,* where he also was a Rector. He published on physics, astronomy and philosophy and served as confessor to Stanislaw Leszczyriski* at Luneville. After the dissolution of the Jesuit Order by the Papacy in 1773, he turned to journalism, co-edited with F. Bohomolec* Wiadomosci Warszawskie (Warsaw News), and founded and edited Gazeta Warszawska (Warsaw Gazette), which was considered an official organ of the Royal Chancery. Luskina espoused a reactionary world view and supported the Targowica* Confederation. PSB, XVIII, 577 LYSA GORA, (Bald Mountain), the second highest peak of the Swietokrzyskie Mountains (595 meters) in south-central Poland. During the eighth and ninth centuries, the top hill of Lysa Gora, surrounded by a mile-long stone wall, was the largest center of pagan worship in Central Poland. Early in the twelfth century, Polish Prince Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth)* established a Benedictine* monastery there. The monastery played a military role and was devastated several times by the Tatars* and Swedes. In 1819 the monastery was closed and, in 1825, the Russians established there a strict security jail, which functioned until the interwar period. The wooded and remote area of Lysa Gora was frequently a center of guerrilla activities during Polish national uprisings. In 1863, during the January Insurrection,* Lysa Gora served as headquarters of Gen. M. Langiewicz.* During WW II, the Germans used the former monastery as an extermination camp for Soviet prisoners of war. WEP, VI, 735

M MACHAJSKI, JAN WACLAW (1866-1926), Polish and Russian revolutionary, publicist, and a friend of S. Zeromski,* who modeled several characters of his novels on Machajski. As a student of Warsaw* University, he belonged to the Union of Polish Youth "Zet" (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej "Zet")* and some clandestine socialist groups close to the party known as Proletariat* and B. Limanowski's* organization. Arrested in 1892, he was deported to Siberia where he met numerous Russian revolutionaries and began to write theoretical treatises on the future of socialism. In 1903 he escaped from Siberia.* He settled in Geneva and, later, in Galicia* and France. In 1917, he went to Russia but did not participate actively in the Revolution there and spent the rest of his life as a proofreader for an economic journal. A non-Marxist anarchosyndicalist, he rejected the parliamentary system and the struggle for independence of Poland. He believed in the need for a universal proletarian organization, which would create a dictatorship of the proletariat through a general strike. He claimed that the intelligentsia was among the enemies of the workers and socialist intellectuals were parasites manipulating the working class. PSB, XVIII, 619-621; M Shatz, Jan Waclaw Machajski: A Radical Critic of the Russian Intelligentsia cialism (Pittsburgh, 1989 MACIEJ BORKOWIC (7-1360), Palatine (wojewoda) and Elder (starosta) of Poznari (Posen)* in 1346-1348 and 1348-1352, respectively. He opposed the centralization policy of King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great),* organized the first Polish confederation* of nobles, and tried to defend the autonomy of Great Poland (Wielkopolska) within the Polish state. He was condemned to death by starvation. CHP, I, 175 MACIEJ Z MIECHOWA (Miechowita) (1457-1523), historian, physician, geographer, and astronomer. Educated in Cracow* and Bologna, he taught at the

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Jagiellonian University* from 1488. He also served as a physician and adviser at the Royal Court. He was elected seven times as Rector of his university during 1501-1519. A successful administrator, he donated money to develop and reform the university. In 1510, he began to write Chronica Polonorum. It had a significant impact on Polish historiography and included a summary of J. Dlugosz's* chronicle and an original description of the 1481-1506 period, as observed by Miechowita. He also authored the geoethnographical work which provided the first description of the lands between the Vistula* River and the Caspian Sea. PSB, XIX, 28-33. MACIEJOWICE, BATTLE OF, last battle of the Kosciuszko Insurrection* on October 10, 1794, at the village of Maciejowice near Grqjec* T. Kosciuszko* wanted to prevent a fusion of two Russian Armies, which could lead to a decisive Russian offensive against Warsaw.* He attacked one of the Armies, when it was crossing the Vistula* River. The maneuver might have led to success, but Kosciuszko had only 7,000 men, the corps of Gen. A. Poniriski failed to support them, and the Russian Army of 14,000, commanded by Gen. I. Fersen, crushed the Polish troops. Kosciuszko, seriously wounded, was taken prisoner, and the entire uprising collapsed. This opened the way to the final Partition* of Poland in 1795. CHP, II, 171-172. MACIEJOWSKI, BERNARD (1548-1608), Cardinal from 1604 and Archbishop of Gniezno* from 1605. A son of a Castellan* of Lublin,* he was educated in a Jesuit* college, served as a Royal Standard-Keeper, was elected to a Provincial Dietine, and participated in King Stefan Batory's* war against Moscow. Later, he decided to enter the priesthood and studied in Perugia and Rome. In 1587, he was appointed Bishop of Luck.* He was one of the main organizers of the Union of Brest-Litovsk* and opposed the religious tolerance promoted by the Warsaw Confederation.* In 1600, he became a Bishop of Cracow,* and later a Cardinal and Archbishop of Gniezno. In 1603, he published the first Polish Index librorum prohibitorum. As a promotor of the union between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, he supported Polish intervention in Russia during the Times of Troubles. He mitigated between leaders of the Zebrzydowski Rebellion* and the King. Maciejowski was one of the most important proponents of the Trent Council reforms and a pillar of the Counter-Reformation in Poland. PSB, XIX, 48-51. MACIERZ SZKOLNA (School Union), joint name of several Polish educational organizations. The first was established in Lvov* in 1880 by the novelist J. Kraszewski* to popularize literature. The second, organized in the Cieszyn* region in 1885, supported Polish elementary and secondary schools until WW II, including the territories which became part of Czechoslovakia after WW I. In 1905, the novelist H. Sienkiewicz* co-founded another School Union in Warsaw. It supported schools and reading in central Poland until WW II. During

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1921-1939, a Polish School Union was active in the free city of Gdarisk (Danzig).* WEP, VI, 75 MACKIEWICZ-CAT, STANISLAW (1896-1966), writer and conservative politician. Active in Polish clandestine youth organizations before WW I, he joined the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* in 1917. He studied at Vilna* University and participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. Simultaneously he started his journalistic career in Cracow's* daily Czas (Time) in 1918. During 1922-1939, he edited the daily Slowo (Word) in Vilna,* the organ of conservative landowners. This newspaper, besides Cracow's Ilustrowany Kurier Codzienny (Illustrated Daily Courier [IKC]),* was the only Polish provincial paper with a nationwide circulation, notably due to the high level of its diverse public essays. Mackiewicz, one of the few Polish monarchists, favored a program of re-establishment of the prePartitions borders of Poland, opposed the Riga Peace Treaty* as minimalist, condemned Polish "exotic alliances" with France, favored close relations with Germany, and was one of the most anti-Soviet Polish writers. He also opposed the democratic Constitution of March 1921* and land reform.* He admired J. Pilsudski,* mediated between him and the conservatives, and represented the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wsp61pracy z Rzadem [BBWR])* in the Parliament during 1928-1935. After Pilsudski's death, Mackiewicz criticized the Sanacja* regime, especially its foreign policy, and was temporarily imprisoned in the concentration camp of Bereza Kartuska.* He left Poland in September 1939, published the Slowo weekly in Paris, and was nominated a member of the National Council (Rada Narodowa),* the Polish Parliament-in-Exile. In June 1940, he tried to convince President W. Raczkiewicz* to follow France in capitulating to Hitler. In September 1940 he arrived in London, where he became one of the most vocal opponents of Gen. W. Sikorski.* After WW II, Mackiewicz was one of the leaders of the Polish anti-communist emigre community in England. He was a very prolific writer, and he specialized in provocative historical essays. PSB, XIX, 91-94; Rudnicki, "The Polish Conservative Idea after 1918," Acta Poloniae Historica X (1979), 123-151. MACZEK, STANISLAW (1892-1994), General. A reserve officer of the Austrian Army during WW I, he joined Polish troops in 1918 and participated in the Ukrainian-Polish War* and the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. An officer of the Polish Army during the interwar period, he commanded the only motorized unit of Polish forces in the September Campaign* of 1939. On September 18 he crossed the Carpathian* Mountains with his Brigade and soon reached France, where he was promoted by Gen. W. Sikorski* to Brigadier-General in charge of the Polish Army camp at Coetquidan* in Brittany. There he organized a light mechanized division, which participated in the Franco-German campaign of June 1940. After the fall of France, Maczek served with Polish troops in

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Great Britain, including later in the invasion of Normandy and the Battle of Falaise.* Then his First Armored Division pursued the Germans through France, Belgium, and Holland. After WW II, he stayed in England. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Wa saw, 1991), 49; S. Maczek, Od podwody do czolga (Edinburgh, 196 MADALINSKI, ANTONI (1739-1804), General. He began his military service in 1768, participated in the Bar Confederation,* and left the Army in 1779. Elected to the Parliaments of 1786 and 1788, he belonged to the Society of the Friends of the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* In 1789, he returned to the Army and participated in the preparation of the Kosciuszko Insurrection.* In March 1794, his Brigade rebelled and marched out toward Cracow,* which started the insurrection. On April 3, 1794, Madaliriski's forces joined Kosciuszko's troops and, on the next day, participated in the Battle in Raclawice.* Madaliriski also fought in the Battle of Szczekociny, in the defense of Warsaw,* and in the antiPrussian operations in Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* After the fall of the uprising, he was temporarily imprisoned by the Prussians, and, later, he settled on a landed estate. PSB, XIX, 104-108. MADEIRA, Portuguese island where Marshal J. Pilsudski* stayed from midDecember 1930 until the end of March 1931. This was his longest vacation ever, caused by the deteriorating state of his health. During the stay, he completed the last of his works, Poprawki historyczne (Historical Corrections), commenting on the memoirs of I. Daszyriski* and L. Baliriski. W. Jedrzejewicz, Jozef Pilsudski, 1867-1935 (London, 198 MAGDEBURG LAW, urban law of Magdeburg city which, from the end of the twelfth century, served as a model for other East German towns and played an important role in the shaping of the "German law" in Poland, Lithuania* and the Ukraine.* The law recapitulated the previous experiences of the German towns, regulated the forms and areas of responsibility of city self-government, dealt with the planning of street networks and new settlements, and created an organizational structure which reshaped city life in relatively young Polish towns. It was used first in Zlotoryja before 1211, Lwowek before 1217, Sroda Alaska before 1235, Wroclaw (Breslau)* in 1242, and Cracow* in 1257. In the mid-thirteenth century, all major cities of Great and Little Poland (Wielkopolska and Malopolska)* operated under the Magdeburg Law. The cities of Lithuania,* Ruthenia,* and Mazovia* obtained the law in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Frequently, it was used in its Polish adaptation, which was elaborated in Sroda Alaska or Chelmno. Translated into Latin and published by Chancellor* J. Laski* in 1506, the Magdeburg Law became virtually synonymous with Polish urban law, and was thus valid until the Partitions* of Poland. CHP, I, 125147.

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MAGNATES, rich members of the landed nobility who grew into an oligarchy in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Poland. The group originated in the Middle Ages, especially during the feudal fragmentation of Poland, when the central power was weak and looked for support from the nobility and the Church. After the re-unification of Poland in the fourteenth century, rich noblemen continued their struggle for more privileges against a central authority. Their political position was strengthened after the Piast* dynasty died out, and the rich lords decided about the election of subsequent kings. H. Olszewski, "The Essence and Legal Foundations of the Magnate Oligarchy in Poland," Acta Poloniae Historica (1987), 29-49; A. Pospiech and W. Tygielski, "The Social Role of Magnates' Courts in Poland from the End of the 16th up to the 18th Century," Acta Poloniae Historica 43 (1981). MAISKY-SIKORSKI AGREEMENT, treaty signed by the Soviet Ambassador to Great Britain, I. Maisky, and the Premier of the Polish Government-inExile,* Gen. W Sikorski,* in London on July 30, 1941. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the USSR ceased to be the ally of the Third Reich, signed a mutual assistance agreement with Great Britain, and found itself, at least potentially, on the same side of the anti-Nazi front as Poland. The British authorities encouraged the Polish Government-in-Exile to start negotiations with the Soviets to build a large coalition against Hitler. The agreement concluded renewed Polish-Soviet diplomatic relations, broken off by the Soviet participation in Hitler's invasion of Poland in September 1939, and invalidated the Russo-German partition of Poland. It discussed problems of mutual assistance and non-aggression, "amnesty" to Polish POWs and civilians imprisoned by the USSR, and formation of a Polish army in the USSR. The treaty met with the strong opposition of several exiled politicians from the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and the right-wing National Party and caused the resignation from Gen. W. Sikorski's cabinet of Foreign Minister A. Zaleski,* Minister of Parliamentary Affairs M. Seyda,* and Gen. K. Sosnkowski.* The agreement freed hundreds of thousands of Polish people from the Soviet camps and made possible the formation of the Polish Army led by Gen. W. Anders.* However, after the later discovery of the mass graves of Polish officers at Katyri,* the Soviets severed diplomatic relations with the Polish Government-in-Exile again. J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland 1939-1947 (Gloucester, 1986), 61-71; Documents on Polish-Soviet Relations, 1939-1945, vol.I,no. 106 (London, 1961); J. Karski, The Great Powers and Poland, 1919-1945: FromVersailles to Yalta (Washington, D.C.), 403-411; S. Meiklejohn Terry, Poland's Place in Europe: General Sikorski and the Origin of the Oder-Neisse Line, 1939-1943 (Princeto, New Jersey, 1983), 56-65. MAJDANEK, Nazi concentration and extermination camp established in the suburb of Lublin* in July 1941. Surrounded by a double barbed-wire fence connected to a high-voltage transmission line, it contained 227 structures, in-

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eluding 22 prisoner barracks, 7 gas chambers, a large crematorium, workshops, storehouses, and others. Close to 500,000 persons, from 28 countries and belonging to 54 nationalities, passed through Majdanek, and some 360,000 of them perished. Some of them were taken to the gas chambers on arrival at the camp. There are lists of 250,000 prisoners, of whom 100,000 were Poles, 80,000 Jews, 50,000 Soviets, and 20,000 others. The most numerous categories of inmates were Jews from the ghettos,* Poles seized in raids or arrested in Polish towns, Polish farmers expelled from the Zamosc* region, and Soviet POWs. Majdanek had several satellite camps. Resistance movements were active in Majdanek, which was liberated by the Red Army in July 1944. In October 1944, a national museum was established in Majdanek. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 3 (New York, 1990), 937-940; J. Marszalek, The Concentration Camp in Lublin (Warsaw, 1986). MAJER, JOZEF (1808-1899), physician and anthropologist. A veteran of the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he taught physiology at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* from 1848 and was its first professor of anthropology from 1856. Active in the Scientific Society of Cracow (Towarzystwo Naukowe Krakowskie), he helped to reshape it into the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU])* and was its President for many years. WEP, VI, 788-789.

MAKAREWICZ, JULIUSZ (1872-1955), lawyer and scholar, the most outstanding representative of the sociological school of criminal law in Poland. During 1904-1907, he taught criminal law at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* and, from 1907, at Lvov University. He was also a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU]).* From 1919, he served on the Codification Committee of the Second Polish Republic and was one of the co-authors of its criminal law codex. During 1925-1935, he was a Senator representing the Christian Democratic Party.* He authored numerous works on criminal law. Polish Law throughout the Ages, ed. by W. Wagner (Stanford, California, 1970), 443-446. MAKOWSKI, TADEUSZ (1882-1932), painter. Educated under J. Stanislawski* and J. Mehoffer* at the Academy of Art (Akademia Sztuk Pieknych) in Cracow,* he moved to Paris in 1908 and remained there until the end of his life. Impressed by de Chavannes and the cubists, he elaborated his own semiprimitive style, which, later, became popular among Polish artists. He mainly painted landscapes and children. His art has much to do with the lyricism of Polish folklore, and it was recognized by critics as expressionist in a specific Slavic vein. H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (London, 1943), 68-69; PSB, XIX, 246-248. MAKOWSKI, WACLAW (1898-1986), pilot. The first graduate of the Polish Air Force School in 1919, he fought in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921

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and headed the Polish Airlines "Lot" during 1930-1939. In 1939, he distinguished himself during the Battle of Britain* as a bomber pilot in charge of the Three-Hundredth Polish Squadron. Kultura (Paris) 7/466 (1986) MAKOWSKI, WACLAW (1880-1942), lawyer and politician. He began his career as an attorney representing political defendants and published his first scholarly works on criminal and public law in Russian-occupied Poland before WW I. After the Russian withdrawal from Poland in 1915, he participated in the organization of civic courts and was also active in the civic militia. After the Germans and the Austrians proclaimed the Kingdom of Poland on November 5, 1916, and established its Provisional State Council (Tymczasowa Rada Stanu), Makowski headed the Ministry of Justice and was Vice President of the Land Commission under the Regency Council (Rada Regencyjan).* In 1919 he headed a section in the Ministry of Agriculture and State Lands in then independent Poland. In 1920 he volunteered for military service and was appointed Prosecutor of the Supreme Military Court. Later, he joined the Codification Commission, became its Vice President, and co-authored the Criminal Law Codex. He served as Minister of Justice during 1922-1923 and 1926, member of Parliament during 1928-1935, its Speaker from 1930, and Senator and Deputy Speaker of the Senate from 1935. His party, the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR]),* nominated him Chairman of the Constitutional Commission, and he co-authored the authoritarian Constitution of April 1935.* PSB, XIX, 25 MAKUSZYNSKI, KORNEL (1884-1953), writer. He made his literary debut in 1902 in Lvov's* Slowo Polskie (Polish Word), where he worked as a theatrical critic from 1905. In 1918 he settled in Warsaw,* where he contributed to several journals as theatrical and literary critic. In 1937, he was elected to the Polish Academy of Literature.* He was a very prolific author, and his books for children were especially popular. His prose was distinguished by a unique sense of humor and sentimental patriotism. He was particularly fond of Zakopane,* the most popular Polish resort in the Tatra Mountains,* which became his alternate residence and the subject of many of his works. PSB, XIX, 262-263. MALBORK (Marienburg), city in the Elblag (Elbing)* region on the easternmost tributary of the Vistula* River Delta known as Nogat. The city, which received Magdeburg* rights in 1276, was built around the main castle of the Teutonic Knights,* which was then called Marienburg and was completed about 1280. Malbork became one of the most powerful fortresses in Europe and, in terms of architectural interest, is equal to such objects as the Papal Palace in Avignon. The Malbork castle has massive walls in the brick style of construction employed along the Baltic coast, in the spectacular palace of the Grand Masters. Malbork was unsuccessfully besieged many times during the wars between Poland and the Order. In 1457, a commander of unpaid Czech mercenaries sur-

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rendered the castle to the Poles. After the Treaty of Toruri (Thorn)* in 1466, Malbork was incorporated into Poland and played an important role during the wars with Sweden in the seventeenth century. After the First Partition* of Poland in 1772, the city was taken by Prussia. Malbork developed to some extent after 1857, when it was linked by a railroad with Berlin and Konigsberg. The city remained within East Prussian borders during the interwar period and was regained by Poland in 1945. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Art, ed. by B. S. Myers, vol 3 (New York, Toronto), 548; SHP, 239-240. MALCZEWSKI, JACEK (1854-1929), painter, one of the most outstanding artists of the "Young Poland"* period. Educated in Cracow* under J. Matejko* and in Paris, he taught at the Academy of Art (Akademia Sztuk Pi^knych) in Cracow during 1897-1900 and 1912-1921. Initially, he painted realist compositions, using dark colors and illustrating the plight of Poles deported to Siberia* after the January Insurrection* of 1863. Later, he developed his own symbolic style, combining myth with reality, and real people with fauns and centaurs. W. Jaworska, Polish Painters (1850-1950), 70MALINOWSKI, BRONISLAW (1884-1942), one of the most important anthropologists of the twentieth century, who is recognized as a founder of social anthropology. A son of Lucjan Malinowski, a professor of Slavic philology at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* he completed his doctorate at the same university in 1908 and went to the London School of Economics and Political Science in 1910. He began his teaching career there with lectures on the religions of primitive societies. In 1914, he started his first field research in New Guinea, which concluded with a monograph and a doctor of science degree from the University of London in 1916. During 1915-1918, he worked on the social institutions, laws and customs of the primitive society in the Trobriand Islands. The conclusions of this research were presented in his classic monograph Argonauts of the Western Pacific. In 1924 Malinowski returned to the University of London to teach social anthropology. The most productive period of his academic life were the years 1926-1935, when he wrote such important books as Crime and Custom in Savage Society and Sex and Repression in Savage Society. He visited America several times and settled there in 1939. Internationally recognized, Malinowski greatly influenced ethnography, sociology, knowledge of religions, linguistics, psychology, and the theory of culture. R. Gellner, G. Kubica and J. Mucha (eds.), Malinowski between Two Worlds: The Polish Roots of an Anthropological Tradition (Cambridge, 1988); PSB, XIX, 332-336; K. Symons Symonolewicz, "Bronislaw Malinowski: An Intellectual Profile," Polish Review HI/4 (1958). MALINOWSKI (POBOG), WLADYSLAW (1899-1962), historian. Born and educated in Archangel, he started his military career as a cadet in a military academy in St. Petersburg and was an Ensign in the Russian Army in 1917. He

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was then transferred to the Polish troops in Russia and worked in the Supreme Polish Military Committee (Naczelny Polski Komitet Wojskowy [Naczpol]). Temporarily imprisoned by the Bolsheviks, he escaped to Poland and joined the Polish Army in 1919. He fought in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921 and, later, served in various positions, including the Military Historical Bureau (Wojskowe Biuro Historyczne) from 1929. In 1931 he left the Army and, during 1932-1939, he worked at the Historical Department of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. His first books, published in the 1930s and devoted to J. Pilsudski's* life and the National Democratic Party,* were recognized as controversial and politically biased. In addition, his monumental three-volume Najnowsza historia polityczna Polski, 1864-1945 (The Contemporary Political History of Poland, 1864-1945), written after WW II in Paris and Geneva and forbidden by censorship in Communist Poland, was received enthusiastically by the followers of J. Pilsudski but negatively by his political enemies and critically by professional historians. PSB, XIX, 365-367. MALACHOWSKI, STANISLAW (1736-1809), statesman who distinguished himself as a speaker of the Great Sejm* of 1788-1791. His political career started in 1758, when he was elected to the Parliament for the first time. Later, he represented the Cracow* province in the Diets of 1758, 1760, 1762, and 1766. He also served as a Royal Assessor, a Marshal of the Crown Tribunal, and a member of the governing Permanent Council (Rada Nieustajaca).* He belonged to the Patriotic Party of the Czartoryski family and became the Speaker of the Great Sejm on the King's motion. He favored the reform of the Polish political and social system and participated in the preparation and adoption of the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* actions which made him a popular politician. After the outbreak of the war with Russia in May 1792, he helped in the organization of the Polish defense, but, when the King joined the Targowica Confederation,* he retired from politics and went to Italy. Eventually, he returned to Poland in 1796. When Napoleon defeated Prussia* in 1806, Malachowski went to Warsaw,* thanked the Emperor for his promise to restore Poland, and became a President of the Government Committee (Komisja Rzadzaca) and, then, the State Council (Rada Ministrow) of the Duchy of Warsaw.* However, he opposed the introduction of the Napoleonic Code* in Poland, and, after some conflicts with more progressive politicians, he resigned from his office. He received the title of the first Palatine (wojewoda) of the Duchy and became a President of its Senate.* CHP, II, 112-136; PSB, XIX, 415-420. MALCUZYNSKI, WITOLD (1914-1977), outstanding pianist of the Romantic tradition. Educated at the Warsaw Conservatory and a pupil of I. Paderewski,* he won third prize at the Chopin International Competition in Warsaw* in 1937. Later, he left for the West, where he earned a reputation as a Chopin specialist and a master of the grand manner. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. by S. Sadie, vol. 11 (London, 1980

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MALKOWSKI, ANDRZEJ (1888-1919), founder of the Scout movement in Poland. An activist of several Polish youth organizations, including the movement against alcoholism "Eleusis." He translated R. Baden-Powell's book Scouting for Boys into Polish and convinced the leaders of the Falcon Association (Sokol)* to organize Scouting in Lvov.* Malkowski considered Scouting as a new style of life, which could revive Polish youth and prepare it for future service to society. In 1911, the first Scout summer camp was organized, and the bi-weekly Scout started to appear. After the outbreak of WW I, Malkowski joined the Polish Legions.* In 1915, he moved to America, where he organized Scouting among Polish immigrants. Then, he joined the Canadian Army, fought in France, and transferred to the Polish Army there. Sent to organize Polish troops in Odessa, he drowned in the Mediterranean after his boat hit a mine and sank. PSB, XIX, 444-446.

MALOPOLSKA. See LITTLE POLAND. MANIFESTO OF GRAND DUKE NICHOLAS NICHOLAYEVICH, proclamation to the Polish people issued after the outbreak of WW I, on August 14, 1914, by the Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army. The manifesto proclaimed the unification of partitioned Poland under the sceptre of the Tsar as one of the main Russian war goals and promised national autonomy for the Poles. The document was ambiguous and, since it was not signed by Nicholas II, was not legally binding. However, it was well written and constituted the only concrete program for Poland announced by a great power for possible implementation in the event of victory. A segment of Polish public opinion, prepared by the propaganda of the National Democratic Party,* responded enthusiastically. The Manifesto became the cornerstone of the pro-Russian orientation. Its opponents claimed correctly that the only objective of the proclamation was to convince the Poles that they should expect a satisfactory deal from the Tsar and, therefore, fight against Germany and Austria. T. Komarnicki, Rebirth of the Polish Republic: A Study in the Diplomatic History of Europe: 191 1920, (London, 1957), 30-7 MANTEUFFEL-SZOEGE, TADEUSZ (1902-1970), historian. He participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921 and lost his right arm. Educated in Warsaw* under M. Handelsman,* he continued his studies in the West. He was an expert on the feudal system in Europe. During WW II, he continued his research in Polish archives; co-edited an organ of the anti-Nazi resistance, Wiadomosci Polskie (Polish News); served in the Home Army's (Armia Krajowa [AK])* Bureau of Information and Propaganda; and headed the historical section of the clandestine Warsaw University.* He was also one of the most outstanding and active historians of the communist era in Poland. PSB, XIX, 499-501.

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MARCHLEWSKI, JULIAN (1866-1925), prominent activist of the Polish and international workers' movement, economist, and publicist. A scion of an impoverished family of the petty nobility, he worked at a dye works in Warsaw.* In 1888, he joined a party known as the Second Proletariat* and, in 1889, he was one of the founding members of the Union of Polish Workers (Zwiazek Robotnikow Polskich [ZRP]).* Subsequently, he went to Zurich, Switzerland, where he helped to create the Social Democracy of the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL]),* participated in the Congresses of the Socialist International, and graduated from Zurich University. In 1905 he returned to Warsaw and participated in the first Russian Revolution. After brief imprisonment in 1906-1907, he left for London, attended the Fifth Congress of the Russian Social Democracy (SDKPiL was its autonomous part), and was elected a candidate member of the Party Central Committee. Later, he continued his work in Germany. He belonged to a Social Democratic faction, which adopted an international position, opposed the war, and organized a group known as "Die Internationale" and its continuation, "Spartakus-Bund." Imprisoned during 1916-1918, Marchlewski was released and sent to Russia during the Russian-German exchange of prisoners. He was elected a member of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, visited Germany again and was a member of the Central Committee of the German Communist Party, and became a member of the Polish Bureau of the Bolshevik Party. He also served as a diplomat, conducting negotiations with Poland in 1919, and with Lithuania, Finland, Japan and China in 1921-1922. In 1920, during the offensive of the Red Army in Poland, he was a chairman of the Moscowcontrolled Polish Provisional Revolutionary Committee (Tymczasowy Komitet Rewolucyjny Polski [TKRP]).* In 1922, he became Rector of the Communist University of the National Minorities of the West. M. Dziewanowski, The Co munist Party of Poland (Cambridge, 1959); The Modern Encyclopedia of Russia Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 21 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1981), 95-9 PSB, XIX, 535-542. MARCINKOWSKI, JAN KAROL (1800-1846), physician, philanthropist, social activist. Active in Polish clandestine youth organizations as a student of medicine in Berlin, he was arrested by the Prussian authorities. Later, he participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 as a physician. After years of emigration and imprisonment in Prussian prisons, he settled and practiced medicine in Poznari (Posen).* He advocated cooperation between Polish burghers and gentry, and he co-founded the Society for Scientific Aid and the "Bazar,"* a modern shareholding association which combined the functions of a commercial enterprise, a club, and an organization supporting education and charity. He was also active in several other Polish national organizations and was very successful as a physician. PSB, XIX, 591-593; J. Topolski, "Traditions Worthy of Revival," Poland Magazine, no. 298 (June 1979); A. Wrzosek, Karol M cinkowski (Warsaw, 1960).

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MARIA J6ZEFA (Marie Josephine) (1699-1757), Queen of Poland, the daughter of Emperor Joseph I Habsburg* and the wife of King August III Wettin.* This marriage, contracted in 1719, when August Ill's father, King August II Mocny (the Strong),* was still alive, was to counter-balance Russian influences in Poland and to secure Saxon succession to the Polish throne. Maria, crowned together with her husband in 1734, participated in politics, wished to see her husband as the next Emperor, and strengthened the dynastic position of the Wettins through politically attractive marriages of her fourteen children. She unsuccessfully tried to assure the succession of her son Xavier to the Polish throne. PSB, XX, 1-2; E. Rostworowski, O Polska Korone (Warsaw, 1958). MARIA KAZIMIERA (Marie Casimire) (1641-1716), Queen of Poland and wife of King Jan III Sobieski.* Nicknamed Marysierika, she was a daughter of Henri, Margrave de la Grange d'Arquien. She arrived in Poland in 1653 as a lady-in-waiting to Queen Maria Ludwika,* a wife of King Jan Kazimierz.* In 1658, she married a Palatine of Kiev (wojewoda kijowski), J. Zamoyski, and, after his death in 1665, J. Sobieski.* Having connections with a French party in Poland, she helped her second husband to obtain the Polish Crown in 1674. As the Queen, she was very active in politics. She supported the French party but switched occasionally to the Habsburg* side. Intrigues to strengthen her family's finances and dynastic plots absorbed most of her time. After Sobieski's death in 1696, she moved to Rome and ultimately to France. M. Komaszyriski, Maria Kazimiera d'Arquien Sobieska: Krolowa Polski, 1641-1716 (Cracow, 19 Lewitter, "The Baroque Agony of John III Sobieski," Polish Review XXXII/3 (198 237-253; T. Zeleriski, Marysierika Sobieska (Warsaw, 19 MARIA LUDWIKA (Marie Louise) (1611-1667), Queen of Poland. A daughter of Charles I Gonzaga de Neveres, Prince of Mantua, she first married King Wladyslaw IV* in 1646 and, then, his brother, King Jan Kazimierz,* in 1649. She did not play an important political role during the reign of her first husband, but, after 1649, she often decided about crucial state matters and nominations. Ambitious and energetic, she organized a French party in Poland and tried to reform its political system by introducing the vivente rege principle, Royal election when a previous King was still alive. Her candidate for the Polish Crown was the French Duke d'Enghien. The Queen was a political opponent of Crown Marshal J. S. Lubomirski,* and she contributed to his fall. SHP, 24 MARIA THERESA (1717-1780), Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Bohemia and Hungary (1740-1780), wife of the Holy Roman Emperor Francis I and mother of Emperor Joseph II. She gave a measure of unity to the Habsburg* lands and her reforms smoothed the road to the enlightened despotism of her son. She lost almost all of Silesia* to Prussia* in the Seven Years' War. She supported the Polish Bar Confederation* but participated in the First Partition* of Poland and took the lands later called the Kingdom of Galicia* and Lodom-

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eria.* She believed that these lands would remain only temporarily under her reign, treated them as a bargaining chip and tried to exploit them as much as possible. C. A. Macartney, The Habsburg Empire, 1790-1918 (Oxford, 1968), 1SHP, 243 MARIAN CULT, Catholic devotion to the Virgin Mary which grew stronger in seventeenth-century Poland than in any other part of Christian Europe. Impressed by Jasna Gora's defense against Swedish invasion in 1655, King Jan Kazimierz* crowned the Black Madonna Icon from Jasna Gora Monastery in Czestochowa* as a symbolic Queen of Poland. The Polish people started to celebrate Mary as model, advocate, and protectress. They used to turn to her with personal prayers, especially during the worst days of occupations and wars. The cult of Jasna Gora's Black Madonna was replicated in hundreds of other places, where local portraits of Mary were venerated. New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 9 (New York, 1967), 210-212. MARIAN FATHERS, popular name of the Marian Fathers of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, a religious order founded in Poland in 1673 by S. Papczyriski to teach the poor. The Marians had several foundations in Poland, Lithuania, Portugal and Italy, but religious persecutions exiled them from these countries and, by the end of the nineteenth century, the Order was close to extinction. Revived after 1909, the Marian Fathers settled in Switzerland and America. New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 9 (New York, 1967), 21 MARIAVITES, Polish religious sect founded in 1906 by a priest, J. Kowalski, and a Franciscan sister, M. F. Koztowska. The sect adopted the Franciscan Rule, aimed at a renewal of the clergy and the people, and stressed the veneration of the Eucharist and the Blessed Virgin Mary (Latin: Mariae vitam imitantes). The sect was condemned by Rome and its leaders were excommunicated, but the Russian authorities, interested in the weakening of Polish Catholicism, recognized the Mariavites as an official "religious sect," which was also received by the Old Catholics. The fanaticism of the Mariavites led to such phenomena as the "mystic marriages" between priests and nuns, whose children were considered within the sect to be the beginning of a new sinless humanity. The sect split in the 1930s, J. Kowalski was imprisoned by the Nazis in Dachau and died there, and the sect, which had about 200,000 members in 1911, was reduced by half in 1945. Chrzescijatistwo w Polsce: Zarys Przemian, 966-1945, ed. by Kloczowski (Lublin, 1980), 258-268; New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 9 (New Y 1967), 217-218; J. Peterkiewicz, The Third Adam: The Mariavite Experiment in My Marriage (London, 1976). MARIENSZTAT, district of Warsaw,* south of the Old Town, established in 1762 by the Potockis as a "jurydyka."* It was destroyed by the Germans in 1944 and rebuilt in 1949. WEP, VI, 52

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MARITIME COMMERCE, trade developed in Pomerania* in the eighth and ninth centuries, when the West Slavic tribes faced the sea expansion of the Scandinavian Vikings and built their own boats. The first maritime centers in the territories of future Poland were Wolin, Szczecin,* Kolobrzeg, and later Gdarisk.* Their inhabitants traded with Scandinavia, especially the Danish islands, and towns on the South Baltic coast. From the thirteenth century, the Baltic trade was dominated by German merchants of the Hanseatic League.* New centers of maritime commerce developed in Polish-controlled territories, among them Elblag* and Konigsberg. They maintained permanent business contacts with Lubeck, Flanders, and England. From the fifteenth century, Gdarisk maintained contacts with ports of the North Sea and the Atlantic, including the Iberian peninsula. At the turn of the sixteenth century, Gdarisk merchants possessed about 200 ships. Later Polish maritime activity declined, especially after the Partitions.* When Poland regained independence after WW I, it used the Gdarisk maritime companies while developing its own Merchant Navy and building Gdynia* as the main Polish port. Shipping was based on state capital financing such as that of Zegluga Polska (Polish Sea Sailing), which owned sixteen ships for passengers and freight combined. In 1938, the Polish maritime companies possessed seventy-one ships of 102,000 tons capacity, mainly passenger liners. During WW II some of them were seized by the Germans, but the ships which were at sea on September 1, 1939, later took part in Allied wartime convoys. EHGP, II, 568-569. MARTWA R^KA ("dead hand"), estates which were not inherited and divided that belonged to the Catholic Church or, sometimes, to secular institutions such as universities or hospitals. Established mostly in the Middle Ages as donations for hierarchy or religious orders, they were an economic basis of the Catholic Church. In the sixteenth century, the "dead hand" estates included 15 percent of the arable land in Poland. Polish secular magnates and several Kings tried to regain some of those estates, which were sometimes untouchable for centuries. The process of its reduction was started during the reforms in Poland in the late eighteenth century. Also the powers which partitioned Poland introduced legislation to curb the extension of the Church's property, but it remained substantial during the interwar period. Because of the concordat* with the Vatican, the "dead hand" estates were not among the estates diminished by the land reform. EHGP, I, 139; SHP, 11-1 MARUSARZ, HELENA (1918-1943), skiing champion, a sister of S. Marusarz* and a member of a family of sportsmen who distinguished themselves by their patriotism. She won Poland's championship in downhill and slalom seven times. During WW II, she served in the Polish resistance as a guide for secret routes across the Carpathian Mountains. She was arrested, tortured, and executed by the Gestapo.* PSB, XX, 91-92; W. Wnuk, Walka Podziemna na Szczytach (Wa 1958).

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MARUSARZ, STANISLAW (1913-), ski champion and brother of H. Marusarz,* and a member of a family of sportsmen distinguished by its patriotism. The best Polish ski jumper from 1927, he won second place in the world championship in 1938. WEP, VII, 8 MARYLSKI, ANTONI (1894-1973), philanthropist. He participated in WW I as a volunteer in the Polish Riflemen Brigade under Russian command. After the war, he studied philosophy at Warsaw University* and became involved in work for the center for blind children in Laski* near Warsaw. Nicknamed "the builder of Laski," he served as President of the Association to Help the Blind during 1936-1939. J. Moskwa, Antoni Marylski i Laski (Cracow, 198 MARYSIENKA. See MARIA KAZIMIERA. MASLAW (Mieclaw or Mojslaw), cup bearer of Mieszko II* and a Mazovian* potentate. During the anti-Christian upheaval and the crisis of the Polish state in the 1030s, he created an independent Principality of Mazovia. It survived until 1047, when troops of Kazimierz Odnowiciel (the Restorer)* crushed the Mazovians and, probably, killed Maslaw. CHP, I, 36-37; Lexikon des Mittelalt vol. 6, part 3 (Munich and Zurich, 1992), 615. MASSALSKI, IGNACY (1729-1794), Bishop of Vilna.* He began his career in the priesthood in 1744 and, because of his collaboration with the Czartoryski family,* he became Bishop of Vilna in 1762. Later, he began to build a strong position for the Massalski family in Lithuania* and tried to develop his Vilna Bishoprics into an independent Archbishopric. To achieve this, he cut himself adrift from the Czartoryskis, was a reliable helper of omnipotent Tsarist Ambassadors in Warsaw,* and generally served Russian interests in Poland. Massalski also served as the first President of the Committee of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej)* and a head of the Treasury Department of the Permanent Council (Rada Nieustajaca).* When it was found that he was involved in corrupt practices, he went abroad for several years. During the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792, he defended the old governmental system and privileges of the clergy. He organized opposition against the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* and, in the summer of 1792, joined the Confederation of Targowica.* He participated in the preparation of the Second Partition* of Poland and condemned the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794. Arrested during the uprising, he was hanged in a street execution on June 28, 1794. PSB, XX, 135-139. MASZYNSKI, MARIUSZ (1888-1944), actor who performed in theaters in interwar Warsaw,* played in many films, taught in a school of drama, and wrote several comedies. He was killed by the Nazis during the Warsaw Uprising.* PSB, XX, 164-166.

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MATEJKO, JAN (1838-1893), painter. Educated in Cracow,* Munich, and Vienna, he became a Director of the School of Fine Arts in his native Cracow in 1873. He painted huge historical pictures illustrating the Polish past, such as Stefan Batory at Pskov or Battle of Grunwald. Critics frowned upon his antiquarian realism and theatrical effects, but his works were very popular and appreciated as patriotic documents. The painter created historical iconography, which influenced Polish tradition, literature, and theatre. He also painted portraits and left a large number of drawings. H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (Londo 1942), ch. 4; I. Piotrowska, The Art of Poland (New York, 1947), ch. 9; PSB, XX, 1 191; J. Starzyriski, Jan Matejko (Warsaw, 1960 MATUSZEWSKI, IGNACY (1858-1919), literary critic, publicist, and father of Ignacy Matuszewski.* He co-edited Przeglgd Tygodniowy (Weekly Review) and Tygodnik Ilustrowany (Illustrated Weekly) in Warsaw. A leading supporter of modernism in Poland, he concentrated in his studies on J. Siowacki* and S. Zeromski.* WEP, VI, 13 MATUSZEWSKI, IGNACY (1891-1946), politician, publicist, intelligence officer, and son of Ignacy Matuszewski.* During WW I, he served in the Russian Army. In 1917, he co-organized the First Congress of the Polish Officers and Soldiers in Russia and the Polish Corps there. An enthusiastic supporter of J. Pilsudski,* he joined the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC])* and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* He co-organized a plot in the First Polish Corps in Russia in order to transfer its command from Gen. J. Dowbor-Musnicki* to the followers of J. Pilsudski. In November 1918, Matuszewski joined the Polish Army and headed the Intelligence Office, which became the famous II Division of the Polish General Staff. He participated in the Polish-Bolshevik peace negotiations in Riga and later served as a military attache in Rome. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he became the Administrative Director of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. During 1928-1929, he was the Polish Envoy in Hungary and, during 1929-1931, Minister of Finance. His attempts to reduce state and military expenses and achieve budgetary balance caused a conflict with Pilsudski. After Pilsudski's death he criticized the subsequent governments of M. Koscialkowski* and F. (Slawoj) Skladkowski.* After the outbreak of WW II, he helped to evacuate the reserve of Polish gold from Warsaw* to Paris. He was not accepted in the Polish Army in France because he was a prominent representative of the Sanacja* regime. In 1941 he arrived in America, where he became a leader of several Polish organizations and was very active as an antiSoviet publicist. PSB, XX, 232-234. MAUERSBERGER, JAN (1877-1942), Scout leader and priest. He joined the Scouting movement in 1912 and became its chaplain and one of its top leaders. He united four separate Scouting organizations into the Union of Polish Scouting

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(Zwiazek Harcerstwa Polskiego) and was elected its Commandant and the Scoutmaster of Poland. He was also Senior Chaplain of the Polish Air Forces. During 1939-1943, he chaired the clandestine Scouting movement known as the "Gray Ranks" (Szare Szeregi)* in German-occupied Poland. S. Broniewski, Catym zy iem (Warsaw, 1983). MAXIMILIAN, SAINT. See KOLBE, SAINT MAKSYMILIAN MARIA. MAY 3 CONSTITUTION. See CONSTITUTION OF MAY 3, 1791. MAY COUP D'ETAT. See PHSUDSKI COUP D'ETAT. MAZEPA, IVAN (1639-1709), Cossack* Hetman.* Born Jan Kolodyriski, a scion of a noble family from the Kiev region, he was educated in the Kievian Mohyla Academy and at the Jesuit* College in Warsaw.* Later, he served as a page at the Court of King Jan Kazimierz,* was sent by the King to study in Holland, and traveled extensively throughout Western Europe. In 1659, he returned to Warsaw* and was sent with several diplomatic missions to Ukraine.* In 1669, he entered the service of Hetman P. Doroshenko in Russian-controlled Ukraine and, after years of service at various positions, he was elected a new Hetman of the autonomous Russian Ukraine. Mazepa believed in a united panUkrainian Hetman state within the Russian Empire based on the Pereieslaw (Pereiaslav) Treaty* of 1654. When he realized that Peter the Great had no real intention to observe the autonomy of Ukraine and exploited that country, Mazepa entered into secret negotiations with Charles XII of Sweden and Stanislaw I Leszczyriski* of Poland during the Northern War.* In 1708, Mazepa openly supported the Swedes in exchange for a promise of a separate Ukrainian Principality. After Charles's defeat at the Battle of Poltava in 1709, Mazepa fled to Moldavia, where he died, and the Tsar wiped out the remnants of Ukrainian autonomy. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 3 (Toronto, 1988), 3 355; O. Subtelny, The Mazepists: Ukrainian Separatism in the Early Eighteenth C (Boulder, Colorado, 1981). MAZOVIA (Mazowsze), historic geographic lowland region in Poland in the basin of the middle Vistula* and lower Bug* Rivers. The name Mazovia was chronicled for the first time in 1046. The territory became part of Poland in the tenth century. During 1037-1047, Mazovia was an independent Principality under Maslaw.* In 1075, the city of Plock,* the capital of the region at that time, became the seat of a bishopric. After 1138, when Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth)* divided Poland among his sons, Mazovia to Kujavia* and the regions of Leezyca* and Sieradz* among the major Polish Principalities ruled by Boleslaw Kedzierzawy (the Curly)* and his descendants. In 1313 Mazovia was subdivided, and its parts were incorporated into united Poland in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. When the last Mazovian Prince of the Piast*

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dynasty died in 1526, the entire region became a Polish province. Mazovia, densely wooded, lacking fertile soil, exposed to aggression from Prussia and Lithuania, was always more backward and poor than other Polish lands. After the union between Poland and Lithuania, Mazovia became the geographical center of the new Commonwealth. Its Parliaments met in Warsaw,* which, in 1611, became the capital of Poland. After the Partitions,* the region was absorbed by Prussia. During 1807-1815, it was part of the Duchy of Warsaw* and, afterward, of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* WEP, VII, 14 MAZUR, STANISLAW (1905-1981), mathematician, member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU])* from 1932, and professor of Lvov University from 1939. A close collaborator of S. Banach,* he co-founded the Lvov school of functional analysis and authored numerous world-recognized publications in that field and in the theory of integral equations. Biogramy Uczonych Polskich (Biographies of Polish Scientists) (Wroclaw, 233-237. MAZURKA (Mazur), Polish folk dance from Mazovia* for a circle of couples, in 3A and % time, a lively tempo accenting different parts of the measure. The dance, characterized by stamping feet and clicking heels, originated in the sixteenth century and was quickly adopted at the Polish Court. Later, it spread to Russia and Germany, and, by the 1830s, it reached England and France. It replaced the polonaise as the Polish national dance; the melody became very popular, and was even used as the Polish national anthem {Dabrowski Mazurka). It was also included in operas, ballets, and even symphonic concerts. Such composers as F. Chopin,* S. Moniuszko,* and I. Paderewski* used mazurkas extensively in their works. Z. Kwasnicowa, Polskie tance ludowe: Mazur (Warsa 1953). MAZURKIEWICZ, JAN ("RADOSLAW") (1896-1988), officer of the Polish Army and a leader of the anti-Nazi resistance. During WW I, he served in the Polish Legions,* in the Second Polish Corps in Russia, and in the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* He spent the interwar period in the Polish Army in various positions of command. During the September Campaign* of 1939, he served in the Polish General Staff. Later he founded and headed the Secret Military Organization (Tajna Organizacja Wojskowa), which joined the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* in 1943. In 1944 he became chief of the Home Army's Diversion Unit. During the Warsaw Uprising* of 1944, he commanded one of the largest fighting units. S. Korboriski, "Pulkownik Jan. Mazurkiewicz," Bohaterowie Panstwa Podziemnego jak ich znalem (New York, 1987); Polskie sify zbrojne w drugiej wojnie swiatowej (Polish Armed Forces during WW II), vol. Ill (London, 1950).

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MAZURY, ethnographic and historical region in the Mazurian Lakeland, the southern part of Ducal and, later, East Prussia.* In the early Middle Ages, the region was inhabited by the Baltic Prussians. They were exterminated or assimilated by the Teutonic Knights* in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. During the fourteenth through seventeenth centuries, the region was colonized by Polish-speaking peasants from Mazovia,* called Mazurs (Mazurzy, sing.: Mazur). They created a majority in southern areas of East Prussia, called by the Prussian authorities die polnischen Amter (Polish districts). In the nineteenth century, the Prussian authorities tried to Germanize the region. It triggered a strong movement defending the Polish language and cultural autonomy of the Mazurians. After WW I, a plebiscite was to decide whether the region should remain in German East Prussia or be incorporated into Poland. The plebiscite took place on July 11, 1920, when the Red Army invaded Poland and the Germans terrorized the Mazurian population. Under these conditions, only several villages voted for Poland. The whole region was gained by Poland after WW II. SHP, 247. M4CZYNSKI, CZESLAW (1881-1935), officer of the Polish Army who organized the Polish defense of Lvov* against the Ukrainians in 1918. Educated at Lvov University, he worked as a teacher and was active in several Polish youth organizations. After the outbreak of WW I, he was mobilized by the Austrian Army and fought until he was wounded in 1916, then transferred to Lvov as a staff officer. In Lvov he organized the secret Polish Military Cadre (Polskie Kadry Wojskowe [PKW]) within the Austrian Army. When the Ukrainians took Lvov on November 1, 1918, and declared it the capital of the West Ukrainian People's Republic, the PKW, together with the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* and former officers of the Polish Legions,* organized the Polish military counter-action, commanded by Maczyriski. Later, he participated in he Polish-Ukrainian War* of 1919 and the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. In 1922, he was elected to the Parliament. In 1927 he returned to the Army but retired in 1929. R. Bailly, A City Fights for Freedom: The Rising of Lwow in 1918-1919 (London, 1956); PSB, XX, 333 MEHOFFER, JOZEF (1869-1946), painter. Educated in Cracow,* Vienna, and Paris, he was a student and admirer of J. Matejko.* In 1900, Mehoffer began teaching at the Academy of Fine Arts (Akademia Sztuk Piejcnych) in Cracow, and, from 1905 until his death, he was a professor there. Mehoffer is one of the best representatives of Polish modernism. He painted landscapes and still lifes and created graphics, lithography, and mural paintings, but his most successful work remains the thirteen stained glass windows in the Gothic cathedral of Fribourg in Switzerland. W. Jaworska (ed.), Polish Painters, 82-83; P XX, 380-383. MEISELS, DOV BERUSH (1798-1870), rabbi and Polish patriot. Born to one of the oldest Jewish families of Cracow,* he opened a bank there and, in 1832,

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was elected rabbi of the town. He opposed the Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment) movement, but, being a wealthy man, he financially supported the institutions of his community. During the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 in the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* he financed the purchase of arms for the uprising. He was also active during the Cracow Insurrection* of 1846 and the Springtime of Nations* of 1848, when he was a member of the Polish delegation that asked the Austrian Emperor to release the political prisoners. In 1848, Meisels was the first Jew elected to the Austrian Parliament and to the Council of Cracow. In 1856, he was elected Rabbi of Warsaw,* where he participated in the Polish patriotic demonstrations preceding the January Insurrection* of 1863. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. XI (Jerusalem, 1971), 1264-1265; F. Kupfer, Ber Meisels i jego udzial w walkach wyzwolenczych narodu polskiego (Warsaw, 1952); PSB, XX, 387388.

MEISSNER, JANUSZ (1901-1978), pilot and writer. Active in the clandestine Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* from 1917, he worked as a mechanic in the Polish Air Force after the war. Later, he graduated from Cracow* flight school, served as an officer (1919-1946), and wrote a guide for pilots' training. Endowed with literary talent, he wrote numerous books and articles on his flying experiences in Poland and in England during WW II. WEP, VII, 178 MELNO, PEACE OF, treaty signed by Lithuania,* Poland, and the Teutonic Knights* at the Polish Army camp near Lake Melno not far from the city of Grudziadz* on September 27, 1422. After the Battle of Grunwald* in 1410, the border between Lithuania and the Order was not settled, and the dispute between the two states continued, since the Teutonic Knights claimed that a part of western Zmudz (Samogitia)* on the right bank of the Niemen River should belong to them. When an arbitrage of the German Emperor, Sigismund Luxemburg, failed, a new war broke out and was won by the Poles and Lithuanians in 1422. Poland received the land of Nieszawa, and the new border between the Order and Lithuania, established by the treaty, remained in force until 1919. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 505-5 MELNYK, ANDRII (1890-1945), Ukrainian politician and military leader. After the outbreak of WW I, he volunteered for the Legion of the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen. He was taken prisoner by the Russians, escaped from imprisonment, co-organized the Sich Riflemen in Kiev, and served as Chief of Staff in Ataman S. Petlura's* Ukrainian National Army in 1919. In 1922, he became a Commander of the Ukrainian Military Organization (UVO) in Polish Galicia.* During 1924-1928, he was in a Polish prison. Released, he was active in numerous legal Ukrainian organizations but also maintained his underground connections. After the assassination of Col. E. Konovalets* in 1938, Melnyk went abroad to lead the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).* From 1941, the Ger-

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mans kept him under house arrest and, in 1944, they imprisoned him in the Sachsenhausen* concentration camp. As a leader of UVO and OUN, he was partly responsible for Ukrainian terrorist actions in pre-war Poland and for the assassination of several Polish politicians. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 3 (Toronto, 1988), 373-374. MENDELSON, STANISLAW (1858-1913), leader and theoretician of the Polish and international Socialist movement. A scion of a wealthy Jewish family from Warsaw,* he was active in illegal Socialist groups as a student. In 1878 he co-authored the Program of Polish Socialists (Program socjalistow polskich). Threatened by the police and temporarily arrested, he lived in Lvov* and Wroclaw (Breslau),* where he studied economics. Later, he moved to Paris, Vienna, and Geneva, where he co-edited an international Socialist monthly, Egalite, and the first Polish socialist magazine, Przedswit (Daybreak). In Poznari (Posen),* Toruri (Thorn),* and Bydgoszcz (Bromberg),* he was active in German Social Democracy. In 1888, he co-organized a party known as the Second Proletariat.* From 1891, he lived in London, where he renewed publication of Przedswit. Considered the leader of the Polish socialist movement, he represented it at the Second and Third International Socialist Congresses. He also participated in the meeting of Polish Socialists in Paris on November 1621, 1892, when the Union of Polish Socialists Abroad (Zwiazek Zagraniczny Socjalistow Polskich [ZZSP]),* a nucleus of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]),* was founded. Mendelson co-authored its program and was one of its first leaders. Later, he retired from activities in the socialist movement and moved to Galicia and, later, to Warsaw, where he edited Przeglad Codzienny (Daily Review). PSB, XX, 421^27. MERSEBURG MEETINGS, two meetings of the Polish monarchs and German Emperors in the Saxonian city of Merseburg on the Saale River. In 1033, Mieszko II,* facing a major crisis of the Polish state, had to recognize there the suzerainty of Emperor Conrad over Poland. In 1135, Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth),* jeopardized by the Czechs and Hungarians, paid homage there to Emperor Lothar II. CHP, I, 16-42. MESSAL, LUCYNA ("MESSALKA") (1886-1953), singer. She made her debut in 1904 and, later, became a primadonna of the Warsaw* Operetta. In 1929, she opened her own theater. SBTP, 433-43 MESSIANISM, originally a religious belief in the coming of a savior, a Messiah, who would rid the world of evil. The belief originated in ancient Israel in the sixth century B.C. and, later, became popular in various versions in other countries. In nineteenth-century Poland, the religious messianic concept was reshaped into a mystical religious-national Polish patriotic ideology. Its representatives believed that Poland, because of its immense sufferings under Rus-

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sian, Austrian, and Prussian occupation, possessed a special moral stamina to be the Christ of Nations in Europe and save other suffering nations. This trend developed particularly among Polish Romantic poets exiled in Paris after the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. Its "prophet" was A. Towiariski,* who was temporarily supported by W. Krasiriski,* A. Mickiewicz,* and J. Siowacki.* Since every avenue of hope was barred to the Polish nation, they preached a new road of salvation and claimed that Poland was destined to a mission of a chosen people, whose martyrdom was to bring the national resurrection and the political regeneration of the universe which, in turn, would repair the wrongs done to Poland. A. Walicki, Philosophy and Romantic Nationalism: The Case of P (Oxford, 1982); WEP, VI, 219 MIARKA, KAROL (1825-1882), Polish national leader in Upper Silesia.* Initially a country schoolteacher, he began to study the culture of the Polishspeaking Silesian population and collect its religious and folk songs. He wrote novels and plays about the history of Silesia and the resistance of its population to Germanization. He contributed to several Polish periodicals in the Prussianoccupied Polish lands. He established a Polish publishing house, a bookstore, several Polish national organizations, and the journal Katolik (Catholic) in Krolewska Huta (Chorzow*). As a Catholic activist, he collaborated with the German Zentrum (Center) party and opposed Bismarck's policy during the Kulturkampf.* Miarka combined the defense of the Catholic Church with the defense and revival of the Polish nationality in Silesia. A. Barr, K. Miarka (Katowic 1938); PSB, XX, 527-531 MICHAL KORYBUT WISNIOWIECKI (1640-1673), King of Poland from 1669. A son of Jeremi Wisniowiecki,* a famous Hetman* and Palatine (wojewoda) of Podolia,* who was considered a major terminator of the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising,* Michal was elected King mostly as a result of his father's glory. In addition, the Polish nobility, which opposed French and Habsburg* candidates, saw him as a descendant of the Polish "Piast"* dynasty. Michal was quite incompetent as King. His Court and the Sejms* were paralyzed by quarreling and wrangling between magnate cliques, and Austrian and French parties. In 1669, a peasant uprising of Kostka-Napierski* broke out in Podhale.* In 1771, the Tatars* and Cossacks* invaded southeastern regions of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.* In 1772 the Turks conquered Podolia and forced Poland to pay a yearly tribute. Polish foreign policy was miserable, and the Army was unpaid and neglected. Hetman* Jan Sobieski* worked miracles to defend the Polish borders. Opposing political camps organized militant confederations, and the Kingdom was several times on the edge of civil war. The rapid deterioration of the Polish state was stopped by the unexpected death of Michal, unanimously evaluated as one of the most pitiable of Polish monarchs. CHP, I, 532-536; W. Konopczyriski, Dzieje Polski nowozytnej, vol. II, 67-81; PSB, XX, 6 609.

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MICHALSKI, KONSTANTY (1879-1947), Catholic theologian and philosopher. Member of the Missionary Order (Zgromadzenie Ksiezy Misjonarzy), he taught Christian philosophy at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* from 1911. In 1939 he was arrested together with a group of other professors by the Nazis and sent for several months to the Sachsenhausen* concentration camp. In 1945, he resumed teaching at the university. Michalski's research concentrated on late medieval philosophy and scholastics. He published several noted works in this field. A. Usowicz and K. Klosak, Konstanty Michalski (1879-19 (Cracow, 1949); WEP, VI, 25 MICHALOWICZ, MIECZYSLAW (1876-1965), physician, social activist, and politician. A pediatrician by profession, he joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1896 and supported J. Pilsudski's* group in it. In 1908, he was imprisoned by the Russian authorities and expelled from Russia. He settled in Lvov* in Austrian Galicia* and co-organized the "Drop of Milk" (Kropla Mleka) association, which combated malnutrition among poor children. During WW I, he served as an officer-physician in the Austrian Army. In 1919, he was appointed Director of the Department of Welfare for Children and Youth in the Ministry of Public Health. From 1920, he taught pediatrics at Warsaw University,* where he was also a Rector in 19301931. During 1935-1938, he served as a Senator, having organized and led the Democratic Club in 1935, and, in 1939, he headed the Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Demokratyczne).* He criticized the Sanacja* regime and also condemned the policies of the National Democracy,* especially its anti-Semitism.* During WW II, he joined the anti-Nazi resistance and represented the Democratic Party in its leadership. In 1942 he was arrested by the Gestapo.* He spent the rest of the war in the Pawiak* jail and the Majdanek* and Gross-Rosen concentration camps. In 1945 he resumed his professorship in Warsaw. PSB, XX, 638-643 MICHALOWICZ OF URZ^DOW, JAN (1530-1583), outstanding sculptor and architect who distinguished himself as a decorative carver and a sculptor of tombs. His art was influenced by the Italian Renaissance and Dutch mannerism. In 1570 he became a Master in the Cracow* stonemasons' guild.* His finest works are the tomb of Bishop Padniewski in Cracow Cathedral and the tomb of Archbishop Uchariski in the collegiate church in Lowicz.* Praeger Encycl pedia of Art, vol. 4 (New York, Washington, London, 1971), 1364; WEP, VI, 26 MICHALOWSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1901-1981), archaeologist, historian of art, and professor of the University of Warsaw* from 1933. From the 1930s, he headed several Polish archaeological expeditions to the Middle East. WEP, V 262-263. MICHALOWSKI, PIOTR (1800-1855), painter and outstanding representative of Romanticism* in Polish art. He studied painting, natural science and

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political science in Cracow,* Gottingen, Vienna, and Paris. In the 1820s, he occupied several important positions in the administration of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* During the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he was in charge of weaponry and ammunition production. After the fall of the Uprising, he left for Paris, where he concentrated on painting and was influenced by French Romanticism. In 1837 he settled in his family estate in Galicia,* where he spent most of his life. He painted battle scenes, peasants, Jews, and horsemen, and he left a large number of oils, watercolors, and drawings. M. Maslowski, Piotr Michalowski (Warsaw, 1957); Praeger Encyclopedia of Art, vol. 4 (New Y Washington, London, 1971), 1364-1365; PSB, XX, 657-561; WEP, VI, MICHEJDA, JAN (1853-1927), lawyer and politician. Educated in Cracow* and Vienna, he settled in Cieszyn (Teschen)* as an attorney. Together with his brother, Franciszek, he became one of the main Polish leaders in Cieszyn Silesia.* He contributed to numerous periodicals in Cieszyn, Prague, Cracow, and Vienna and co-founded and co-headed several Polish political and educational organizations in Cieszyn Silesia. During 1890-1918, he was a member of the Provincial Parliament in Opava, and, during 1901-1907 and 1911-1918, he served as a Deputy to the Viennese Reichsrat. After the military conflict between Poland and Czechoslovakia and the division of Cieszyn Silesia, he became a Commissioner of the Polish part of the province. In 1922 he was elected Mayor of Cieszyn. PSB, XX, 669. MICINSKI, BOLESLAW (1911-1943), essayist, poet and philosopher. His two main works were devoted to the problem of the subconscious in literature and the philosophy of Kant. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 438-439; WEP, VI, 266 MICINSKI, TADEUSZ (1873-1918), poet, playwright, and publicist, and the most outstanding representative of the mystical concepts of "Young Poland."* Educated in Cracow* and Germany, he settled in Zakopane* in the Tatra* Mountains, where he spent most of his life. He was killed during a peasant rebellion in Belorussia.* Fascinated by Hindu philosophy, gnosis, the cabala, and occultism, and influenced by J. Siowacki,* F. Nietzsche, and F. M. Dostoyevski, he attempted to create a dualistic vision of the world as an arena of the constant fighting between Lucifer and Christ. He rejected Roman Catholicism and moved toward a syncretistic religion. His philosophy was reflected in his short novels and large symbolic poems-in-prose on history and philosophy. He was among the most unusual Polish writers and influenced the next generation of authors, among them S. I. Witkiewicz.* C. Milosz, The History of Polis Literature (London, 1969), 340-342; WEP, VI, 26 MICKIEWICZ, ADAM (1798-1855), one of the greatest Polish poets. Born into an impoverished Polish noble family in Lithuania,* he studied classical

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philology, history, and Polish literature at the University of Vilna during 18151819. Later, he worked as a high school teacher in Kaunas. He participated in secret student organizations (Filomaci* and Filareci*), and was arrested in 1823, detained, and deported to Russia. There he befriended most of the leading Russian writers, worked as a teacher and traveled through St. Petersburg, Moscow, Crimea, and Odessa. He intended to participate in the November Insurrection,* but he arrived too late in 1831 and did not manage to cross the border of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In 1832 he moved with the Great Emigration* to the West and settled in Paris, where he established a family and was very active in the political life of Polish exiles. In 1839, he taught Latin literature at the College of Lausanne and held the first chair of Slavic literatures at the College de France in Paris during 1840-1844. He was deprived of this position when he became a member of A. Towiariski's* sect and used his chair as a propaganda medium for his new politicoreligious creed. In 1848, during the Springtime of Nations,* Mickiewicz organized a Polish legion in Italy in order to fight against Austria. Later, he edited an international socialist paper, La Tribune des Peuples, and worked as a librarian in Paris. In 1855, during the Crimean War, he went to Constantinople to form an anti-Russian legion but probably contracted cholera and died. Mickiewicz made his poetry debut with Ballads and Romances (Ballady i romanse) in 1822. This book of poems constituted a literary breakthrough and opened the era of Romanticism in Poland. Its second volume appeared in 1823. It contained a historical poem, Grazyna: A Lithuanian Tale, and two parts of Forefathers' Eve (Dziady), a drama in verse based on Lithuanian folklore. In Russia, Mickiewicz wrote his famous Crimean Sonnets and a long historical poem with contemporary political content, Konrad Walenrod. During his most creative years in Paris, Mickiewicz published numerous political articles, the mystical Books of the Polish Nation and of the Polish Pilgrims, a moral interpretation of Polish history written in biblical prose, and his greatest achievement, Master Thaddeus (Pan Tadeusz). In this sentimental "novel in verse" completed in mid-1834, the poet recalled the Lithuania of 1811-1812, the country of his childhood, with its habits, a panorama and ethos of its gentry society, and a unique atmosphere of the old good years gone forever. Pan Tadeusz became a bible of all Polish emigres, recalling their childhood and life in Poland. Mickiewicz was buried in Paris, but, in 1890, his body was transferred to Poland and entombed in the Royal crypt of Wawel* Castle cathedral in Cracow.* Mickiewicz, a poet, pilgrim, political leader, mystic, and exalted patriot, became a Polish national prophet. M. Gardner, Adam Mickiewicz, the National Bard of Poland (London, 1911); W. Lednicki (ed.), Adam Mickiewicz in World Literature: A Symposium (Berkeley, California, 1956); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 208-232; W. Weintraub, The Poetry of Adam Mickiewicz (The Hague, 195 MICKIEWICZ, WLADYSLAW (1838-1926), writer, translator, and a son of A. Mickiewicz.* He directed a Polish publishing house and the Polish Library

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in Paris. A collaborator to the Hotel Lambert,* he participated in the life of the Great Emigration* and was very active as a publicist and political writer. However, his main activities were the collecting and editing of his father's works. He also wrote numerous biographic articles and books about A. Mickiewicz. PSB, XX, 713-715 MIEDZINSKI, BOGUSLAW (1891-1972), politician and one of the most faithful followers of J. Pilsudski.* Active in the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC])* and the Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki)* before WW I, he joined the Polish Legions* after its outbreak and became one of the leaders of the secret Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In the Polish Army from 1918, he was appointed Head of the Political Section of the Polish General Staff in April 1919, and a Chief of the Second (Intelligence) Bureau of the War Ministry in July 1919. A close assistant of J. Pilsudski, Miedziriski served as a member of Parliament during 1922-1938, a Senator and a Speaker of the Senate* in 1938— 1939. Initially, he represented the Polish Peasant Party-Piast (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe-Piast)* in the Sejm,* but, later, he transferred to the Polish Peasant Party-Liberation (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe-Wyzwolenie)* and, from 1927, to the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR]).* After Pilsudski's death, Miedziriski was one of the leaders of the semi-totalitarian Camp of National Unity (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego [OZN]).* An excellent publicist, he edited Gazeta Polska, the unofficial organ of the Sanacja* regime, from 1929. PSB, XX, 743-749. MIELNIK UNION, agreement between Poland and Lithuania* which attempted to clarify the relations between the two countries, signed in the border city of Mielnik on October 23, 1501. After the unions of Krewo* (1386), Vilna* and Radom* (1401) and Horodlo* (1413), the Polish gentry claimed that Poland and Lithuania formed a single state. However, the Lithuanians continued to elect their own rulers. In 1492, the Lithuanians elected a son of Kazimierz Jagielloriczyk (Casimir Jagiellon),* Aleksander,* as the Grand Prince of Lithuania, while the Poles chose his brother, Jan Olbracht.* Several reasons, including Russian and Tatar* military threats, inclined the Poles and Lithuanians to renew their union. When King Jan Olbracht died, Grand Prince Aleksander was chosen successor to the Polish throne, and a new act of union was signed, first at the Sejm* of Piotrkow and then in Mielnik. The new union emphasized that Poland and Lithuania would "unite and ally as one indivisible body" and would have one king elected at the joint session of the Diets, a common monetary unit, and common defense and foreign policy. The Lithuanian Diet did not ratify the union. However, it contributed greatly to the foundation of the Lublin Union* of 1569. CHP, I, 250-272; Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. IV (Boston, 1973), 280-281. MIEROSLAWSKI, LUDWIK (1814-1878), activist of the Great Emigration* after the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and military leader. Born in

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France into the family of an officer of the Duchy of Warsaw* and a Frenchwoman, he was educated in a Cadet Corps in Kalisz* and participated in the November Uprising. After its fall, he returned to France, where he was active in the Union of Polish Emigration (Zjednoczenie Emigracj Polskiej) and the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]).* He published several works on the November Insurrection and was considered a military expert. It was anticipated that he would be a dictator of an uprising planned by the Great Emigration*; in this capacity, he went to Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* in December 1845. Arrested by the Prussians and sentenced to death, he was released after the outbreak of the revolution in Berlin in 1848. He returned to Poznari (Posen)* as a leader of the Polish uprising, but his units were quickly disarmed by the Prussians. Later, he was invited by the Sicilian authorities to be Chief of Staff of the army fighting the Bourbons and commanded a republican uprising in Baden and an International Legion in Naples. In 1861, he established a Polish military school in Genoa, and, in January 1863, he went to Poland, where he was offered the dictatorship of the January Insurrection.* However, he lost two battles and was quickly deprived of his position. He returned to France and continued his fruitless intrigues. PSB, XX, 812-815. MIERZWA, STANISLAW, peasant leader from Western Galicia* and follower of W. Witos.* From December 1939, he headed the underground Peasant Party organization in the Cracow* region, and, from 1943, he was a member of the Party's central authority. In March 1945, he was kidnapped by Stalin's secret police as one of the sixteen underground leaders to be tried in Moscow. R. Buczek, Stronnictwo Ludowe w Latach 1939-1945: Organizacja i Polityka (London,

1975).

MIESZKO, popular name in the Piast* dynasty of medieval Poland. The name was given to Mieszko I,* the first chronicled ruler of Poland; Mieszko II Lambert,* King of Poland and a son of Boleslaw I Chrobry (the Brave)*; Mieszko, a son of Boleslaw II Smialy (the Bold)*; Mieszko III Stary (the Old),* Prince of Cracow* and Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* and a son of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth)*; and the Silesian* Princes Mieszko I Platonogi (Stumblefoot), Mieszko I of Racib6rz (Ratibor), and Mieszko II Otyly (the Fat) of Raciborz. Lexicon des Mittelalters, vol. 6, part 3 (Munich and Zurich, 1992), 615-6 WEP, VI, 285-286 MIESZKO I (ca. 930-992), the first chronicled ruler of Poland from ca. 963 and a member of the Piast* dynasty. According to a legend recorded by the chronicler Gallus Anonymus,* the dynasty was established by the peasant Piast, whose son, Siemowit, took over the throne after Prince Popiel was expelled. Siemowit's son, Leszek,* had a son called Siemomysl, who was the father of Mieszko I. The state inherited by Mieszko I included Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* with the two main strongholds of Gniezno* and Poznari (Posen),* and

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probably also Kujavia,* Mazovia,* and Eastern Pomerania.* Mieszko I continued the expansion of his tribe, called Polanie,* and attacked the confederation of Slavic tribes living between the lower Elbe and Oder* Rivers. Defeated twice, he concluded an alliance with the Czech monarch, Boleslaw I. The alliance was confirmed by the marriage of Mieszko I and Boleslaw's daughter, Dabrowka,* in 965. The Czechs were already Christians and helped Mieszko to accept Christianity directly from Rome in 966, explicitly to prevent forced conversion and political subjugation by the Germans. Mieszko, supported by the Czechs, conquered the estuary of the Oder River but had to pay a tribute from these territories to the Emperor, and he waged a permanent war with the Saxon feudal lords. During the last years of his reign, Mieszko broke the alliance with Bohemia and took two provinces previously controlled by that country: Silesia* and Little Poland (Malopolska).* Mieszko brought Poland to Christendom, significantly expanded the borders of his monarchy, and is considered the actual founder of the Polish state. CHP, I, 16-42; W. Hensel, The Beginnings of the Polish State (Warsaw, 1960); T. Manteuffel, The Formation of the Polish State (Detroit PSB, XXI, 31-33; Z. Wojciechowski, Mieszko I and the Rise of the Polish State (Po 1936). MIESZKO II LAMBERT (990-1034), King of Poland and a son of Boleslaw I Chrobry (the Brave).* Carefully educated and prepared for his future duty of being a monarch, Mieszko participated in the wars of his father and several important diplomatic missions. Through his marriage to Richeza, a daughter of a ruler of Lorraine and granddaughter of Emperor Otto II, Mieszko became related to the Carolingian and Ottonian dynasties. Crowned King of Poland immediately after his father's death, Mieszko managed to defend his country against a German invasion in 1029, but, in 1031, he faced a joint GermanRussian attack and escaped to Bohemia. Queen Richeza left Poland with its Royal insignia, and the country was ruled in a cruel and incompetent way by Mieszko's brothers. In 1032 Mieszko returned to Poland and managed to reunite the state. However, after his early death two years later, Poland again plunged into anarchy until Kazimierz Odnowiciel (Casimir the Restorer)* reestablished central authority. T. Manteuffel, The Formation of the Polish State troit, 1982); H. Lang, "The Fall of the Monarchy of Mieszko II Lambert," Specul 49 (1974), 623-639; CHP, I, 16-42; PSB, XXI, 33-3 MIESZKO III STARY (THE OLD) (1126-1202), Duke of Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* a Senior Prince of Poland, and a third son of Boleslaw II Krzywousty (the Wrymouth).* According to his father's last will, he received Great Poland as his principality, and, soon, he allied with his older brother, Boleslaw K^dzierzawy (the Curly),* against Wladyslaw II,* the Senior Prince of Poland and the first son of Boleslaw Krzywousty. The two Junior Princes seized Cracow,* the seat of the Senior. Boleslaw remained in the city, but, after his death in 1173, Mieszko gained control of Cracow. He tried to re-build a

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strong central authority and ruled in a harsh way which provoked a rebellion of the Lords of Little Poland. In 1174, Mieszko was expelled from Cracow and, after 1179, his son took from him half of Great Poland. In 1191 Mieszko regained Cracow and held it till his death. CHP, I, 43-59; Lexikon des Mittelalt vol. 6, part 3 (Munich and Zurich), 618-619; S. Smolka, Mieszko Stary i jego wie (Warsaw, 1881). MIKOLAJ TR^BA (1358-1422), Archbishop of Gniezno* from 1412 and first Primate* of Poland. One of the closest associates of King Wladyslaw Jagiello,* he was the King's confessor and adviser, participated in the monarch's Christianizing expedition to Lithuania* in 1387, and served in several ecclesiastical positions. A pillar of the party hostile to the Teutonic Knights,* he played an important role during the 1409-1411 war against the Order. Supported by the King, he became the Archbishop of Halicz (Halych)* in 1411, and, in the next year, of Gniezno. In 1415, he headed the Polish Delegation at the Council of Constanz, where he was approved as the first Primate of Poland. T. Silnicki, Arcybiskup Mikolaj Traba (Warsaw, 19 MIKOLAJCZYK, STANISLAW (1901-1966), peasant leader and politician. He participated in the 1918-1919 uprising against the Germans in Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* and in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. Mikolajczyk worked on his parents' farm until 1930, when he bought his own. Active in the Polish Peasant Party "Piast" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Piast" [PSL] "Piast")* from 1922, he headed the affiliated youth organization during 1928— 1930. After the founding of the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe)* in 1931, he joined its leadership and served as its Secretary, Deputy President and President. He represented his party in the Parliament during 1930-1937. He strongly opposed the Sanacja* regime and, in 1937, co-organized the peasant strike. Mikolajczyk fought as a private in the September Campaign* of 1939, and, later, he moved to France, where he chaired the Foreign Committee of the Peasant Party. From December 1939, he served as a Vice President of the National Council (Rada Narodowa),* a Parliament-in-Exile. Evacuated to England after the collapse of France, he became a Vice-Premier and Minister of Interior in Gen. W. Sikorski's Government-in-Exile* on September 3, 1941. After Sikorski's death, Mikolajczyk became Polish Prime Minister on July 14, 1943. He tried to improve relations with the USSR despite the Katyri* massacre crisis, but his two trips to Moscow in 1944 were fruitless. His policies met with the opposition of the majority of his government. After the Warsaw Uprising* of August-October 1944, he became bitterly disappointed with the Allies' lack of support for the Polish cause and resigned from the Premiership on November 24, 1944. However, he remained politically active as a representative of the Peasant Party and was supported by the Americans and the Britons. In April 1945, he recognized the Yalta* agreement, went for a consultative conference to Moscow in June 1945, and became the second Vice-Premier and Minister of

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Agriculture in the Provisional Government of National Unity (Tymczasowy Rzad Jednosci Narodowej), controlled by Stalin and the Communists. After the election of 1947, which was clearly rigged by the Communists, and personally threatened with imprisonment, he escaped from Poland. J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland 1939-1947 (Leicester, 1986), 105, 202; S. Mikolajczyk, The Rape Poland: The Pattern of Soviet Domination (London, ); PSB, XXI, 152-154; E. R Allied Wartime Diplomacy: A Pattern in Poland (New York, 1958); R. F. Staar, Po 1944-62 (New Orleans, 1962). MINING, begun in pre-historic Poland as a search for flint needed for agricultural instruments. From the fourth century B.C., iron and zinc* ores were exploited by open-pit mining, the method used till the late nineteenth century, when machinery and steam pumping were introduced. From the eleventh century, when stone architecture and rapid urbanization required suitable rocks, marble, limestone and sandstone were mined in southern Poland. In modern times, gypsum for decorative purposes, chalk, ceramic clays, mineral wax, sulfur, and glass sands were exploited. The nineteenth century brought rapid development in zinc mining. The lands of partitioned Poland, especially Silesia,* became the most important center of zinc production. Salt mining, which began in the thirteenth century in Bochnia and Wieliczka,* was also developed in the nineteenth century in Ciechocinek* and neighboring regions controlled by Prussia.* In 1870, potassium salt was discovered in Eastern Galicia.* Specialized and technically developed mining of lead, copper, silver and gold, evidenced in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, began to decrease in the seventeenth century. Throughout the centuries, capital shareholding (gwarectwa) and sophisticated mining law developed in Poland. In the nineteenth century, black coal became the most precious mineral resource of Silesia* and Little Poland (Malopolska),* which developed into two of the largest centers of coal mining in the world, while Galicia became one of the earliest world centers of oil mining. From the 1870s, the domination of metals and salt in Polish mining was replaced by energy resources. On the eve of WW I, about 150,000 miners were employed in Silesia and some 15,000 in the oil industry in Galicia. Coal mining generated about 4 percent of Polish national income in 1929, with a much higher share in total exports. EHGP, I, 209-214 MINORITIES, both the pre-Partitioned Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and interwar Poland were multi-national states. According to 1931 statistics, 31 percent of Poland's population belonged to national minorities in the following numbers: Ukrainians, 4.8 million; Jews,* 2.7 million; Belorussians, 1.5 million; Germans, 700,000; Russians and Lithuanians, 80,000 each; Czechs, 30,000. On the eve of WW II, national minorities constituted over one-third of the total population of Poland. The Ukrainians inhabited southeastern parts of Poland, including the Stanislawow,* Tarnopol and Volhynian* provinces (wojewodztwa), where they created a substantial majority, as in the eastern half of Lvov,*

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southern part of Polesie,* southeastern part of Cracow* and southeastern part of Lublin* provinces. The Belorussians lived in Nowogrodek, Polesie,* and Vilna* provinces, and in the eastern parts of Bialystok* province. The Lithuanians lived in the western part of Vilna province and the northeastern part of Bialystok province. The Germans, except for their "islands" in central and eastern Poland, populated Silesia,* Pomerania,* and the western districts of Poznari (Posen)* and Lodz* provinces. Jews dominated in urban areas of eastern and central Poland, with the overwhelming majority in such towns as Bialystok, Brody,* Grodno,* Luck,* Pirisk,* and Rdwne. All minorities in Poland had cultural and religious organizations, and they were represented by their parties in the Parliament and local communal authorities. In 1922, a powerful minority bloc was created in the Parliament. The best organized and the wealthiest were the Germans and the Jews, while the most active in the nationalist sense were the Ukrainians. M. Drozdowski, "The National Minorities in Poland, 1918-39," Acta Poloniae Historica XXII (1970), 226-251; S. Horak, Eastern European National Minorities. A Handbook (Littleton, Colorado, 1985), 35-107; S. Horak, Poland and Her National Minorities: A Case Study (New York, 1961).

MINORITIES TREATIES, series of agreements between the great Allied powers and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe signed after WW I. The treaties were guaranteed by the League of Nations* and obliged the multinational states to respect the rights of ethnic minorities. One of these treaties was signed with Poland on June 28, 1919, at Versailles. It mainly protected the German minority, while defeated Germany did not sign any agreement of that kind, and the Polish minority in Germany remained unprotected. Polish public opinion received the treaty as a limitation of Polish national sovereignty and interference by the nascent League of Nations in Polish internal affairs. In 1934 the government of Poland broke the treaty and refused to cooperate with the League in minority matters. S. Horak, Poland and Her National Minorities: A C Study (New York, 1961 MIRECKI, JOZEF ("MONTWILL") (1879-1908), revolutionary. Active in Polish patriotic and socialist organizations from his youth, he joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1900. Arrested by the Tsarist police, he spent the years 1902-1904 in jail and in Siberia. In 1905 he escaped and joined the Fighting Organization (Organizacja Bojowa [OB])* of the PPS. He organized and led numerous terrorist attacks on Russian institutions and banks in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* After the split in the PPS in 1906, he supported J. Pilsudski's* Revolutionary Fraction (Frakcja Rewolucyjna). Arrested in 1908, he was executed on the slopes of the Warsaw* citadel. W. Pobog-Malinowski, "J. Montwilt-Mirecki," Niepodleglosc VIII (1933).

MIZWA (MIERZWA), STEFAN (1892-1971), activist of the Polish community in America. Founder and first Director of the Kosciuszko* Foundation

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in New York, he distinguished himself as an able organizer and fund-raiser. E. Kusielewicz (ed.), A Tribute to Stephen P. Mizwa (New York, 19 MLODA POLSKA. See "YOUNG POLAND." MLYNARSKI, EMIL (1870-1935), conductor, violinist, and composer. Educated in St. Petersburg, he taught at a music school in Odessa during 1894— 1897. In 1898, he returned to Poland, and, in 1903, he organized in Paris the first festival of Polish music. During 1904-1907 and 1919-1922, he directed the Warsaw* Conservatory and, during 1919-1929, the opera. Before 1918, he was active in the United Kingdom and Moscow. During 1929-1931, he worked in Philadelphia as a conductor and teacher at the Curtis Institute. His own work combined the general tradition of Romanticism with the basic element of folk songs, and he followed the patterns of S. Moniuszko* and I. Paderewski.* The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. by S. Sadie, vol. 12 (London, 1980), MLYNARSKI, FELIKS (1884-1972), economist. Educated at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* he was active in youth organizations related to the National Democratic* movement. In 1907, he joined the clandestine Liga Narodowa (National League)* but, antagonized by R. Dmowski's* pro-Russian orientation, he left the National Democratic camp. After the outbreak of WW I, he joined the Polish Legions* and, in November 1914, he was sent to the United States to popularize that military organization. From 1921, he directed the Emigration Office and, from 1923, he worked in the Ministry of Finance with W. Grabski,* who asked him to edit the financial section of the official organ of the Ministry, Industry and Commerce (Przemysl i handel). In 1924, he headed the Currency Department of the Ministry and became one of the architects of the monetary reform in Poland. He co-founded the Bank Polski* and was nominated its Vice President in 1924. In 1925 he obtained a credit for the Bank Polski from the Federal Reserve Bank in New York, which helped to move Poland out of the credit isolation manipulated by the Britons. He also arranged an American stabilization loan in 1927. His policy was opposed by J. Pilsudski* and the ruling elites. In 1929 Mlynarski resigned from his governmental positions, and, in 1930, he began teaching banking in the Warsaw Trade Academy (Szkola Handlowa). Known as an expert in currency problems, he served on boards of several private enterprises and was invited by the League of Nations to work for its financial and commercial institutions. During WW II, he was a President of the new Polish bank, one totally controlled by the Nazis, the Bank of Issue (Bank Emisyjny)* of the General Government.* He authored numerous works on sociology, economics and philosophy and contributed greatly to the

development of economic thought in Poland. Z. Landau, "F.

1972): Zarys zycia i dzialalnosci na polu finansdw," Finanse XI, (1973); PSB, XX 443-446.

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MNISZECH, JERZY (15487-1613), ambitious magnate,* Castellan* of Radom* and Palatine (wojewoda) of Sandomierz.* Educated in Konigsberg and Leipzig, he became a courtier and confidant of King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August,* who used Mniszech in delicate, personal matters. He advocated the Royal candidacies of Stefan Batory* and, later, Zygmunt Waza (Sigismund Vasa)*; supported Chancellor* J. Zamoyski*; and distinguished himself during the wars with Muscovy. Ambitious and proud, he wanted to be equal to the most powerful Polish magnates, lived on credit, and fell into great debt. In 1604, he grabbed an opportunity to improve his financial situation and supported the False Dimitry. Mniszech organized a forceful intervention in Moscow, placing Dimitry on its throne. Mniszech's daughter married Dimitry and became the Tsarina of Muscovy. Dimitry promised to pay his father-in-law enormous sums and to cede to him huge estates in Russia. When Dimitry was assassinated by angry Muscovites, Mniszech supported the second False Dimitry. The Polish Sejm* of 1611 condemned Mniszech's Russian intrigues, which ended in a complete fiasco. However, Mniszech had managed to promote his family to magnate status. PSB, XXI, 465-467. MNISZKOWNA, HELENA (1878-1943), writer. Her most popular novel, The Lepress (Tredowata), published in 1909 and describing a romantic, unhappy affair between a girl from the lower class and an aristocrat, became a symbol of sentimental "trash" literature. However, it had sixteen editions up to 1939 and was remade into several movie versions with outstanding actors. Mniszkowna wrote other similar novels, and was one of the most widely read novelists of interwar Poland. PSB, XXI, 489-490. MOCHNACKI, MAURYCY (1803-1834), historian, literary critic, and revolutionary. As a student in Warsaw,* he was active in several secret patriotic organizations. Arrested and broken during an interrogation in 1823, he named his professors as culprits, was released and temporarily worked in the Censorship Office of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in Warsaw. Later he concentrated on the writing of literary and theatrical reviews for several Warsaw journals and became a herald of Romanticism in Poland. He participated in a plot that prepared the November Insurrection* and, at its outbreak, he led a revolutionary group attacking Russian authorities in occupied Warsaw, He organized the Patriotic Club, composed of radical intelligentsia; accused the dictator of the uprising, Gen. J. Chlopicki,* of plotting with Grand Duke Constantine*; opposed negotiations with Tsar Nicholas; and supported the creation of a National Government. Mochnacki demanded that the national revolution be turned into a social one, with full civic rights for the peasants. In February 1831, he volunteered for the Army and he participated in the Battles of Wawer* and Ostroleka.* Released from the military after he was gravely wounded, he continued his revolutionary activities and was arrested by the Governor of Warsaw, Gen. W. Chrzanowski. He managed to escape to France, where he became active in

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the left wing organizations of the Great Emigration.* During 1833-1834, he wrote The Uprising of the Polish Nation in 1830 and 1831 (Powstanie narodu polskiego w r. 1830 i 1831). The book, intended as a historical monograph, was actually a political pamphlet. He died in poverty after having been at odds with most Emigration activists. PSB, XXI, 502-506. MOCZYGEMBA, LEOPOLD (1824-1891), missionary. Ordained as a Franciscan priest in 1847, he went to Texas to work as a missionary in 1852. In his letters to his relatives in Silesia,* he recommended that they settle in Texas. In 1854, some 150 people from the Opole* district immigrated and established the oldest Polish settlement in the United States, called Panna Maria. In 1858, Moczygemba was appointed Superior of the first American province of the Conventual Franciscans. A. Brozek, Slazacy w Teksasie: Relacje o najstarszych osad polskich w Ameryce (Wroclaw, 1972); PSB, XXI, 511MODERNISM, tendency in art and literature which rejected traditional styles, introduced various innovations, and was prominent in Europe during 1880— 1910. The term was understood in different ways in different branches of art and was called modern style in England, l'art nouveau in France, Jugendstil in Germany, and Secession in Austria. It encompassed such trends as neoRomanticism, populism, symbolism, impressionism, futurism, expressionism, surrealism, constructivism, and abstractionism. All of them had some impact in Poland, where modernism was called secesja in art and "Young Poland"* in literature. SHP, 257-258 MODJESKI, RALPH (Modrzejewski, Rudolf) (1861-1940), civil engineer and bridge constructor. A son of Helena Modrzejewska,* he was educated in Paris and immigrated to America in 1885. There, he joined the office of a famous bridge constructor, G. Morisson, and, in 1893, he opened his own construction business in Chicago. He became one of the leading engineering authorities on bridges in the United States and one of the top bridge builders in the world, with thirty large bridges to his credit. The National Cyclopaedia of American Bi ographies, vol. 15 (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1967), 68-69; J. Medal, Biography of Ralph Modjeski, Medalist for 1930 (New York, 1930); PSB, XXI, 536-537.

MODLIN, town and a fortress at the junction of the Bug* and Vistula* Rivers near Warsaw.* The place was used for the first time by the Swedes, who established a fortified camp there in 1655-1656. During 1806-1812, the Duchy of Warsaw,* on the instruction of Napoleon, built a citadel in Modlin. It served as a military store in 1812 and was defended against the Russians in 1813. During the nineteenth century, the fortress was developed, especially during 1870-1875, when it was surrounded by a ring of eight forts. During 1911-1915, another, larger ring of ten forts was added. The fortress was defended by the Russians against the Germans in August 1915. It also played an important role

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in the defense of Warsaw in September 1939, when the garrison of Modlin, commanded by Gen. W. Thomee, fought until September 29. S. Zaloga and V. Madej, The Polish Campaign 1939 (New York, 19 MODRZEJEWSKA (MODJESKA), HELENA (1840-1909), actress. She started her career in a small theatrical group that was touring Galicia* in the early 1860s. She performed in Lvov,* Stanisfawow (Stalislaviv),* Chernovtsi, Warsaw,* Poznari (Posen),* and Cracow,* where she signed her first permanent contract with a renowned theater and married an aristocrat, K. Chlapowski. New connections and a series of professional successes opened the best stages of Poland for her. During 1869-1876, she performed in Warsaw, where, as in Cracow, she entered local intellectual elites. Uncomfortable with the political situation in Warsaw, in 1876 she emigrated to the United States, where, after a year of preparations and learning of English, her American debut was received as a triumph. She became very popular in America and made twenty-six tours across the country. In 1880, she visited London, but she was not accepted by the British audience. During the International Women's Congress in Chicago in 1893, she delivered a speech against the Tsarist oppression in Poland, which provoked her official banishment from the Russian Empire. Critics praised Modrzejewska and ranked her among the best actresses of her times. J. Altemus, Helena Modjeska (New York, 1971); M. Coleman, Fair Rosalind: The American Care of Helena Modjeska (Cheshire, 1969); H. Modjeska, Memories and Impressions ofHelena Modjeska: An Autobiography (New York, 1910); PSB, XXI, 528-534. MODRZEWSKI, ANDRZEJ FRYCZ (1503-1572), political and religious writer. Born into a poor noble family, he was educated in Cracow* and Wittenberg and began his career as a secretary at the Chancery of Primate J. Laski.* Later, he served in the same capacity the Poznari (Posen)* Bishop J. Latalski, the Reformation* theologian J. Laski,* and other members of the powerful Laski family. He traveled in Germany with their missions. Among other achievements, he purchased for them the library of Erasmus of Rotterdam after his death. During the reign of Zygmunt (Sigismund) August,* Modrzewski served as a secretary at the Royal Chancery and as a diplomat. In Western Europe, he met numerous representatives of the Reformation.* During his studies in Wittenberg, he lived at the house of Melanchton. He followed the inspiration of the Reformation and became one of the most eminent Polish libertarian and democratic humanistic political writers. The most important of his treaties is De republica emendanda (On the Reform of the State). The work met with the strong opposition of the Polish clergy, and, in 1551, only the first three volumes, On Mores, On Laws, and On War, were published. The complete edition, including the volumes on the state and on schools, appeared in Basel, Switzerland, in 1554. The book is considered the first European work to discuss problems of the state as a whole. Modrzewski believed that all inhabitants of Poland, including peasants and serfs, should be equal citizens. He advocated the democ-

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ratization of the state and Church, a fundamental structural reform of Poland under a centralized though not absolute monarchy. He recommended creation of the national Church, though he favored religious tolerance. Modrzewski did not break with Roman Catholicism, but he became very close to Calvinism and served as a mediator between the two denominations. C. Milosz, The History Polish Literature (London, 1969), 39-42; PSB, XXI, 538-542; A. Ulam, "A. F. M revius, Polish Political Scientist of the 16th Century," American Political Science Rev XL (1946), 485-494; W. Voise (ed.), Frycza Modrzewskiego Nauka o Pahstwie i Pr (Warsaw, 1956). MOHYLA (MOVILA), JEREMIASZ (1555-1606), Hospodar (ruler) of Moldavia installed on the Moldavian throne by Chancellor J. Zamoyski.* Mohyla, a Grand Marshal of Moldavia, belonged to a party of Moldavian magnates who counted on Poland in their plans for emancipation from Turkish control. In 1591, when the Turks detected an anti-Turkish conspiracy, Mohyla escaped to Poland. In 1595 Polish King Zygmunt III Waza* sent J. Zamoyski to intervene in Moldavia. Mohyla was placed on its throne as a vassal of Poland. However, Polish control and an undisciplined Polish Army were unpopular in Moldavia, and Mohyla spent most of his life involved in a civil war. N. Iorga, Polonais et Ro mains (Bucharest, 1921); PSB, XXI, 564-568. MOHYLA, PIOTR (Movila, Petro or Petru) (1597-1647), Metropolitan of Kiev and head of the Orthodox Church in the Ukraine.* A son of Simeon Mohyla and a nephew of Jeremiasz Mohyla,* Hospodars of Moldavia, he sought refuge in the Polish-controlled Ukraine after his father's murder in 1607. Educated in Lvov* and Zamosc,* he entered the Polish military service and fought as an officer against the Turks in the Battles of Cecora* and Chocim.* Later he settled on his estates and became involved in the affairs of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. In 1627, he was elected Archimandrite of the Kievian Cave Monastery and Deputy in the Polish Sejm,* where he successfully defended the interests of the Orthodox Church in Poland. In 1632, he was nominated Metropolitan of Kiev. He contributed greatly to the improvement of the Orthodox Church in Poland and established in Kiev a major center of Orthodox scholarship and education, known as the Kievian Mohyla Academy. Encyclopedia Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 3 (Toronto, 1988), 432-43 MOND, BERNARD STANISLAW (1887-1957), General. Educated at Lvov* University, he worked as a railway clerk in Galicia.* He participated in WW I as an officer of the Austrian Army. Taken prisoner of war by the Russians in 1916, he escaped from a POW camp in 1918 and joined the Polish troops during the Polish-Ukrainian conflict in Lvov in November 1918. Later, he participated in the Polish-Ukrainian War* of 1919 and in the Polish-Soviet War* of 19191921. Throughout the interwar period, he served in different positions in the Polish Army. During the 1939 September Campaign,* he commanded one of

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the divisions of the "Cracow" Army. He capitulated on September 20 and spent the rest of the war in a POW camp in Germany. PSB, XXI, 642-643. MONITOR, the most important periodical of the Polish Enlightenment,* published once and, later, twice a week in Warsaw* during 1765-1785. It was initiated by King Stanislaw August* and edited by several outstanding writers and journalists, among them F. Bohomolec* and I. Krasicki.* Preceded by A. K. Czartoryski's* so-called little Monitor in 1763, it followed the pattern of the British Spectator and became a semi-official organ of the camp supporting reforms in Poland. A liberal magazine, Monitor was devoted to the principles of rationalism and religious tolerance, and it introduced new forms of writing on public affairs. It contributed greatly to the development of the Polish literary language. WEP, VI, 43 MONIUSZKO, STANISLAW (1819-1872), the most representative opera and song composer of the Polish nineteenth-century national school. The son of landed gentry, he studied composition in Berlin and, in 1840, received the post of organist at St. John's in Vilna,* where he also gave piano lessons and occasionally conducted theatrical operas. Simultaneously, he composed intensively, publishing the Home Songbook (Spiewnik domowy) in 1843; in 1858, the premiere of his noted opera Halka took place in Warsaw* and was received with enthusiasm. Shortly afterward Moniuszko moved to Warsaw, was engaged as opera conductor at the Grand Theater and taught at the Music Institute. His successive operas, devoted to popular Romantic subjects or to the customs and traditions of the Polish nobility, were greatly appreciated and contributed to Moniuszko's high musical position. B. Maciejewski, Moniuszko: Father of Poli Opera (London, 1979); The New Grove Dictionary of Music, vol. 12 (London, 19 488-490. MONTE CASSINO, BATTLE OF (May 11-29, 1944), one of the most bitter battles in Italy in 1944. The hill of Monte Cassino, with a Benedictine* monastery at the summit fortified by the Germans, dominated the Liri River valley and closed the way leading up from Naples to Rome. It was crucial to the invasion of Nazi-controlled Europe by Allied forces. The flooding of the Rapido River in spring 1944 made the use of tanks in an attack on the monastery impossible. Although a massive air raid leveled the monastery on February 15, 1944, three attacks by British, French, and Indian troops failed. Finally, the Second Polish Corps, commanded by Gen. W. Anders* and fighting within the Eighth British Army, captured the stronghold defended by the German First SS Airborne Division on May 18. The battle broke the German defense of the Gustav Line and opened the way to Rome, but it was extremely costly in casualties. The Second Corps lost 4,199 soldiers, including 924 killed. The Polish contribution to the campaign was highly appreciated by the Allies. In Polish national tradition, Monte Cassino became a symbol of the Polish fight for free-

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dom far from Poland. W. Anders, Army in Exile (London, 1949); E. Smith, The Battles of Cassino (New York, 1974); M. Warikowicz, Monte Cassino (Warsaw, 1958).

MONUMENTA POLONIAE HISTORICA, major collection of Polish medieval documents. Its publication was initiated by A. Bielowski in Lvov* in 1847 and continued under the patronage of the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejetnosci)* in Cracow* by W. K^trzynski,* who followed the model of Monumenta Germaniae Historica. The collection represents an outstanding level of scholarship. WEP, VII, 45 MORACZEWSKI, JgDRZEJ (1870-1944), politician and activist of the socialist movement in Poland. Born in Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* into a family with strong Polish patriotic traditions, he graduated from the Polytechnic University in Lvov,* where he was active in several student patriotic organizations. An engineer in state enterprises building railroads, he joined a party known later as the Polish Social-Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia (Polska Partia Socjal-Demokratyczna Galicji i Slaska Cieszyriskiego [PPSD])* in 1894, and he represented it in the Austrian Parliament during 1907-1918. He also participated in J. Pilsudski's* independence movement. During WW I, he fought in the Polish Legions* and was active in the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN])* and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In October 1918, he became a member of the Polish Liquidation Commission (Polska Komisja Likwidacyjna),* which assumed power over Galicia.* On November 7, 1918, he was called to serve as Minister of Post and Communication in the Provisional Government of the Polish Republic (Tymczasowy Rzad Ludowy Republiki Polskiej) in Lublin.* On November 18, 1918, he was nominated by the head of the Polish state, J. Pilsudski,* to be the Premier and Minister of Communication of Poland. Moraczewski's cabinet introduced several important social reforms and, opposed strongly by the right-wing political parties, resigned in January 1919. During 1919-1927, Moraczewski was among the main leaders of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and represented it in the Parliament, where he also served as a Deputy Speaker and chaired the Socialist Club. Appointed a Minister of Public Works in November 1925, he resigned several months later in protest of the government's negative attitude toward J. Pilsudski. Moraczewski played an important role in the Pilsudski coup d'etat* in May 1926. After its success, he served as a Minister of Public Works during 19261929. In this capacity, he contributed greatly to the development of the country's transportation system. As a supporter of the Sanacja* regime, he was expelled from the PPS in 1927. In 1930, he withdrew from active politics. However, in 1931, he became the President of the Trade Union Association (Zwiazek Zwiazkow Zawodowych [ZZZ]). He opposed the anti-democratic policies of the Sanacja regime after J. Pilsudski's death. During WW II, he concentrated on writing and humanitarian activities. PSB, XXI, 684-689.

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MORCINEK, GUSTAW (1891-1963), writer. He was born in Cieszyn Silesia,* worked as a miner there and, by the end of WW I, helped to establish Polish control over this disputed region. After the war, he earned his living as a teacher and wrote numerous novels devoted to Silesia. During 1939-1945, he was imprisoned in Nazi concentration camps. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polis Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 635-63 MORSTIN (MORSZTYN), LUDWIK HIERONIM (1886-1966), writer and translator. In 1911, he established and edited the Museion monthly, which heralded the return to classicism in Polish literature. During WW I, he served in the Polish Legions* and worked in the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]).* In 1919, he was sent to Paris as a liaison officer of the Polish General Staff to Marshal F. Foch,* and, in 1922, he was transferred as military attache to Rome. During 1930-1931, he edited a prestigious monthly, Pamietnik Warszawski (Warsaw Diary).* His plays, novels, and poems are based on motifs from the ancient Greco-Roman tradition and Polish history. PSB, XXI 794-797. MORSZTYN, JAN ANDRZEJ (1621-1693), poet. A courtier and diplomat, he signed the 1660 Oliwa Peace Treaty* with the Swedes as a representative of King Jan Kazimierz.* Morsztyn, who also served as a Royal Treasurer, supported a French candidate to the Polish throne and opposed the new King, Michal Wisniowiecki.* Eventually, Morsztyn settled in France. He was recognized as one of the most outstanding representatives of Polish Baroque poetry. He also authored valuable translations from French, Latin and Italian literary works, including Corneille's Cid. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature ( don, 1969), 132-133. MOSCOW TRIAL (June 1945), trial of sixteen leaders of the Polish underground loyal to the Polish Government-in-Exile during WW II. They were invited by Commandants of the Red Army for negotiations. The Soviets also promised to send the Poles to London to continue the talks with the Polish government. However, the Polish leaders were arrested on March 28, 1945, in Pruszkow, near Warsaw,* and sent instead to Moscow's Lubianka prison. During the subsequent June trial, they were variously sentenced, despite official protests of English and American governments, for their alleged counterrevolutionary activities in the rear of the Red Army. Among them, Gen. L. Okulicki,* the last Commander-in-Chief of the Home Army [AK],* was sentenced to ten years in prison; the Vice-Premier and Delegate of the Polish Government, J. Jankowski,* to eight years; the Ministers A. Bieri, S. Jasiukowicz, and A. Pajdak, each to five years. It was the final blow to Polish hopes for independence from Soviet domination. Z. StypAulkowski, Invitation to Moscow ( York, 1962); A Trial in Moscow: Tenth Anniversary of the Capture of Sixteen Leaders of Underground Poland (London, 1955).

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MOSDORF, JAN (1904-1943), publicist and activist of the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe).* Educated in Warsaw* and Paris, he joined the rightwing All-Polish Youth (Mlodziez Wszechpolska) organization and was active as a publicist. Strongly anti-Semitic and anti-communist, he considered Germany the main enemy of Poland. He passed through all levels of the Endek* hierarchy, belonged to the Camp of Greater Poland (Oboz Wielkiej Polski),* and headed the youth organization of the National Party. In 1934, he rebelled against the leadership of R. Dmowski* in the party and co-founded a new radical, semifascist National Radical Camp (Oboz Narodowo-Radykalny [ONR]).* After the split in the ONR in the late 1930s, he was politically less active. After the outbreak of WW II, he rejoined the clandestine National Party and served in its Propaganda and Military Units. Arrested by the Gestapo* in 1940, he was sent to Auschwitz,* where he was executed by the Germans. PSB, XXII, 36-38. MOSCICKI, IGNACY (1867-1946), scientist and President of Poland during 1926-1939. Born to a noble patriotic family, he studied in Riga, where he belonged to a party known as the Second Proletariat.* In 1892, he settled in Warsaw,* where he was engaged in the anti-Tsarist conspiracy. Threatened with arrest, he went to London, where he met J. Pilsudski.* In 1897, he was employed at the University of Freiburg, Switzerland, and started a brilliant career as an inventor of nitrogen acid production from the atmosphere. Moscicki also invented a new method of concentrating nitrogen acid and sulfuric acid, elaborated the synthesis of prussic acid, and made several other inventions. In 1912, he was invited by the Lvov Polytechnical University to become professor of physical chemistry and technological electrochemistry. He spent WW I in Lvov* as a Dean of the Chemistry Department involved with the clandestine Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* and Legion of Poland's Sovereignty. He continued his inventions and, in 1922, he restored the formerly German huge but then stripped Chorzow* plant. After work by Moscicki, it again produced carbide and calcium cyanide, making interwar Poland independent of imports of related chemical products. In 1930, he established a big chemical plant named Moscice near Tarnow* to produce nitric acid from ammonia. He published over sixty original scholarly works, held forty patents, and obtained honorary doctorates from several universities, including the Sorbonne. May 1926 became the turning point in his life, when he was asked by J. Pilsudski* to become President after the Pilsudski coup d'etat.* On June 1, 1926, Moscicki was elected by the Polish Sejm* and Senate* as the President of the Polish Republic. The constitutional amendment of August 2, 1926, greatly broadened Presidential prerogatives by giving the President the sole authority to dissolve the Parliament and to legislate by decrees without consultation with the latter. On August 6, Moscicki issued a decree concerning the organization of the command of the Polish Armed Forces.* J. Pilsudski was nominated the General Inspector of the Armed Forces, a position he had long desired. Moscicki

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became a major helper of Pilsudski in his fight with the Parliamentary opposition and was re-elected for the next seven-year term in 1933. Moscicki also signed the Constitution of April 23, 1935,* which gave unlimited power to the President. The constitution was tailored for J. Pilsudski, who died a month after its passing. Moscicki kept his Presidential office and became a leader of one of the Sanacja* factions. His "Castle Group" allied with the faction of E. RydzSmigly,* defeated the "Colonels Group" of W. Slawek,* and governed in Poland until September 1939. After the Nazi and Soviet aggressions of Poland, Moscicki left for Romania on September 17, 1939, and was interned there. He nominated B. Wieniawa-Dlugoszowski* as his successor, but he was not recognized by the French, and Moscicki then designated W. Raczkiewicz* the new President of Poland. In December 1939, Moscicki left for Switzerland, claiming his former citizenship. Prezydenci i Premierzy Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (President Premiers of the Polish Second Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wrobel (Warsaw, 1992), 213-230, PSB, XXII, 143-148 MRONGOWIUSZ (MRONGOVIUS), KRZYSZTOF CELESTYN (17641855), writer, translator, lexicographer, Lutheran pastor, and defender of the Polish language in Warmia (Ermland)* and Mazury.* He taught the Polish language in the Cathedral School of Konigsberg and in a high school in Gdarisk (Danzig).* He published several reference books on the Polish language, including a Polish-German dictionary, which was used for official translations by the Prussian authorities. He defended and popularized Polish culture in Prussianoccupied Polish lands and researched Kaszubian* folklore and old Slavic dialects. PSB, XXII, 190-195.

MUDRYJ, VASYL (1893-1966), Ukrainian politician and journalist. During 1917-1920, he was employed in and headed a local administration in the Ploskirow (Proskuriv) district of the Ukrainian People's Republic. After its collapse, he was active in numerous Ukrainian organizations in Poland. During 1921-1925, he was one of the founders and heads of the secret Ukrainian University in Lvov.* He co-founded the most influential Ukrainian party in interwar Poland, the Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance (UNDO); drafted its program in 1926 and served as its first Vice President (1928-1935) and President (1935-1939). He represented the party in the Polish Sejm,* where he was a Deputy Speaker and leader of Ukrainian Parliamentary Representation. He demanded territorial autonomy within Poland for lands with a Ukrainian majority. Simultaneously, he supported a policy of normalization of PolishUkrainian relations. After the Nazi aggression of Poland in September 1939, he appealed to Ukrainians to participate in the defense of Poland as its citizens. Active in the Ukrainian underground during WW II, he became one of the main leaders of Ukrainian organizations in exile after the war. Encyclopedia of Ukrai ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 3 (Toronto, 1988), 475; PSB, XXI, 253-254.

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MURAVIEV, MICHAIL (1794-1866), Tsarist Governor and General. During 1831-1835, he acquired ill fame as a Governor of Grodno* province for his cruelty against Polish and Lithuanian participants in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. During 1857-1861, he served in St. Petersburg as Minister of State Estates and opposed the abolition of serfdom. During 1863-1865, he was in charge of six Lithuanian-Belorussian gubernias and bloodily suppressed the January Insurrection* there. He ordered mass executions and the burning of villages suspected of supporting the uprising. He deported thousands of Polish noblemen to Siberia* and confiscated the estates of Polish patriots. As the most hated Tsarist official, he gained the title "the Hangman" (wieszatiel). SHP, 26 MUSKATA, JAN (1250-1320), Bishop of Cracow.* Educated in Bologna, he was appointed by the Pope a collector of Peter's Pence* in Poland. Muskata established close relations with the Czech ruler Vaclav II (Venceslaus II)* and supported his claims to the Polish crown. In return, Vaclav helped him to become Bishop of Cracow. Muskata, who was of German origin, favored German settlers and priests at the expense of Poles and antagonized the ruling elites of Poland, including the Archbishop of Gniezno, J. Swinka,* and the new monarch, Wladyslaw Lokietek.* Muskata reconciled with the King, but his career was over. PSB, XXII, 291-295. MUNCHENGRAZ (Mnichovo Chradiste), Czech town, where a RussianAustrian agreement was signed on September 19, 1833, and later signed by Prussia.* Among other points, it provided for cooperation among the three powers in combatting Polish conspiracies and extraditing political refugees. It was a part of Metternich's campaign to bring together the signatories of the 1815 Holy Alliance to counteract European revolutionary movements, including the Polish movement. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 4 MYSZKOWSKI GONZAGA, ZYGMUNT (1562-1615), Crown Marshal of Poland from 1603. An adviser of Zygmunt III Waza,* he was sent with different missions to Italy, where the Gonzagas accepted him in their family and gave him their coat of arms. Myszkowski supported a program of strengthening the Royal power in Poland. WEP, VII, 565 MYSZKOWSKI, PIOTR (1510-1591), Bishop of Cracow* and Deputy Chancellor (podkanclerzy) of Poland. Educated in Cracow and Padua, he started his career as a Courtier of the Bishop of Cracow and, later, as Vicar of that Diocese. In 1559 he was appointed a secretary of King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August* and, in 1563, a Deputy Chancellor of the Treasury. He participated in the negotiating of the Union of Lublin* with Lithuania* in 1569. In 1568, he became a Bishop of Plock* and, in 1577, of Cracow. After the death of Zygmunt August and, later, when King Henryk Walezy* fled from Poland, Myszkowski supported the Habsburg* candidacy to the Polish throne. Then he switched to the opposite

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camp and supported the candidacies of both Stefan Batory* and Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa).* He used his spare time for scholarly activities. He supported and remained in touch with the most important Polish intellectuals of his era. As the Bishop of Cracow, he also became head of the Jagiellonian University.* He collected a fortune and established a magnate position for the Myszkowski family. PSB, XXII, 382-390.

N

" N , " symbol of the diversionary propaganda (disinformation) branch of the underground Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ])* and the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* during 1941-1944. The unit directed its activities against German soldiers and officials and against the Volksdeutsche,* Poles of German origin (real or alleged) who decided for opportunistic reasons to abandon their Polish nationality. The " N " branch, directed by T. Zenczykowski ("Kania"), was a section of the AK Bureau of Information and Propaganda, headed by Col. J. Rzepecki.* The unit produced sophisticated publications, flyers, and posters and used various other methods aimed at undermining German hope for final victory. S. Korboriski, The Polish Undergrou State (New York, 1978), 66; SHP, 26 NABIELAK, LUDWIK (1804-1883), activist of the Polish independence movement and the Great Emigration* after the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. As a student in Galicia,* he researched Slavic folklore and established two Pan-Slavic associations with a program related to the Decembrist movement in Russia. In 1830, he moved to Warsaw* and joined the conspiracy preparing the November Insurrection. On the night of November 29, 1830, he, with thirty-two comrades, unsuccessfully attacked the Belvedere residence of Grand Duke Constantine.* Later, he co-founded the Patriotic Club, joined the Army and fought in the Battles of Grochow,* Iganie,* and Ostrofeka.* After the fall of the uprising, he left Poland and settled in France, where he established warm relations with A. Mickiewicz,* was active in the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]),* and entered the sect of A. Towiariski.* He visited Galicia* in 1848 and 1863 but did not manage to participate in the revolutionary events of those years. PSB, XXII, 418-420.

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NALKOWSKA, ZOFIA (1884-1954), novelist. Born into the family of the noted scholar and publicist Waclaw Nalkowski, Zofia was brought up in a society of radical intellectuals and literati. She made her literary debut in 1908 and later published numerous poems, novels, short stories, essays, and various other works. After WW I, she was considered the most outstanding representative of the psychological novel in Poland, and her greatest achievement, Boundary Line (Granica), appeared in 1935. This novel, devoted to the problems of ethics and the radical Polish intelligentsia manifested in the establishment of the Polish state after 1918, received a state award in 1935 and was filmed in 1938. After WW II, Nalkowska edited the literary weekly Kuznica (Forge) and was a member of the Polish Parliament and the Commission for the Investigation of Nazi Crimes. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 431-4 PSB, XXII, 496-500 NANKER, OKSZA (12657-1341), Bishop of Cracow* and Wroclaw (Breslau).* Educated in Cracow and Bologna, he began a priestly career and became involved in a conflict between Bishop J. Muskata* and King Wladyslaw Lokietek.* Nanker supported the King and succeeded Muskata as Bishop of Cracow in 1320. He began the codification of Church statutes, improved discipline among the clergy, and restored the Romanesque Wawel* Cathedral in the Gothic style. Under Papal pressure from Rome, he moved as a Bishop to Wroclaw diocese to mediate a conflict between the Germans and Poles in 1327. PSB, XXII, 514-517. NAPIERSKI, ALEKSANDER KOSTKA. See KOSTKA NAPIERSKI, ALEKSANDER LEON. NAPOLEONIC CODE, French Civil Code prepared on Napoleon's orders in 1804. The cahiers of 1789 demanded that about two hundred Codes used in France be replaced by uniform laws. However, the revolutionary government made little progress, and it was Napoleon who pushed the project. He presided over a commission working on the Code and considered it his greatest achievement. A series of Codes—Civil, Commercial, Criminal, Penal and Rural—were adopted through 1810. The Rural Code, however, never went into effect. The Civil Code, divided into sections on persons, property, and acquisition of property, confirmed the fundamental principles of the French Revolution by the implementation of the principle of equality. It guaranteed private property and gave to all equal rights in legal proceedings, regardless of social status. It was introduced to all lands occupied by Napoleon and, later, to most European countries and their colonies. In 1808, the Code was introduced to the Duchy of Warsaw* by its Minister of Justice, F. Lubieriski,* who did so against the opposition of a large part of the landed gentry. In the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* some of its regulations were replaced, especially those dealing with marital and mortgage law, but most of the Code survived in central Poland until WW II. Historica

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Dictionary of Napoleonic France, ed. by O. Connelly (Westport, Connecticut, 19 295-296; SHP, 17 NAPRAWA (Reform), political group formally known as the League for the Reform of the Republic (Zwiazek Naprawy Rzeczpospolitej), which was a liberal faction within the Pilsudski political camp. The League was organized in 1926 by Z. Lechnicki, M. Zyndram-Kosciatkowski,* W. Grazyriski,* K. 6witalski,* and several other politicians as an amalgamation of the Association of Settlers, the Riflemen Association* and the Association of Silesian Insurrectionists. Their leaders joined the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR])* and tried to counter-balance the authoritarian Pilsudskiite activists, who later organized the semi-fascist Camp of National Unity (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego [OZN]).* J. Holzer, Mozaika polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Political Mosa the Second Polish Republic) (Warsaw, 1974), 314, 316, 330, 333-349; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 223, 236 NARODOWA DEMOKRACJA. See NATIONAL DEMOCRACY. NARUSZEWICZ, ADAM (1733-1796), poet and Bishop of Smolensk* and Luck (Lutske).* Born into a family of the middle nobility, he was educated in Jesuit* colleges in Pirisk, where he joined the Order, and in Vilna.* In 1758, Naruszewicz was transferred to Warsaw* and taught humanities subsequently at a Jesuit college, the Collegium Nobilium,* and in the Knights School.* In 1764, he was introduced by his protector, A. Czartoryski,* to King Stanislaw August.* Gradually, Naruszewicz became an adviser and one of the closest friends of the King. Naruszewicz helped to organize the so-called Thursday dinners,* which gathered the top intellectuals at the Court, and published articles supporting the King's policy. He also wrote Baroque-style poetry, translated Tacitus, authored numerous historical monographs, and, encouraged by the King, started to write a monumental History of the Polish Nation from the Times of Its Conversion to Christianity (Historia narodu polskiego od przyjecia Chrzescijaristwa). During the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792, he supported the Camp of Reforms and belonged to the Society of the Friends of the May Constitution. In 1790, he was appointed Bishop of Luck. When the King joined the Targowica Confederation* in July 1792, he followed his friend, but he did not participate in the activities of the Confederation. Naruszewicz, a man of the Enlightenment* and extremely significant in his epoch, was the most outstanding Polish historian before J. Lelewel.* C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 1 182; PSB, XXII, 554-560; N. Rutkowska, Bishop A. Naruszewicz and His History o Polish Nation (Washington, D.C., 1941); D. Welsh, "Adam Naruszewicz, a Committe Poet," Antemurale XIX, (1975), 85-9

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NARUTOWICZ, GABRIEL (1865-1922), scientist, politician, the first President of the Second Polish Republic. Born into a patriotic Polish noble family in Lithuania,* he studied in St. Petersburg and Zurich. In Switzerland, he was associated with the party later known as the Second Proletariat.* Arrested and exposed, he could not return to Russian-occupied territories of the former PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.* In 1906, he was appointed Chairman of HydroEngineering at the University of Zurich, while he continued his own construction business. During WW I, he became active in humanitarian assistance to Polish exiles in Switzerland and war victims in Poland. In June 1919, he returned to Warsaw* as a consultant on utilization of the Vistula* River. During 19201922, he served as a Minister of Public Works, the first President of the newly created Academy of Technical Sciences, and Chairman of the country's Reconstruction Council. On June 28, 1922, he became Minister of Foreign Affairs. In November 1922, he accepted S. Thugutt's* proposal to run for the Presidency of Poland as a candidate of the Polish Peasant Party "Liberation" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Wyzwolenie").* He was elected President from among five candidates on the fifth vote, mainly as a result of the support in Parliament of the leftist parties, Centrum and the national minorities.* This caused furious attacks by the extreme political right, which accused him of speaking poor Polish and being a Freemason and a Jewish impostor. On December 14, 1922, he accepted power from the previous head of state, J. Pilsudski.* On December 16, Narutowicz was killed by a nationalistic fanatic, E. Niewiadomski,* when opening an art exhibit in Zacheta Gallery. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independe Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 110-111; PSB, XXII, 574NARVA, TREATY OF, the so-called Dzialyriski Pact signed by the representative of the Saxon faction in Poland, T. Dzialyriski, with the Tsar on August 29, 1704, at the Fortress of Narva in northeast Estonia. The stronghold and city of Narva became the subject of a dispute between Poland, Russia and Sweden in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. During a Russian siege of the Narva's Swedish Garrisons in 1704 during the Northern War,* Polish forces supporting the Saxon dynasty participated in this Russian-Swedish encounter, and a Polish Commander, T. Dzialyriski, signed an alliance with Russia against the Swedes. At first sight, it appeared advantageous to Poland. It assured that the towns that had been taken from the Swedes and had once belonged to Poland were to be returned to Poland. The Russians also promised Poland financial and military aid. But under this pretext, Russia could carry on a long campaign in Lithuania at the expense of its inhabitants, and this "helpful occupation" would be an introduction to the ultimate seizure of this territory by Russia. CHP, II, 7; Th Modern Encyclopedia

of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 24

(Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1981), 70. NARVIK, BATTLE OF, encounter of Allied forces with the Germans between April 24 and May 26, 1940. The port of Narvik in northern Norway was the

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terminus of a railroad, over which Swedish iron ore was transported to Germany. In late 1939, the British war authorities determined that the loss of the use of the Narvik port would be a serious blow against Germany. In early 1940, before the Finns surrendered to the USSR, an Allied relief expedition to Finland was planned. On April 9, 1940, Narvik was taken after a short fight by the invading Nazi Army. The Allies decided to counter-attack. On April 10-13, British destroyers attacked German battleships in the port and, on April 14-15, 25,000 French and British troops, including the Polish Highland Brigade under Gen. Z. Szyszko-Bohusz,* landed near Narvik. After the Allied attack of April 24 to May 26, the exhausted Germans withdrew from Narvik. Because of the military catastrophe in Western Europe, the Allies evacuated Narvik on June 7-8. The Poles participated in the attack and, on June 8, served as a rear guard for the evacuation. The Germans re-occupied Narvik and completed the conquest of Norway. After that operation, the Polish Brigade was evacuated to France, where it participated in the defense of Brittany. Three Polish destroyers also took part in the Norwegian operation, and one of them, the Grom, was sunk by German bombers. W. Biegariski, Poles in the Battle of Narvik (Warsaw, 1969); W. Dec, "The Battle of Narvik," Poland at the Xlth International Congress of Historical Sciences in Stockholm (Warsaw, 1960), 301-336. NATANSONS, Jewish family, who played an important role in the industrial and cultural development of Poland and led the Jewish assimilationist circle of Warsaw.* The first noted representative of the family was Wolf Selig Natanson (1795-1879), an industrialist, who established the banking house of Natanson & Sons in Warsaw. One of the sons, Henryk (1820-1895), was also a banker, a bookseller, and a publicist. Another, Ludwik (1822-1896), became an outstanding physician, President of the Polish Medical Society, and a founder of a medical periodical, Tygodnik Lekarski (Doctors' Weekly). In 1871, L. Natanson was elected the first assimilationist chairman of the Jewish community of Warsaw and held this position until his death. He augmented and considerably improved the services of the community. He initiated the construction of a modern Jewish hospital in the Czyste district and of the splendid synagogue of Tlomackie Street. Kazimierz Natanson (1853-1935) was a banker and a President of the Commercial Bank of Warsaw. Jakub (1832-1884) was a chemist and a professor of Warsaw's Principal School (Szkola Glowna).* Wladyslaw (1864-1937), a physicist and professor of the Jagiellonian University,* was appointed a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1894. Some of the Natansons converted to Catholicism. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 8 (Jerusalem, 1971), 846; SHP, 271. NATIONAL ARMED FORCES (Narodowe Sily Zbrojne [NSZ]), secret military organization established on September 20, 1942, by the unification of two clandestine military troops which did not want to join the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])*: the Lizard's Union (Zwiazek Jaszczurczy), founded by activ-

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ists of the former National Radical Camp (Oboz Narodowo Radykalny [ONR]),* and the National Military Organization (Narodowa Organizacja Wojskowa [NOW]), founded by right-extremist activists of the National Democracy.* The NSZ accused AK of being too lenient to the Soviet Union and infiltrated by freemasonic and Jewish elements. NSZ fought for a Greater Poland and a * 'Catholic State of the Polish Nation." The organization was governed by the Council of Six and, from January 1943, by the Temporary National Political Council, and reached about 70,000 soldiers in October 1943. In March 1944, part of the NSZ joined the AK as an autonomous unit, and, from then on, two NSZ organizations existed in German-occupied Poland. During the Warsaw Uprising,* the NSZ cooperated with the AK. The NSZ leaders claimed that both Germany and the Soviet Union were enemies of Poland. During the last period of the war, when the fall of the Third Reich seemed imminent, the NSZ evaluated the USSR as a more dangerous foe of Poland than Nazi Germany. The NSZ launched a campaign to cleanse the Polish lands of subversive and criminal communist "bands." In a number of cases, the NSZ cooperated with the Germans to eliminate communist partisans and kill the Jews.* In 1945, the NSZ evacuated its main formation, the Swietokrzyska Brigade of 1,500 men, to the American-occupied zone of Germany to prevent Soviet captivity. The rest of the NSZ forces waged a guerrilla war against the "Soviet occupation" in Poland until 1947. The organization was commanded by Col. I Oziewicz (till June 1943), Col. T. Kurcjusz (till April 1944), Col. P. Nakoniecznikoff-Klukowski (till October 1944), Gen. Z. Broniewski (till August 1945), and S. Kasznica (till February 1947). J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland 1939-1947 (Leicester, 1986), 84, 148-150; SHP, 268-269; Z. S. Siemaszko, Narodowe Sity Zbrojne (Warsaw, 1988).

NATIONAL CATHOLIC CHURCH, largest Polish defection from the Roman Catholic Church with 282,000 members in America and in Poland in 1964. The sect originated in the last years of the nineteenth century, when thousands of Poles arrived in the United States. Most of them settled in Polish-speaking communities, wanted to have their own priests, and were at odds with the predominantly Irish and German hierarchy and clergy, who were unfamiliar with Polish ways. The first schism occurred in 1895 and, in 1904, the Polish National Catholic Church was established with about 16,000 members. In 1926, this Church had 62,000 faithful and, in 1921, it established a mission in Poland and set up fifty-five parishes with 55,000 members. The dissent between the dissident Church and Rome is more of a national than a doctrinal character. T. Andrews, The Polish National Catholic Church in America and Poland (London, 1953); S. Wlodarski, The Origin and Growth of the Polish National Church (Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1974). NATIONAL COLORS, originally the white Polish Royal eagle on a red background of the Polish national flag. The November Insurrection* Sejm* of 1831 introduced the white and red colors with the white band on top. The new colors

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became generally accepted and confirmed by the Constitutions of interwar Poland. SHP, 23. NATIONAL COUNCIL (Rada Narodowa), Polish substitute Parliament-inExile established in December 1939 in France by President W. Raczkiewicz's* decree as an advisory body without legislative powers. It was composed of the representatives of four parties (the National Party,* the Labor Party,* the Peasant Party,* and the Polish Socialist Party*), plus a few prominent non-party members. The first meeting was held on January 23, 1940, and elected I. Paderewski* as its President. The National Council was dissolved during the reconstruction of the cabinet of Gen. W. Sikorski* in September 1941. The new Council, presided over by Prof. S. Grabski,* was inaugurated on February 3, 1942. Its last acting President was B. Skalak, a socialist leader from Lvov.* After the withdrawal of the Peasant Party representatives and other followers of former Premier S. Mikolajczyk,* the Council ceased to exist in March 1945. Its underground equivalent in occupied Poland was the Council of National Unity (Rada Jednosci Narodowej [RJN]),* chaired by K. Puzak* and called into being on January 9, 1944. J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland 1939-1947 (Leicester, 1986), 27-29; S. Korboriski, "Rada Jednosci Narodowej (RJN)," Polskie paristwo podziemne (Paris, 1975); J. Lerski, "Emigracyjny Rzad Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej," Wysilek Zbrojny w II Wojnie Swiatowej (London, 1988), 9-26. NATIONAL DEMOCRACY (Narodowa Demokracja [ND] or "Endecja"), popular name of a Polish nationalist movement formed at the end of the nineteenth century. The movement, founded and led by the National League (Liga Narodowa),* controlled or infiltrated various legal and illegal organizations, such as the Union of Polish Youth "Zet" (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej "Zet"),* the Falcons (Sokol),* and the Association of People's Schools (Towarzystwo Szkol Ludowych). In 1897, the National League called into being the National Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne) in the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* where the party was illegal until 1905. Initially, the party's program advocated nationalism, social solidarity, liberal-democratic concepts and a drive toward an independent Polish state. Later, its programs deemphasized the struggle for national independence, supported Polish autonomy within the Russian Empire, and opposed revolutionary upheavals. National Democratic leaders Z. Balicki* and R. Dmowski* then led the party toward more vigorous nationalism directed primarily against the Jews* and the Germans. A new program opposed liberal ideas and proclaimed a pro-Russian orientation based on avowed ethnic Slavic brotherhood and a common struggle against German expansionism. In Austrian-occupied Galicia,* the party was formed in 1905 as a counterpart to the pro-Habsburg conservatives and adopted a strong and-Jewish and antiUkrainian stand. In the Prussian part of Poland, the National Democracy acted illegally from 1904, but, in 1909, it was legalized as the National Democratic

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Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczno-Narodowe), led by B. Chrzanowski and the Seyda* brothers. During the 1905-1907 Revolution in Russia, the National Democracy demanded the introduction of the Polish language in the local administration. It also supported the struggle for Polish schools, demanded autonomy for the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* and vehemently opposed the socialist movement and organizations of J. Pilsudski* and his followers. National Democratic squads attacked socialist demonstrations, and the National Workers' Union (Narodowy Zwiazek Robotniczy [NZR])* was organized in 1905 to win the support of the workers. Its representatives were elected to the Russian Parliament (Duma) and were active in neo-Slavic organizations. During WW I, the National Democracy represented an anti-German and proRussian orientation. In November 1914, the National Democratic leaders cofounded the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP]),* which advocated the unification of all the Polish lands under the Russian control. After the Russian Revolutions of 1917, the National Democracy switched to a pro-Entente policy. A new Polish National Committee, led by R. Dmowski, M. Seyda,* and S. Kozicki,* was established in Paris, and the Polish Army in France* was organized. National Democrats contributed greatly to the 1918— 1919 victory of the Great Poland Insurrection (Powstanie Wielkopolskie).* R. Dmowski headed the Polish delegation at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. After the revival of the free Polish state in 1918, National Democrats strongly contested Pilsudski's rule. In 1919 they founded the People's National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo Narodowy [ZLN]), which became the largest Polish party. After the election of President G. Narutowicz,* the party led the opposition against him and was morally responsible for his assassination. In 1923, the ZLN

participated in the "Chjeno-Piast"* cabinet of W. Witos.* However, the National Democrats were never able to gain decisive power in the Polish interwar governments. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* the ZLN opposed the new regime, and R. Dmowski created the Camp of Greater Poland (Oboz Wielkiej Polski [OWP]),* an aggressive organization active outside the Parliament. In 1928, the ZLN was renamed the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe [SN]),* which assumed an even more nationalistic and anti-Semitic attitude. In 1934, two youth groups seceded from the Party. One joined Pilsudski's Sanacja* camp; the other created the semi-fascist National Radical Camp (Oboz Narodowo-Radykalny [ONR]).* However, the National Party was still the largest Polish party, with 200,000 members in 1938. During WW II, the National Democrats participated in both the resistance in Poland and the Polish Government-in-Exile.* Though they were one of four major parties of Gen. W. Sikorski's* coalition, they opposed the Polish-Soviet Agreement of July 1941. After it was signed, they left (with the exception of M. Seyda*) the coalition, but they returned to it in 1943, when Stalin broke off diplomatic relations with the Government-in-Exile. In German-occupied Poland, National Democrats organized their own underground army, the National Military Organization (Narodowa Organizacja Wojskowa [NOW]), almost 70,000

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strong, most of which joined the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]),* while more radical rightist leaders entered the National Armed Forces (Narodowe Sily Zbrojne [NSZ])* with their units. In 1945, the Polish Communist authorities refused to legalize the National Party, which continued its activities underground until 1947. T. Bielecki, W szkole Dmowskiego (In Dmowski's School) (London, 1968); J. Holzer, Mozaika Polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Political Mosaic of the Second Polish Republic) (Warsaw, 1974); J. Ploski, Dzieje obozu narodowego (History of the National Camp) (London, 1953); WEP, VII, 619-620. NATIONAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY (Stronnictwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne [SND]). See NATIONAL DEMOCRACY. NATIONAL LEAGUE. See LIGA NARODOWA. NATIONAL PARTY (Stronnictwo Narodowe [SN]). See NATIONAL DEMOCRACY. NATIONAL PEASANT PARTY (Narodowy Zwiazek Chlopski [NZCh]), peasant party established in 1912 in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* by a group of secessionists from the National Democracy,* centered on an underground periodical, Polska (Poland), after 1908. The party advocated social solidarity and the development of cooperatives. It assumed a pro-Austrian position and, in 1912, joined the Temporary Commission of Confederated Independence Parties (KTSSN). In 1915, the NZCh merged with two other peasant organizations into the Polish Peasant Party "Liberation" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Wyzwolenie").* J. Holzer, Mozaika Polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Political Mosaic of the Second Polish Republic) (Warsaw, 1974), 40, 43, 58-59. NATIONAL RADICAL CAMP (Obdz Narodowo-Radykalny [ONR]), fascist organization founded in April 1934 in Warsaw* by the activists of the Camp for a Greater Poland (Oboz Wielkiej Polski [OWP]).* The consolidation of J. Pilsudski's Sanacja* regime in the late 1920s accelerated conflicts and splits within the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe [SN]).* The "young" radical National Democratic leaders active in the OWP accused the "old" activists of being inefficient and passive. After the OWP was declared illegal by the state authorities in March 1933, the "young" faction, led by J. Mosdorf,* B. Piasecki,* and H. Rossman, organized the radical ONR, which adopted some of the concepts of the Italian fascists and the Nazis. It rejected parliamentary democracy and called for the construction of a "national state," based on the principles of hierarchy, one-person leadership, and elimination of national minorities from public life. The ONR organized its fighting squads, attacked Jews* and leftist politicians, destroyed Jewish property, and provoked clashes with the police. In July 1934, the ONR was declared illegal by the government and then continued its activities underground. However, the legal ban and Sanacja's shift

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to the right after the death of Pilsudski caused a split in the ONR into two major groups. One, called ONR-ABC after their periodical, was close to the old policy of the SN. Another, more radical one, called ONR-Falanga and led by B. Piasecki,* began to cooperate with the governmental Camp of National Unity (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego [OZN])* in 1937. During WW II, Falanga created the secret anti-German National Confederation (Konfederacja Narodu), while the ABC founded the Union of Salamander (Zwiazek Jaszczurczy),* which later joined the National Armed Forces (Narodowe Sily Zbrojne [NSZ]).* The History of Poland, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 181, 192, 195; S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978), 104-110; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972). NATIONAL WORKERS' PARTY (Narodowa Partia Robotnicza [NPR]), centrist workers' party established on May 23, 1920, in Warsaw* by a merger of the National Workers' Union (Narodowy Zwiazek Robotniczy),* active before WW I in Russian-occupied Poland, and the National Party of Workers (Narodowe Stronnictwo Robotnikow), active in Prussian-occupied Poland before 1914. The party's program of 1921 advocated social solidarity and a strong democratic parliamentary state. The program opposed the Marxist concepts of class struggle, dictatorship of the proletariat, and inevitable revolution. It advocated a gradual evolution of the capitalist system through reforms, universal education, socialization of the means of production, establishment of selfgovernment, trade unions, and cooperatives. The NPR supported national and cultural autonomy for the national minorities* but did not recognize the Jews* as a minority. The main strength of the NPR was in Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* Pomerania,* the Lodz* area, and Silesia.* Until the Pilsudski coup d'etat* of 1926, the NPR participated in coalition governments, but, later, it split into two factions. One of them assumed the name of NPR-Left and supported Pilsudski's Sanacja* government; the other used the old name NPR and assumed a position more clearly opposed to Pilsudski's regime. In 1929-1930, the NPR joined the Centrolew* group. Later, it supported the Front Morges,* boycotted the Parliamentary election of 1935, merged with the Christian Democracy,* and established the Labor Party (Stronnictwo Pracy)* in 1937. In 1921 the NPR had about 150,000 members, in 1926 about 80,000 and, in 1934 about 20,000. J. Holzer, Mozaika Polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Political Mosaic of the Second Polish Republic) (Warsaw, 1974), 77-81, 195-207, 412-422, 461-463; A. Polonsky, Pol itics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 78-79, 368-369; K. Popiel, Od Brzescia do "Polonii" (From Brest to "Polonia") (London, 1967 NATIONAL WORKERS' UNION (Narodowy Zwiazek Robotniczy [NZR]), rightist workers' organization established in June 1905 in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* by the National Democracy* in order to broaden its political base among the workers. The NZR advocated social solidarity and a nationalistic worldview and opposed socialist revolutionary movements. During the revolu-

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tion of 1905, the party boycotted Russian schools and offices in Poland but, simultaneously, actively opposed activities of the socialist, revolutionary movement. After the revolution, the NZR rebelled against the policy of the National Democratic leaders who moved toward pro-Russian positions. The party withdrew from the Liga Narodowa (National League),* assumed a pro-Austrian position, and joined the Temporary Commission of Confederated Independence Parties (KTSSN) in 1912. In May 1920, the party, led by A. Chadzyriski, J. S. Jankowski,* and L. Waszkiewicz, merged with the National Party of Workers (Narodowe Stronnictwo Robotnikow) into the National Workers' Party (Narodowa Partia Robotnicza [NPR]).* J. Holzer, Mozaika Polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Political Mosaic of the Second Polish Republic) (Warsaw, 1974), 194-207. NAVY, MERCHANT. See MARITIME COMMERCE. NAVY, POLISH. From the fifteenth century a Baltic fleet of Polish privateers operated from the port of Gdarisk (Danzig).* A Polish Royal Fleet was built in the seventeenth century under Kings Zygmunt III Waza* and Wladyslaw IV.* Later, the fleet quickly declined, as did Polish access to the Baltic Sea. A decree issued by the authorities of reborn Poland on November 28, 1918, declared that the Polish Navy would be re-established, though clear access of Poland to the Baltic Sea* was not available until February 10, 1920. In 1919, a Department of Naval Affairs was created under Rear Admiral K. Porembski. During 19181920, military flotillas were put into operation on the Vistula* and Pripet Rivers and participated in the Polish-Soviet War.* From 1920, regular naval units were gradually introduced. The first ship, called Pomorzanin, was followed by six small torpedo boats acquired from the former German Navy. The Naval High Command and chief base were in Puck* and, from 1926, in Gdynia.* During 1920-1921, elements of coastal defense, such as artillery, air forces, and signals, were placed along Poland's short Baltic coast. An Officers' School was opened in Toruri (Thorn).* Substantial growth of the Navy took place after 1926. By 1938, four destroyers and five submarines were ordered from abroad. At the outbreak of WW II, the Polish Navy was a substantial and modern force. Its Commander-in-Chief was Rear Admiral J. &wirski,* and Rear Admiral J. Unrug* was in charge of the coastal defense. During the September Campaign* of 1939, three destroyers and two submarines were able to reach British ports, while three other units were interned in Sweden. The Polish Navy took an active part in Allied war operations, and the British Admiralty, in recognition of Polish naval competence, assigned two cruisers, six destroyers, three submarines, and a number of smaller units to the Poles during the war. They participated in the Norway operations of 1940, the evacuation of the British expeditionary forces from Dunkirk in June 1940, convoy service in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, and the invasions of Africa in 1942, of Italy in 1943, and of France in 1944. The Polish Navy lost one cruiser, three destroyers, and two submarines. About 500 Polish sailors lost their lives. In 1945, the Polish

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Navy under British command totaled eighteen ships, 330 officers, and 3,390 seamen. They took part in 665 encounters, covering over 1,935,000 kilometers, and destroyed six enemy ships, two submarines, thirty cargo ships, and twenty planes and damaged twenty-one ships, including the battleship Bismarck, eight submarines, and many airplanes. S. Piaskowski, Kroniki Polskiej Marynarki Wojennej, 1918-1946 (Albany, New York, 1983-1987). NAZI CONCENTRATION CAMPS, internment centers (German: Konzentrationslager [KZ]) established by the Nazis in 1933, where Hitler's political opponents, mostly Communists and Social Democrats, were kept without benefit of either indictment or fair trial. The camp system, the essential part of the Nazi regime, also included labor camps (Arbeitslager), transit camps (Durchgangslager), POW camps (Kriegsgefangenlager), and extermination camps (Vernichtungslager). During the period 1933-1936, the concentration camps, controlled by the SS from 1934, were used mostly for incarcerating Hitler's adversaries and "asocial elements." After 1936, during the war preparations, the camp system expanded quickly. Prisoners had to work, mostly for military and construction industries. Beginning in the summer of 1938, increasingly large numbers of Jews* were imprisoned. During WW II, the concentration camps were transformed into centers of mass extermination and slave labor, and they became one of the major elements of the Nazi occupation system in conquered Europe. Among the inmates were anti-fascist activists, intellectuals of occupied countries, resistance members, Soviet POWs, and entire ethnic groups, such as the Gypsies* and the Jews.* The camps were isolated, and prisoners lived in horrific barracks. For the extermination of the "lower races," gas chambers were used. There were about 9,000 such camps, with some 18 million inmates, of whom 11 million died, including 3.5 million Polish citizens, mostly Jews. In 1941, Zyclone B gas was introduced in the extermination center in Auschwitz,* the largest of the Nazi concentration camps, founded in 1940. From 1942, criminal medical experiments were performed on prisoners. Besides Auschwitz, several other large concentration camps were located on Polish territories in Stutthof,* Gross-Rosen, Majdanek* near Lublin,* and Plaszow near Cracow.* In addition, the extermination camps were established in Treblinka,* Chelmno,* Belzec,* and Sobibor.* Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 1 (New York, 1990), 308-317; F. Proch, Poland's Way of the Cross, 1939-1945 (Brooklyn, 1987). NAZI-SOVIET PACT AND SECRET PROTOCOL. See RIBBENTROPMOLOTOV PACT. NEAPOLITAN SUMS, 430,000 golden ducats left in Queen Bona's* last will of 1557 to her son, King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August,* and secured by her properties in the Kingdom of Naples. The sums were taken over by Philip II of Spain as his loan owed to Poland. Until the eighteenth century, they were

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claimed by Polish rulers. Though the sums were never fully returned, at least 8 to 10 percent interest (of the total sum in a yearly relation) was paid several times by the Spanish Habsburgs.* The money acquired was used for the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth's* payments for diplomatic representation in Italy and the Papal See. EHGP, I, 576. NEGRI, POLA (CHALUPIEC, APOLONIA) (1899-1987), Hollywood movie star of Polish background. After studies at the Warsaw* Ballet School, she made her debut in 1912; then, she began to work in the early Polish films. As a noted silent movie actress, she moved to Germany. In 1922, she signed a contract with Paramount Pictures, moved to Hollywood, and became one of the most famous actresses of the 1920s. E. Kusielewicz, "Pola Negri," The Polish American World (April 19, 1963); P. Negri, Memoirs of a Star (New York, 1970).

NEISSE. See NYSA. NEMINEM CAPTIVABIMUS NISI IURE VICTUM (We shall not arrest without a legal verdict), Polish equivalent of the later Anglo-Saxon "habeas corpus" law which prevents detention of anyone without a prior court decision. It was stipulated by aging King Wladyslaw Jagiello* in negotiations with the Polish lords to secure the succession right for his son, Wladyslaw, by granting several privileges to the gentry. The principal one, the 1425 privilege of Brzesc, called Neminem captivabimus nisi iure victum, became one of the cornerstones of the Polish nobility's Golden Freedom.* S. Jankowski, "Early Polish Habeas Corpus Act," Studies in Polish Civilization, ed. by D. Wandycz (New York, 1966), 363-367. NiD, Polish acronym for Niepodleglosc i Demokracja (Independence and Freedom), the name of a Polish freedom movement established by young London exiles before the end of WW II to continue the Polish struggle after the Teheran* and Yalta* agreements, which was considered by the Poles a betrayal of Poland by the Great Powers. NiD was conceived as an elitist movement composed of young civil servants and Armed Forces officers, including those who reached the West from underground Poland. It was a generational reaction to the lack of ingenuity of the aging leaders of the four coalition parties of the Polish Government-in-Exile,* especially in regard to contacts with the AngloAmericans. Its first chairman was R. Pilsudski,* and vice-chairmen were J. Jankowski and J. Lerski.* G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy, 1939-1945 (New York, 1988), 189-226. NIEDZIALKOWSKI, MIECZYSLAW (1893-1940), socialist politician and journalist. Born into an impoverished noble family, he was active in a socialist youth movement as a student in Vilna* and St. Petersburg. After the outbreak of WW I, he went to Warsaw,* joined the leadership of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]),* and was active in the Polish Military

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Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In November 1918, he participated in the formation of the government of J. Moraczewski,* who assigned Niedzialkowski to the work on electoral law for the first legislative Sejm.* After 1919, he represented his party in the Parliament; he headed the Socialist Parliamentary club until 1935 and was part of the PPS leadership. He opposed the "common front" with the communists but supported a broader coalition of the PPS with the progressive intelligentsia and peasants. A prolific writer, he published several theoretical brochures supporting the parliamentary road to socialism through nationalization of the means of production. From 1927, he edited the party's organ, Robotnik (Worker). Though he originally supported the Pilsudski coup d'etat* in 1926, he opposed the authoritarian tendencies of Pilsudski's Sanacja* regime and assumed a leading role in the struggle for democracy as one of the ideologues of Centrolew* opposition. In September 1939, he co-organized the civil defense of Warsaw. After the fall of the city, he participated in the organization of the anti-Nazi resistance. Arrested by the Gestapo,* he was killed in a mass execution in Palmiry* near Warsaw. PSB, XXII, 739-742. NIEGOLEWSKI, ANDRZEJ (1786-1857), officer. In 1806, he joined the Polish Legions* and distinguished himself in a charge of Somossierra* during the French-Spanish War. He also took part in the Napoleonic invasion of Russia in 1812 and was one of the Emperor's favorite officers. In 1814, he returned to Poland and settled on his wife's family estate in Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* Elected to the Parliament of the Duchy of Poznari (Posen),* he fought against its Germanization. In 1830, he went to Warsaw and participated in the November Insurrection.* PSB, XXII, 756-758. NIEMCEWICZ, JULIAN URSYN (1758-1841), poet, playwright, publicist, and writer. Born into a family of middle gentry, he was educated at the Knights School* in Warsaw,* served as an aide-de-camp of A. K. Czartoryski,* and traveled widely across Western Europe. As an activist of the Camp of Reform in Poland, he was elected a member of the Great Sejm* (1788-1791) and was one of its most eloquent speakers. He also supported political reforms as a publicist and writer. He wrote political poems; edited the organ of his Camp, National and Foreign Gazette (Gazeta Narodowa i Obca); and authored a comedy, The Return of the Deputy (Powrot posla), which criticized backward, conservative Sarmatian* nobility. Staged in Warsaw in January 1791, it had an immediate political effect. Niemcewicz participated in the preparation and passage of the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* After the Russian intervention, he escaped to Western Europe, but, in June 1794, he returned to Poland and joined the Kosciuszko Insurrection* as a Secretary of its Commander. Wounded and taken prisoner during the last battle of the uprising near Maciejowice,* he spent two years jailed in the Petropavlovsk Fortress in St. Petersburg. Released by the new Tsar, Paul I, in 1796, he accompanied T. Kosciuszko* to the United States,

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where he lived eleven years. In 1807, he returned to Poland, became a Secretary of the Senate* of the Duchy of Warsaw,* and was active as a writer. His Historical Songs (Spiewy historyczne, 1816) illustrated the history of Poland and became extremely popular for a long time. Niemcewicz was not enthusiastic about the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, but he participated in it as a member of the Temporary Government, Secretary of the Senate, and the head of a diplomatic mission in London. After the fall of the uprising, he stayed in England, and, in 1833, he settled in Paris, where he joined Czartoryski's* camp and wrote interesting memoirs. He is considered a leading writer of the Polish Enlightenment and one of the most colorful personalities of his era. L. Krzyanowski (ed.), Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and America (New York, 1961); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 170-174; PSB, XXII, 771-780. NIEMCZA, BATTLE OF (1017), encounter of Polish forces under Boleslaw Chrobry (the Brave)* with those of German Emperor Henry II during the German-Polish War of 1004-1018. Henry entered into a military alliance with Kievian Rus', and his Army included West Slavic (Veleti) contingents. For three weeks his Imperial Army was engaged in the storming of the Fortress of Niemcza, stoutly defended by its garrison. Polish knights, recently converted to Christianity, displayed the Cross against the pagan West Slavs employed by the Christian German Emperor. Difficulties with supplying his large force with food and the approaching winter forced the German Emperor to give up the siege and to retreat through Bohemia. CHP, I, 28. NIEMEN RIVER, BATTLE OF, one of the decisive battles of the PolishSoviet War* of 1919-1921. After the Battle of Warsaw,* the Red Army withdrew to the Niemen River line and attempted to defend it. On September 26, 1920, Polish troops broke through that defense, driving the Soviets back and destroying their Third Army. Next, the Poles entered Grodno,* defeated the Red Army in the Battle of Szczara on September 27, and pushed the Soviets, led by Marshal M. Tukhachevski, back to Minsk. In the two battles, the Red Army lost about 50,000 prisoners, and, a month later, the hostilities were brought to a close. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History, ed. by R. E. and T. N. Dupuy (New York, 1993), 1085. NIEMOJOWSKI, BONAWENTURA (1787-1835), politician and President of the National Government during the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. Educated in a Piarist college in Warsaw* and in Paris, he was elected to the Parliament of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in 1820 and, together with his brother, Wincenty Niemojowski,* organized a liberal opposition, particularly protesting against the violation of the Kingdom's Constitution of 1815.* Both brothers were elected in the Kalisz* region, and, therefore, they were called together with their group the "Kaliszanie" ("men from Kalisz"). During the November Insurrection, B. Niemojowski served successively as Minister of Jus-

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tice, Minister of Interior, Vice President and President of the National Government (from September 8, 1831). He represented a radical wing of the uprising's leaders, opposed plans for capitulation, and decided to defend Warsaw against the final attack of Russian forces. After the fall of the uprising, he went to Paris, where he was active as President of the Temporary Emigration Committee. PSB, XXIII, 22-27. NIEMOJOWSKI, WINCENTY (1784-1834), political partner of his brother, Bonawentura Niemojowski.* Educated in Germany, he served on the Administration Chamber (Izba Administracyjna) of the Kalisz* district from 1806. In 1818, he was elected to the Parliament of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and, together with his brother, organized a liberal opposition against the violation of the Kingdom's Constitution of 1815.* During the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he was a member of the National Government and edited the Kurier Poranny (Morning Courier) daily in Warsaw.* He was critical of Gen. J. Chlopicki's* dictatorship and supported the democratization of the Parliament but opposed the idea of social revolution in Poland. After the fall of the uprising, he was arrested by the Russians and died on his way to Siberian deportation. PSB, XXIII, 31-34. NIESZAWA PRIVILEGES (1454), charter issued by King Kazimierz Jagielloriczyk (Casimir Jagiellon)* which became one of the cornerstones of the Polish parliamentary system. After the outbreak of the Thirteen Years' War* with the Teutonic Knights* in 1454, Kazimierz called for a levee en masse of Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* The nobles gathered at a camp near Cerekwica but, before fighting, they demanded concessions from the King. They were granted a right that the King would not introduce changes in the existing order or would not declare a war without an approval of a general assembly, preceded by sessions of local dietines, which would examine proposed new rights or military decisions. After the Charter was issued, the levy advanced into the Order's territory, but was defeated by the Teutonic Knights. Kazimierz called for the levee en masse of the entire Kingdom and faced demands similar to those in Cerekwica. 7689 In November 1454, he granted the Charter of Nieszawa to all Polish territories called after a Kujavian* border town, where the levy met. The Charter repeated the stipulations of Cerekwica secured by special statues for separate provinces. Their most important provision was the principle that the King should not summon a general levy or introduce new legislation without consent of local land dietines* (sejmik). History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 142, 145; CHP, I, 245, 422. NIEWIADOMSKI, ELIGIUSZ (1869-1923), assassin who killed the President of the Second Republic, G. Narutowicz.* A noted painter and artist, he belonged to the clandestine student organizations and the Polish League,* participated in its secret anti-Tsarist activities, and was temporary jailed by the Russian au-

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thorities. He taught painting and drawing in several schools in Warsaw,* worked as an illustrator, in various periodicals, presented his works at numerous exhibitions, and wrote on the history of art. From 1918, he was employed at the Ministry of Education, and, later, he was transferred to the Ministry of Culture and Art. During the Polish-Soviet War known as the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, he worked for the intelligence Second Bureau of the Polish General Staff and, then, fought as a private. After the armistice, he returned to the Ministry, taught at high schools, and was increasingly involved in nationalistic politics. In November 1918, he decided to kill J. Pilsudski.* When Narutowicz was elected President of Poland, the rightist mass media organized a fanatical campaign that charged that his receiving the position of President was * 'due to Jewish votes against the Polish majority." Niewiadomski decided to "defend the honor of the Republic" and "fight for the Polish character of Poland." On December 16, 1922, Niewiadomski easily entered the Zacheta gallery as an official and fatally shot Narutowicz, who was opening an annual art exhibit. Niewiadomski was sentenced to death and executed. In rightist circles he was considered a martyr for a just cause. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independence Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 110-111; PSB, XXIII, 72-75. NIHIL NOVI, constitutional law voted at the Grand Diet in Radom on May 31, 1505, which guaranteed the chamber of deputies that "nothing new may be decided without the joint consent of the members of the council and district deputies." King Jan Olbracht (John Albert)* attempted to restrict the political power of the Polish gentry, reorganize and strengthen the central authorities, abolish all exemptions from duties and taxes, and limit the giving away of lands belonging to the Kingdom. This attempt caused a conflict with the gentry. Its representatives in the Sejm* adopted the law of Nihil novi, which stipulated that the King has no right to legislate without the approval of the Sejm and the Senate.* The law formally recognized the existence of the two-chamber Parliament and defined the activities and duties of royal officials. CHP, I, 270; Polish Democratic Thought from the Renaissance to the Great Emigration: Essays and Documents, ed. by M. B. Biskupski and J. S. Pula (Boulder, Colorado, 1990), 109-121.

NKN. See SUPREME NATIONAL COMMITTEE. NOAKOWSKI, STANISLAW (1867-1928), architect, painter, artist, and historian of art. Educated at the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in St. Petersburg, he lived in Moscow until 1918 and worked as curator and librarian in Moscow's Museum of Industrial Art. He also taught architecture and the history of art there. His main artistic achievements were huge cycles of "architectural fantasies," drawings documenting and analyzing the old Russian architecture, French palaces, classic antique architecture, and buildings and art treasures destroyed by WW I in Poland. In 1918, he returned to Poland and became a professor of architecture at Warsaw* Polytechnical University. PSB, XXIII, 160-162.

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NOBILITY (Polish: szlachta, from German Geschlecht: stock), landed elite in feudal states dominating the countryside and often serving in high offices. The nobles married among themselves and believed that their descendants possessed inherently superior qualities that destined them to positions of leadership. In old Poland, this privileged social class consisted not only of feudal landlords, but also of small landowners and tenants who cultivated the land themselves, or even people who did not possess any land but were descendants of landowners. The Polish nobility, like that in most other European countries, originated as the medieval knighthood. Its legal status was established in the fourteenth century with the recognition of knights' full Court immunity and privileges, starting with the privilege of Koszyce (Kosice or Kassa) in 1374. A nobleman was anyone born of a legal union of noble parents (after 1505, noble origin of the mother was also required). From 1535, all professors of the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* acquired hereditary nobility status after twenty years of teaching. Until 1764, baptized Jews* could join the nobility in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.* It was also possible to acquire noble status through a special procedure called "nobilitation" or through adoption by a nobleman. Characteristic of the Polish nobility was its high proportion in relation to the general population, which reached about 10 percent in the late eighteenth century. In other European countries, nobility rarely constituted more than 1 percent of the entire population (for example, in France). After the Polish-Lithuanian union, the nobility of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was shaped according to the Polish patterns. Later, Ruthenian boyars also joined the nobility of the Commonwealth. The scope of the nobility status was in practice dependent on the material situation of a nobleman, so that only bene nati et possessionati (the well born and landed) enjoyed full rights. A majority of the Polish nobles owned only one village or a part of it or cultivated their land themselves. The middle nobility had several villages; the wealthiest had more than ten; and the richest, called magnates,* frequently possessed huge territories larger than some West European states. The Polish nobility considered itself identical with the Polish nation and monopolized political power. Subsequent privileges granted to the nobility, free elections of the monarchs, the liberum veto* and the institution of confederations* considerably limited the authority of the Kings, and Poland became a Republic of the Nobles (Rzeczpospolita szlachecka). The nobility enjoyed the Golden Freedom,* but Poland's importance on the international stage declined. The Constitution of May 3, 1791,* attempted to strengthen the central authority and to limit the privileges of the nobles. After the Partitions* of Poland, the nobility lost its political privileges but generally kept its social privileges. The emancipation of the peasantry and the first capitalist developments in Poland led numerous petty and middle noblemen to ruin. Thousands of nobles left the countryside, moved to the cities, and joined the intelligentsia.* They still considered themselves nobles, used their coats of arms, and preserved the noble tradition, manners, and ethos. The Constitution of March 17, 1921, officially

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abolished the legal status of nobility, though landowners of noble origin retained their economic position and considerable political influence in the interwar period. Dictionary of the Middle Ages, ed. by J. R. Strayer, vol. 9 (New York, 1987), 147152; EHGP, II, 364-367; A Republic of Nobles, ed. by J. Federowicz (Cambridge, 1985). NON-AGGRESSION PACTS, treaties between Poland and the USSR signed on July 25, 1932, in Moscow, and between Poland and Germany signed on January 26, 1934, in Berlin. The pacts were cornerstones of the foreign policy designed by J. Pilsudski,* who believed that Poland should keep an equal distance in relations with Germany and the Soviet Union, and that it should maintain peace with those powerful neighbors as long as possible. The treaty with Moscow was initially signed for two years. After a visible improvement in Polish-Soviet relations, it was extended for a further ten years in May 1934. The treaty with Germany was signed at the time when the Third Reich had left the League of Nations* and the Polish government was looking for a new guarantee of the western border of Poland, seen as threatened by the Locarno* treaty. The Poles hoped that the pact would settle the differences with Germany and would terminate the revisionist propaganda there. The treaty safeguarded Hitler from the danger of a preventive war launched by Poland, and European public opinion evaluated it as advantageous to Germany. The Franco-Polish alliance was weakened and Poland appeared to adopt a policy of cooperation with Hitler. Z. Gasiorowski, "The German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact of 1934," Journal of Central European Affairs XV/1 (1955), 4-29; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 689-691; J. Karski, The Great Powers and Poland: 1919-1945 (New York, 1985). NORBLIN DE LA GOURDAINE, JEAN-PIERRE (1745-1830), French painter and artist who spent most of his career in Poland. Educated in Paris and Rome, he adopted the style of A. Watteau and, later, admired Rembrandt. In 1772, he met A. Czartoryski* and worked for him in Spa, London, and Paris. In 1774, Norblin traveled with his patron to Poland and became a Court painter of the powerful Czartoryski family. He depicted the world of the Polish gentry, street scenes of Warsaw,* and political events of the last decades of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.* He decorated residences of the Czartoryskis, but he also worked for the Arkadia residence of the Radziwills* and did some paintings for the last King of Poland. Norblin remained in Poland until 1804, enjoying his most creative period. H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (London, 1942), 3436; Praeger Encyclopedia of Art, vol. 4 (New York, Washington, London, 1971), 1479; PSB, XXIII, 175-180. NORTHERN WAR (1700-1721), military conflict also called the Second Northern War. This followed the First Northern War of 1655-1660, a conflict between Sweden and Poland (the "Deluge"*) and between Sweden and Denmark, Russia, and Austria. The Second Northern War was started by a coalition of Russia, Denmark, and Saxony formed to undermine the Swedish dominance

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in the Baltic area. Officially, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* did not participate in the conflict, but its King August II Mocny (the Strong),* acting as the Elector of Saxony, tried to recover Livonia* and use it in his dynastic plans. As a consequence, Poland became a major theater of war operations, was devastated by the fighting armies, and became a Russian protectorate. In 1700, August II attacked Livonia, the Danes invaded Swedish-controlled Schleswig and Holstein, and Peter I the Great* laid siege to the port of Narva in Swedishruled Estonia. Charles XII of Sweden defeated Denmark, ejected the Russians from Estonia, occupied Poland, and invaded Saxony. August II was forced to relinquish his Polish crown and, in 1704, Stanislaw Leszczyriski* was elected King of Poland. Part of the Polish-Lithuanian nobility considered him a Swedish puppet and started to cooperate with the Russians, who mobilized their resources and, in 1709, decisively defeated the main Swedish Army at the Battle of Poltava in Ukraine. Peter the Great re-established August II on the Polish throne and, acting as a mediator between the King and a majority of the Polish nobility, who supported Stanislaw Leszczyriski, dictated a peace settlement. It was accepted by the "Silent Sejm"* in 1717 and marked the beginning of the Russian protectorate over Poland. In 1721 Russia and Sweden signed the peace treaty of Nystad, which opened for Russia a "window to the West," with the Karelian Isthmus and several Baltic areas ceded to Russia. CHP, II, 1-25; N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1 (New York, 1984), 492-500.

NORWID, CYPRIAN KAMIL (1821-1883), poet, painter, and sculptor. Born into an impoverished noble family, he grew up in an atmosphere of Romantic poetry and witnessed the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and the subsequent persecution of Polish patriots. He did not complete any formal education, but he attended various schools of painting and sculpting in Poland, Italy, and France. In 1842, he left Poland forever (except a short visit in Silesia*) and spent his whole life in various towns and cities of Italy, Germany, France, England, and America. He lived in poverty, having distanced himself from the Great Emigration,* and, eventually, he found refuge and died in a home for the aged in Paris. About twenty years after his death, a modernist poet, Zenon Miriam Przesmycki,* began to publish manuscripts of the forgotten Norwid. His difficult idiosyncratic style was influenced by the fourth part of A. Mickiewicz's* Forefathers (Dziady), the lyrical poetry of A. Malczewski, and the works of Dante, P. J. Proudhon, A. Cieszkowski,* and Z. Krasiriski.* Norwid wrote lyrical and epic poetry, politically involved, deeply philosophical, devoted to crucial historical and contemporary events, and is arguably the most original, innovative, and influential Polish poet of the nineteenth century. B. Mazur and G. Gomori (eds.), Cyprian Norwid (1821-1883): Poet-Thinker-Craftsman: A Cen Conference (New York, 1974); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (Lond 1969), 266-280; O. Nedeljkovic, "Cyprian Kamil Norwid: A Nineteenth-Century Poet of Christian Humanism," Polish Review XXXI/1 (1986), 27-48; PSB, XXIII, 186-198.

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NORWID-NEUGEBAUER, MIECZYSLAW (1884-1954), activist of the Polish independence movement and general. In 1906, he went to Galicia,* where he graduated from the Lvov Polytechnical University and was active in several secret and legal patriotic organizations. He was a local leader of the Union of Polish Youth "Zet" (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej "Zet"),* co-organized the Lvov district of the Polish Military Union (Polski Zwiazek Wojskowy [PZW]) and, when it was developed into the clandestine Polish Army (Armia Polska), he became its commander. During WW I, he commanded a battalion, a regiment, and a brigade in the Polish Legions* and was active in the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In October 1918, he was appointed to the Military Commission of the Regency Council.* He participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, notably as the Quartermaster of the Lithuanian-Belorussian Front, and, in 1920, he was promoted to General. Later, he continued his career in other important Army positions, except during the years 1930-1932, when he served as a Minister of Public Works. After the outbreak of WW II, he was designated Chief of the Polish Military Mission in England. From 1942, distrusted as a staunch supporter of J. Pilsudski,* he played only a minor role as the Administrative Chief of the Polish Armed Forces in the West. PSB, XXIII, 202-206. NOSSIG, ALFRED (1864-1943), Jewish writer, sculptor, and politician. Initially, he was active as a supporter of assimilation, and, in 1881, he edited an assimilationist periodical, Ojczyzna (Fatherland), in Lvov.* Later, he switched to the political call of Zionism and published the first Zionist work in the Polish language. A versatile and talented man, he wrote plays and opera librettos, contributed to the creation of the Jewish Statistical and Demographic Institute, and produced highly appreciated sculptures glorifying Jewish history. He lived in Berlin until the Nazi rise to power, when he was expelled to Poland. During WW II, on German demand he was appointed a member of the Warsaw* Ghetto* Judenrat and a head of its Art Department. He was shot dead by the underground Jewish Fighting Organization, which had become convinced that he was a Gestapo* informer. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. XII (Jerusalem, 1971), 1230; PSB, XXIII, 236-240.

NOVEMBER INSURRECTION, major Polish uprising of 1830-1831, which unsuccessfully tried to liberate the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and the Lithuanian, Belorussian, and Ukrainian territories of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* from Russian occupation. When revolutions broke out in France, the Papal State, and Belgium in 1830, the Russian Tsar, Nicholas I, alarmed by this revolutionary tide, tried to mobilize the Holy Alliance* and to intervene in the West. He planned to use the Army of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* as a vanguard of the Russian forces which were to march toward the West and re-establish order there. It meant that the Polish troops would be replaced in Poland by Russian units. The Poles were afraid that under these

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conditions the Tsar could put into practice his plan to abolish the Constitution and the autonomy of the Kingdom. On November 19 and 20, 1830, the first mobilization orders appeared in the Warsaw press. The orders encouraged a secret society which was active among the cadets of the Infantry Officer School to begin the armed struggle. The secret organization, founded in 1828, led by Lieutenant P. Wysocki* and supported by some of the literati and students, had no clear political program and intended to give over power to a revolutionary government. On the evening of November 29, a group of conspirators attacked the Belvedere Palace, intending to kill the de facto Russian Viceroy of Poland, Grand Duke Constantine.* The cadets stormed the Russian Army barracks. Both these attacks failed, and Polish Generals and prominent political leaders refused to participate in the uprising. However, the civilian volunteers, mostly tradesmen and local townsfolk, discontented with growing Russian political pressure and worsening economic conditions, stormed the Arsenal, armed themselves, and gained control over the northern part of Warsaw.* The leading Polish politicians, such as K. Drucki-Lubecki* and A. J. Czartoryski,* tried to stop the armed struggle and negotiate with Constantine. But on December 1, the Patriotic Society was formed and began stormy anti-Russian demonstrations. On December 3, the Temporary Government of the Kingdom of Poland was established, and Gen. J. Chlopicki* was appointed the Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army. He did not believe Polish victory possible, opposed any revolutionary activities, declared himself Dictator on December 5, and opened negotiations with the Russians in order to obtain some concessions for the Kingdom. However, Tsar Nicholas demanded unconditional surrender. The disheartened Chlopicki resigned from his post. On January 25, 1831, the Polish Parliament dethroned Nicholas I as King of Poland; appointed a new Commander, Gen. M. RadziwiH*; and, on January 30, formed a National Government of five persons led by A. J. Czartoryski.* In February 1831, about 127,000 Tsarist soldiers, led by Field-Marshal I. Diebitsch, marched into Poland. Chlopicki had failed to enlarge the Polish forces, and 53,000, commanded by the incompetent RadziwiH, tried to repel the Russian offensive in a series of battles. On February 24, Diebitsch was finally stopped in the indecisive Battle of Grochow* on the outskirts of Warsaw. The battle caused panic in the capital, and RadziwiH resigned. His successor, Gen. J. Skrzynecki,* abandoned postponing tactics and launched an offensive. The Polish Army won the Battles of Wawer,* Dembe Wielkie,* and Iganie.* In the spring of 1831, the insurrection spread throughout Lithuania and Belorussia. However, the victories were not used to best advantage. The National Government did not solve the problem of serfdom and was not able to mobilize the peasants. On May, 26, 1831, Polish troops were defeated in the Battle of Ostrol^ka.* Inefficient military expeditions were not able to continue the uprising in Lithuania and Belorussia. A new Russian commander, Field Marshal I. Paskevitch,* took the initiative, crossed the Vistula* River, and approached Warsaw from the west. Gen. Skrzynecki was replaced by Gen. H. Dembiriski* and, later,

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Gen. J. Krukowiecki.* On August 16, the Polish National Government resigned after riots in Warsaw. On September 7, Paskevitch took Warsaw. Polish troops evacuated the capital and moved to Modlin. A new Commander-in-Chief, Gen. M. Rybiriski,* and a new President of the Government, B. Niemojowski,* were not able to undertake new operations. On October 5, 1831, the main Polish forces crossed the Prussian frontier and were interned. Smaller units also left Polish territory and surrendered to the Austrians. The uprising saved the revolutions in Western Europe but brought down the revenge of Nicholas on Poland. A large group of political emigrants, known as the Great Emigration,* left for the West. Paskevich was made Viceroy of Poland, and the Constitution of 1815* was replaced by the new restrictive Organic Statute. The Polish Army was disbanded, elected institutions were abolished, individual liberties and freedom of the press were curtailed. Numerous participants of the Insurrection were exiled to Siberia,* and Warsaw University* was closed. Positions in institutions of higher learning and top governmental posts were filled by Russians. CHP, II, 295-310; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 449-462. R. Leslie, Polish Politics and the Revolution of November 1830 (London, 1956).

NOVOSILTSEV, NIKOLAI (1761-1836), Russian statesman, a member of the Unofficial Committee of Tsar Aleksander I* (from 1801) and the Tsar's secretary and adviser. In 1813, he was appointed a member of the Provisional Supreme Council for the Duchy of Warsaw* and co-authored the 1815 Constitution* of the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* where he served as Imperial Royal Commissioner. He supervised Polish government and politics until 1830, and his anti-liberal and anti-Polish attitude contributed greatly to the outbreak of the November Insurrection.* In 1823, he personally investigated Filomaci (Philomathes)* and the Filareci (Philarets)* who were arrested at the University of Vilna* and, in 1824, he replaced A. Czartoryski* as Curator of the university. In 1832, he participated in a committee preparing the new Organic Statute for defeated Poland. The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 25 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1981), 120-123. NOWACZYNSKI, ADOLF (1876-1944), satirist, publicist, and writer. Educated at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* he started to write Baroquelike satires, pastiches, and pamphlets aimed at the establishments of Galicia,* its bourgeois bureaucrats, "academic prophets," and the bohemians of the cafes. He soon gained a reputation as an "enfant terrible," and, in 1904, he moved to Warsaw,* disappointed with Cracow's intellectual atmosphere. He was also a prolific literary critic and wrote historicoliterary essays, but his greatest achievement was in the field of historical drama. During the interwar period, Nowaczyriski was most visible as a publicist working for the cause of the National Democracy.* He attacked Jews, liberals, democrats, and Pilsudskiites, who physically assaulted him, causing the loss of one eye. During WW II, Nowaczyriski was twice jailed and beaten by the Gestapo.* J. Krzyzanowski, A

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History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 498-501; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 365; PSB, XXIII, 249-252. NOWAK, JAN (JEZIORANSKI, ZDZISLAW) (1913- ), anti-Nazi resis tance activist and courier. In 1936, he graduated from the University of Poznari (Posen),* where he later worked as a senior researcher. During WW II, he distinguished himself in the " N " * Department of the Home Army's (Armia Krajowa [AK])* Bureau of Information and Propaganda. He was sent three times as a courier to the Polish Government-in-Exile* in the West. On his last mission to Poland, he tried in vain to get clear instructions from Commander-in-Chief Gen. K. Sosnkowski* with regard to the forthcoming Warsaw Uprising,* during which he served as an announcer and editor of the AK radio station Blyskawica (Lightning). J. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw (Detroit, 1982). NOWAKOWSKI, ZYGMUNT (1891-1963), actor, director, publicist, and writer. He made his acting debut in 1910 in Cracow.* During WW I, he served in the Polish Legions.* After the war, he performed in various Polish cities, but mostly in Cracow, where he directed the J. Siowacki City Theater during 19261929. He also became a chronicler of Cracow life. In 1938, he joined the Labor Party (Stronnictwo Pracy).* After the outbreak of WW II, he moved to France, where he became a member of the National Council (Rada Narodowa),* the Polish Parliament-in-Exile. After the fall of France, he co-edited with M. Grydzewski* a literary weekly, Wiadomosci Polskie (Polish News). J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 624; PSB, XXIII, 304-307. NOWODWORSKI, LEON (1889-1941), lawyer. Active as a lawyer in St. Petersburg, he returned to Warsaw* in 1918 and fought in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. During 1924-1926, he served as a legal adviser to the Ministry of Interior and practiced law privately. He was one of the supreme leaders of the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe).* During the 1939 September Campaign,* he was appointed by the Mayor of Warsaw, S. Starzyriski,* to the city's Defense Council in charge of legal matters. Later, he participated in the organization of the Polish underground state. For his stand against the expulsion of Jews* from the legal profession, he was dismissed by the Germans from the list of attorneys. In December 1940, the Delegate of the Polish Government-in-Exile,* C. Ratajski,* appointed him Director of the Justice Department of the Delegatura,* the Polish underground authority. PSB, XXIII, 367-368. NOWOTKO, MARCELI (1893-1942), Communist leader. Born into a worker family, he became a locksmith. In 1916, he joined the Social Democracy of the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL]).* In 1919, he joined the Communist Party of Poland,* and, in 1920, when the Red Army took eastern Poland, he co-organized a unit of the Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee (Tymczasowy Komitet Rewolucyjny

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Polski [TKRP])* in the city of Lapy. During the interwar period he occupied various posts in the Communist Party and in affiliated trade unions. Among other assignments, he organized several strikes of agrarian workers and cofounded the Communist Party of Western Ukraine. In 1935, he became a member of the Country (national) Secretariat of the Party's Central Committee. Arrested many times by the Polish police, he spent the years 1929-1933 and 1935-1939 in prisons. Released after the outbreak of WW II, he moved to Soviet-occupied Bialystok,* where he worked in the local Soviet administration. From spring 1941, he attended the school of the Communist International in Moscow. On December 28, 1941, he was parachuted with the so-called Initiative Group near Warsaw.* On January 5, 1942, the members of the group restored the Communist Party as the Polish Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza [PPR]).* With P. Finder* and B. Molojec, Nowotko belonged to the "directing trio," and became First Secretary of the Party. He was killed by B. Molojec under mysterious circumstances on November 28, 1942. PSB, XXIII, 389-391. NOWY S^CZ, town on the Dunajec River in southern Poland established by King Vaclav II (Venceslaus II)* in 1292. During the reign of King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great),* the town received a castle and walls. Later, Nowy Sacz played a key role in trade with Hungary and Bohemia. During 1770-1918, the town was occupied by the Austrians. In 1938, its population reached 33,300. During WW II, when Nowy Sacz was a center of the anti-Nazi resistance, it lost 25,000 people, who were exterminated by the Germans. WEP, VIII, 62. NOWY TARG, capital of the Podhale* region. The town, known for the mint located there, received its urban rights in 1252. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries it became an important center in trade with Hungary. During 1769-1918, it was occupied by the Austrians. In the early twentieth century, it became a center of tourism and commerce for Podhale folk art. In 1938, its population reached 11,600, of whom 3,600 were killed by the Germans during WW II, apparently when several anti-Nazi guerrilla units were active in the region. WEP, VIII, 63. NSZ. See NATIONAL ARMED FORCES. NUMERUS CLAUSUS (Closed number), limited admission of certain ethnic groups to schools, specified professions, and public positions. Applied mostly to the Jews* in Eastern Europe, especially in nineteenth-century Russia, it became an anti-Semitic device and a quasi-legal means to reduce the number of Jewish students in the institutions of higher learning in interwar Poland. While the number of all college students increased from 34,000 in 1920 to 47,000 in 1935, the number of Jewish students decreased from 9,579 to 6,200 in the same period. Most evident was the decline in the number of Jewish medical students. In interwar Poland, there were fourteen state institutions of higher learning and

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nine private colleges. Almost all of them applied numerus clausus. In 19361937, a new discriminatory measure was introduced, namely the "Jewish benches" system, or allocating space at the back of the classrooms to be used by Jews only. The Jews and numerous Polish students opposed the "Bench Ghetto" and numerus clausus. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. XII (Jerusalem, 1971), 1266-1267. NUNCIO, official Papal representative at a Court or a capital of any country which maintains diplomatic relations with the Holy See. The first Nuncio, Bishop L. Lippomano,* arrived in Poland in 1555. His successor, another supporter of the Counter-Reformation, Cardinal G. Commendone,* arranged the acceptance of the Trident Council decisions by the Polish Church and the King in 1564. During the seventeenth century, Nuncios had considerable influence on Polish policy toward Islamic Turkey, a threat to Catholic Austria. Nuncios remained in Warsaw* till the Third Partition* of Poland in 1795 and returned to the Polish capital after WW I, when Monsignor A. Ratti* resumed the post of Papal Nuncio in liberated Poland. He played a crucial role in arranging the 1925 Concordat* with the Vatican, and he remained friendly to Poland as Pope Pius XL The last pre-WW II Nuncio, Bishop F. Cortesi, left Poland in September 1939. He was succeeded in France with the Polish Government-in-Exile in January 1940 by a Charge d'Affaires, Monsignor A. Pacini. SHP 27; L. Wolff, The Vatican and Poland in the Age of Partitions: Diplomatic and Cultural Encounters at the Warsaw Nunciature (Boulder, Colorado, 1988). NYSA (Neisse), of the three Silesian* rivers of that name, the Western (Lusatian) Nysa (Nysa Luzycka) is the most important geopolitically as the post-WW II southwestern border of Poland. It is the left bank tributary of the Oder* (Odra) River; hence, the "Oder-Neisse"* frontier line between Germany and Poland established by the Great Powers at the Potsdam Conference* in July 1945. The river's source is in Bohemia near the town of Liberec. Then, the river crosses the Lusatian Gap in the Sudeten Mountains and flows north for 240 kilometers, becoming navigable in the city of Gubin. WEP, IX, 75.

o

OBERTYN, BATTLE OF, major encounter of the Polish and Moldavian Armies on August 22, 1531, at the town of Obertyn, near Kolomya. In 1530, a Moldavian ruler (hospodar), Peter Rare§, occupied the region of Pokucie* in the southeastern corner of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* The King of Poland, Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old)* sent an Army under Hetman J. Tarnowski* to recover Pokucie. The Poles (4,500 horsemen, 1,200 infantrymen and twelve artillery pieces) met the Moldavians under the hospodar, who commanded 17,000 troops (mostly horsemen and fifty guns) at Obertyn. After a brilliant victory, the Poles recovered Pokucie. CHP, I, 313; SHP, 21 A OBORSKI, LUDWIK (1787-1873), democratic activist. He started his career as an Officer of the Duchy of Warsaw.* In 1815, he joined the Army of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. After the fall of the uprising, he emigrated to France, where he was involved in the Carbonari* movement. In exile, he was active in organizations known as "Young Poland" and the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]).* In 1848, he participated in an uprising in Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* where he commanded a detachment of scythesmen. Later, he settled in England and joined the Revolutionary London Community (Gromada Rewolucyjna Londyn) in 1858. In 1865 he joined the General Council of the First International. SHP, 276-277. OCHAB, EDWARD (1906- ), activist of the cooperative and communist movements in Poland. He joined the Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP])* in 1929 and helped to organize numerous strikes in the textile and mining industries. Imprisoned several times by the Polish authorities, he was released from prison in 1939 and participated in the defense of Warsaw* in 1939. Later, he moved to the Soviet Union, co-founded the Union

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of Polish Patriots (Zwiazek Patriotow Polskich),* and served as a Political Officer in the Polish Army organized there by Polish communists. From 1944, he was a member of the Central Committee of the Polish Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza [PPR]).* WEP, VIII, 133. OCZAPOWSKI, MICHAL (1788-1854), agronomist and pioneer of agricultural sciences in Poland. From 1822, he was a professor of agriculture at the University of Vilna* and, from 1833, he directed the Agronomic Institute in Marymont near Warsaw.* He author several noted textbooks on agriculture. WEP, VIII, 124. OCZKO, WOJCIECH (1537-1593), secretary and physician of the Polish Kings Stefan Batory* and Zygmunt III Waza.* He was one of the pioneers of Polish medicine and an authored of a noted balneological treatise. WEP, VII 125. ODER (Odra), the second largest Polish river and one of the major rivers of northern Europe. It flows some 854 kilometers from its source in the Oder Mountains in the Czech Republic. The river, channelized and navigable for 765 kilometers from its mouth, played an important economic role by linking Silesia* with the port of Szczecin (Stettin).* During the tenth through thirteenth centuries, lower Odra formed the western border of Poland. Later, it flowed through German-controlled territories and, after WW II, the Oder-Neisse (OdraNysa) Line* was recognized as the Polish-German border. WEP, VIII, 150. ODER-NEISSE (ODRA-NYSA) LINE, Polish-German border, about 400 kilometers long, devised by the Allied powers at the end of WW II. At the Yalta Conference,* Great Britain, the United States, and the USSR decided to move Poland's eastern border to the west, approximately to the controversial Curzon Line.* To compensate Poland, which lost substantial territories through this Allied agreement, the victorious powers also decided to relocate Poland's western border farther west. This meant taking from Germany some regions which belonged to Poland in the Middle Ages and were partly ethnically Polish. However, the representatives of the great powers sharply disagreed on the location of the new border. According to the Soviets, it should be along the lower Odra River and then along its left tributary, the Lusatian Neisse (Nysa Luzycka). The latter, known as the western Nysa (Neisse),* and running south from the Odra River near Frankfurt to the Czech border near Zittau, would constitute a border which would then include all of Lower Silesia* in Poland. The British and the Americans argued that, in such a case, too many Germans would find themselves in Poland, and Germany would be turned into a dissatisfied state eager to recover its lost territories. Consequently, Great Britain and America proposed the eastern Nysa River (the Glatzer, or Nysa Klodzka) as a border. The eastern Nysa, joining

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the Odra River between Wroclaw (Breslau)* and Opole (Oppeln),* would leave most of Lower Silesia in Germany. No decision on the German-Polish border was reached at Yalta, but the Soviets occupied the whole of East Germany and transferred administration of all Silesia, east to the western Nysa, to the Polish authorities. At the Potsdam Conference,* the Americans and the Britons protested against this fait accompli but, eventually, accepted that all the territory east of the Oder-Neisse (Odra-Nysa) Line would be under Polish administration until a future peace conference would draw the final Polish-German border. The Potsdam Conference* also allowed Poland to deport German inhabitants from the disputed area. In a series of postwar treaties concluded in 1950, 1970, and 1990, the Oder-Neisse Line was recognized as the legitimate and permanent Polish-German frontier. A. Klafkowski, The Polish-German Frontier after World War II (Poznan, 1972); Z. Jord Oder-Neisse Line: A Study of the Political, Economic and European Significa Poland's Western Frontier (London, 195 OGINSKI, Polish-Lithuanian family who played an important role in the history of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* The family was founded by the Ruthenian boyars of the Smolensk* region incorporated into Lithuania* in the fourteenth century. Later, the Ogiriskis spread in Lithuania and produced numerous top state officials and several musicians. In 1783, the Holy Roman Emperor, Joseph II, gave the family the title of Prince. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 109-111; The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. by S. Sadie, vol. 13 (London, 1980), 518-519; WEP, VIII, 169. OGINSKI CANAL, 52-kilometer-long canal dug at the initiative and expense of Michal Kazimierz Oginski* during 1767-1783. The canal connected the Dnieper and Niemen Rivers, became an important waterway, and improved the export of Belorussian and Lithuanian lumber through the port of Memel (Klaipeda). Destroyed during WW I, the canal was rebuilt by the government of interwar Poland in 1923-1927, but, after WW II, it lost its previous importance. EHGP, I, 291-29 OGINSKI, MICHAL KAZIMIERZ (1728-1800), Grand Hetman* of Lithuania* and a patron of the arts. Related to the Czartoryski* family, he was one of the most influential politicians of his time. During 1754-1761, he lived at the court of the dethroned Polish King, Stanislaw Leszczyriski,* in France. In 1764, he was appointed Palatine of Vilna* (wojewoda wileriski) and, in 1768, Grand Hetman. Like many Polish nobles, he was in the paid service of the Tsar, but, in 1771, he joined the Bar Confederation.* After his troops lost an important battle, he emigrated abroad. Several years later, he returned to Poland and devoted himself to cultural and economic activities. He financed the construction of the Ogiriski canal.* He supported the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* and, after its abolition, renounced his title of Grand Hetman. Encyclopedia Lituani

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vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 110; The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. by S. Sadie, vol. 13 (London, 1980), 518; WEP, VIII, 169.

OGINSKI, MICHAL KLEOFAS (1765-1833), composer and statesman. Educated at the estate of his uncle, Michal Kazimierz Ogiriski,* at Slonim, he entered the service of King Stanislaw August* and served as a diplomat and adviser. He undertook diplomatic missions to Holland and England, was an active partisan of the King during the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792, but was skeptical about the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* In 1793, he was appointed Deputy Treasurer of Lithuania. In 1794, he joined the Kosciuszko Insurrection,* was a member of its Lithuanian government, and participated in the fighting with his own unit. After the fall of the uprising, he emigrated to France, where he tried to gain Napoleon's support for Poland. Disappointed with Napoleon, Ogiriski returned to Vilna* and established a close relationship with A. J. Czartoryski,* who introduced him to Tsar Alexander I.* Ogiriski, nominated by the Tsar as a Senator and Councillor, hoped that the Russian Emperor would rebuild the Polish state. Disappointed again, Ogiriski emigrated to Western Europe in 1815. He was also active as a composer. His most famous works were his sentimental and patriotic polonaises, such as the best known Farewell to the Fatherland (Pozegnanie ojczyzny). Among his works were folk dances, marches, songs, and an opera. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 11 111; The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. by S. Sadie, vol. 13 don, 1980), 518; PSB, XXIII, 630. OKON, EUGENIUSZ (1882-1939), radical priest. A leader of the Polish peasant movement, he advocated agrarian reform without compensation to the landowners. In 1913, he was elected to the Austrian Parliament. In November 1918, during the transition period from the German-Austrian occupation to the Polish state, he organized an independent "Tarnobrzeg Republic" with T. Dabal. In 1919, he co-founded the Radical Peasant Party (Radykalne Stronnictwo Chlopskie), served as its President, and represented it in the Parliament until 1928. The Catholic Church hierarchy condemned his radical views. WEP, VI 187. OKRZEJA, STEFAN (1889-1905), activist of the Polish socialist and independence movement. Born into a worker's family, he attended educational courses organized by the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and joined the party in 1904. He was very active during the anti-Tsarist demonstrations of 1904 and 1905. He became a member of the Warsaw Committee of the PPS and its Fighting Organization and participated in terrorist attacks against the Russian officials in Warsaw.* During one of these actions, he was wounded and jailed in Warsaw's Citadel, where he was later executed. In the Polish socialist movement's tradition, his name became a symbol of unconditional resistance. PSB, XXIII, 707-709.

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OKULICKI, LEOPOLD (1898-1946), general and the last Commander-inChief of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* During WW I, he fought in the Polish Legions* and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In October 1918, he participated in the disarming of the Austrian occupying forces in Cracow.* A month later, he joined the Polish Army and fought in the Polish-Ukrainian War.* Afterward, he commanded a company during the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. Throughout the interwar period, he continued his career in various Army positions. During the September Campaign* of 1939, he participated in the defense of Warsaw.* When the Service for the Victory of Poland (Sluzba Zwyci^stwu Polski [SZP])* was reorganized into the Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ]),* he was sent to command its Lvov* district under the Soviet occupation. Arrested by the NKVD, he remained in jail until the Maisky-Sikorski Pact.* Released in August 1941, he became a Chief of Staff of the Polish Army in the USSR under Gen. W. Anders.* He left the Soviet Union with the Army, and, in October 1943, he volunteered to be sent to Poland as a paratrooper. On May 22, 1944, he was dropped into Nazi-occupied Poland, served as the Deputy Chief of the AK Staff, and supported the plan for the Warsaw Uprising.* After its fall, he replaced Gen. T. Bor-Komorowski* as the last Commander-in-Chief of the AK. On January 19, 1945, he dissolved the AK but, simultaneously, started preparations for a new underground organization. On March 27, 1945, he was arrested with fifteen other leaders of the Polish underground state by the Soviets, and he was sentenced in a Moscow trial* to ten years in prison. He was tortured and died in Lubianka prison. J. Krzyzanowski, General: Opowiesc o Leopoldzie Okuli (London, 1980); PSB, XXIII, 713-714. OLESNICKI, ZBIGNIEW (1389-1455), Bishop of Cracow,* Cardinal (from 1439) and one of the most outstanding politicians of his era. After he graduated from Cracow Academy, he worked at the Polish Royal Chancery. As a secretary, he accompanied King Wladyslaw Jagiello* at the Battle of Grunwald,* and he saved the King's life there. From that time, he became close to the monarch and was often sent abroad on diplomatic missions. In 1423, he became Bishop of Cracow, enjoyed the King's confidence, assumed a prominent role in Polish political life, and headed a group of conservative magnates. He opposed separate coronation of Duke Witold (Vytautas)* as King of Lithuania* and supported complete incorporation of Lithuania into Poland. He fought the Hussites and strengthened the political influence of the clergy and the magnates. After Jagiello's death in 1434, he placed a minor, Wladyslaw Warnericzyk (Ladislas of Varna),* on the Polish throne. Olesnicki ruled as a regent, gained for the young King the throne of Hungary, and involved Poland in a Crusade against Turkey. It ended with the Battle of Varna* and the King's death in it in 1444. After this disaster, Olesnicki negotiated with Lithuanian Grand Duke Kazimierz Jagielloriczyk (Casimir Jagiellon)* for his accession to the Polish throne. When the negotiations became protracted, Olesnicki began to support a Brandenburg

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candidate to the throne. However, a great majority of the Polish magnates did not want to terminate the union with Lithuania, and Kazimierz Jagielloriczyk was eventually established as the King of Poland. From that time, Olesnicki's political influence diminished. CHP, I, 224-230, 244, 254-257; Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 114-115; PSB, XXIII, 776-784. OLGIERD (Algirdas) (1296-1377), Grand Duke of Lithuania,* father of King Wladyslaw Jagiello (Jogaila)* of Poland, and founder of Lithuanian power. 01gierd incorporated several Ruthenian principalities into Lithuania and doubled the territory of his state. After the war with Poland during 1349-1351, he gained Volhynia* and Podlasie.* Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 69-75.

OLIWA, suburb of Gdarisk* which originated about 1175 as a Cistercian* abbey. In the fifteenth century, a town grew around it. In 1925, Oliwa became a Diocesan See. Its Gothic cathedral (formerly Cistercian) church with its famous organ built during 1763-1788 and a refectory of the monastery are among the most interesting monuments of art in Poland. Encyclopedia of World Art, vol. 13 (New York, 1966), 406. OLIWA, BATTLE OF, encounter of Polish and Swedish fleets on November 28, 1627 during the Polish-Swedish War* of 1617-1629. The Swedish squadron, commanded by N. Sternskjold, blocked the port of Gdarisk (Danzig).* The Polish Navy, under A. Dickmann, broke the blockade. WEP, VIII, 221. OLIWA, TREATY OF, peace treaty signed by the representatives of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and Sweden on May 3, 1660, at the Oliwa monastery (now a suburb of Gdarisk*). The treaty ended the Polish-Swedish War of 1555-1560 and a sixty-year-old dispute regarding the succession to the Swedish throne which was started by Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa).* King Jan Kazimierz (John Casimir)* of Poland and Lithuania,* a son of Zygmunt III, renounced the claim of his line to the Swedish throne. In addition, Poland withdrew from Estonia and northern Livonia,* while southern Livonia and the vassal principality of Courland* remained under Polish control. The treaty also confirmed the 1657 Welawa and Bydgoszcz Treaties between Poland and the Brandenburg Elector, who fought on the Swedish side and was recognized as an independent ruler of Prussia* (previously a vassal Dukedom of Poland). It was decided, however, that the strategic city of Elblag (Elbing)* on the lower Vistula* River would return to Poland. CHP, I, 524-527. OLKIENNIKI, BATTLE OF, encounter of an army of the Sapieha* family and the troops of other Lithuanian* magnates* supported by King August II* at the small town of Olkienniki (Valkininkai) near Vilna* on November 2, 1700. The Sapiehas were defeated by the Pacs,* Ogiriskis,* Radziwills,* and other

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nobles. The battle terminated a civil war and the hegemony of the Sapieha clan in Lithuania, then part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* WEP, VIII, 222. OLKUSZ, old mining community near Cracow* founded in the thirteenth century. It received city rights from King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great),* who fortified the town. Up to the seventeenth century, it was the main Polish center of silver mining. Later it deteriorated and the mines were flooded. Olkusz revived in the late nineteenth century as a result of proximity to the Dabrowa* coal mining basin. The town reached 11,000 inhabitants by 1939, when it fell to the Germans, who murdered one-third of its population. EHGP, II, 15-16. OLSZEWSKI, KAROL (1846-1915), chemist, physicist, and expert on low temperatures. A professor of the Jagiellonian University* from 1876 and a Chairman of inorganic chemistry from 1891, he was the first scholar who liquefied nitrogen and oxygen. He also discovered a method of hydrogen liquefaction and constructed machinery for that purpose, which enabled him to reach the then-lowest world temperature, -225°C. PSB, XXIV, 27-30. OLSZTYN (Allenstein), town in Warmia (Ermland)* located on the Lyna River, which originated from a settlement around a castle of the Bishops of Warmia in the state of the Teutonic Knights.* In 1353, the settlement received city rights, and, in 1454, it was incorporated into Poland. During 1516-1519, the chapter of Warmia was administered by M. Kopernik (Copernicus),* who also defended Olsztyn against the Teutonic Knights in 1521. In the First Partition* of Poland in 1772, the town was merged into Prussia. In the late nineteenth century, Olsztyn became a center of Polish national revival in Prussia.* Destroyed during WW II, it was regained by Poland in 1945. EHGP, II, 16. OLYMPIC MEDALISTS. Poland began to participate in the Olympic Games at the Eighth Olympiad in 1924 in Paris. Polish sportsmen there gained two medals, a silver for the 4,000-meter cycling team (J. Lange, J. Lazarski, T. Stankiewicz and F. Szymczak), and a bronze for individual horse jumping (A. Krolikiewicz). During the 1928 Games in Amsterdam in 1928, Poles won six medals, including gold for H. Konopacka* in discus throwing and for K. Wierzyriski* for his Olympic Laurel poems. In Los Angeles in 1932, Poland won three gold, two silver, and four bronze medals. The last pre-war games in 1936 in Berlin brought Poland four silver and five bronze medals. Poland belonged to the International Olympic Committee, and the Polish Olympic Committee was organized in 1919. WEP, VIII, 219. ONR. See NATIONAL RADICAL CAMP. OPALINSKI, ANDRZEJ (1540-1593), Grand Court Marshal from 1570, Grand Marshal from 1574, and Elder (starosta generalny) of Great Poland (Wiel-

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kopolska).* A member of one of the most powerful families of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth* of his era. WEP, VIII, 245. OPALINSKI, KRZYSZTOF (1609-1655), Palatine (wojewoda) of Poznari (Posen)* from 1637 and author of Satires (Satyry). Educated at the Lubrariski Academy* in Poznari and later at the universities of Louvain, Orleans, and Padua, he was elected a member of the Sejm* in 1632 after his return to Poland. King Wladyslaw IV Waza (Ladislas IV Vasa)* sent him as an Ambassador to Paris in 1645 to arrange the King's marriage with Maria Ludwika (Gonzaga).* Opaliriski was critical of the Polish sociopolitical system and yearned to reform it along the lines of absolute monarchies. He believed that only a powerful central power would be able to develop strong cities, organize a good army, and solve the numerous problems of Poland. He presented his opinions in Satires, a masterpiece of political literature published anonymously in 1650 in Leszno.* He opposed the wars with the Cossacks,* and, as a Palatine of Great Poland, he surrendered his province to the Swedes in Ujscie on July 25, 1655. He believed that the powerful Swedish monarch could cure Polish ills, but by this treason covered himself with shame for centuries. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 128-129; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 137-140. OPALINSKI, LUKASZ (1612-1662), Court Marshal of the Polish Kingdom from 1650, brother of Krzysztof Opaliriski,* and writer. Like his brother, he wrote political satires and authored the first Polish poetry handbook. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 129; WEP, VIII, 245. OPERATION TEMPEST (Burza), code name for the final WW II operation of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* According to the plan formulated in 1943, the Home Army was supposed to organize local armed upheavals against the withdrawing rear guards of the German Army. The political goal of "Burza" was the participation of the Home Army (loyal to the London Government-in-Exile*) in the liberation of Poland from Nazi rule to indicate to both the Soviet authorities and the Western world who was the real host on Polish soil. As such, it was also aimed at pro-Soviet circles, which prepared for a Communist takeover of the liberated country. Burza's main activity occurred east of the Bug* River in the regions of Lvov* and Vilna.* The fights had the character of AK uprisings against the withdrawing Nazi forces. Initially, the Red Army cooperated with the Home Army, but when Lvov and Vilna were liberated, thousands of Polish soldiers were arrested and deported to Russian camps. The Warsaw Uprising* of the summer of 1944 was a continuation of Burza intended to liberate the heart of the country. T. B6r-Komorowski, The Secret Army (London, 1951); S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State, (New York, 1978), 165168.

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OPOLE, community or territorial organization of ten to twenty villages in early medieval Poland and other regions populated by Western Slavs. Opole performed certain police and taxation functions. It disintegrated later and was replaced by state administrative units during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. CHP, I, 12-15; EHGP, II, 17-18. OPOLE, town on the upper Odra (Oder)* River in Central Silesia.* During the ninth and tenth centuries, Opole was a center of the Opolanie tribe. Incorporated into Poland by the first rulers of the Piast* dynasty, the Opole region became an independent principality at the time of the Feudal Disintegration.* In 1234, Opole received city rights. Located on international trade routes, it developed quickly from the fourteenth century. From 1327, the Principality of Opole was a Bohemian vassalage, and, when the ruling Piast family died out in 1532, it fell under Habsburg* rule. From 1740, the region was under the Prussians, who Germanized a large part of its population. Nevertheless, throughout the nineteenth century the region had a substantial Polish-speaking minority. Linked with Wroclaw (Breslau)* and Upper Silesia* by a rairoad network in the midnineteenth century and being an important river port, Opole became an industrial town of about 53,000 inhabitants by 1939. The region was regained by Poland in 1945. L. Straszewicz, Opole Silesia: Outline of Economic Geography (Warsaw, 1965). OPPMAN, ARTUR ("OR-OT") (1867-1932), poet and editor, a scion of a German family settled in Poland in the eighteenth century. His grandfather participated in the November Insurrection* of 1831, and his father fought in the January Insurrection* of 1863. He published his first poetry collection in 1889. During 1901-1905, he edited the Warsaw journal Wedrowiec (Traveler) and then co-edited Tygodnik Ilustrowany (Illustrated Weekly) until 1920. He participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921 as an educational officer. Later, he edited several Army periodicals. His poetry and writing dealt with Polish history and the struggle for independence. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 348; PSB, XXIV, 145-147. ORDON6WNA, HANKA (1902-1950), singer and actress whose real name was Maria A. Pietruszyriska-Tyszkiewicz. She graduated from the Warsaw* Ballet School and, from 1915, danced in the theaters of Warsaw and Lublin,* and was a very popular singer and respected actress. During 1923-1931, she was a star of Warsaw's leading cabaret, "Qui Pro Quo."* In 1939, she was imprisoned by the Nazis. Released, she escaped to Vilna,* where she performed at the Musical Theater. Deported to Uzbekistan by the Soviets, she left the USSR with the Polish Army of Gen. W. Anders* in 1942 as a caretaker of Polish orphans. PSB, XXIV, 173-174.

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"ORGANIC WORK," concept of a long-range strategy of national survival which originated in partitioned Poland in the mid-nineteenth century. Numerous Poles, mostly conservative, did not want to accommodate the three occupying powers but simultaneously opposed illegal political activities, conspiracies, and uprisings as too dangerous and costly. They were looking for a middle-of-theroad solution and found it in a legal effort to raise the social, economic, and cultural levels of the country. This policy, called "organic work," was initiated in the Grand Duchy of Poznari (Posen)* in the 1840s. Among its main leaders was Dr. J. K. Marcinkowski,* a physician and philanthropist, who established Poznari's center for Polish economic and cultural activities, called "Bazar."* In the Congress Kingdom of Poland* A. Zamoyski,* an aristocrat and politician, gathered a group of landowners who discussed the economic and social problems of Poland and edited Yearbooks of National Husbandry (Roczniki Gospodarstwa Krajowego). In Galicia,* L. Sapieha* started similar activities. The "organic work" movement flourished during 1864-1890, as a natural reaction to the defeat of the January Insurrection* of 1863 and an opposition to the irresponsible Romanticism of the past decades. A. Swietochowski* became the main proponent of the concept at that time. S. Blejwas, "The Origins and Practice of 'Organic Work' in Poland: 1795-1863," Polish Review XV/4 (1970), 23-54; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 468-470; S. Kieniewicz, Dramat trzezwych entuzjastow: o ludziach pracy organicznej (Warsaw, 1964). ORGANIZATION OF UKRAINIAN NATIONALISTS (OUN), Ukrainian political movement established in 1929 by a merger of the Ukrainian Military Organization (UVO) and several nationalist student associations. The OUN, headed by E. Konovalets,* strove for the establishment of an independent Ukrainian state and condemned the legal Ukrainian parties in Poland as collaborationist. The OUN used violence as a political weapon, organized hundreds of sabotage actions against the Polish government in Galicia* and Volhynia,* and carried out about sixty assassinations, including those of the top Polish officials T. Holowko* and B. Pieracki.* After the NKVD assassinated E. Konovalets in 1938, the long-expected split occurred within the OUN. Younger activists, headed by S. Bandera,* organized a faction known as "Banderites," the OUN(B), or the Revolutionary OUN (OUNER). Older leaders constituted another faction, headed by A. Melnyk* and known as "Melnykites" or OUN(M). The OUN(B) was more open to fascist ideology, but both factions collaborated with the Nazis from the mid-1930s. In 1941, the OUN tried to build an independent Ukraine with German help. When Hitler stopped this attempt, the OUN organized an anti-German, anti-Soviet, and anti-Polish Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), which exterminated a large part of the Polish population of Volhynia and Eastern Galicia. After WW II, continuous strife between the two factions caused a steady decline of the power and influence of the OUN. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 3 (Toronto, 1988), 708710; SHP, 296.

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ORGELBRAND, SAMUEL (1810-1868), Jewish bookseller and publisher. In 1836, he opened a bookstore and, in 1844, a printing shop and publishing house in Warsaw.* It published Hebrew and Polish books, mostly translations from foreign languages and works of contemporary Polish writers. Among the most important books published by Orgelbrand were the Babylonian Talmud and the Encyklopedia Powszechna (Universal Encyclopedia) in twenty-eight volumes (1859-1868). PSB, XXIV, 187-189. ORKAN (Hurricane), Polish destroyer, originally HMS Myrmidon, transferred to the Polish Navy in Glasgow in November 1942. After necessary crew training, she was sent in January 1943 to Iceland for convoy protection to Murmansk and continued her escort patrol duties for the next few years. Her saddest mission was to bring from Gibraltar the body of Polish Premier and Commander-inChief Gen. W. Sikorski* for a London funeral in mid-July 1943. While on convoy duty, she was sunk by a German submarine. S. Piaskowski, Okrety Rze zypospolitej Polskiej, 1920-1946 (Albany, New York, 19 ORKAN, WLADYSLAW (1875-1930), writer, poet, and playwright, whose real name was Franciszek K. Szmaciarz. Born into a poor family of highlanders in the Podhale* region, he did not complete his formal education. However, he started his literary career in 1987 with a collection of short stories depicting the misery of peasant life in his native region. It was also a subject of his next works, influenced greatly by the style of the "Young Poland."* Orkan became increasingly involved in the folk movement, especially in the Union of Highlanders (Zwiazek Podhalan). During WW I, he served in the Polish Legions,* which he described in his memoirs. He is considered by many the first outstanding writer of peasant origin. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Wars 1978), 542-545; PSB, XXIV, 189-193.

ORLOWSKI, ALEKSANDER (1777-1832), court painter to Tsars Alexander I* and Nicholas I,* draftsman, and lithographer. Educated in the studio of J. Norblin,* he participated in the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, traveled in Western Europe and, in 1802, settled in St. Petersburg. Most of his watercolors, oil paintings, and drawings depicted scenes of ordinary life, battle scenes, horses and architecture. He also specialized in portraits and marine painting. G. Laumann, "Polish Painter Orlowski: Putting Him on the Map," The Connecticut Vall Reporter 111/45 (1973); PSB, XXIV, 214ORSZA, BATTLE OF, major encounter of Polish and Russian Armies at the town of Orsza in Belorussia* on September 8, 1514. In 1512, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Basil, broke the peace with Poland, and, in 1514, he conquered Smolensk,* a strategic stronghold which controlled the road to Lithuania.* King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old)* called the Lithuanian levee en masse and moved with the Polish Army of 30,000 to Belorussia. The Polish Army,

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led by K. Ostrogski,* totally defeated the Muscovite Army of 80,000 at Orsza. This great victory was not exploited. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* regained some regions taken by Basil, but Smolensk remained in Russian hands until 1611. CHP, I, 304-305; Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 132. ORTHODOX CHURCH IN POLAND, branch of the Eastern Orthodox Communion established in Poland by Kazimierz Wielki (the Great).* When he conquered Red Ruthenia,* its four Orthodox Bishoprics, Halicz (Halych),* Przemysl,* Chelm,* and Wlodzimierz (Volodymyr),* were separated from the Kievian Metropole and an independent Metropole was founded in Halicz in 1371. Subsequently Ruthenian lands found themselves within the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.* In 1458, nine Orthodox Bishops established a new Orthodox Metropole in Kiev (the old, medieval Metropole was moved to Moscow). After the 1596 Union of Brest,* the Orthodox Church in the Commonwealth disintegrated, and most Orthodox Bishoprics were controlled by the Uniates.* In 1620, the Orthodox Metropole in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was re-built, but, after the catastrophe of Cossack* autonomy in the midseventeenth century, the Orthodox hierarchy disintegrated again. Following the Partitions,* the Orthodox Church in Poland was incorporated into Russian Orthodoxy. In interwar Poland, about four million Orthodox people lived in five Dioceses. In 1924, the Orthodox Church in Poland was established as the independent "Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Poland." Most of its faithful were Ukrainians from Volhynia* and Belorussians. After WW II, most Polish Orthodox regions were incorporated into the Soviet Union, and only 400,000 Orthodox faithful remained within the new Polish borders, which were shifted westward. O. Halecki, From Florence to Brest (1439-1596) (New York, 1958); J. Kloczowski (ed.), Chrzescijanstwo w Polsce: Zarys Przemian, 966-1945 (Lublin, 1980). ORZECHOWSKI, STANISLAW (1513-1566), political writer. Designated by his father for priesthood, he studied in Cracow* (1526-1528), in Germany (1528-1531), and in Italy (1532-1541). He met Luther, converted to Protestantism and, under the impact of humanism, resented medieval scholasticism but, eventually during his stay in Rome, re-embraced Catholicism. In 1541, Orzechowski returned to Poland and was ordained a priest. However, he rejected celibacy, performed marriage ceremonies for other priests, and even married himself, all of which put him into sharp conflict with the Catholic hierarchy. He distinguished himself as an author of lively, sometimes violent polemical political prose. In his numerous treatises and pamphlets, he challenged Queen Bona* and praised the "Golden Freedom"* of the gentry. He fought celibacy but simultaneously warned against the Turkish menace in Christian Europe and advocated theocracy. In his brilliantly written works, he presented many different theories and assumed various, sometimes contradictory positions. Born in the ethnically mixed Przemysl* region, he described himself as "gente Ruthenus, natione Polonus," which became a popular and widely used concept. C.

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Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 89-90; PSB, XXIV, 287-292; H. £widerska, "Stanislaw Orzechowski: The Uneasy Years, 1550-1559," Polish Review VIII/3 (1963), 3-45. ORZEL (Eagle) submarine built in a Dutch shipyard for the Polish Navy and purchased in 1939. On September 1, 1939, Orzel left Gdynia* for Baltic patrol. After several days, her commander became sick and the submarine reached neutral Tallinn for his hospitalization. The Estonian government, pressed by the Germans, tried to intern Orzel, but she escaped under the command of Capt. J. Grudziriski* across the Baltic and Danish straits to Scotland. In December 1939, Orzel resumed war service. On April 8, 1940, she sank the Rio de Janeiro, a transport with German invasion troops for Norway. She did not return from her seventh patrol mission in late May 1940 and its sinking was acknowledged. A. Melen, "L'affaire de sous-marin "Orzel," Recueil de travaux des Polonais internes en Suisse II/l (1944), 151-169; S. Piaskowski, Okrety Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, 19201946: Album Planow (Albany, 1984), 68-69. ORZESZKOWA, ELIZA (1841-1910), novelist. Born as E. Pawlowska into a wealthy landowning gentry family near Grodno,* she was educated by governesses and at a boarding school for girls in Warsaw.* At the age of sixteen, she was married to a wealthy nobleman and moved to his estate in Polesie.* Living in a remote, isolated area, she began to write and engaged in secret Polish patriotic activities preceding the January Insurrection* of 1863. After its fall, her husband was deported to Siberia* and his estate was confiscated. She moved to Grodno, where she spent the rest of her life, working as a publisher, bookseller, publicist, and writer. Her novels, short stories, and articles reflected her experiences. She advocated abolition of serfdom and emancipation of women and fostered equal rights for the Jews* and their assimilation. Her novels depicted tragic events of the January Uprising, presented a shocking picture of ignorant and poor peasants, and showed in a sympathetic way the life of petty gentry farmers and a young class of intelligentsia. Gradually she moved from a post-Romantic vein to the realistic concept of Polish positivism* and became the most outstanding representative of its didactic trend. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 384-388; C. Milosz, The History of Poli Literature (London, 1969), 303-308; PSB, XXIV, 311-320. OSOBKA-MORAWSKI, EDWARD (1909- ), socialist leader. He joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and the Association of Workers' Universities (Towarzystwo Uniwersytetow Robotniczych [TUR])* in 1928. After the outbreak of WW II, he was active in a radical socialist group, "Barykada Wolnosci" (Barricade of Freedom). During 1941-1943, he was a member of the group known as the Polish Socialists (Polscy Socjalisci). From 1943, he headed the splinter Workers Party of Polish Socialists (Robotnicza Partia Polskich Socjalistow [RPPS]), which joined the Communist-controlled

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Homeland National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa [KRN])* on December 31, 1943. In March 1944, Osobka went with Gens. M. Rola-Zymierski* and M. Spychalski* to Moscow and returned with the Red Army to Poland. When the Communist-dominated Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego [PKWN])* was established in Lublin* on July 22, 1944, Osobka became its President and head of the Foreign Affairs Department. On December 27, 1944, the PKWN was reshaped into the Provisional Government of the People's Republic, with Osobka as its Premier. M. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland: An Outline of History (Cambridge, 1959); WEP, VII , 336. OSSENDOWSKI, ANTONI FERDYNAND (1878-1945), writer. Educated in St. Petersburg and Paris, he traveled extensively in European and Asian Russia, and his travels influenced the character of his future writing. He was imprisoned in 1905 for his role in the Manchurian revolutionary movement. Later, he opposed the Bolsheviks and served under Admiral A. Kolczak, the counterrevolutionary Commander in Siberia. After Kolczak's defeat, Ossendowski escaped to the West through Mongolia and described his experiences in a widely known book, Beasts, Men and Gods, which was translated into many languages. In interwar Poland, he continued writing popular "exotic" novels. PSB, XXIV, 381-385. OSSOLINEUM, public research library and museum founded in November 1817 by J. Ossoliriski in Lvov.* Its purposes were gathering sources dealing with Poland, helping Polish scholars, and publishing scholarly materials. The library started with a book collection donated by J. Ossoliriski* and, then, received numerous other gifts, including large collections of the Lubomirskis of Przeworsk and the Pawlikowskis of Medyka. During the worst Austrian oppression of 1833-1834, the Ossolineum published some materials illegally, including A. Mickiewicz's* Books of the Polish Nation and the Polish Pilgrimage. During the Springtime of Nations* in 1848, Ossolineum published revolutionary periodicals and brochures. Its noted scholarly contributions included the multivolume edition of S. Linde's* Dictionary of Polish Language and the Monumenta Polonie Historica* During the interwar period, Ossolineum edited collected works of the most outstanding Polish writers. In 1941, the Ossolineum was taken over by the German Staatsbibliothek and lost many of its treasured icons. Up to WW II, it sheltered half a million volumes, 13,000 manuscripts, 11,000 maps, and 9,000 art treasures, including numismatic collections and the largest collection in Poland of old newspapers. After WW II, Ossolineum was moved with its professional staff to Cracow* and, then, to Wroclaw (Breslau).* SHP, 568-569; J. Trzynadlowski, Zaklad Naroodowy imienia Ossolinnskich 1817-1967: Zarys dziejow (Wroclaw, 1967). OSSOLINSKI, JERZY (1595-1650), statesman and a member of the powerful Ossoliriski family. Educated by the Jesuits* in Pultusk, Graz and Louvain, he

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traveled extensively in Western Europe. In 1616, he returned to Poland and was a courtier of Prince Wladyslaw, later King Wladyslaw IV Waza (Ladislas IV Vasa).* In 1621, he was sent by King Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa)* on a diplomatic mission to England. In 1629, he joined a diplomatic team negotiating the Altmark* peace with Sweden, and, later, he acted as an envoy to Rome and Vienna. He was very active as a member and a Speaker of the Polish Sejm.* One of the most influential politicians of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* he was among the closest advisers of Wladyslaw IV. After the King's death, Ossoliriski supported the candidacy of Jan Kazimierz (John Casimir) and played a key political role in Poland. He advocated a reconciliation with the Cossacks* and presented a plan for a joint Polish-Ukrainian-Russian war against Turkey. One of the most outstanding Polish statesmen of his era, he also advocated strengthening the Royal power in Poland and criticized the "Golden Freedom" of the Polish gentry. PSB, XXIV, 403-410. OSSOWSKI, STANISLAW (1897-1963), sociologist. Educated in Warsaw,* Paris, and Rome, he was influenced by the Lvov-Warsaw school of philosophy.* His research was concentrated on the theory of social structure, the methodology of the social sciences, social psychology, aesthetics, and the sociology of art. During the interwar period, he was a secondary school teacher. He spent the years 1933-1935 in England, where he attended B. Malinowski's* seminar. During WW II, he was active in the Polish resistance and lectured in the thenunderground University of Warsaw. International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, ed. by D. L. Sills, vol. 11 (New York, Macmillan), 345; S. M. Lipset, "Stanislaw Ossowski (1897-1963)," American Sociological Review, vol. 29, (1964), 748-751. OSTASZKOW, one of the main Soviet camps used for Polish prisoners taken during the September Campaign,* beginning in the fall of 1939. It was located in northern European Russia near Twer (Kalinin). Unlike the Kozielsk* and Starobielsk* camps, which were for army officers, Ostaszkow had about 400 police officers and some 6,000 other inmates, including priests. It was liquidated by the Soviet authorities in April 1940. The inmates were shot by the NKVD and buried in Miednoje near Twer, similarly to the Kozielsk officers in Katyri.* J. Zawodny, Death in the Forest: The Story of the Katyri Forest Massacre (Notre Dame,

Indiana, 1962). OSTERWA, JULIUSZ (1885-1947), noted actor and theater director. He made his debut in Cracow* in 1904 and later performed in several major Polish cities. During WW I, he was deported by the Russians and played in Polish theaters in Moscow and Kiev. In 1918, he returned to Warsaw,* where he established his own experimental stage, "Reduta" (Redoubt), which performed frequently as a traveling theater. He directed "Reduta" until 1947. He also headed several other theaters and was considered an outstanding director, teacher, and organizer. PSB, XXIV, 466-470.

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OSTRA BRAMA (Pointed Gate), gate on the eastern side of old Vilna* with a chapel-shrine of Virgin Mary, containing an icon venerated in the same way as the Black Madonna* of Czestochowa.* From the mid-sixteenth century, this icon was a symbol of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's* attachment to the Marian cult.* The gate is the last remnant of the medieval city fortifications started by Grand Duke Aleksander* and completed by King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old).* In 1829, the chapel was reconstructed in neo-classical style. A. Matulewicz, "Ty co w Ostrej Swiecisz Bramie," Bozy Siew (San Francisco, 1977). OSTROGSKI (Ostrozky), prominent Ruthenian* Orthodox family probably descended from the Turow-Pirisk (Turiv-Pynske) line of the Kievian ruling Ruryk dynasty. The family was founded by Prince Danylo Dmytrovych, whose descendants first gained great wealth and importance in Lithuania* and later in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* They served as elders, Palatines, and Hetmans.* Most of them remained Orthodox* communicants and were considered leaders of the Orthodox community in the Commonwealth. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc\ vol. 3 (Toronto, 1988), 735-736. OSTROGSKI, KONSTANTY (1460-1530), Ruthenian statesman in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* a member of the powerful Ostrogski* family and father of Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski.* He distinguished himself in the wars against the Tatars* and the Muscovites and was made Grand Hetman* of Lithuania* in 1497. During the Battle of Wiedrosza (Vedrosha) in 1500, he was taken prisoner by the Russians, and he spent seven years in captivity. In 1507, he escaped to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and was restored by King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old)* as Hetman and Marshal of Volhynia.* He continued to defend the Polish-Lithuanian eastern borders, and, in 1514, he commanded 30,000 troops and was victorious at the Battle of Orsza.* In 1522, he became a Palatine (wojewoda) of Troki* and a Senator. He was one of the main pillars of Orthodoxy in the Commonwealth. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 137-138; PSB, XXIV, 486-489. OSTROGSKI, KONSTANTY WASYL (1527-1608), Ruthenian statesman in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* a member of the powerful Ostrogski* family, son of Konstanty Ostrogski.* He held several important state offices, including that of Marshal of Volhynia* from 1550, Palatine (wojewoda) of Kiev from 1559, and Senator from 1569. The most powerful magnate of Volhynia, he was a candidate for the Polish throne after the death of Zygmunt II August (Sigismund II Augustus)* in 1572, and for the Muscovite throne in 1598. He was considered the leader of the Orthodox population in the Commonwealth, and, during the negotiations preceding the 1569 Union of Lublin,* he demanded that Ruthenia be an equal partner of Poland and Lithuania* within the Commonwealth. Initially, he supported the Union of Brest-Litovsk* but when the

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Uniate* Church became unpopular, Ostrogski opposed Catholic-Orthodox unification. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 3 (Toronto, 3), 736; PSB, XXIV, 489-495. OSTROLEKA, town in northeastern Poland on the Narew River, one of the oldest cities of Mazovia.* It received its city rights in 1373 and developed as a center of the Kurpie* Forest region. The town was heavily damaged during both world wars. Z. Niedzialkowska, Ostroleka: Dzieje miasta (Ostroleka: A History of the City) (Warsaw, 1975). OSTROLEKA, BATTLE OF, encounter of Polish and Russian troops during the November Insurrection* on May 26, 1831. After several defensive battles near Warsaw,* which stopped the Russian offensive in the winter of 1831, the Polish command opened more aggressive operations when the uprising spread throughout Lithuania* and Belorussia.* Gen. I. Pradzyriski* of the Polish General Staff outlined a plan for a bold attack against the elite corps of Russian Guards marching from Bialystok* toward Warsaw. However, the Polish Commander-in-Chief, Gen. J. Skrzynecki,* acted very cautiously and slowly, and his forces were attacked by the Russian main contingent of Field Marshal I. Diebitsch on the Narew River near the town of Ostroleka. After a long and bloody battle, in which the Poles lost 6,500 soldiers, Skrzynecki had to retreat to Warsaw. Two months after the battle, Skrzynecki was dismissed and replaced by Gen. H. Dembiriski.* CHP, II, 305. OSTROROG, JAN (1436-1501), political writer. Educated in Germany and Italy, he became a Royal courtier and served as Castellan* of Miedzyrzecz and Poznari (Posen),* Deputy Treasurer of the Kingdom, and Elder (starosta) and Palatine (wojewoda) of Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* King Kazimierz Jagielloriczyk (Casimir Jagiellon)* also used him in diplomatic missions to Rome. Ostrorog distinguished himself as the first Polish lay political writer. In his writings, including the Monumentum pro Republicae Ordinatione (On the Organization of the State), he advocated a strengthening of the Royal power at the expense of the magnates* and the clergy. He claimed that the Polish King has no other sovereign than God, and that Papal power applies only to spiritual matters. He denied the Pope's right to tax Poland and asked that Church courts be independent of Rome. He proposed greater participation of Church estates in helping the poor and criticized the enrichment of priests through selling of sacraments. He also advocated a strengthening of the Army and the executive power of the Palatines. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 20-21; PSB, XXIV, 502-505. OSWI£CIM. See AUSCHWITZ.

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OTTO III (955-1002), German King from 983 and Holy Roman Emperor from 996. A member of the Saxon dynasty and a son of Emperor Otto II, he planned to re-create the power of the ancient Roman Empire as a universal Christian state ruled from Rome and including Slavic territories. In 986, Poland's Prince Mieszko I* acknowledged Otto's overlordship and service as his vassal. Henceforth, Mieszko and his son, Boleslaw I Chrobry (the Brave),* remained loyal to the Emperor and obtained some advantages. They joined Otto in wars against Western Slavic tribes living between the Oder* and Elbe Rivers. In 1000, Otto made a pilgrimage to the tomb of St. Adalbert* (Wojciech) in Gniezno and established it as the Archbishopric of Poland. During this visit, Otto was sumptuously entertained by Boleslaw. The Emperor addressed the Polish Duke as his brother and an ally of the Roman people. At a banquet Otto placed a crown on Boleslaw's head, elevating him to the dignity of a sovereign. Otto's pro-Polish policy marked an important step toward the emancipation of Poland but caused hostile reactions among German magnates. CHP, I, 22-24. OUN. See ORGANIZATION OF UKRAINIAN NATIONALISTS. OWP. See CAMP FOR A GREATER POLAND. OZN. See CAMP OF NATIONAL UNITY. "OZON." See CAMP OF NATIONAL UNITY.

p PAC, noble Lithuanian* family who played an important role in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.* Numerous Senators, Hetmans,* Generals and other officials were members of this family. It was first chronicled in the mid-fifteenth century and achieved its greatest influence in the second half of the seventeenth century, when the power of the Radziwills,* previously dominant in Lithuanian politics, began to wane. By the end of the seventeenth century, the influence of the Pacs was overshadowed by that of the Sapiehas.* However, some Pacs, such as Michal Pac, Marshal of the Bar Confederation,* and Michal Ludwik Pac, a General of the Duchy of Warsaw's* Army, still played important roles. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 143; WEP, VIII, 384-385. PAC, MICHAL KAZIMIERZ (1624-1682), statesman. He joined the Army of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* as a young man and participated in all the major battles of the Polish-Swedish War of 1655-1660. After the Treaty of Oliwa,* he fought against the Russians and liberated Vilna* in 1661. In 1663, he was appointed Field Hetman* of Lithuania* (hetman polny litewski) and Palatine (wojewoda) of Smolensk.* In 1667, he became the Grand Hetman of Lithuania (hetman wielki litewski) and, in 1669, the Palatine of Vilna. Later he fought against the Turks and the Tatars.* After the election of King Michal WiSniowiecki,* he loyally assisted the new monarch. Later, Pac bitterly opposed the candidacy of Jan Sobieski,* and, when the latter was elected, Pac's influence diminished. He authored new rules for the Army, known as the Military articles, and he distinguished himself as a protector and benefactor of the Catholic Church in Lithuania. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 144-145; PSB XXIV, 721-729. PACIFICATION, repressions against the Ukrainian population of Eastern Galicia* conducted by the Polish authorities in the summer and fall of 1930. The

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pacification was a part of a larger operation, which was to break any opposition against the Sanacja* regime before the Parliamentary elections of November 1930. In addition, the repressions were provoked by the activities of the Ukrainian Military Organization (UVO), which reached their peak in September and October 1930. About twenty UVO leaders and five Ukrainian Parliamentary Deputies were detained. The Polish Army organized the so-called heavy quartering in certain villages, destroyed numerous cultural objects, and forced Ukrainians in twenty-eight counties to sign declarations of loyalty to Poland. Nine hundred seventy persons were arrested and a large amount of illegal weaponry was found. The pacification discredited the Polish authorities abroad and was discussed in the League of Nations.* However, the League's Council stated that the repressions were provoked by the Ukrainian terrorist activities. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc (Toronto, 1988), 747; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 686. PACTA CONVENTA, contract between the nobility of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and its elected Kings. After the death of the last member of the Jagiellonian dynasty, Zygmunt II August (Sigismund II Augustus),* in 1572, the subsequent Polish monarchs were selected by special electoral diets. The first of them prepared two sets of contracts in 1573. The first set, called Articuli Henriciani (Henrician Articles*) after the first elected King, Henryk Walezy (Henri de Valois),* became a sort of constitution signed by every elected monarch. It specified the powers of the King, the privileges of the nobility, and the basic rules of the system of administration. The second set, called Pacta Conventa (Settled Agreements), changed from election to election and contained various commitments and certain pledges of particular Kings. They usually were related to financial, military, and foreign policy matters. P. Skwarczynski, "The Origin of the Name Pacta Conventa," Slavonic and East European Review XXXVII (London, 1958-1959), 469-476; W. Sobociriski, Pakta konwenta (Cracow, 1939).

PADEREWSKI, IGNACY JAN (1860-1941), pianist, composer, and statesman. Born into a family of a minor noble tenant farmer, he studied music in Warsaw's* Musical Institute during 1872-1878 and taught there afterward. He began composing and, in 1882, he went for further studies to Berlin. In 1884, he moved to Vienna to study piano, and his first success was a concert there in November 1888, followed by tours of France, Holland, Germany and Great Britain. In November 1891 he made his debut in New York Music Hall (later Carnegie Hall) and gave more than one hundred well-received concerts all over America. The success of his opera Manru, which premiered in Dresden in 1901, encouraged him to write more compositions. In 1910, Paderewski became involved in politics. He founded a monument in Cracow* commemorating the Battle of Grunwald.* During his concerts, he gave speeches on behalf of Polish independence. He helped various Polish organizations, especially the National Democracy,* financially. He established contacts with R. Dmowski,* but he

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never joined the latter's party. With the outbreak of WW I, Paderewski began relief work for Poland in Switzerland and the United States. He won over President W. Wilson* and his top adviser, Col. E. House,* to the cause of Polish independence. He mobilized the American Poles, 28,000 of whom volunteered for the Polish Army in France commanded by Gen. J. Haller.* Paderewski represented the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP])* in America. In December 1918, he arrived in Poland and, on January 16, 1919, became its Premier and Foreign Minister. Simultaneously, he was a Polish Delegate at the Paris Peace Conference* and signed the Versailles Peace Treaty* for Poland on June 28, 1919. He was, in effect, a Premier of a compromise between the political left and right in Poland, and, after several months, when the situation changed, he was opposed by most parties, especially the Peasant Party "Piast" (Stronnictwo Ludowe "Piast")* and the conservatives. He resigned ill December 1919 and left Poland in January 1920. Until 1921, he was a Polish Delegate in the League of Nations,* but, then, he settled in California and resumed his artistic career. He returned to politics in the late 1920s, when his Swiss villa near Morges became a center of opposition to the Sanacja* regime; in 1936, the so-called Front Morges* was established there. After the outbreak of WW II, Paderewski supported Gen. W. Sikorski's* Polish Government-in-Exile* and accepted the Presidency of the National Council (Rada Narodowa),* a substitute exile Parliament. In August 1940, he returned to America in order to mobilize American Polonia once again. Paderewski was one of the most important Polish politicians of the first half of the twentieth century, although some believed that he was a better pianist than politician. R. Landau, Ignace Paderewski: Musician and Statesman (New York, 1934); C. Phillips, Pader The Story of a Modern Immortal (New York, 1934); PSB, XXIV, 795-803; A. Zamo Paderewski (London, 1982 PADLEWSKI, ZYGMUNT (1836-1863), leader of the January Insurrection* of 1863. He served as an officer in the Russian Army during 1859-1861. He was a member of a conspiracy of Polish officers led by Z. Sierakowski* and left Russia for the West, where he participated in the preparations for the January Insurrection. In August 1862, he was summoned to Poland by the secret Central National Committee. He became a Director of its Military Department and an underground Commander of Warsaw.* He belonged to the "Red" party, and, after A. Wielopolski's* conscription of the Polish patriots, he pushed for immediate commencement of the Insurrection and the abolition of serfdom. After the outbreak of the uprising, he led rebels in the Plock* area. Caught by the Cossacks,* he was sentenced to death and executed. CHP, II, 370; W. Karbowsk Zygmunt Padlewski (Warsaw, 196 PALMIRY, village in the Kampinos* forest area near Warsaw* where the Nazis executed about seventeen hundred Polish citizens between December 1939 and July 1940. The largest execution took place on June 20-21, 1940. Among the

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victims were outstanding Polish politicians, writers, scholars, lawyers, priests, sportsmen, and officers. The Palmiry executions were a part of the larger Nazi "AB-Aktion" (Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion), directed against the elite of the Polish nation. WEP, VIII, 421-422. PAMIgTNIK WARSZAWSKI (Warsaw Diary), title of several literary and scientific monthlies published in Warsaw.* The first one was edited by L. Osiriski during 1809-1810 and was devoted to historical, literary, and theatrical matters. The second, edited by F. Bentkowski and others during 1815-1823, was an unofficial organ of the Association of Friends of Learning. It represented Warsaw classicism; published such authors as J. Lelewel,* B. S. Linde,* S. Staszic,* and S. Potocki; and played an important role in the shaping of the intellectual life of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* The third Pamietnik Warszawski was edited by W. Berent* and L. Morstin* during 1929-1931. WEP, VIII, 428-429. PANKIEWICZ, J6ZEF (1866-1940), painter and draftsman. After art studies in Warsaw* under S. Gerson and in St. Petersburg's Academy of Fine Arts, he traveled in Western Europe during 1897-1906. Later he taught at the Cracow* Art Academy and, during 1914-1919, lived in Spain. He spent most of the interwar period in Paris as head and professor of the Paris branch of the Cracow Academy. Initially, he was influenced by the realistic style of A. Gierymski.* His first visit to Paris, in 1889, began the Impressionism-influenced period of his career. Finally, he turned to symbolism. In 1928, he was asked to renew Wawel* Castle's panneau of the King Zygmunt Chapel, which became his major accomplishment. PSB, XXV, 132-137. PANNA MARIA, first Polish-American Catholic parish founded in Karnes County, Texas, 80 kilometers from San Antonio, in 1854 by Rev. L. Moczygemba.* Parishioners were 800 Silesian* settlers who had escaped from Prussian* oppression. T. Lindsay Baker, The Early History of Panna Maria, Texas (Lubbock, Texas, 1975); J. Przygoda, Texas Pioneers from Poland: A Study in the Ethnic History (San Antonio, Texas, 1971). PANORAMA RACLAWICKA (Panorama of Raclawice*), large painting (15 meters by 114 meters) located on the inner walls of a special rotunda, presented during the 1894 National Exhibition in Lvov* to commemorate the first centennial of the Kosciuszko Insurrection.* The painting, the world's largest at the time, was created by two painters, J. Styka* and W. Kossak.* Their work, painted in nine months, depicted the victory of Raclawice and recorded the decisive capturing of Russian cannons by Polish peasant scythemen led by the heroic Bartosz Glowacki.* Panorama Raclawicka was very popular and, for fifty years, was one of the major attractions of Lvov. In 1944, it was damaged by the Soviet Air Force; it was restored in Wroclaw (Breslau)* after the war.

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B. Markowski, "The Panorama of the Battle of Raclawice," Polish Heritage XXXVII/ 3 (1986); J. Piatek (ed.), Panorama Raclawicka (Wroclaw, 1988). PAN-SLAVISM, nineteenth-century concept of the unification of all the Slavic people, allegedly endowed not only with a linguistic fraternity but also with unique cultural values and traditional moral virtues. The term Pan-Slavism was used for the first time in Bohemia in 1826 and found wider expression during the 1848 Slavic Congress in Prague, where its main proponents were Czech delegates led by F. Palacky. It was also popular among the nations of the future Yugoslavia. It was related to the Slavophilism which flourished in Russia. Some Russian leaders, such as A. Hercen* and M. Bakunin, advocated Pan-Slavism as a program of a united democratic Slavic state, where the Slavic partners would enjoy equal rights and would contribute to the creation of a common Slavic culture. More numerous, reactionary Russian leaders abused Pan-Slavism as a means of Russian domination. They argued for a Russian special position among other Slavs and the world's nations in general. In Poland, Pan-Slavism was associated with Russian oppression and was unpopular among most politicians. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Pan-Slavism was modified as neo-Slavism and became a part of the National Democratic* program designed by R. Dmowski.* Late in WW II, Pan-Slavism was used again by Soviet propaganda. F. Fedner, Seventy Years of Pan-Slavism in Russia (Washington, 1962); H. Kohn, Pan-Slavism: Its History and Ideology (New York, 1963); M. Petrovich, The Emergence of Russian Panslavism, 1856-1870 (New York, 1970); WEP, VIII, 4 2. PANSZCZYZNA. See CORVEE. PARANDOWSKI, JAN (1895-1970), writer. Parandowski graduated from the Lvov* University, where he studied classical philology and archaeology. In 1924-1926, he participated in scientific field work in France, Italy, and Greece. In 1929, he settled in Warsaw* and dedicated most of his work to ancient Greek literature and history. He also wrote on contemporary literature and autobiographical subjects. His Sky in Flames (Niebo w plomieniach), about a young boy's religious crisis, became a widely discussed best-seller. From 1933, he served as head of the Polish PEN-Club. G. Harjan, Jan Parandowski (New York, 1971); J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 654-6 PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE, conference that arranged the international settlement after WW I. It started on January 18, 1919, was presided over by French Premier G. Clemenceau, and was dominated by representatives of the five victorious powers: France, Great Britain, Italy, the United States, and Japan. Other participants, over twenty of them, played only a secondary role: they sanctioned the decisions of the Great Five during plenary meetings. The Soviet Union was not recognized and was excluded. The main objectives of the Conference were territorial changes, establishment of the League of Nations,* and

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imposition of reparations and restrictions on Germany. The Conference founded the League and produced treaties with Germany, Austria, and Bulgaria. Poland had two representatives, R. Dmowski* and I. J. Paderewski,* but its aspirations were not satisfied. Great Britain sought to create a counterweight to France and the Soviet Union, and thus defeated Germany was strengthened at Poland's expense. Upper Silesia* was not given to Poland, as initially planned; its fate was to be decided by a plebiscite. The same procedure was to be applied to Mazury* and Warmia (Ermland)* in East Prussia.* Gdarisk (Danzig)* was made the Free City of Danzig,* but Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* and Eastern Pomerania* were incorporated into the Second Polish Republic. The Conference did not settle the southern and eastern borders of Poland, and the Allied Supreme Council later dealt with this problem. The Polish delegation, on the signing of the Versailles Treaty,* was required to sign the Minorities Treaty simultaneously. CHP, II, 490-511; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 645; K. Lundcreen-Nielsen, The Polish Problem at the Paris Peace Conference (Odensee, 1979). PARLIAMENT. See SEJM. PARTITIONS OF POLAND (1772, 1793, 1795), divisions of the Polish territories among Russia, Austria, and Prussia,* which eliminated the Polish state from the map of Europe for over 120 years. The Partitions were the outcome of the continuing interference of neighboring powers in the internal affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* which was going through a period of a deep internal crisis from the second half of the seventeenth century. The most dangerous for Poland was the involvement of Russia, which actually controlled Poland from the beginning of the eighteenth century. Catherine the Great* planned to subjugate the whole Commonwealth; placed her candidate, Stanislaw II August,* on the Polish throne; and maintained her powerful Ambassadors in Warsaw.* One of them, Nikolai Repnin,* used the underprivileged position of religious dissidents* as a pretext to interfere in Polish affairs. When the Sejm,* pressed by the Russians, granted the dissidents religious and political equality with the Catholics, conservative Polish nobility formed the Confederation of Bar,* which was determined to end Russia's interference and to eject the Russian troops from Poland. After four years of fighting (1768-1772), the Russians defeated the Polish rebels but were not able to exploit the victory, being involved then in a war with Turkey. On the initiative of Friedrich II the Great,* Russia, Prussia, and Austria signed a secret partition agreement on February 6, 1772. Consequently, the signatories took about 28 percent of Poland's territories. The largest share was grabbed by Russia: Eastern Livonia* and lands of the Lithuanian Principality east of the Rivers Dvina and Dnieper. Austria received Little Poland (Malopolska)* and Red Ruthenia,* areas later called the Kingdom of Galicia* and Lodomeria. The smallest but most valuable region, Royal Prussia (Eastern Pomerania*) and War-

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mia (Ermland),* was annexed by Prussia. On September 18, 1773, the Sejm, surrounded by Russian troops, approved the First Partition. The shock of the Partition stimulated political reforms in Poland. The most notable outcome of these reforms was the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* Catherine the Great considered it dangerous to the interests of Russia. The Empress encouraged Polish reactionary magnates* to form the Confederation of Targowica,* which demanded the restoration of the old system in Poland. Russia intervened on behalf of the Confederation, defeated Polish troops during the war of 1792, and signed a partitioning convention with Prussia on January 23, 1793. The Second Partition placed almost all of Belorussia and eastern parts of Volhynia* and Podolia* under Russian rule. Prussia received Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* and the cities of Gdarisk (Danzig)* and Toruri (Thorn).* The Polish Sejm, terrorized by the Russians, ratified the Second Partition in September 1793. The Second Partition, which left the Commonwealth only a third of its prepartitioned territory, provoked patriotic indignation and, consequently, the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794. After several months of fighting, the uprising was crushed in November 1794, mainly by Russian forces. On January 3 and October 24, 1795, Austria, Russia, and Prussia signed the acts of the final, Third Partition. Russia took the remnants of Podolia, Volhynia, and Lithuania east of the Niemen River. Austria annexed the Lublin* region, and Prussia received the Suwalki region and central Poland with Warsaw.* King Stanislaw II August abdicated in 1795, and the Polish-Lithuanian state ceased to exist. CHP 11, 11 177; H. Kaplan, The First Partition of Poland (New York, 1962); R. Lord, The Sec Partition of Poland (Cambridge, 1915); G. Thompson, Catherine the Great and t Expansion of Russia (New York, 1950); J. Topolski, "Reflections on the First Partitio of Poland," Acta Poloniae Historica XXVII (1973), 89-10 PASEK, JAN CHRYZOSTOM (1636-1701), adventurer and author of famous Memoirs. After a limited education in a Jesuit* college, he joined the Polish Army in 1655 and, during the subsequent eleven years, participated in wars against the Swedes, Musovites, and Turks and the rebellion of J. Lubomirski.* Later, he married a rich widow and settled on her estate, but, because of his involvement in acts of banditry, he was sentenced by a tribunal to exile. As a result of near-anarchy in Poland by 1700, the sentence was not enforced. Pasek described his experiences of the years 1656-1688 as battles, duels, drunken brawls, and other adventures in his colorful Memoirs. The book, one of the most interesting examples of Polish seventeenth century Baroque prose, is a unique source for studies in Polish history and culture. C. Leach (ed.), The Memoirs of th Polish Baroque: The Writings of Jan Chryzostom Pasek, A Squire of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania (Berkeley, California, 1976); C. Milosz, The History of P Literature (London, 1969), 145-147; PSB, XXV, 245-246; M. Swiecicka, "Jan Pase A Man of Baroque Contrasts," Polish Review XVIII/3 (1973), 65-72; M. Swiecick "Pasek as a Historian," Antemurale XX (1976), 25-36.

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PASKEVICH, IVAN (1782-1856), Russian Field Marshal and Illustrious Prince of Russia, who suppressed the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. He joined the Russian Army in 1800 and fought against the Turks during 1806— 1812 and the French during 1812-1814. In 1826, he participated in the trial of the revolutionary Decembrists and became one of the closest advisers of Tsar Nicholas I.* In 1828-1829, he triumphed over the Turks and was promoted to the rank of Field Marshal. In June 1831, he was transferred to Poland and ordered to pacify the November Insurrection. He defeated the rebels and was named Prince of Warsaw and His Majesty's Own Viceregent in Poland "with special authority to administer the territory." During 1832-1856, he carried out his duties in a cruel way, terrorizing and Russifying the country. In 1849, he crushed the Hungarian uprising against the Habsburgs.* The Modern Encyclope of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 27 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1981), 45-48. PATEK, STANISLAW (1866-1944), lawyer and diplomat. He began his career as an attorney in 1894 in Warsaw.* From 1903, he became involved in legal assistance to political prisoners. During the 1905 Revolution, he supported J. Pilsudski.* In February 1908, Patek was arrested by the Russians, and, in 1911, he was dropped from the list of attorneys. During WW I, he was active in Paris and London on behalf of Pilsudski. In November 1918, he became President of a Criminal Division of the Appellate Court in Warsaw and was soon appointed a Judge on the Supreme Court. In February 1919, he joined the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP])* in Paris as one of Pilsudski's representatives. He participated in the Paris Peace Conference,* and, from December 1919 to April 1920, he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs. During 1921-1926, he represented Poland as a Minister in Japan. In December 1926, he was appointed Minister in Moscow by Pilsudski, and, in January 1933, he became Poland's Ambassador to the United States. In 1936, he returned from Washington, D.C., and was appointed a Senator. As a member of the Parliamentary Commission of Foreign Affairs, he was critical of J. Beck's* policy. R. Debicki, Foreign Policy of Poland, 1919-1939 (London, 1962); PSB, XXV, 321324. PATRIOTIC SOCIETY (Towarzystwo Patriotyczne), democratic political organization established in Warsaw* on December 1, 1830, during the November Insurrection.* The Society, led by J. Lelewel,* was supported by artisans and city folk and consisted mostly of Warsaw intelligentsia.* It advocated more aggressive military operations against the Russians and social reforms. The organization was divided into two factions. The more radical one, led by T. Krepowiecki* and J. Czyriski,* spoke for an agrarian reform and tried to unite the national political revolution with a social revolution. The second faction, led by M. Mochnacki* and R. Soltyk, represented a constitutional-monarchical pro-

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gram. The Society organized a series of violent demonstrations in Warsaw, and a dictator of the Insurrection, Gen. J. Krukowiecki,* dissolved the organizations. Its several leaders were arrested. CHP, II, 291-295. PATRIOTS, reform movement without an organizational structure active during the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792. Composed of progressive activists concerned with threats to the independence of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* the Patriots emphasized the need for reform of the political system and for independence from Russia. The Patriots counted on the support of Prussia and advocated the growth of the Polish Army. They tried to regain Galicia* from Austria in exchange for Gdarisk (Danzig)* and Toruri (Thorn),* which would be ceded to Prussia. The most important Patriots leaders were A. K. Czartoryski,* Sejm Speaker S. Malachowski,* and H. Kollataj.* King Stanislaw II August* joined the reform camp in 1790, and the Patriots engaged in the preparation of the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* After its adoption, the Patriots worked to strengthen monarchy, consolidated their organization and assumed the character of a political party. It was represented by the Friends of the Constitution Club, which met in the RadziwiH* palace. After Poland lost the war with Russia in 1792, the Patriots ceased to operate and its leaders went into exile. CHP, II, 291-295; A. Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992). PAULINE ORDER, Order of the Brothers of St. Paul, the First Hermit, established in the mid-thirteenth century in Hungary. Its rules were based on a modified St. Augustine's order adjusted to the contemplative life. After an intense period of development, with five provinces and 170 monasteries, the Pauline hermit settlements were destroyed in Hungary by the sixteenth-century Turkish invasions and liquidated by Habsburg* Emperor Joseph II in the eighteenth century. In 1382, they appeared in Poland, brought from Hungary by Duke Wladyslaw Opolczyk, who settled them on Jasna Gora (Light Mountain)* in Czestochowa.* Since 1930, a General of the Order has resided there. In 1939, it had about 200 priests in seven centers, including "Polska Czestochowa" in Pennsylvania. WEP, VIII, 528. PAWIAK, colloquial name of the Warsaw* prison located between Dzielna and Pawia Streets (hence the name). It was built during 1829-1835 and, until 1863, mostly criminal prisoners were kept there. Later, it served mainly for political prisoners, such as participants in the January Insurrection* and members of revolutionary movements. During WW II, Pawiak was the main prison of the Nazi Sicherheitspolizei. Over 90,000 Poles were incarcerated there during 19391944, of which 30,000 were executed and about 60,000 sent to concentration camps. During the Warsaw Uprising* of 1944, the Germans exterminated the prisoners of the Pawiak and blew up the buildings. SHP, 310.

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PAWINSKI, ADOLF (1840-1896), historian. Educated in St. Petersburg, Dorpat, Berlin and Gottingen, he returned to Warsaw* in 1867 and joined the staff of the Main School (Szkola Glowna).* In 1868, he was employed by the Central Archives of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and, later, became its head. In 1875, he was appointed a professor of history at the then-Russified Warsaw University.* He was interested in the history of the Polish Parliament and Treasury, archaeology, and auxiliary sciences of history. He published numerous historical primary sources, contributed to several literary magazines, and initiated the periodical Ateneum in 1876. Together with J. Szujski* and W. Kalinka,* he is considered a founding father of the study of modern Polish history. PSB, XXV, 407-411. PAWLIKOWSKI, JAN GWALBERT (1860-1939), ecologist and scholar. A scion of a wealthy landowning family in Galicia,* he taught economics and agriculture at the Agricultural Academy in Dublany near Lvov* during 18911904. During 1898-1914, he presided over the Lvov Scientific-Literary Association. He was also active in politics. In 1902, he joined the National League* and co-organized and headed the National Democracy* in Lvov. He was fascinated with the life and culture of the highlanders of the Tatra* Mountains. He spent a lot of time in Zakopane,* studied local poetry and aesthetics, and promoted wooden architecture in the highlander style. He was one of the founders of the Tatra Association and became a pioneer in natural preservation and ecology. PSB, XXV, 437-444. PAWLIKOWSKI, JOZEF (1767-1829), publicist and secretary of T. Kosciuszko.* He began his career with a book entitled Concerning Polish Serfs (O Poddanych Polskich), published in 1788. It described the lot of the peasantry exploited by selfish gentry and proposed basic reforms for the agrarian system in Poland. In 1789, he published a widely discussed treatise, Political Ideas for Poland (Mysli polityczne dla Polski). A member of a conspiracy which prepared the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, he was one of the Polish Jacobins* and was active as a radical publicist during the uprising. After the fall of the Insurrection, he moved to Paris, where he became Kosciuszko's secretary and adviser in 1799. In 1800, he published anonymously a noted brochure, Could the Poles Achieve Independence? (Czy Polacy wybic sie. moga na Niepodleglosc?), in which he advocated partisan warfare against the partitioning powers under Kosciuszko's dictatorship and the establishment of a democratic government. Later, he lived in the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* where he joined the secret National Patriotic Association (Narodowe Towarzystwo Patriotyczne) in 1826. He was arrested by the Russians and died in prison. PSB, XXV, 446-452. PAWLIKOWSKI, STEFAN (1896-1943), fighter pilot. He graduated from a pilot school in Moscow in 1917, and, from July 1918, he fought as a pilot of the Polish Army in France. He participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-

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1921 and continued his career in the Polish Army. During the September Campaign* of 1939, he shot down many German planes. Then he fought in France and, after its debacle, commanded a Polish Air Force training center in Blackpool, England. From November 1941, he served as a Polish liaison officer to the British Command and distinguished himself with unique bravery. He was killed in an action of the 315th Fighter Squadron over Normandy on May 15, 1943. F. Kalinowski, Lotnictwo Polskie w Wielkiej Brytanii, 1940-1945 (Paris, 1969); PSB, XXV, 464-465. PAWLIKOWSKI, TADEUSZ (1861-1915), theater director. He wrote theater reviews for Cracow* periodicals, and, in 1893, he became Director of the Cracow Theater. He led it brilliantly for the next six years. Later he directed the Lvov Theater and became one of the most outstanding Polish promoters of dramatic art. PSB, XXV, 465-469. PEASANT PARTY (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL]), organization originally established in Rzeszow* on July 28, 1895, by J. Bojko, J. Stapiriski,* K. Lewakowski, and B. Wyslouch* during a congress of delegates of peasant election committees in Galicia* and democratic activists of Lvov.* The party criticized the economic backwardness of Galicia and advocated the democratization of its political system. In 1903, it was renamed the Polish Peasant Party and made its program more radical. It stressed the need for equal rights for peasants and spoke for a broadening of Galician autonomy and the prerogatives of the Galician Parliament. It also demanded universal suffrage and economic help for peasants. The party was presided over by K. Lewakowski till 1896, H. Rewakowicz during 1897-1907, and J. Stapiriski from 1908. In the early 1900s, it became one of the major political organizations of Galicia. However, under the leadership of J. Stapiriski, it collaborated with Galician conservatives, thereby causing a series of splits. In 1913, an opposition toward Stapiriski created a new major party called the Polish Peasant Party "Piast" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Piast").* During the interwar period, splits and mergers of the Peasant Party would continue, as well as the party's name. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 577-579; WEP, XI, 246 PEASANT PARTY (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL]), major political party created by a merger of the Polish Peasant Party "Piast" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Piast"),* the Polish Peasant Party "Liberation" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Wyzwolenie"),* and the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Chlopskie)* in March 1931. With the new party the entire Polish peasant movement was united for the first time, and the party became one of the main participants of the opposition against the Sanacja* regime. From 1932, the Peasant Party organized peasant strikes* and demonstrations, which, in turn, accelerated the radicalization of the organization. Its 1935 program demanded a radical agrarian reform and a lotting

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out of large estates without compensation. The party opposed the new Polish authoritarian Constitution of 1935,* and, in the last months before WW II, it advocated the creation of a broad coalition government of national defense. The most important leaders of the Party were W. Witos,* M. Rog, M. Malinowski, and S. Mikolajczyk.* During WW II, the party was active as the Peasant Party "Roch."* J. Holzer, Mozaika Polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Political Mosaic of the Second Polish Republic) (Warsaw, 1974), 453-480; A. Polonsky, Politics in Ind pendent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 306, 312, 366, 415; WEP, XI, 50 PEASANT PARTY (Stronnictwo Chlopskie), leftist peasant party established in 1926 by a merger of the Peasant Union (Zwiazek Chlopski) and the group of J. Dabski,* which had left the Polish Peasant Party "Liberation" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Wyzwolenie").* The new party, led by J. Dabski and A. Waleron, supported the Pilsudski coup d'etat* in 1926 but, in 1928, joined the opposition to the Sanacja* regime. In 1931, the Peasant Party merged into the united Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe).* J. Holzer, Mozaika Polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Political Mosaic of the Second Polish Republic) (Warsaw, 1974), 431-452; WEP, XI, 49. PEASANT PARTY "ROCH" (Stronnictwo Ludowe "Roch"), name of the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe) active in exile and in the anti-Nazi resistance during WW II. After its outbreak, a group of peasant leaders re-established the party in the underground and founded the secret Central Leadership of Peasant Movement consisting of M. Rataj,* J. Grudziriski, J. Niecko, and S. Osiecki. The Peasant Party was one of the four parties of the Polish Governmentin-Exile* coalition, and it played a crucial role in the institutions of the clandestine Polish state during the German occupation. One of the leaders of the Party, S. Mikolajczyk,* served as a Premier of the Government-in-Exile during 1943-1944, and Dr. J. Piekalkiewicz* was appointed the second Delegate of the Government in occupied Poland. The party also organized its military units, first the Peasant Guard (Straz Chlopska) and later the Peasant Battalions (Bataliony Chlopskie). After WW II, the party was reorganized as the Polish Peasant Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe [PSL]). R. Buczek, Stronnictwo Ludowe w Lat 1939-1945 (London, 1975); J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland 1939-1947 (Leic ter, 1986), 26, 29-30, 47, 70, 106, 116-131; WEP, XI, 51.

PEASANT STRIKES, mass demonstrations of peasants' protests in the twentieth century with the goal of improving their economic situation and political rights. At first, the movement was limited mainly to farm labor in Galicia* in 1902-1903 and in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in 1905-1907. In interwar Poland, especially in the 1930s, the strikes were continued with demands for fundamental land reform.* SHP, 462-463.

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PEASANT UPRISING IN GALICIA IN 1846, large peasant anti-feudal rebellion instigated by the Austrian authorities in Galicia.* Alarmed by rumors of a coming Polish uprising, the Austrians preemptively incited Galician peasants against the gentry and revolutionaries. The rebellion broke out on February 18, 1846, and attacked the mansions and property of the nobility.* In the Tarnow* region, where the peasants were led by J. Szela,* about 90 percent of all the manors were destroyed. Altogether, over 430 mansions were burned and about eleven hundred representatives of the gentry were killed. In April 1846, when the Cracow Uprising* had already collapsed, the Austrians started the pacification of Galician villages. The uprising ("rabacja galicyjska") was one of the largest anti-feudal revolts of nineteenth-century Eastern and Central Europe. CHP, II, 533; S. Kieniewicz, Historia Polski 1795-1918 (Warsaw, 1975), 165 PEASANTRY, class of small-scale agricultural producers who occupied a crucial economic position and created its own subculture in medieval and early modern Europe. Individual farming appeared in the lands of future Poland in the sixth century as a consequence of the spread of arable agriculture and the decline of communal living. However, the peasants still had some obligations to their tribal chieftains, and their activities were limited by territorial communities (opole*), which regulated use of common forests and pastures. The peasant obligations increased when the Polish state was created. The peasants had to participate in the levee en masse, building and repairing of ports, roads, and fortifications. The number of bound peasants, resulting from prisoners of war, indentured servants and criminals, increased. The peasants had to pay Peter's Pence,* and the spreading of immunities* gradually changed their status by their submission to the landowners' jurisdiction. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, German colonization and intensification of the rural economy improved the peasants' situation. Free settlers, including numerous foreigners, took over the farms on the basis of precise descriptions of their rights and duties stipulated in agreements with feudal lords. The German law, adopted by Polish rulers, introduced local self-government. New methods of farming appeared, such as crop rotation in three land sections (trqjpoldwka), and new farm machinery was introduced. The mobility of peasant settlers became so significant in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries that King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* issued statutes limiting the peasants' rights to leave their farms. Economic differences among Polish peasants increased, and a landless rural population appeared. Increasing demand for corn exports changed the agricultural structure of fifteenth-century Poland, which became the bread basket of Western Europe. Village self-government was curbed, and the so-called second serfdom was introduced. Most peasants became the property of feudal lords. In the seventeenth century, the corvee rose to six or more days a week with severe punishment for disobedience. Consequently, peasant revolts occurred, mostly in Ukraine* and in the Podhale* region. Subsequent wars, especially the Swedish "Deluge"* of

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1655-1660 and the Northern War* of 1700-1721, caused major destruction and poverty among the Polish peasants. Their situation began to improve when reforms started in the second half of the eighteenth century. In 1768, the law forbade the imposition of the death penalty on peasants by lords. The Constitution of May 3, 1791,* brought the peasants under the protection of the law. Leading representatives of the Polish Enlightenment appealed for improvement of the peasant situation and stressed their importance as a part of the Polish nation. After the Partitions* of Poland, the Polish peasantry developed differently in the Russian, Austrian, and Prussian parts of Poland. In Russian Poland, the peasants' situation deteriorated, since the Tsarist Empire was socioeconomically more backward than Poland. In Prussia, land reforms started in 1808 and lasted until the 1860s. The peasants had to pay for the land given to them during the land reform, and, consequently, only the richest farmers survived. Masses of small holders left for the cities, mostly in Central and West Germany. In Austrian-controlled Galicia,* serfdom was abolished in 1848. However, most farms were very small and the region contained the poorest and most underdeveloped provinces of the Habsburg* Empire. In the Russian-controlled Congress Kingdom of Poland,* serfdom was abolished in 1864. The Russian state undertook to pay indemnities to the landlords. Also in Russian Poland, a large segment of the rural population migrated to the cities, increasing the urban proletariat. In all parts of partitioned Poland, foreign occupiers tried to use the peasants against the Polish nobility.* However, in the late nineteenth century, peasant political movements began to develop. The peasant parties played an important role during the Parliamentary elections in Galicia. In Prussian Poland, the peasants became a pillar of the Polish national revival. In Russia, especially during the 1905 Revolution, demonstrations and strikes spread in the countryside. In 1919-1920 and in 1925, the Parliament of reborn Poland passed a major land reform.* However, it hardly changed the structure of Polish agriculture. Poland remained a country of small farms and huge land estates owned by the descendants of the gentry, especially its eastern and southern parts. In 1939, the peasants constituted some 63 percent of the entire Polish population. Peasant parties, with the towering figures of Premier W. Witos* and Parliament Speaker M. Rataj,* greatly affected the political life of the country. The peasants also played a major role in the anti-Nazi underground movement, and their representatives participated in the Polish Government-in-Exile,* led by a peasant, S. Mikolajczyk,* from 1943. EHGP, II, 97-99; S. Kieniewicz, The Emancipation of Polish Peasantry (Chicago, 1969); W. Thomas and F. Znaniecki, The Polish Pea Europe and America (New York, 1958). PEDAGOGY, science of teaching. It developed in Poland from the Renaissance* period, when the first textbooks of pedagogy were published. The most outstanding among their authors, A. Frycz Modrzewski,* emphasized the role of learning in the well-being of the country and the impact of education on social justice. The second wave of interest in pedagogy occurred in Poland

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during the era of Enlightenment in the eighteenth century. The wave, initiated by S. Konarski,* was crowned with the creation of the Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej)* in 1773. G. Piramowicz,* A. Poplawski, S. Staszic,* and H. Kollataj* contributed to the improvement of pedagogy in the last years of pre-Partition Poland. In the mid-nineteenth century, B. Trentowski revived interest in the field of the philosophy of education with his criticism of Hegel. Later in that century, Warsaw's positivist pedagogues, such as J. Dawid, A. Dygasiriski, S. Karpowicz and P. Chmielowski, modernized Polish pedagogy by introducing a psychological approach and testing. They tried to establish a school system based on overdue social reforms. In interwar Poland psychological and sociological methods were introduced to pedagogy by S. Szuman, S. Bystrori,* and S. Czarnowski.* B. Nawroczyriski and Z. Myslakowski developed the cultural aspects of pedagogy. WEP, VIII, 543-544. PELPLIN, small town in Eastern Pomerania* which developed around the Cistercian* abbey that was founded in 1274. In 1824, Pelplin became the seat of the Bishopric of Chelmno.* The cathedral, originally the abbey church, begun about 1380, is one of the best examples of Gothic architecture in Poland. During 1308-1466, Pelplin was under the Teutonic Knights,* then returned to Poland, and, from 1772, it was again under Prussia. A center of Polish resistance against

Germanization, the town was regained by Poland in 1918. P. Skubiszewsk chitektura opactwa cysterskiego w Pelplinie (Architecture of the Cistercian Abbey of Pelplin) (Wroclaw, 1957), 24-102; WEP, VIII, 555.

PELCZYNSKI, TADEUSZ ("GRZEGORZ") (1892-1979), General. An officer of the Polish Legions* during WW I, he refused to swear an oath of loyalty to the German Emperor and was interned till the end of hostilities. Then, he joined the Polish Army and participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919— 1921. Throughout the interwar period, he occupied various military posts, including the position of Chief of Intelligence during 1935-1938. He commanded an infantry division during the 1939 September Campaign.* Under the German occupation, he served as Commander of the Lublin district of the underground Union of the Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ])* during 19401941. Then, he was Chief of Staff of the ZWZ and its successor, the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* In 1943, he was promoted to Deputy Commander of the AK. He participated in the Warsaw Uprising* and, after its fall, he was taken prisoner of war by the Germans. Liberated in 1945, he settled in England. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (G erals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 144. PEOPLE'S NATIONAL UNION. See POPULAR NATIONAL UNION. PEREIESLAV TREATY OF 1654, agreement between B. Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky)* and Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich. After six years of fighting

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against the Poles and several betrayals of the Tatar* allies, Chmielnicki was forced to look for a new alliance to save his state created during the Chmielnicki Uprising.* In April 1654, representatives of the Tsar and the Ukrainian Hetman* signed the treaty, which consisted of the Tsar's patent for the Zaporozhian* Cossacks* and eleven articles on military and political matters. Previously within the borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* Ukraine became a protectorate of Muscovy. The Tsar also became the "Tsar of Little Russia" and granted Ukraine independence and autonomy in foreign and internal policy. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 4 (Toronto, 1989), 837.

PERL, FELIKS (1871-1927), Polish socialist of Jewish origin. In 1889, he joined the party known as the Second Proletariat* and became a member of its Central Committee in 1891. To avoid arrest, he left Russian Poland for Western Europe. Perl participated in the founding congress of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in Paris, and he was active in Polish socialist organizations abroad as a journalist and theoretician combining Marxism with the program for Polish independence. From 1901, he edited the party's organ, Rohotnik (Worker), in Kiev, where he managed a clandestine printing shop. In 1902, he was elected to the Central Workers' Committee of the PPS. Jailed by the Russian police in 1904, he was expelled from Russia in 1906. He settled in Cracow,* where he joined the PPS-Revolutionary Fraction (Frakcja Rewolucyjna), which was led by J. Pilsudski* after the split in the PPS. However, in 1908, Perl began to oppose Pilsudski's policy, accused him of insufficient class orientation, and co-founded the PPS-Opposition. After the outbreak of WW I, Perl returned to the leadership of the PPS-Revolutionary Fraction and, in 1919, he became one of the chief leaders of the re-united PPS. He represented the party in the Parliament. After the Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he opposed the Sanacja* regime. PSB, XXV, 623-625. PERMANENT COUNCIL (Rada Nieustajaca), highest administrative authority in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* between 1775 and 1789, chaired by the King and composed of eighteen Senators and eighteen representatives of the gentry. It was divided into five Departments (Foreign Affairs, Defense, Police, Justice and Treasury). Its decisions were binding on the monarch and the officials of the Commonwealth, such as Hetmans.* The council strengthened the central administration and helped in the economic development of the country. It also limited the political power of the magnates* and, consequently, was unpopular among them. The council's activities were influenced by the Russian Ambassador to Poland, O. Stackelberg.* The council was dissolved by the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792 but restored by the Grodno Sejm of 1793, which approved of the Second Partition* of Poland. CHP, II, 137-154. PESTKOWSKI, STANISLAW (1882-1937), Communist leader. He joined the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (Socjaldemokracja

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Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL])* in 1902 and soon became one of its leaders. Arrested by the Russian police in 1906, he was deported to Siberia* but managed to escape abroad. During 1914-1917, he was a member of the London Bolshevik Section and the British Socialist Party. In 1917, he returned to Russia and participated in the Bolshevik Revolution. During 1917-1919, he was a Deputy People's Commissar of Nationalities. Later, he served as a chairman of the Kirgiz Revolutionary Committee, headed the political administration of the Western Front during the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-1921, represented the Soviet Union during the border negotiation with Poland, was Ambassador of the USSR in Mexico, and held various other positions in the Soviet Union. He was arrested and executed in 1937 during the Stalin purges. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 19 (London, 1978), 480. PETER I THE GREAT (1672-1725), Tsar of Russia. He became involved in Polish problems throughout the early Saxon period during the Northern War* with Sweden. Peter supported the candidacy of the Saxon monarch, August II,* to the Polish throne and opposed the other candidates, the French Duke De Conde and the Swedish-supported S. Leszczyriski.* The Tsar also intervened in Poland on behalf of Orthodox Christians and against the Uniate Church. He accepted the Protestant invitation to protect religious tolerance in declining Poland, though he was far from practicing tolerance for Russian sectarians. L. Roberts, "Peter the Great in Poland," Slavonic and East European Review (Lond 1926-1927), 537-551. PETER'S PENCE (Swi^topietrze), medieval dues paid to the Papacy by Christian countries which recognized the general sovereignty of the Pope. Poland began to pay the Peter's Pence about 990, when Mieszko I* submitted his country to the Holy See. Initially, it was paid by the monarchs, later by the whole population as a sort of taxation paid per household. King Wladyslaw Lokietek,* grateful for the Papacy's approval of his coronation, accepted the rule that the Peter's Pence would be paid per capita. Its registers became a useful source for estimating the country's population. Poland ceased to pay the Peter's Pence in 1555. D. Buczek, "Church, State and Holy See in Medieval Poland," Polish Review XI/3 (1966), 62-66; EHGP, II, 378. PETLURA (PETLIURA), SYMON (1879-1926), Ukrainian statesman. A journalist and an activist of various Ukrainian national secret and legal organizations in the Russian Empire, he was elected head of the Ukrainian Military Committee of the Western Front after the February Revolution of 1917. He organized Ukrainian military units, fought against the Bolsheviks in Ukraine, and became a member of the Directory of the Ukrainian National Republic and Supreme Commander of its Army. Ejected from Ukraine* by the Bolsheviks, he signed a treaty with Poland in April 1920. As a consequence, the Ukrainian Army fought together with the Poles against the Red Army during the Polish-

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Soviet War of 1919-1921.* After Poland and Soviet Russia concluded an armistice, the Ukrainian Army was interned in Poland. Petlura moved to the West and was assassinated in Paris. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 4 (Toronto, 1988), 855-857. PETRAZYCKI, LEON (1867-1931), outstanding theorist of law and sociologist. Educated in Kiev, Berlin, Heidelberg and Paris, he started working at the Russian Ministry of Justice in 1896 and, two years later, became a professor of St. Petersburg University, where he taught until 1918. A member of the Constitutional-Democratic Party (the so-called Kadets) from 1905, he was elected to the Russian Duma* in 1906. During 1918-1931, he was a professor of sociology at Warsaw University.* Prolific author and popular lecturer, he specialized in Roman law and in psychological, logical and methodological fundamentals of law, and its relation to the state. J. Gorecki, Sociology and Jurisprudence of Leon Petrazycki (Urbana, 1976); PSB, XXV, 683-6 PETROLEUM (Nafta). Mineral oil was first discovered in Poland in the vicinity of Stanislawow and Drohobycz in the sixteenth century. From the late eighteenth century it was used for lighting (oil lamps) and lubrication. In 1835 some thirty surface oil mines (using the seepage method) operated in Boryslaw,* producing only about 16 liters of petroleum daily. Oil extraction on a larger scale developed after 1856, when J. Lukasiewicz* discovered a method for its industrial distillation and initiated construction of refineries. The first modern Polish oil extraction facility began operation in 1854 in Bobrka near Jaslo, which soon became the first European region of oil, second only to Pennsylvania in the world of industrial exploration of oil. With the introduction of oil well drilling in the 1860s, the Drohobycz-Boryslaw area became the largest and deepest oil well drilling region in Austrian-controlled Galicia.* It reached its production peak in the early 1900s. In 1909, it produced 2,077,000 tons, or about 5 percent of world production at that time. The oil industry in Galicia employed about 14,000 workers. Initially oil well drilling investment was in local private hands. From 1880, German and Austrian capital started to flow in, followed by British, French, and American. In the interwar period, production declined as a result of exhaustion of oil pools and limitation of financial means. In the interwar period, there were about 4,000 oil wells and thirty-four refineries in Poland. J. Brandy, History of Oil Well Drilling (Houston, 1971), 186-190; EHGP, I, 213-2 PHILOSOPHY, POLISH. Philosophy in Poland developed from the thirteenth century in close contact with the entire philosophical tradition of Western civilization. The differences, at times sufficiently significant, were bound to distinctive features of Polish history. Polish philosophy developed systematically after the reorganization of the Cracow* Academy, known later as the Jagiellonian University,* in 1400. In the fifteenth century, Cracow became an international center of learning, remaining in touch with institutions abroad and

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engaging in interchange of scholars. All currents of late medieval thought, from Thomism, Scotism, and Averroism to nominalism and the empirical tendencies of the via moderna, were reflected in the activity of Polish thinkers of the fifteenth century. Renaissance ideas began to penetrate Poland from Italy in the mid-fifteenth century and permeated the culture of the Polish Golden Age. Copernicus's work was in part the product of this environment. Interest in Aristotle, Plato, and the Stoics also revived. Polish humanists, such as J. Ostrorog* and A. Frycz Modrzewski,* also produced fine works on political philosophy. In the second half of the sixteenth and the first half of the seventeenth century, Poland became an international center of the radical Reformation anti-Trinitarian movement. The Polish Brethren produced several thinkers notable for their intellectual breadth, emphasizing ideas of non-violence, social justice, tolerance, and freedom of inquiry. They were known in the West as Socinians, because of their association with F. Socinius. The seventeenth century became a period of retrogression, as Polish philosophy came under the domination of resurgent Jesuit* scholasticism. In the mid-eighteenth century, there was a turn toward empiricism and the influence of the French encyclopedists. J. Sniadecki,* a mathematician from Vilna,* was the arch-enemy of obscurantism, and the most eminent Polish personality of Enlightened learning. A similar outlook characterized S. Staszic* and H. Kollataj,* two clergymen who became leaders of the social reform movement. The main inspiration in the opposition to the Enlightenment in Poland came from I. Kant's influence. Its most effective advocate was J. Szaniawski. Another trend, revolutionary Romanticism, was represented by M. Mochnacki.* The period between the early 1830s and the mid-1860s produced a series of daring metaphysical systems, partly in Poland and partly in exile. One of these systems, known as Messianism,* was molded by intense preoccupation with Poland's tragic fate. Its spokesmen were convinced that an objective of philosophy was to change the world, not merely to interpret it. The crucial role in Polish Messianism was played by the three great Romantic poets: A. Mickiewicz,* Z. Krasiriski,* and J. Siowacki.* Polish social philosophy of the mid-nineteenth century included a reaction to Utopian socialism and grew in close contact with revolutionary Europe. After the 1863 uprising, the philosophical climate in Poland changed with the appearance of the "Polish positivism,"* part of a wider intellectual movement which grew out of the existing Polish sociopolitical situation. It opposed Romanticism and the political actions inspired by it, advocating instead a painstaking reconstruction of Polish society through "organic work," popular education, and economic improvement. At the end of the nineteenth century, philosophical activity was intensified around the Philosophical Review, founded in 1898 by W. Weryho, while Catholic philosophy came under the influence of neo-scholasticism. Marxism had attracted many social scientists, among them L. Krzywicki* and K. Kelles-Kraus.* Existentialism had a strong impact in literary circles and was reflected interestingly in the writing of S. Brzozowski.*

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A scholar most responsible for shaping the future character of Polish philosophy was K. Twardowski* of Lvov University. His students developed a distinctive approach, best exemplified by the Warsaw school. A specific trait of the school, characteristically a methodological rather than a doctrinal one, was an emphasis on the relevance of symbolic logic. Among the younger generation of scholars brought up in this intellectual climate, important contributions were made by S. Ossowski* in aesthetics and the methodology of social sciences. Catholic philosophy developed in the twentieth century mainly as neo-Thomism, represented by J. Woroniecki* and I. Bocheriski. Phenomenology was represented by R. Ingarden,* while W. Tatarkiewicz,* editor of Przeglgd filozoficzny (Philosophical Review), specialized in ethics, aesthetics, and methodology of the cultural sciences and became the most distinguished Polish historian of philosophy. Encyclopedia of Philosophy, vol. 363-370. PHYSIOCRATISM, school of economic thought that developed in France in the mid-eighteenth century. The physiocrats urged that greater attention be given to agriculture and to internal taxation than to manufacturing and the regulation of external trade advocated by mercantilists, who had dominated economic thought previously. In Poland, physiocratism assumed an anti-feudal character. Its representatives, such as A. Poplawski, the Stroynowski brothers, and to some extent H. Kollataj* and S. Staszic,* demanded agrarian reforms to improve the peasants' lot by freeing them from servitude and securing inheritance of cultivated lands. SHP, 98. PIARISTS, popular name of the Order of Poor Clerics Regular of the Mother of God of the Pious Schools, established by a Spanish priest, St. Joseph Calasanti, in 1597. The Order was founded to provide youths with a Christian education and reached its peak during the second half of the eighteenth century, when Piarists administered many colleges and seminaries. The Order had been invited to Poland in 1642 by King Wladyslaw IV Waza (Ladislas IV Vasa).* In the eighteenth century, Polish Piarists, among them S. Konarski,* competed with the Jesuits.* The Order reformed the Polish school system with Latin as the language of instruction. In 1740, Piarists established the Collegium Nobilium,* an eight-year program for young noblemen in Warsaw.* In 1864, Piarist monasteries were closed in Poland. New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 11 (San Francisco, 1967), 344; WEP, VIII, 659. PIASECKI, BOLESLAW (1915-1979), nationalistic leader, who headed the fascistic anti-Semitic organization National Radical Camp "Falanga" (Oboz Narodowo-Radykalny "Falanga").* During WW II, however, Piasecki organized a dynamic underground movement, Confederation of the Nation (Konfederacja Narodu), the right-most wing of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* The Confederation suffered substantial losses in the struggle with the Nazis, partic-

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ularly in its forest guerrilla operation and in the Warsaw Uprising.* At the war's end, Piasecki switched his allegiance and began to cooperate with Soviet intelligence. L. Blit, The Eastern Pretender: Boleslaw Piasecki, His life and Times (L 1965). PIASECKI, SERGIUSZ (1901-1964), novelist. He spent his youth in Russia, having problems at school and participating in the revolutionary underground in Moscow. In 1919, he joined the Polish Army and participated in the PolishSoviet War* of 1919-1921. From 1922, he operated in Soviet Russia as an agent of Polish Intelligence. At the same time he became a smuggler; consequently, he was fired from the Intelligence Service in 1926. He tried to join the French Foreign Legion but, eventually, became a thief. Imprisoned, he began to write in jail. His autobiographical novels became a literary sensation; they were translated into many languages and also filmed. During WW II, he joined the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* and at the war's end left Poland for the West. PSB, XXV, 789-791. PIASECKI, STANISLAW (1900-1941), journalist and politician. He participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, then, in the Upper Silesia* plebiscite and the Third Silesian Uprising.* During his university studies in Poznari (Posen),* he joined the National Democracy's* youth movement, the All-Polish Youth (Mlodziez Wszechpolska). Later, he was active in the Popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo Narodowy [ZLN])* and in the Camp of Greater Poland (Oboz Wielkiej Polski [OWP]).* He was one of the most outstanding journalists of these National Democratic organizations. He co-edited their dailies Gazeta Warszawska* and ABC. In 1935, he established his own lively literary magazine, Prosto z mostu (Speaking Straight). After the outbreak of WW II and the fall of Warsaw,* he joined the underground National Party* as a chief of its propaganda. From December 1939, he edited its organ, Walka (Struggle), and operated the Arkadia Coffee House, employing writers as waiters. Arrested by the Germans in December 1940, he was executed at Palmiry.* PSB, XXV, 792-794. "PIAST." See POLISH PEASANT PARTY, "PIAST." PIAST, legendary founder of the Piast* dynasty. According to a legend recorded by a chronicler, Gallus Anonimus,* he was a ploughman or a wheelwright of Prince Popiel, and, when the latter was dethroned and eaten by mice, Piast took over the power in the state of the Polanie tribe. WEP, VII, 618. PIASTS, first dynasty ruling in Poland from the tenth century to 1370. It was established by the legendary Piast* and his three descendants: Siemowit, Leszek, and Ziemomysl. Their names are known only from an uncertain oral tradition. The first chronicled and historically well-known representative of the dynasty

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was Mieszko I.* As a result of the 1138 testament of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth)* and the feudal disintegration of Poland, the Piast dynasty was divided into several branches established by Boleslaw's sons. The Silesian* branch died out in 1675, the Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* branch in 1296, the Little Poland (Malopolska)* in 1279, and the Mazovian* in 1526. The last representative of the Piast dynasty on the Polish throne, King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great),* died childless in 1370. The Piast name of the dynasty was established in eighteenth-century writings and was popularized by A. Naruszewicz.* The Piast played a crucial role in the founding of the medieval Polish state. P. Jasienica, Piast Poland (New York, 1985); P. Knoll, The Rise of the Polish Monarchy: Piast Poland in Eastern Europe (Chicago, 1972); WEP, VII, PIATTOLI, SCIPIONE (1749-1809), politician and Italian priest who went to Poland as a private tutor. He became King Stanislaw August's* confidential intermediary with the Patriotic Party during the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792 and played an important role in the preparatory work for the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* During 1790-1792, he was sent with Polish secret diplomatic missions abroad. Throughout 1804-1805, he served as a secretary of A. J. Czartoryski,* then Russia's Foreign Minister. Eventually, he resigned from the priesthood and settled in Courland.* PSB, XXV, 818-828; A. Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992), 301-387. PIEKALKIEWICZ, JAN (1892-1943), economist and politician. Educated in St. Petersburg, he worked for various statistical institutions in Russia. In 1919, he arrived in Poland, took part in the Polish-Soviet War,* and was employed by the Central Statistical Office (Glowny Urzad Statystyczny [GUS]). During 1923-1924, he taught statistics at Lvov* University and, from 1924, he was a professor of statistics at the Warsaw School of Political Sciences. He also worked for the League of Nations* as an expert on statistics. From 1926, he was active in the Polish Peasant Party "Piast" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Piast").* In early 1940, he joined the secret organization of that party in German-occupied Poland. In August 1941, he was appointed Deputy Delegate of the Polish Government-in-Exile,* and, a year later, he succeeded C. Ratajski* as the Delegate. Arrested by the Gestapo* in February 1943, he died after torture in the Pawiak* prison in Warsaw.* R. Buczek, Stronnictwo Ludowe w latach 19 1945 (London, 1975); PSB, XXVI, 56-5 PIEKARY SL^SKIE, industrial community in Upper Silesia,* a center of coal, iron, zinc, and lead mining. The town was also a goal of religious pilgrimages because of its shrine to the Virgin Mary, venerated since the mid-seventeenth century. WEP, VIII, 628. PIEKOSINSKI, FRANCISZEK KSAWERY (1844-1906), historian of Polish law and editor. A professor at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* he re-

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searched the origins of the Polish state and the development of its knighthood. He was also an expert in heraldry and the auxiliary sciences of history. PSB, XXVI, 77-81. PIENKOWSKI, STEFAN (1883-1953), physicist. After years at Liege and Heidelberg Universities, he became a professor of experimental physics at the University of Warsaw* in 1919. He held this chair until his death. He also served three times as Rector of the university. He developed its Institute of Physics, established and headed the Polish Physical Association, and was elected Vice President of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU]).* During WW II, he directed underground higher education. His own research was focused on roentgen rays, luminescence, and wood structure. He edited Acta Physica Polonica. PSB, XXVI, 127-129. PIERACKI, BRONISLAW WILHELM (1895-1934), politician. An activist of the Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki),* he participated in WW I as an officer of the Polish Legions.* After their dissolution, he was conscripted into the Austrian Army. Released in 1918, he joined the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* and became its Commander in Nowy Sacz* and, then, in the Lvov* region. He also fought in the PolishUkrainian War* of 1918-1919 and the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. In 1928, he became one of the leaders of the Non-Party Block of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR])* and was elected to the Sejm,* where he headed the Military Commission. During 19291930, he served as Vice Minister of Interior, during 1930-1931 as Minister without Portfolio in charge of ethnic matters, and, during 1931-1934, as Minister of Interior. As such, he was responsible for the "pacification"* of the Ukrainians in Eastern Galicia* in fall 1930. Later, he tried to reach a modus vivendi with the Ukrainians. On June 15, 1934, he was mortally wounded by a terrorist from the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).* PSB, XXV 132-134. PIGON, STANISLAW (1885-1968), historian of literature and editor. Educated at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* under I. Chrzanowski,* he taught Polish literature at Vilna* University* from 1921. During 1926-1928, he served as a Rector of this university. In 1931, he became a professor of Polish literature at the Jagiellonian University. Politically, he was close to the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL]),* and he was critical of the Sanacja* regime. In September 1939, he volunteered as a reserve officer in the Polish Army. In November 1939, he was arrested by the Gestapo* with other professors of the Jagiellonian University and was imprisoned in the Sachsenhausen* concentration camp. Released in February 1940, he taught at the clandestine university in Cracow. His research concentrated on the Polish literature of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, particularly on Romanticism and Young Poland.* He co-

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edited the Polish Biographical Dictionary (Polski Slownik Biograficzny [PSB])* and the Library of Polish Writers. H. Markiewicz and M. Rydlowa (eds.), Stanislaw Pigori: Czlowiek i dzielo (Cracow, 1972). PILAT, STANISLAW (1881-1941), chemist who specialized in petroleum technology. In 1909, he became Director of the Drohobycz Refinery and invented a new method of purification of gasoline. He contributed greatly to the growth of the Polish oil industry. Some of his discoveries were used in the United States, Mexico and Romania. In 1924, he became a professor at the Lvov* Poly technical University, and, from 1926, he headed the largest Polish oil company, Polmin. He had eighteen patents and authored many scholarly works. He was arrested and executed by the Gestapo* with twenty-five other prominent professors and businessmen from Lvov. PSB, XXVI, 235-237. PILTZ, ERAZM (1851-1929), journalist and politician. He began his career as an editor of Nowiny Niedzielne (Sunday News) in 1877. Then, he moved to St. Petersburg and became a member of the editorial staff of the Russian daily Golos (Voice) and the monthly Vestnik Evropy (European Informant), where he was in charge of Polish affairs. From 1882, he co-edited the Polish weekly Kraj (Country), which became an organ of the Polish conservatives in Russia and, simultaneously, one of the best Polish periodicals. Piltz emphasized the need for economic and cultural improvement of Russian Poland. He opposed illegal methods of struggle for Polish independence and advocated Polish-Russian rapprochement. In 1905, he became a leader of the newly created Polish Party of Realistic Politics and cooperated with the National Democracy.* During WW I, he lived in Switzerland, where he published Petite Encyclopedic Polonaise and developed propaganda on behalf of Poland. In August 1917, he joined the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP])* in Lausanne. In 1919 he headed Polish diplomatic missions in Paris and, then, Belgrade. In October 1919, he was appointed Director of Political Affairs in the Polish Foreign Ministry, and in 1921, he briefly served as Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs. Z. Kmiecik, "Kraj" za czasow redaktorstwa Erazma Piltza (Warsaw, 1969); PSB, X 293-298. PILAWCE (PYLIAVTSI), BATTLE OF, a major battle during the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising* on September 21-24, 1648, near a village called Pilawce (now Pyliava) in Podolia.* The 100,000-strong Cossack* Army, led by B. Chmielnicki* and supported by about 4,000 Tatars,* surrounded the Polish army of 32,000 noble levee en masse, 100,000 servitors and 8,000 German mercenaries, led by Hetmans* M. Ostrorog, D. Zaslawski, and A. Koniecpolski. The Poles fled, leaving behind their artillery and supplies. After the battle, Chmielnicki controlled Podolia* and Volhynia* and moved on to Lvov* and Zamosc.* Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 4 (Toronto, 1988) WEP, VIII, 668.

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PILSUDSKI, BRONISLAW (1866-1918), ethnographer and a brother of Jozef Pilsudski.* Educated in Vilna* and St. Petersburg, he was arrested in 1887 and tried for alleged participation in the attempt on the life of Tsar Alexander III.* He was sentenced to fifteen years of forced labor on Sakhalin Island, where he began to study the culture of a local tribe of Gilyaks. After his term of punishment was reduced, he was engaged as a curator of the Vladivostok Museum in 1899. He continued his ethnographic research, studying the Ainu people of Sakhalin and Hokkaido Islands. In 1907, he returned to Poland and settled in Galicia,* where he published his studies on Asia. "Proceedings of the International Symposium on B. Pilsudski's Phonographic Records and the Ainu Culture," Niepodleglosc (Sapporo, 1985); PSB, XXVI, 305-3 PILSUDSKI COUP D'ETAT (May 12-14, 1926), military putsch organized by Marshal J. Pilsudski* and his followers, who limited Parliamentary democracy in Poland and established the authoritarian Sanacja* regime, which governed Poland until WW II. In December 1922, Pilsudski ceased to be the Head of State and transferred his power to a constitutionally elected President of Poland. However, Pilsudski still participated in Polish politics. He believed that it was negatively affected by the particular interests of too many self-interested political parties. The Marshal criticized the domination of the Polish governmental system by the legislature, which, divided and corrupted, was not able to control the situation in Poland. During the economic troubles of Poland in the mid-1920s and failures of Polish foreign policy, symbolized by the 1925 Treaty of Locarno,* Pilsudski's accusations found many supporters. The veterans of the Polish Legions,* activists of the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]),* and members of several other associations cofounded or led by Pilsudski before and during WW I established a half-secret network. It was especially strong in the Army, built after the war by Pilsudski and officers of his Legions. On May 10, 1926, the peasant-National Democratic coalition of Chjeno-Piast,* especially disliked by Pilsudski, formed a new government in Poland. On May 12 several regiments, led by Generals and officers sympathizing with the Marshal, entered Warsaw* and took control of the city after two days of fighting with units loyal to the government. The coup d'etat was supported by the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS],* the Communists, and some other leftist organizations. Over three hundred people were killed in the streets of Warsaw. On May 14 the President and the government of Poland resigned. On May 31, the Polish Parliament surprisingly elected Pilsudski as the new President of Poland. The Marshal did not accept this position but asked the Parliament to elect I. Moscicki,* who became a tool of the Sanacja regime. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford 1972), 147-186; J. Rothschild, Pilsudski's Coup d'Etat (New York, 1966). PILSUDSKI, JOZEF KLEMENS (1867-1935), statesman. A scion of a Polish noble family from Lithuania,* he was inspired at home with patriotism. He

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started studying medicine at the University of Kharkiv. In 1886, he was arrested by the Russian police on an alleged charge of plotting the assassination of Tsar Alexander III* and was deported for five years to Eastern Siberia.* There, he established contact with a group of banished Polish Socialist leaders. In 1892, Pilsudski returned to Vilna,* joined the newly founded Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS],* and became one of its main leaders. He edited the party's underground organ Robotnik (Worker),* stressed the national rather than the class aspect of the forthcoming revolution in Russia, and supported the stipulation in the party's program that full independence of Poland was the major goal of the PPS. In February 1900, his press in Lodz* was discovered, and he was arrested and incarcerated in the Warsaw* citadel. In May 1901, he escaped from a military prison in St. Petersburg, where he feigned insanity. He moved to Galicia* and England, but, in 1902, he returned to Russian-occupied Poland to continue his clandestine activities. In 1904, when the Russo-Japanese War broke out, he established confidential contacts with the Japanese Embassy in London and traveled to Tokyo, where he asked for assistance for a planned Polish uprising. In Tokyo, he met R. Dmowski,* who opposed Pilsudski's plan and tried to persuade the Japanese government not to support Polish insurrectionist activities. With Japanese money (20,000 pounds) for intelligence and terrorist activities, Pilsudski organized direct attacks on the Russian occupiers and established the PPS's Fighting Organization (Organizacja Bojowa), which was particularly active during the 1905 revolution in Russia. In 1906, a split occurred within the PPS. Its left wing demanded the elimination from the Party's program of the stipulation that its main goal was an independent Poland. Pilsudski with his associates defended the patriotic, nonMarxist line and established the organization known as the Polish Socialist Party-Revolutionary Fraction (PPS—Frakcja Rewolucyjna).* In 1908, it moved the center of its activities to Galicia. Anticipating the outbreak of WW I, it established there, first secretly and then legally with the help of the Austrian military authorities, the nucleus of a future Polish national army, the Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki)* and the Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC]).* Because of this preparation, Pilsudski participated in the Austrian anti-Russian offensive of 1914 with a military unit, known later as the Polish Legions,* and aspired to a role of legitimate subject of international politics. On November 5, 1916, the Emperors of Austria and Germany proclaimed the independence of Poland, hoping that Polish volunteer troops would strengthen their Armies. Pilsudski was appointed Head of the Military Department of the Polish Council of State (Rada Stanu). After the Russian Revolution of March 1917, and during the period of growing problems of the Central Powers, Pilsudski and his followers refused to swear "fidelity in arms with the German and Austrian forces." In July 1917, Pilsudski was imprisoned in Magdeburg and his adherents were interned by the Germans.

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After the German collapse in the West, Pilsudski was released from prison and arrived in Warsaw on November 10, 1918, where he was accepted as Chief of State (Naczelnik Paristwa) and Commander-in-Chief of the newly reborn Polish Army. He managed to build a compromise between the political left and right in Poland and contributed decisively to the establishment of the Polish state apparatus. Pilsudski believed that the reconstruction of pre-Partition Poland would be possible only through a federation of several Central European nations, and the Polish troops took large eastern areas of historic Poland. Simultaneously, the Red Army launched an offensive to unite the Russian and German Revolutions. As a result, in 1919 the Polish-Soviet War* started. Pilsudski, made Marshal of Poland on March 19, 1920, was able to finish the war in a manner favorable to his country. After the adoption of the Constitution of March 17, 1921,* and the elections in fall 1922, Pilsudski transmitted his power to the newly elected President, G. Narutowicz.* Pilsudski kept the position of Chief of the Polish General Staff, but, in May 1923, he apparently went into retirement at Sulejowek, near Warsaw. However, he did not stop his involvement with politics. He opposed the excesses of the "Parliamentocracy," bitterly criticized chaos and corruption in Poland, and prepared a military coup d'etat. On May 12, 1926, Pilsudski marched on Warsaw at the head of a few regiments and forced the government and the President to resign after three days of bloody struggle in the capital. The Pilsudski coup d'etat* was supported by the left parties. After the end of the fighting, the National Assembly elected Pilsudski President. He refused to accept the office and recommended instead his friend, I. Moscicki,* who was approved by the National Assembly. Pilsudski became Minister of Defense, a position he held until his death, and, during 1926-1928 and in 1930, he also served as Premier. His basic idea was the supremacy of the reborn state organism over political parties and other institutions of civil society. He strengthened the executive power by adopting several constitutional amendments. However, the strong Presidential system, created by him, slid into authoritarianism and a dictatorship, especially after 1930, when the leaders of the Parliamentary opposition were arrested and tried. Disillusioned with France's Central European policy after the Treaty of Locarno,* Pilsudski accepted a principle of equilibrium in Poland's relations with Germany and the Soviet Union. According to this line, continued after Pilsudski's death by his pupil, Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs J. Beck,* Poland should engage on neither the German nor the Soviet side but should balance between those two powers. Non-aggression treaties* were signed with the USSR in 1932 and with the Third Reich in 1934. However, Pilsudski also proposed to France launching a preventive war* against Germany after Hitler's accession to power in 1933. Pilsudski is considered by many the most outstanding Polish politician of the twentieth century and the chief restorer of Poland's independence after WW I. He is buried in a crypt of Wawel* Cathedral in Cracow among Polish Kings and major national leaders. A. Garlicki, Jozef

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Pilsudski, 1867-1935 (Warsaw, 1990); W. Jedrzejewicz, Pilsudski: A Life for Pol (New York, 1982); A. Pilsudska, Pilsudski (New York, 1971); PSB, XXVI, 311-32 PILSUDSKI, ROWMUND (1903-1988), politician distantly related to J. Pilsudski.* In the 1930s, he founded and headed a conservative movement, "Mysl Mocarstwowa" (Big-Power Idea). During WW II, he served in the Polish Army in the West and in the apparatus of the Polish Government-in-Exile.* In 1944, he initiated and chaired the Polish Freedom Movement "Independence and Democracy" (Niepodleglosc i Demokracja [NiD].* G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy, 1939-1945 (New York, 1988), 223. PINSK, town and river port in Polesie* on the Pripet River in the middle of the Pripet marshes. First chronicled in 1097, it belonged to the Ruthenian principalities and, from the fourteenth century, to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.* From the sixteenth century, it grew as a predominantly Jewish trade center. In 1939 the Jews* constituted about 75 percent of its population of 100,000. Pirisk acquired urban rights under Magdeburg Law* in 1581. Ruined during the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising* of 1648, Pirisk was incorporated into Russia after the Second Partition* of Poland in 1793. In 1919, it was regained by reborn Poland, but, in 1939, it was taken by the Soviets. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. XIII (Jerusalem, 1971), 538-545; J. Lewandowski, "History and Myth: Pirisk, April 1919," Polin II (1987), 57-72. PIORUN (Thunder), destroyer given to the Polish Navy* in November 1940 by the British Admiralty as a replacement for the Grom sunk in the Battle of Narvik* in Norway. At first, she was used for patrols of the British coast and for convoy protection in the North Atlantic. In 1941, she participated in the operations against the German battleships Sharnhorst, Gneisenau, and Bismarck. In 1944, Piorun took part in the Allied invasion of Normandy. S. Piaskowski, Okrety Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej, 1920-1946: Album Planow (Albany, New York, 86-89. PIOTR WLOSTOWIC (7-1153) magnate from Silesia* and a Palatine (wojewoda) of the Wroclaw (Breslau)* region under Princes Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth)* and Wladyslaw II Wygnaniec (the Exiled).* During several military expeditions against Pomerania,* Red Ruthenia,* and Volhynia,* Piotr amassed a fortune and became one of the most powerful lords in Poland. He founded numerous churches and maintained independent contacts with monarchs of Europe. In 1145, he clashed with Wladyslaw II, who accused him of treachery, blinded him, and banished him from the country. T. Manteuffel, The Formatio of the Polish State (Detroit, 1982), 123-124; PSB, XXVI, 355-35 PIOTRKOW TRYBUNALSKI, town in central Poland established in the thirteenth century. King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* developed Piotrkow and

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surrounded it with protective walls. The town, located on an important route from Cracow* to Gdarisk (Danzig)* in the middle of the Polish state, became an important center of economic and political life. It served as a seat of Church synods, Parliaments, and the Crown Tribunal (hence Trybunalski) for Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* and Mazovia.* In 1347, King Kazimierz issued the Piotrkow Statute, a collection of legal norms, and, in 1496, the Piotrkow Constitution, which further limited the rights of the peasantry* and burghers, was passed there. Plundered by the Swedes in the seventeenth century, the town was incorporated into Prussia* in the Third Partition* of Poland and, then, became an important administrative center in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* It revived as a railroad junction on the Warsaw-Vienna line in the mid-nineteenth century and developed some industry. In October 1939, the Nazis opened the first Jewish ghetto* in Poland in Piotrkow. SHP, 316-317. PIRAMOWICZ, GRZEGORZ (1735-1801), educator and writer. Educated in Jesuit* colleges in Luck* and Lvov,* he joined the Jesuit Order in 1754. Subsequently, he taught in various Jesuit colleges and worked as a tutor and secretary for the Potocki* family. During 1773-1794, he served as a secretary of the Committee of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej) and, during 1775-1787, a secretary of the Association of the Elementary Books (Towarzystwo do Ksiag Elementarnych). He authored many works on pedagogy,* among them a guide for schoolteachers, Duties of a Teacher (Powinnosci nauczyciela). He contributed greatly to the reform of education in Poland. He opposed the Targowica Confederation,* and, after the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, he went abroad for a short period. PSB, XXVI, 529-536. PITASS, JAN (1844-1913), priest and one of the leaders of American Polonia.* He organized parishes for Polish immigrants and published the periodical Ojczyzna (Motherland), which from 1888 was the daily Polak w Ameryce (The Pole in America). D. Slomiriska, "Rev. John Pitass, Pioneer Priest of Buffalo," Polish Ame ican Studies XVII/1-2 (1960), 28-4 PIWNIK, JAN ("PONURY") (1912-1944), anti-German guerrilla leader. Before WW II, he served in the Polish police. During the 1939 September Campaign,* he fought as a Battalion Commander; then, he went to France, where he joined the Polish Army. After the fall of France, he arrived in Great Britain, and, after further training, he was parachuted into Nazi-occupied Poland in 1941. He participated in numerous diversionary operations behind the German frontlines and organized a network of guerrilla units in the Kielce* region, where he became a legend for his daring operations. From May 1944, he commanded a Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* battalion in the Nowogrodek area, where he was killed in an anti-German action. PSB, XXVI, 609-611; J. Tucholski, Cichociemni (Warsaw, 1988).

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PKWN. See POLISH COMMITTEE OF NATIONAL LIBERATION. PLATER, Polish-Lithuanian noble family who moved from Westphalia to Livonia* in the fifteenth century. After the incorporation of Livonia into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* many Platers settled in Lithuania* and became prominent in the public life of the Commonwealth. The family was divided into two branches: Broel-Plater and Plater-Zyberk. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (B ton, 1973), 295. PLATER (BROEL-PLATER), EMILIA (1806-1831), one of the leaders of the November Insurrection* in Lithuania.* Brought up in a Polish patriotic atmosphere, she took Joan of Arc as her model and studied military subjects. After the outbreak of the Insurrection in Lithuania, she organized a guerrilla unit and fought against the Russians. When the Lithuanian insurgents were organized into regular military units, she was promoted to Captain and appointed a Company Commander. After the failure of the Uprising in Lithuania, she refused to surrender and tried to reach insurgent units in central Poland. Seriously ill, she died in hiding. She became venerated by Polish poets and painters as the symbol of a military heroine. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 295-296; PSB, XXVI, 652-653; J. Straszewicz, The Life of Countess Emily Plater (New York, 1842). PLATER (BROEL-PLATER), WLADYSLAW EWARYST (1808-1889), politician and journalist. A scion of an aristocratic Polish-Lithuanian family, he participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and was elected the youngest member of the insurrectionist Parliament. After the fall of the uprising, he went into exile in Paris, where he was active in the political life of the Great Emigration.* He founded and edited the monthly Le Polonais: Journal des interets de la Pologne (1833-1836) and later (1841-1843) the liberal Catholic daily Dziennik Narodowy (National Daily). In 1844, he moved to Switzerland, where he founded and headed the Polish National Museum in the Rapperswil* castle near Zurich. PSB, XXVI, 686-691 PLEBISCITES. The 1919 Paris Peace Conference* proposed that seventeen plebiscites be held to settle border conflicts after WW I. Eight plebiscites were actually held, including two in Poland. The plebiscite in Warmia (Ermland),* Mazury,* and Powisle, territories claimed by both Poland and Germany, took place on July 11, 1920. At that time, the Red Army was approaching Warsaw.* The Polish government was not able to help the Polish population in the plebiscite territories, and the German propaganda forecasted the coming end of Poland. Consequently, 92 percent of the plebiscite participants in Warmia and 98 percent in Mazury voted for Germany. Only three communities in Mazury and five in Warmia were allocated to Poland. The plebiscite in Upper Silesia,* held on March 20, 1921, was preceded by intense German preparations. Although

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the plebiscite territory was controlled by Italian, British, and French troops and the German units were withdrawn, the whole administration was in German hands. Moreover, the Germans were permitted to send into the territory almost 200,000 people born in Silesia but residing in Germany proper. The results showed that 700,000 participants (59.6 percent of those voting) wanted Silesia to remain in Germany, while 500,000 (40.4 percent) voted for Poland. The Polish population, fearing the unfavorable decision of the Allied authorities, started the third of the Silesian Uprisings* in May 1921. The Allied Powers then intervened and, after long negotiations, granted Poland the southeastern part of Upper Silesia with about half of its industrial area. The towns of Katowice* and Krolewska Huta were assigned to Poland. CHP, II, 510-521; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 649-650; WEP, VIII, 729-73 PLOCK, town on the Vistula* River north of Warsaw.* The seat of a Bishopric from the eleventh century, Plock became the capital of the Mazovian* Principality in 1138. At that time a Romanesque cathedral was built in Plock. The town received urban rights in 1237, but, then, it was destroyed by the Teutonic Knights* and Lithuanians. In the second half of the fourteenth century, Plock was surrounded by protective walls and its castle was restored. The town flourished because of the grain trade and transport on the Vistula River and became the capital of a province in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* In the midseventeenth century, Plock was destroyed by the Swedes and regained its former economic position only in the nineteenth century. SHP, 320-321. PLOWCE, BATTLE OF, major encounter of Polish troops and the Teutonic Knights* on September 27, 1331, at the village of Plowce in Kujavia.* In response to the devastating raids organized by the Teutonic Knights against the Polish territories, King Wladyslaw Lokietek* of Poland undertook a campaign of revenge in 1330. The war reached its culmination in 1331. During one of the Teutonic Knights' expeditions, the King took advantage of the momentary division of the Order's forces, completely annihilated one of their units, and inflicted heavy losses on the other detachment. As a result of the battle, the Knights had to refrain from military actions and from plundering of Polish provinces for a year. The battle also revived Polish morale. CHP, I, 122-123. PNIEWSKI, BOHDAN (1897-1965), architect. He taught at Warsaw* Polytechnical University from 1923 and at Warsaw Academy of Art during 1932— 1939. He designed numerous public and private buildings in major Polish cities, won many awards for his projects, and contributed greatly to the improvement of Warsaw's modern appearance. Biogramy Uczonych Polskich (Biographies of Polish Scholars), vol. IV (Wroclaw, 1968), 279-291. PO'ALEl ZION, Jewish movement based mostly on the workers. It combined the ideologies of Zionism and socialism and declared as its goal the creation of

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an independent Jewish socialist state in Palestine and conditions of autonomy for the Jews in the Diaspora. The first groups of the movement were established in 1890, in Russia, in the Jewish Pale of Settlement, and in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In the early 1900s, countrywide Po'alei Zion parties were organized in Russia, Austria, the United States, England, Argentina, Romania, and Palestine. In 1907 the World Union of Po'alei Zion was founded. A split occurred in Po'alei Zion in Poland in 1920. Radical Marxist activists created the Po'alei Zion Left, which was affiliated with the Comintern. A majority of the party assumed the name Po'alei Zion Right, which merged with the Zionist Socialists in 1925. Both groups were represented in the Parliament of interwar Poland and participated in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising* in 1943. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. XIII (Jerusalem, 1971), 656-664. POCIEJ (POTIJ), ADAM (1541-1613), Uniate Metropolitan of Kiev. Born into an Orthodox noble family, he was educated at the Court of M. RadziwiH "Czarny" (the Black),* where he converted to Calvinism. Later, he attended the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* served as a Royal courtier and, subsequently, became a judge in the Brzesc (Brest-Litovsk)* province (wojewodztwo), tax collector, Castellan,* and Senator from that region. He represented his province during the 1569 Sejm* and signed the Polish-Lithuanian Union of Lublin.* Constantly involved in religious affairs, he reconverted to Orthodoxy in 1574 and became Bishop of Wlodzimierz (Volodymyr)* and Brzesc (BrestLitovsk). He contributed greatly to the preparation of the Union of BrestLitovsk,* was one of its signatories, and energetically supported the newly established Uniate* Church. In 1600, he became the second Uniate Metropolitan of Kiev. He fought the anti-Uniate opposition of the Orthodox gentry and defended the Union as a noted polemicist and religious writer. Encyclopedia Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 4 (Toronto, 1988), 171; PSB, XVII, 28-34.

POCZBUT-ODLANICKI, MARCIN (1728-1810), astronomer. Educated in Jesuit* colleges in Grodno* and Sluck, he joined the Jesuits in 1745 and taught at their Academy in Vilna,* where he became interested in astronomy. He continued his studies in Prague, Vilna, and several cities of France and Italy. From 1764, he again taught at Vilna Academy, and, in 1764, he became head of its astronomical observatory. He started regular astronomical observations and published numerous scholarly works. In 1767, King Stanislaw August* appointed Poczbut Royal Astronomer in recognition of his inventive scholarship and involvement in the King's cartographic plans. Poczbut also visited England, collaborated with English scholars, and was accepted as a member of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge. From 1774, he edited the daily Gazeta Wileriska (Vilna Gazette). In 1779, he became acting head of Vil na's Academy, worked with the Committee of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej),* and contributed to its proposed school reform. His ob-

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servatory became one of the best equipped in Europe and helped Poczbut to make crucial discoveries about the planet Mercury. PSB, XXVII, 52-62. PODHAJCE (Pidhaitsi), town in Podolia* near Tarnopol (Tarnopil). It was first chronicled in 1463. After the incorporation of Podolia into Poland, the town was owned by the Buczacki and then the Potocki* magnate* families. It became the site of several battles in the seventeenth century. In 1667, Polish troops under Hetman* J. Sobieski* defeated the Cossacks* and the Tatars,* led by P. Doroszenko. In 1698, at the same place, Hetman F. Potocki* defeated a Tatar invasion. The town was destroyed several times by the Tatars and the Cossacks. After the First Partition* of Poland in 1772, the town came under Austrian rule. During 1919-1939, it was again within Polish borders. In 1939, it was annexed by the USSR. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 4 (Toronto, 1988), 19. PODHALE, region in southern Poland located in a valley between the Tatra Mountains* in the south and the Beskid Mountains in the north with major towns of Nowy Targ* and Zakopane.* The valley is about fifty-seven kilometers long and twenty-six kilometers wide. Because of its high elevation it has a cool climate with occasional strong winds. Its dense population was predominantly agrarian, employed mainly in grazing. Podhale has been inhabited since the twelfth century by Poles and small groups of German, Wallachian, and Slovak settlers. The highlanders (gorale) developed a rich folklore and attractive wooden architecture. Living in isolated and barely accessible terrain, they opposed attempts to impose the corvee on them and often rebelled against the state authorities. The largest uprising, under A. Kostka-Napierski,* occurred in 1650. In the late nineteenth century, artistic and scholarly interests in the region made Podhale a principal tourist center and the winter sports capital of Poland. WEP, VIII, 778-779. PODHORCE (Pidhirtsi), village in Podolia* near Tarnopol (Tarnopil). First mentioned as Plisnesk in 1188, it became one of the most important towns of the Halicz (Halicz)* and Volhynian* Principalities. Destroyed by the Mongols in 1241, it was founded again as Podhorce in the fifteenth century. During 16351640, the Polish Hetman* S. Koniecpolski* built a fortified Renaissance* palace there. After the first Partition* of Poland in 1772, Podhorce was under Austrian rule. Regained by Poland in 1919, it was incorporated into the USSR in 1939. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyd, vol. 4 (Toronto, 1988), 20-21; WEP, VIII, 779-780. PODKOWINSKI, WLADYSLAW (1866-1895), painter. Educated at art academies in Warsaw,* where he was a pupil of W. Gerson, and in St. Petersburg, Podkowiriski made his debut in 1884 as an illustrator in Warsaw's literary magazines. In 1889, he went to Paris, where he became fascinated with Impression-

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ism. He became one of the main representatives of Polish Impressionism and developed a special taste for landscapes and portraits. After 1892, he changed his style to symbolism and started painting dark, nightmarish, and mystical compositions that fit the fin-de-sifccle atmosphere. H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (Londo 1942), 49-50; PSB, XXVII, 109-112. PODLASIE, historical region of Poland on both sides of the middle Bug River with the main cities of Bialystok* and Brzesc (Brest-Litovsk).* Initially populated by Ruthenian tribes, Podlasie was gradually settled by the Polish speaking Mazovians and the descendants of the Ruthenians, the Belorussians. The word Podlasie indicates a land covered with forests. One of them, the Bialowieza Forest, was one of the largest woods in Europe. Podlasie, conquered by the Lithuanians in the fourteenth century, was assigned to the Polish part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* after the 1569 Union of Lublin.* The 1596 Union of Brest-Litovsk* (Brzesc)* accelerated the Polonization of the local population. In the Third Partition* of Poland, the region was divided between Prussia and Russia, and, from the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit,* it belonged to Russia. Regained by Poland in 1918, it was divided again by the 1945 border between communist Poland and the USSR. WEP, VIII, 782. PODOLACY (Podolians), ultra-conservative political group of Polish landowners mostly from the Podole (Podolia)* region of Austrian-controlled Eastern Galicia.* The group was active in the second half of the nineteenth century and was led by aristocrats loyal to the Habsburgs,* such as W. Dzieduszycki,* A. Goluchowski,* K. Grocholski, and D. Abramowicz. They advocated Galicia's autonomy under Polish rule with cultural and political restrictions of the Ukrainian majority. WEP, VIII, 786. PODOLIA (Podole or Podilia), historical-geographical upland fertile region bounded in the southwest by the Dniester River, in the north by the region of Volhynia,* and in the east by the Boh River. Settled by the Ruthenian tribes in the early Middle Ages, Podolia became part of Kievian Rus' in the tenth century. After the fall of Kiev, the region was divided between the Halicz (Halych)* Principality and the Tatars* of the Golden Horde. In the fourteenth century, Podolia was conquered by the Lithuanians, and the western part of the region was incorporated into Poland by King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great).* King Wladyslaw Jagiello (Jogaila)* merged middle Podolia into Poland and turned the region into the Podolian province (wojewodztwo podolskie) of the Polish Crown. From the 1569 Union of Lublin,* all of Podolia was within the borders of the province, which was rapidly Polonized as a result of the Polish administration, activities of the Roman Catholic Church, economic enterprises of Polish magnates,* and settlement of the Polish peasantry.* After a brief period of Turkish rule during 1672-1699, Podolia was divided by Austria and Russia in the First and the Second Partitions* of Poland. The western part of Podolia,

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west of the Zbrucz River, was occupied by the Austrians during 1772-1918 and was incorporated into revived Poland during 1919-1939. The eastern part of the province remained in Russian-controlled Ukraine* after the Partitions of Poland. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 4 (Toronto, 1988), 49-55; WEP, VIII, 786.

POGROMS, Russian word designating a physical assault, accompanied by destruction, looting of property, beating, murder, and rape, perpetrated by one section of the population against another. Throughout the history of mankind, pogroms were perpetrated many times, but the term is mainly employed to describe the attacks against the Jews* in Russia and Eastern Europe during 1881-1921. Pogroms began as reprisals for the assassination of Tsar Alexander II* in March 1881 by members of the revolutionary organization Narodnaya Volya and were supported by Russian extreme right-wing political organizations and some segments of the Tsarist administration. From Ukraine* they moved to other parts of the Russian Empire, including Warsaw.* They caused mass Jewish emigration and the rise of the Zionist movement. The second wave of pogroms occurred in the 1903-1906 period. There were only two pogroms on Polish territories at that time. Both of them, in Bialystok* and Siedlce,* were organized by the Tsarist police and military. The third wave started in during WW I, when the Russian Army attacked and killed the Jews in many towns of the Pale of Settlement and Galicia.* Especially numerous and vicious were the pogroms committed in Ukraine during 1917-1921 by almost all armies fighting there. In 1918 and 1919, there were several attacks against the Jewish population on the territories controlled by the Polish Army and administration. The biggest pogrom took place in Lvov,* where seventy-two Jews were killed, and in Kolbuszowa, where eight Jews died. S. Berk, Year of Crisis, Year of Hope: Russ Jewry and the Pogroms of 1881-1882 (Westport, Connecticut, 1985); Encyclopedia daica, vol. XIII (Jerusalem, 1971), 694-701; H. Morgenthau, All in a Life-Time (Gard City, New York, 1923), 410; J. Tomaszewski, "Lwow, 22 listopada 1918," Przegla Historyczny 75 (1984), 279-285. POKUCIE (Pokutia), historical geographic upland region between the Dniester River and Podolia* to the north, and the Prut River and Subcarpathia to the south. The name Pokucie has been applied to the entire southeastern corner of Galicia* between historic Hungary to the southwest and Moldavia to the southeast. The region was a part of Kievian Rus' and, then, the Principality of Halicz (Halych).* In the fourteenth century, the region was incorporated into Poland. However, it was also claimed by Moldavia, which invaded Pokucie several times and held it for several short periods. The region remained under Polish rule until 1772, when it was taken by Austria. During 1919-1939, Pokucie, with the main towns of Kuty, 3niatyri and Kolomyja, was again under Polish rule. In 1939, the region was incorporated into the USSR. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by Kubijovyc, vol. 4 (Toronto, 1988), 74-75; SHP, 325.

450

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POL (POHL), WINCENTY (1807-1872), Polish poet, writer, geographer of Austrian origin. Educated at Lvov University,* he participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. After the fall of the Uprising, he left Poland for the West with the Great Emigration.* In 1833, he returned to Galicia,* participated in the Springtime of Nations* of 1848 in Lvov, and became a professor of geography at Lvov University. He was one of the leading representatives of Romanticism* in Poland. His patriotic poem Song About Our Land (Piesri o ziemi naszej) described the geography and customs of various Polish provinces. His Songs of Janusz (Piesni Janusza) reflected his experience during the November Insurrection and in exile. Pol also translated from various languages and wrote noted geographical works. In 1872, he was among the first twelve members elected to the Philology Department of the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiej^tno&i [AU]).* C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 266-267; PSB, XXVII, 255-263. POLANIE, West Slavic tribe which settled on the Warta River in Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* about the eighth century. The name of the tribe was derived from the noun pole, in Polish a field or a clearing in a forest. Later, the same name, slightly changed, was given to all of Poland. The Polanie were first noted by chroniclers in the mid-tenth century, though their state probably existed from the ninth century around the strongholds of Gniezno and Ostrow Lednicki in Great Poland. In the tenth century, the Polanie conquered Kujavia,* Mazovia,* and Little Poland.* The first chronicled monarchs of Poland apparently ruled over the territory bordered by the Carpathian Mountains, the Oder River,* the Baltic Sea, and the Bug River.* CHP, I, 1-15; T. Manteuffel, The Formation of th Polish State (Detroit, 1982), 37-47. POLANOWO (POLIANOVKA) PEACE TREATY, agreement signed in the village of Polanowo near Smolensk* on June 14, 1634, between Russia and Poland at the conclusion of the 1632-1634 war. The treaty affirmed the RussoPolish border later established in 1619 by the Deulino Truce.* King Wladyslaw IV* of Poland renounced his claims to the throne of the Tsars. Moscow returned the Czernihow and Smolensk regions captured during the war to the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth,* resigned from its claims to Livonia,* and agreed to pay 200,000 rubles in war damages. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 20 (Lond 1978), 324; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 208-24 POLENLIEDER (German: Polish songs), songs composed by German and Austrian poets during and after the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 in order to express solidarity with the Poles fighting for freedom from Russian rule. The Polenlieder reappeared in 1846-1848 and 1863 to praise new Polish uprisings. WEP, VIII, 816. POLESIE (Polisia), geographic region of lowlands, marshes, and mixed forests along the Pripet* River bounded by the Belorussian Upland to the north, the

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Volhynia* Upland to the south, Podlasie* to the west, and the Dnieper River to the east. The region, populated by East Slavic tribes, was incorporated into Kievian Rus' in the tenth century and later, in the twelfth century, was under the rule of several small Ruthenian principalities. In the fourteenth century, Polesie was conquered by Lithuania.* After the 1569 Polish-Lithuanian Union of Lublin,* the northern part of Polesie remained in the Lithuanian area of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* while the southern part was merged under the Polish Crown. After the Partitions* of Poland, the whole region, with its main towns of Brzesc (Brest-Litovsk)* and Pirisk,* was annexed by Russia. During the interwar period, western Polesie, ethnically Belorussian and Ukrainian but also including large Polish ethnic islands, belonged to Poland. The 1921 Polish-Soviet Treaty of Riga* assigned the eastern part of the region to Soviet Belorussia and Ukraine.* Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 4 (Toronto, 1988), 104-109; WEP, VIII, 817. POLISH ACADEMY OF LEARNING (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU]), Polish scholarly institution established in 1873 in Cracow* as the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejetnosci [AU])* and renamed PAU in 1919. Its goals were to organize and support scientific research and to represent Polish scholarship abroad. Originally it had three Departments, namely Philology, History and Philosophy, and Mathematics and Natural Science. Its members were leading Polish scholars regardless of their citizenship. It was financially supported by generous private donations. From 1885, the PAU maintained a branch in Rome and from 1892 in Paris. It established important periodical series such as Monumenta Poloniae Historica, Bibliografia Polska, and Monumenta Poloniae Paleographica. In 1930, a Medical Department was added. In 1935, PAU began to publish the prestigious Polish Biographical Dictionary (Polski Slownik Biograficzny).* In 1921, the Academy joined the Union International Academique and the Conseil International des Unions Scientifiques. WEP, IX, 23 POLISH ACADEMY OF LITERATURE (Polska Akademia Literatury [PAL]), institution established according to S. Zeromski's* concept by the Polish government in 1933 to raise the level of Polish literature and to support outstanding writers. It was composed of fifteen members and headed by the novelist W. Sieroszewski,* with the poet L. Staff* as his deputy and the novelist J. Kaden-Bandrowski* as Secretary General. Other members included W. Berent,* F. Goetel,* K. Irzykowski,* J. Kleiner,* B. Lesmian,* K. Makuszyriski,* Z. Nalkowska,* Z. Przesmycki,* K. Rostworowski,* W. Rzymowski,* K. Wierzynski,* and T. Boy-Zeleriski.* The Academy was sponsored by the Sanacja* regime, and writers close to the political opposition, such as A. Strug,* refused nomination to membership in PAL. WEP, IX, 230. POLISH-AMERICAN ARMY, military unit organized in 1917 in Niagara-onthe-Lake, Ontario (Canada), predominantly of American volunteers, to help the

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Polish war effort on the side of the Entente. A plan to organize the Army arose among the leaders of the Polish Falcons of America. Once in France, the Army (24,260 men) was commanded by Gen. J. Haller* under the political supervision of the Polish National Committee.* Three Infantry Divisions of the Polish "Blue Army"* in France took part in the last campaigns on the Western front. Soon after, they were transferred via Gdarisk* to Poland, where they fought in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. In 1921, most of the rank and file members returned to America. S. Pliska, "The Polish American in America, 1917-1921," Polis Review X/3 (1965), 46-59. POLISH AMERICAN CONGRESS (PAC), umbrella organization of American Polonia* established in May 1944 at the Buffalo Convention as a political response to the Tehran Conference* of the three Great Powers, where Polish national interests were abandoned and handed over to Stalin. The Congress was jointly conceived on one hand by exiled politicians, such as I. Matuszewski,* I. Morawski, F. Rajchman and W. Jedrzejewicz,* and on the other by Americanborn leaders, such as F. Januszewski, F. Nurkowski, C. Rozmarek, and M. W$grzynek. Its purpose was to give assistance to the Polish struggle for independence and to improve the status of Polish Americans in the United States. It was intended to integrate American Polonia into a federation of various Polish groups. In practice, most of its attention was directed to influencing the American national government. J. Wytrwal, "American Polonia during World War II," America's Polish Heritage: A Social History of the Poles in America (Detroit, POLISH COMMITTEE OF NATIONAL LIBERATION (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego [PKWN]), organization established on July 20, 1944, in Moscow and declared by the Soviet Union the de facto government of Poland. The Soviet authorities opposed and did not recognize the Polish London Government-in-Exile,* and Moscow created the PKWN to counter-balance it and to establish a subservient civil administration in Poland occupied by the Red Army. The Committee consisted of and was supported by the activists of the Central Bureau of the Polish Communists in the USSR (Centralne Biuro Komunistow Polskich w ZSRR), the Union of Polish Patriots (Zwiazek Patriotow Polskich),* and the Homeland National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa [KRN]).* The existence of the committee was proclaimed by its "Manifesto" of July 22, 1944. This document announced that the Government-in-Exile was illegal and usurpatory, and it promised fundamental social reforms in Poland. The PKWN, headed by E. Osobka-Morawski,* had fourteen Ministries, and administered the Polish provinces of Rzesz6w,* Bialystok,* Lublin,* part of Warsaw* and Kielce,* taken by the Red Army in July-September 1944. It began radical land reform* and signed a border agreement with the Soviets based on the Curzon Line.* So-called Lublin Poland lasted until January 1945, when a new offensive of the Red Army took the rest of Polish lands, and the PKWN was reshaped into the Temporary Government of the Polish Republic (Rzad Tymczasowy

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Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej) on December 31, 1944. J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland 1939-1947 (Leicester, 1986), 135-137; N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 2 (New York, 1984), 556-558; K. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland (Berkeley, California, 1991), 63-69, 104-109.

POLISH DEMOCRATIC PARTY (Polskie Stronnictwo Demokratyczne [PSD]), loose political group organized in March 1848 in Lvov.* After the end of the Springtime of Nations,* it was revived in 1861 by progressive members of the Galician* Parliament, who opposed the dominance of the conservative aristocracy. The PSD also had its representatives in the Austrian Parliament, where they took an active part in the Polish Circle. The party operated mainly in Western Galicia and in Lvov, advocating liberal policies and the industrialization of Austrian Poland. Until 1909, the party cooperated with the National Democracy, and later with the conservative bloc of M. Bobrzyriski.* During WW I, the PSD supported the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]).* The party ceased to exist after 1918. WEP, IX, 22 POLISH DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]), organization established on March 17, 1832, by twenty-two Polish exiles in Paris as a protest against their country's loss of independence after the fall of the 1830-1831 November Insurrection.* The TDP was numerically the largest of the Polish exiled political associations. Its leaders were J. Janowski* and T. Krepowiecki,* and later W. Heltman,* L. Mieroslawski,* and S. Worcell.* "The Polish question is a civilization question," states the society's 1832 "Act of Foundation," indicating its strong belief that a forthcoming European Revolution would liberate Poland. After the initial acts of the "Small Manifesto" and the "Short Political Catechism" of 1833, the TDP issued its egalitarian program called the "Great Manifesto" in 1836. The program emphasized the absolute necessity for emancipation of the Polish peasants and for a joint struggle for national independence. P. Brock, "The Political Program of the Polish Democratic Society," Polish Review XIV/2 (1969), 89-105, and XIV/3 (1969), 5-24; Kalembka, Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie w latach 1832-1846 (Toruri, 1966). POLISH HISTORICAL AND LITERARY SOCIETY (Polskie Towarzystwo Historyczno-Literackie), organization founded in Paris in 1832. It was established by the leaders of the Great Emigration* who left Poland after the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. The society became the last bulwark of free Polish culture. Its first chairman was A. J. Czartoryski* assisted by J. Niemcewicz,* A. Mickiewicz,* and K. Sienkiewicz. Among early active members were J. Siowacki,* Z. Krasiriski,* C. Norwid,* J. Bern,* K. Kniaziewicz,* F. Chopin,* H. Dembiriski,* and H. Rodakowski.* In 1838, the society founded the Polish Library in Paris, which collected thousands of volumes dealing with Polish history, literature, politics, economy and geography. In 1866 Napoleon

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III issued a decree recognizing the society as an "institution of public utility" under French law. WEP, IX, 229. POLISH HISTORICAL SOCIETY (Polskie Towarzystwo Historyczne [PTH]), society established in Lvov* in October 1886 by K. Liske* and Lvov University associates. It rendered great service in the development of historiography and general interest in the study of history. Reorganized in 1925, it extended from Galicia* to other cities of Poland. In 1939, it had about 1,300 members. Kwartalnik Historyczny (Historical Quarterly) has been its organ since 1887. SHP, 347-348. POLISH INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES IN AMERICA (Polski Instytut Naukowy w Ameryce), organization established in New York on May 15, 1942, by a group of Polish professors, among them O. Halecki,* J. Kucharzewski,* B. Malinowski,* and R. Taubenszlag, who settled in America. The institute gathered accomplished Polish scholars living outside Poland. It was divided into six sections: (1) historical and political studies; (2) cultural research; (3) legal, social, and economic studies; (4) history of literature and art; (5) theoretical and practical sciences; (6) other topics. It also embarked on a project to catalogue all Polonica in America. In October 1942, the Institute began to publish the quarterly Bulletin of the Polish Arts and Sciences in America. D. Wandycz, A History of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America (New York,

1974).

POLISH LEAGUE. See LIGA POLSKA. POLISH LEGIONS, name of several Polish voluntary military units. The Polish Legions in Italy, established in 1797, are also known as Dabrowski's Legions.* During 1848-1849, the Polish Legions fought against the Austrians and the Russians in the Hungarian War for Independence. In August 1914, the Polish Legions, also called J. Pilsudski's* Legions, were established under the auspices of Austria to fight against Russia. J. Pilsudski, the leader of the Polish independence movement immediately before WW I, believed that the war might bring an opportunity for re-creating a Polish state if the Poles would participate in international politics as an independent political entity. In order to achieve this status, Pilsudski and his followers organized several Polish patriotic paramilitary organizations in Galicia* before the war. After its outbreak, Pilsudski announced that a Polish national government was established in Warsaw.* Pilsudski's units entered the territories of the former Congress Kingdom of Poland* to start a Polish insurrection and to fight against Russia together with the Central Powers as political partners. The plan failed because the planned uprising in Poland did not break out and the Austrians intended to dissolve Pilsudski's units. They were saved by the Polish pro-Austrian political parties of Galicia, which established the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Naro-

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dowy [NKN])* on August 16, 1914, and helped to found two Polish Legions, Western and Eastern, as auxiliary units of the regular Austrian Army. The Eastern Legion, organized in Lvov,* was dominated by the supporters of the National Democracy,* and, when Russia occupied most of Galicia in 1914, they refused to fight. The Eastern Legion was dissolved and part of its soldiers joined the Western Legion, organized in Cracow.* The Western Legion began to use the name Polish Legions. They consisted of three Brigades, were commanded by Polish Generals or officers from the Austrian Army, fought in various crucial parts of the Eastern Front, and were considered excellent and reliable units by most German and Austrian military leaders. J. Pilsudski commanded only the First Brigade but tried to preserve the Polish character and autonomy of the Legions. After the act of November 5, 1916,* in which the German and Austrian Emperors proclaimed the establishment of an "independent" Polish Kingdom, the Legions were incorporated into the army of that Kingdom, known as the Polnische Wehrmacht.* Pilsudski, disappointed with the policy of the Central Powers, changed his tactics, especially after the revolution in Russia, which then ceased to be the most dangerous Polish enemy. On Pilsudski's initiative, most of the Legionnaires refused the oath of loyalty which the German GeneralGovernor required of them. Pilsudski was imprisoned and the Legions were dissolved. Part of their soldiers were interned, part was incorporated into the Austrian Army, and part (about eight thousand) was reshaped into the Polish Auxiliary Corps (Polski Korpus Posilkowy) of the Austrian Army. Altogether, about twenty thousand soldiers went through the Legions, which were an outstanding school of Polish patriotism. After the war, the veterans of the Legions established a close network and became a political and military elite of interwar Poland. The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980) 123; W. Jedrzejewicz, Pilsudski: A Life for Poland (New York, 1982); W. Lipiris Walka zbrojna o niepodleglosc Polski w latach 1905-1918 (The Armed Fighting for the Independence of Poland during 1905-1918) (Warsaw, 1990), 19-141.

POLISH "LIQUIDATION" COMMITTEE (Polska Komisja Likwidacyjna), independent institution of local government established in Galicia* by the Polish members of the Austrian Parliament on October 28, 1918, after the disintegration of the Habsburg Empire. The Committee, headed by W. Witos,* consisted of the representatives of the Polish Peasant Party "Piast,"* the Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia,* and the National Democracy.* On March 27, 1919, the committee handed over power to the central Polish government in Warsaw.* WEP, IX, 232. POLISH-LITHUANIAN COMMONWEALTH. See COMMONWEALTH OF BOTH NATIONS. POLISH MILITARY ORGANIZATION (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]), clandestine military organization established by J. Pilsudski* in August

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1914, soon after the outbreak of WW I. Initially, it operated mostly in the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* but it later expanded to other parts of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and to Russia proper. It was organized into four regions: Warsaw,* Cracow,* Lublin,* and Kiev. The POW, 5,000 strong in 1916, concentrated on intelligence and sabotage activities against Russia. Its first Commander-in-Chief was Pilsudski. After his internment by the Germans in July 1917, he was succeeded by E. Rydz-Smigly.* In 1915, when the Central Powers occupied the former Congress Kingdom, a part of the POW joined the Polish Legions.* When the international situation changed as a result of the Russian Revolution in 1917, the American participation in the war, and the visible exhaustion of the Central Powers, the POW returned to the underground and started anti-German and anti-Austrian operations. In 1918, it participated in the disarming of the Central Powers' troops in Poland and became the armed force of the Lublin Provisional Government of the Polish Republic. In November and December 1918, the POW joined the Polish Army. An independent POW existed in the Poznari (Posen)* region from February 1918. The POW of Upper Silesia,* established in February 1919, became the major Polish military force during the three Silesian Uprisings* in 1919-1921. N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 2 (New York, 1984), 500; T. Nal^cz, Polska Organizacja Wojskowa (Polish Military Organization) (Warsaw, 1984); WEP, IX, 232.

POLISH NATIONAL ALLIANCE (Zwiazek Narodowy Polski [ZNP]), organization established in 1880 in Philadelphia on A. Giller's* suggestion as the largest fraternal and insurance association of American Polonia.* Its ultimate aims were prestige, solidarity, and prosperity for the Polish-American community. With its headquarters in Chicago, the Alliance had more than 300,000 members in 1945, almost 1,000 local lodges throughout the country and its own press. C. Krassowska, "The Polish National Alliance and the Liberation of Poland," Polish American Studies XII/1-2 (1955), 11-18; D. Pienkos, P.N.A. Centennial History of the Polish National Alliance of the United States of North America (New York, 1984).

POLISH NATIONAL CATHOLIC CHURCH. See NATIONAL CATHOLIC CHURCH. POLISH NATIONAL COMMITTEE (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP]), organization formed in Warsaw* in November 1914 by Polish politicians in Russia supporting the Entente, the Russian war effort, and a plan for a post-war unification of all Poland under the Tsarist scepter. In 1915, the Committee moved to St. Petersburg and, after the revolution in Russia, was reestablished in Lausanne on August 15, 1917. Later it was transferred to Paris and aimed at the creation of a Polish independent state with the help of the Entente. In the fall of 1917, the governments of France, Great Britain, the United States, and Italy recognized the KNP as an official representation of Poland, a de facto Polish government, and a political leadership of the Polish Army in France. The pres-

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ident of the Committee, Roman Dmowski,* and its chief members, such as M. Zamoyski* and M. Seyda,* came from the National Democracy.* At the beginning of 1919, the KNP reached an agreement with J. Pilsudski* and coorganized the government of I. Paderewski.* The KNP was active until April 15, 1919, when its representatives became members of the Polish official delegation for the Paris peace conference. R. F. Leslie (ed.), The History of Polan since 1863 (Cambridge, 1980), 111-133. POLISH PEASANT PARTY "LIBERATION" (Polskie Stronnictwo Lu dowe "Wyzwolenie" [PSL "Wyzwolenie"]), peasant party established on December 15, 1915 in Warsaw.* Initially, the party was active in the former Congress Kingdom of Poland.* After 1918, "Liberation" also established its local organizations in other parts of Poland. The party, representing mostly poor peasantry and located on the left wing of the Polish political spectrum, supported coalitions led by J. Pilsudski* during WW I and during the Pilsudski coup d'etat. Later, "Liberation" joined the political opposition against J. Pilsudski's Sanacja* regime and helped to establish the Centrolew* bloc. On March 15, 1931, "Liberation," led by such politicians as J. Poniatowski,* S. Thugutt* and K. Bagiriski,* co-organized the unified Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe).* J. Holzer, Mozaika polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Political Mosaic of the Second lish Republic) (Warsaw, 1974); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921(Oxford, 1972). POLISH PEASANT PARTY "PIAST" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Piast" [PSL "Piast"]), peasant party established on February 1, 1914, in Tarnow,* Galicia,* as a merger of the Polish Peasant Party (originally Peasant Party*), a group of peasant activists gathered around the weekly "Piast," and other small peasant organizations. Initially, the party was active in Galicia. After 1918, its local groups were also established in other parts of Poland and usually represented rich peasantry. "Piast," the largest Polish peasant party of the early 1920s, was led by W. Witos,* cooperated with the National Democracy,* and created with it the Chjeno-Piast* coalition. After the Pilsudski coup d'etat,* "Piast," weakened and divided, became a pillar of the opposition against J. Pilsudski's Sanacja* regime and helped to organize the Centrolew* bloc. On March 15, 1931, the party joined the unified Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe).* J. Holzer, Mozaika polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Political Mosaic o Second Polish Republic) (Warsaw, 1974); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Pola 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972). POLISH PROVISIONAL REVOLUTIONARY COMMITTEE (Tymcza sowy Komitet Rewolucyjny Polski [TKRP]), provisional revolutionary authority established in Bialystok* on July 30, 1920, by Polish Communists. The committee consisted of J. Marchlewski* (Chairman), F. Dzierzyriski,* F. Kon,* E. Prochniak, and J. Unszlicht and controlled Polish territories conquered by the

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Red Army during its offensive in the summer of 1920. The committee announced the nationalization of industry, confiscation of large landholdings, and other revolutionary measures. It ceased to exist after the retreat of the Red Army. N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 2 (New York, 1984), 543; The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 13 POLISH RIFLEMEN SQUADS (Polskie Druzyny Strzeleckie). See "STRZELEC." POLISH SOCIAL-DEMOCRATIC PARTY OF GALICIA AND CIESZYN (TESCHEN) SILESIA (Polska Partia Social-Demokratyczna Galicji i Alaska Cieszyriskiego [PPSD]), socialist party established on January 31, 1892, in Lvov.* Led by such politicians as I. Daszyriski,* H. Diamand,* and J. Moraczewski,* PPSD was an autonomous part of the Austrian Social-Democracy, cooperated closely with the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]),* and joined it in April 1919. R. F. Leslie (ed.), The History of Poland sin 1863 (Cambridge, 1980), 95-96, 108, 132. POLISH SOCIAL-DEMOCRATIC YOUTH (Polska Mlodziez Spoleczno Demokratyczna), progressive student organization established in fall 1937 in Lvov,* with small branches in Cracow* and Warsaw.* J. Lerski, "Lwowska Mlodziez Spoleczno-Demokratyczna," Zeszyty Historyczne XLVII (1979), 149-181. POLISH SOCIALIST PARTY (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]) political party established in Paris on November 21, 1892, by the Congress of Polish Socialists on the basis of the program set forth by the Congress. The program called for Polish independence and establishment of a democratic republic. In 1893, the first PPS groups were created in Warsaw; some included former members of a party known as the Second Proletariat.* The PPS operated mainly in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* However, in 1893 a separate Polish Socialist Party of Prussian Poland (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna Zaboru Pruskiego) was established. The PPS was directed by its Congresses and, between them, by the Central Workers' Committee, headed by S. Mendelson,* J. Strozecki, J. Pilsudski,* S. Wojciechowski,* W. Slawek,* M. Sulkiewicz, and others. Some of them formed the group of "old ones," who believed that the way to restore the Polish state was through a national uprising. This view was opposed by the "young group," headed by L. Kulczycki, M. Bielecki, H. Walecki, and F. Kon,* who believed that Poland would regain its independence through an anti-Tsarist revolution led by the proletariat of all of Russia. In 1906, during its Ninth Congress, the 55,000-strong party split into two organizations. The larger, calling itself PPS-Left (PPS-Lewica), adopted a Marxist and internationalist program. In 1918, it merged with the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL])* into the Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP]).* The smaller

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group, organized by the "old ones" under Pilsudski and called PPS-Revolutionary Fraction (PPS-Frakcja Rewolucyjna), focused on the preparation for armed struggle for Poland's independence, rather than on Marxist class warfare. From 1909, the PPS-Revolutionary Fraction became known simply as the PPS. After the outbreak of WW I, the PPS assisted in the formation of the Polish Legions* and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In 1918, it played an important role in the re-building of the Polish Republic and participated in its first governments, headed by the socialist leaders I. Daszyriski* and J. Moraczewski.* In 1919, the PPS, the PPS of Prussian Poland, and the Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia (Polska Partia Socjal-Demokratyczna Galicji i Alaska Cieszyriskiego [PPSD])* merged into a united PPS, which became the third largest political force of interwar Poland. In 1926, it supported the Pilsudski coup d'etat,* but, several months later, it changed its political orientation and led the opposition to the Sanacja* regime. The PPS became a pillar of the Centrolew* coalition and the movement against the authoritarian Constitution of May 1935.* After the outbreak of WW II, the PPS participated in the defense of the country, then, PPS leaders such as Z. Zaremba,* T. Arciszewski,* and K. Puzak* formed an underground organization called Liberty, Equality, Sovereignty (Wolnosc, Rdwnosc, Niepodleglosc [WRN]). It became one of the main forces within the Polish Government-in-Exile* and in the Polish underground state in German-occupied Poland. The left wing of the pre-war PPS established their own organization, known as the Polish Socialists, who cooperated with the Communist-led Polish Workers' Party* and joined the Soviet-oriented Homeland National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa [KRN]).* After WW II, the PPS name was used by the leftist groups, tolerated by the Soviets, while most of the main leaders of the pre-war PPS remained in exile or were jailed by the Communist authorities. A. Ciolkosz, Walka o Prawde (London, 1983); J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland, 1939-1947 (Leicester, 1986); The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980); J. Holzer, Mozaika Polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Political Mosaic of the Second Polish Republic) (Warsaw, 1974); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972); WEP, IX, 234-238.

POLISH SOCIALIST PARTY-LEFT (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna-Lewica [PPS-Lewica]), political party formed at the Ninth Congress of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1906 as a result of a break between the PPS leaders, who emphasized the need for a Marxist and internationalist program, and a group of activists gathered around J. Pilsudski,* who strived toward a national uprising in Poland. The PPS-Left gradually became a Marxist organization, functioning through legal trade unions and cultural and educational institutions. In 1917, it welcomed the Bolshevik Revolution, and, on December 16, 1918, it merged with the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy

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[SDKPiL]).* The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 19 WEP, IX, 238-239. POLISH SOCIALIST PARTY-REVOLUTIONARY FRACTION (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna-Frakcja Rewolucyjna [PPS-Frakcja Rewolucyjna]), political party established on November 23, 1906, in Cracow* after the split in the Polish Socialist Party Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* during its Ninth Congress held in the same month. The PPS-Frakcja was organized by the "old" activists of the PPS, mostly members of the Fighting Organization (Organizacja Bojowa), who did not support the Marxist program of the left wing of the PPS but stressed the importance of fighting for an independent Polish state. The PPSFrakcja, led by such politicians as J. Pilsudski,* W. Slawek,* L. Wasilewski,* M. Sokolnicki,* W. Jodko-Narkiewicz,* F. Perl,* and Z. Zaremba,* founded patriotic paramilitary organizations in Galicia* before WW I and the Polish Legions* after the outbreak of the war. From 1909, the PPS-Fraction returned to the old name of PPS, and, in 1919, it merged with other socialist parties from Russian-, Prussian-, and Austrian-occupied Poland into the Polish Socialist Party of interwar Poland. The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambri 1980); WEP, IX, 238. POLISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE (1733-1738), European conflict over the succession of the Polish King, August II Mocny (Augustus II the Strong).* When he died in 1733, Austria and Russia supported the election of his son, Frederick Augustus II of Saxony. The Poles, however, elected Stanislaw I Leszczyriski,* who had been the King of Poland during 1704-1709 and who had the support of Spain and France because he was the father-in-law of Louis XV. After Leszczyriski's election, the Russian Army approached Warsaw, Leszczyriski fled to Gdarisk (Danzig),* and another Polish Parliament elected Frederick Augustus as Poland's new King, August III.* As a consequence, France, Sardinia, and Spain attacked and occupied several Austrian possessions in Italy. However, they were not able to defend Leszczyriski in Poland and to support the Confederation* of Dzikow,* which supported him. After years of conflict, France, Spain, and Sardinia signed with Austria several peace agreements, which redistributed a number of Italian territories, but in 1736 Leszczyriski had to renounce the Polish crown, the Dzikow Confederation recognized August III as King, and Russian influence over Polish affairs grew considerably. J. Sutton, The King's Honor and the King's Cardinal: The War of the Polish Succession (Lexin Massachusetts, 1980). POLISH-UKRAINIAN WAR (November 1918-June 1919). In November 1918, after the collapse of Austria, Ukrainian national activists created a government, took the city of Lvov,* and declared it the capital of the newly proclaimed West Ukrainian People's Republic. Lvov's Polish population and Army units operating from Western Galicia* recaptured the city after three weeks of

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fighting (November 1-22), but the struggle outside Lvov continued into the summer of 1919; it ended with a Polish victory and the incorporation of Eastern Galicia into the Second Polish Republic. R. Bailly, A City Fights for Freedom: The Rising of Lwow in 1918-1919 (London, 1956); J. Reshetar, The Ukrainian Revol (Princeton, New Jersey, 1952). POLISH-SOVIET WAR (1919-1921). Also termed the Bolshevik War, it began in February 1919 when the Red Army, approaching toward the west, and the Polish Army, moving east, met in Western Belorussia.* The Soviet intention was to support the revolution in Germany, spark revolt in Western Europe and complete the world revolution. The Polish goal was to regain the territories lost by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* in the eighteenth-century Partitions* and establish a federation of Central European nations under Polish control. In fall 1919, Polish Armies led by J. Pilsudski* took most of Belorussia,* and, in May 1920, Poles occupied Kiev. The newly organized Polish Army was not able to defend a long front line. The offensive of the Red Army, which began in May 1920 in Belorussia and Ukraine,* pushed back the Polish troops. They retreated in a chaotic manner so that the Bolsheviks invaded ethnically Polish territories by the end of July, and the Red Army reached the suburbs of Warsaw* in mid-August. The Polish Provisional Revolutionary Committee* was estab-

lished by the Bolsheviks in Bialystok,* and Western diplomats started to leave

Warsa

The Polish Sejm* invoked the Council of National Defense as an extraconstitutional organ to conduct the war. On July 24, the Cabinet of W. Grabski* was replaced by the coalition government of National Defense of W. Witos* and I. Daszyriski.* A West European Conference in Spa* sent on Polish request a French-British mission headed by Gen. M. Weygand* to increase military aid to Poland. The Poles counter-attacked, and, after the Battle of Warsaw,* the Red Army retreated. The armistice was signed on October 18, 1920, and the peace treaty of Riga,* signed on March 18, 1921, established the Polish-Soviet frontier, dividing Belorussian and Ukrainian territories between the two countries. V. D'Abernon, The Eighteenth Decisive Battle of World History (London, 1 N. Da vies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919-20 (New York, 1972); J. Pilsudski, Year 1920 (New York, 1972).

POLISH WORKERS' PARTY (Polska Partia Robotnicza [PPR]), Communist party created underground on January 5, 1942, in German-occupied Warsaw.* Among its founding members were Soviet-trained Polish Communists parachuted into Poland as the "initiative group." The party pretended to be entirely new and gathered representatives of various secret leftist groups, not necessarily Communist. In fact, however, the PPR was a continuation of the Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP]),* dissolved by Stalin in 1938, and was totally controlled by the Communists and the Soviet authorities. The PPR's Central Committee was headed by the Secretary General M. No-

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wotko.* In November 1942, he was killed by B. Molojec, one of the members of the Committee, and succeeded by P. Finder,* who was arrested by the Germans in November 1943. Finder, later killed in prison, was replaced by W. Gomulka.* The party created its own clandestine military organization, the People's Guard (Gwardia Ludowa), later the People's Army (Armia Ludowa),* and a secret parliament of the leftist groups acting in the underground, the Homeland National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa [KRN]).* The PPR's program, titled "What Are We Fighting For?'1 (O co walczymy?), called for a united front against the Germans and promised fundamental social reforms and friendly cooperation with the USSR after the war. Attempts to form a united front with the Polish underground controlled by the Government-in-Exile,* undertaken in 1942, failed because of mutual distrust and growing animosity. The PPR became the basis of the Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego [PKWN]).* J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland 1939 1947 (Leicester, 1986), 102-267; M. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Polan (Cambridge, 1959); G. Janczewski, "The Origin of the Lublin Government," Slavoni and East European Review (London, 1972), 410-433; K. Kersten, Establishment of munist Rule in Poland (Berkeley, California, 1991 "POLNISCHE WEHRMACHT," also called Polish Military Force (Polska Sila Zbrojna), semi-official name of Polish troops under German command organized after the Emperors of Germany and Austria, Wilhelm II and Franz Joseph I, in their Act of November 5, 1916,* announced the existence of a Polish Kingdom. In 1916, the Central Powers were out of manpower and tried to organize volunteer units in the occupied territories. The Polish public well understood the real intentions of both Emperors, and the Army of the fictitious Kingdom of Poland reached only about 5,000 men in mid-1918. These were 3,000 Legionnaires from the dissolved Polish Legions* and 2,000 volunteers. The Polnische Wehrmacht was supervised by the Prussian General Governor of Warsaw,* H. Besseler, and was commanded by Gen. T. Rozwadowski* and, then, Col. M. Januszajtis.* On October 12, 1918, it took a loyalty oath to the Polish Regency Council,* and, in the next month, it was included in the reborn Polish Army. SHP, 335-336. POLONAISE (Polonez), Polish national dance performed by couples moving in figure procession led by the most important guests in 3/4 time at a moderate tempo. The polonaise became a formal court dance, which generally opened gala balls in a dignified manner. It is characterized by metrorythmic elements which developed from a promenade-like dance (chodzony) of the eighteenth century. WEP, IX, 837. POLONIA, traditional name of ethnic groups of Polish origin, living in various countries of the world, and of the entire Polish Diaspora. Systematic development of this Diaspora started in the late eighteenth century, during the Parti-

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tions* of Poland. However, the first groups of Polish emigrants settled abroad much earlier. During the nineteenth century, two classes of Polish emigrations contributed to the development of Polonia. Political emigrants, usually members of the gentry, mainly left Poland after the Polish national uprisings and, like the Great Emigration,* settled mostly in France and other countries of Western Europe. Economic emigrants, mostly peasants and, later, workers, constantly flowed to both Americas, Germany, and Russia. The United States attracted the largest group of Polish immigrants, for both political and economic reasons. The first Poles landed in Jamestown in 1608. In 1943, about six million Polish people lived in America. They established their various organizations and contributed greatly to American life. V. Greene, "Pre-World War I Polish Emigration to the United States: Motives and Statistics," Polish Review, VI/3 (1961), 45-68; H. Lopat Znaniecka, Polish Americans (New Brunswick, N.J., 1975); H. Mitchell, Poland in Afr and Asia (London, 1943); Nine Million Poles Abroad (London, 194 POLONIA RESTITUTA (Order of the Revival of Poland [Order Odrodzenia Polski]), Latin designation of a Polish decoration established on February 4, 1921, for outstanding non-military services on behalf of Polish independence. The Order's five grades begin with Cavalier's Cross through Officer's Cross, Commander Cross, Commander Cross with a Star, and Great Cross. WEP, VIII, 234. POLANIEC MANIFESTO, decree issued by T. Kosciuszko* during the Kosciuszko Insurrection* on May 7, 1794, in his camp outside the village of Polaniec, near Sandomierz.* The manifesto recognized the peasants' hereditary right to the land which they worked and granted them personal freedom on the condition that they come to terms with their lords and pay state taxes. The document reduced the corvee, especially for the duration of the uprising. Moreover, the Polaniec Manifesto totally freed peasants who participated in the Insurrection from villein service. It was the most advanced Polish agrarian reform in the eighteenth century, surpassing the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* However, the decree was sabotaged by a large part of the nobility* and was never carried out. CHP, II, 164-165; J. Rutkowski, Uniwersal polaniecki w swietle eur skich reform rolnych XVIII wieku (Cracow, 194 POLOCK (Polock), town on the Dvina River in Belorussia.* First mentioned in 862, it was the seat of an early Ruthenian principality. From 1498, it was under Lithuanian rule. Conquered by Ivan the Terrible* in 1563, Polock was regained by King Stefan Batory in 1579 and remained in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* until the First Partition* of Poland in 1772. WEP, VIII, 242. POMERANIA (Pomorze), southern coastland of the Baltic Sea* located between the Vistula* River in the east and the Oder* River in the west. This flat country, traversed by morainic ridges and many small rivers, was populated

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around the fifth century A.D. by West Slavic Pomeranians (Pomorzanie), who were related to but were slightly different from the other Polish tribes. In the tenth century, Pomerania was included in the Polish state by Mieszko I* and Boleslaw I Chrobry (the Brave),* who established a Polish Bishopric there. After 1138, when Poland was divided among the sons of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth),* Pomerania was ruled by local dynasties, which became increasingly independent of Poland. Opened to massive German colonization from the twelfth century, Western Pomeranian towns and gentry quickly became Germanized, and the Pomeranian Bishopric of Kamieri was made subject to the German Archbishopric of Magdeburg in place of the Polish Archbishopric of Gniezno.* In 1637, West Pomeranian principalities, ruled by local Germanized Slavic Dukes, were incorporated into Brandenburg. During 1648-1720, West Pomerania was under Swedish control, and later was gained by Prussia, which then united all the Pomeranian regions within its borders. East Pomerania, specifically the area around the city of Gdarisk (Danzig),* returned to re-united Poland in 1306, but it was conquered by the Teutonic Knights* in 1308. During the Thirteen Years' War, the Poles re-conquered East Pomerania, which was recognized by the Toruri Peace* of 1466. The region, also called Royal Prussia, remained Polish until the First Partition* of Poland in 1772, when it was annexed by Prussia and renamed West Prussia. It was restored to Poland after WW I. Western Pomerania, around the cities of Szczecin (Stettin)* and Koszalin (Koslin),* became Polish territory in 1945. G. Labuda, "Slavs in Early Medieval Pomerania and Their Relations with the Scandinavians in the IX and X centuries,"

Poland at the XI International Congress of Historical Sc 1960); J. Surdykowski, ed., Poland's Baltic Coast (Warsaw, 1975).

PONIATOWSKI, Polish noble family which advanced from a minor gentry family, the Cioleks, to one of the most powerful and influential families in Poland. One of the Cioleks settled on the estate of Poniatowa near Lublin* in the fifteenth century. In the seventeenth century, his descendants moved to the Rzeszow* and Cracow* regions, where Franciszek Poniatowski held some local honorific posts. He served under King Jan Sobieski* and was wounded at the Battle of Vienna* in 1683. His son, Stanislaw Poniatowski,* the father of King Stanislaw August,* rendered great services to King Stanislaw Leszczyriski* and was the first of the family to distinguish himself. The Poniatowskis married into the most prominent Polish aristocratic families and held the primary political positions in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* such as King and Primate* of Poland. S. Mnemon, L'Origine des Poniatowski (Paris, 1913); A. Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992), 14, 18, 26, 32 PONIATOWSKI, JOZEF ANTONI (1763-1813), Minister of War and General in the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw,* Marshal of France, and nephew of the last Polish King, Stanislaw II August.* He served in the Austrian Army from 1780, but in 1789, at the request of the King, he transferred to the Polish

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Army, in which he was appointed Major General. He supported the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* and fought the Russian invaders during the war of 1792. When the King joined the Confederation* of Targowica,* Poniatowski left for Vienna, but he soon returned to participate in the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794. After the Third Partition* of Poland in 1795, he lived in Warsaw in retirement. However, the Prussians left Warsaw in 1806, defeated by Napoleon at Jena, and Poniatowski became Commander of the Polish National Guard and took charge of Warsaw until the French entered. Then he became a member of the Governing Commission of Poland, commanded a Polish Division during the campaign of 1806-1807 and, after the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit,* was appointed Minister of War of the Duchy of Warsaw. During the French-Austrian War of 1809, he was defeated by the Austrians at the Battle of Raszyn* and had to evacuate Warsaw but managed to take Galicia,* which became part of the Duchy. During the Moscow campaign of 1812, he commanded the Fifth (Polish) Army Corps and, after the French retreat, he remained faithful to Napoleon. On October 16, 1813, the first day of the Battle of Leipzig, Poniatowski was promoted to Marshal of France, the only foreigner ever so honored. Two days later, fatally wounded, he died in the Elster River, covering Napoleon's withdrawal. Buried among the Kings of Poland in the Wawel* Cathedral in Cracow,* he became a symbol of patriotism and bravery in the Polish national tradition. S. Askenazy, Ksigze Jozef Poniatowski, 1763-1813 (Warsaw, 1978); D. G. Chandle Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars (New York, 1979); R. F. Delderfield, Napole Marshals (New York, 1962); J. Lawford, Napoleon, The Last Campaigns 1813-1 (New York, 1979); Napoleon and the Marshals of the Empire, ed. by E. Meeks, v (Philadelphia, 1885); PSB, XXVII, 428-436. PONIATOWSKI, JULIUSZ (1886-1975), politician and economist. During WW I, he was a close collaborator of J. Pilsudski,* fought in the Polish Legions,* and was active in the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In 1915, he helped to establish the Polish Peasant Party "Liberation" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Wyzwolenie")* and later became its Vice President. During 1918, 1920-1921, and 1934-1939, he served as Minister of Agriculture. A member of the Polish Sejm (Parliament) from 1919, he was its Deputy Speaker in the years 1922-1927. PSB, XXVII, 438-444. PONIATOWSKI, MICHAL (1736-1794), Archbishop of Gniezno,* Primate* of Poland from 1784, and brother of King Stanislaw II August* of Poland. A close adviser of the King, he presided over the Committee of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej).* A. Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992). PONIATOWSKI, STANISLAW (1676-1762), statesman and the father of King Stanislaw II August* of Poland. As a young man, he served in the Austrian Army and fought against the Turks. He returned to Poland and, after the out-

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break of the Northern War* of 1700-1721, sided with the Swedes against the Saxon King of Poland, August II.* He became a General in the Swedish Army and participated in the Battle of Poltava, where he saved the life of Charles XII of Sweden. A strong supporter of King Stanislaw Leszczyriski,* Poniatowski eventually reconciled himself with August II, then restored by the Russians, and became Grand Treasurer of Lithuania* in 1722. Later, he was appointed Palatine of Mazovia* and Castellan* of Cracow.* He married into the Czartoryski* family and became a member of its political camp, the Familia.* A. Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992), 13-7 PONINSKI, ADAM (1732-1798), Marshal of the 1773 Sejm* (Parliament), which ratified the First Partition* of Poland. He belonged to the political camp opposing the Czartoryskis' Familia* and its plans for reforms. In the paid service of Russia, he helped the Tsarist Ambassadors to Poland, N. Repnin* and his successors, to bribe and corrupt influential Polish politicians and Sejm members. Poniriski opposed the Bar* Confederation and presided over the Partition Sejm. In 1776, he became a member of the King's Permanent Council* and Royal Treasurer.* Jailed and tried by a court of the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792, he was deprived of his offices and banished from Poland. PSB, XXVII, 504-512; A. Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992). POPIEL, KAROL (1887-1977), politician. As a student in Lvov,* he was active in Polish patriotic youth and paramilitary organizations. During WW I, he fought in the Polish Legions.* After the war, he joined the Ministry of Interior as Personnel Director. In 1920, he co-founded the National Workers' Party (Narodowa Partia Robotnicza [NPR])* and became one of its main leaders. During 1922-1927, he represented it in the Sejm* (Parliament). After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he joined the opposition against the ruling Sanacja* regime. As an organizer and leader of the Centrolew,* Popiel was arrested and jailed in the citadel of Brest-Litovsk (Brzesc)* in 1930. In 1936, he helped to establish the centrist coalition "Front Morges,"* headed by I. Paderewski* and Gen. W. Sikorski.* After the merger of the NPR and the Christian Democracy* in 1937, he became a leader of the newly created Labor Party (Stronnictwo Pracy).* During WW II, he served as a Minister of Public Administration in the Polish Government-in-Exile.* He returned to communist-dominated Poland in 1945 and tried unsuccessfully to restore his party. K. Popiel, Na Mogilac Przyjaciol (London, 1966); K. Popiel, Od Brzescia do "Polonii" (London, 1967); P XXVII, 558-562. POPLAWSKI, JAN (1854-1908), politician and journalist who helped to create the National League (Liga Narodowa).* Arrested by the Russians for illegal patriotic activities in 1878, he was deported to Siberia.* After his return to Warsaw,* he co-founded the weekly Glos (Voice) in 1886. In 1887, he joined the Polish League (Liga Polska),* and, in 1893, with R. Dmowski* and Z.

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Balicki,* he founded the National League.* He edited its organ, Przeglgd Wszechpolski (All-Polish Review),* in Lvov.* Next to Dmowski, Poplawski was the most seminal thinker of National Democracy.* PSB, XXVII, 609-610. POPULAR NATIONAL UNION (Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy [ZLN]), political organization which developed in 1919 as the continuation of the National Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne).* Its goal was to consolidate all rightist and nationalist elements of reborn Poland. After the announcement of the election to the Constituent Sejm* (Parliament) in 1919, the National Democratic leaders initiated the creation of the National Electoral Committee of the National Democratic Party. After the election, they called into being the ZLN. It was joined by all the groups, which remained under the influence of the National League (Liga Narodowa).* In October 1919, the ZLN, led by such politicians as S. Glabiriski,* S. Grabski,* M. Seyda,* S. Kozicki,* and J. Zdziechowski,* issued its program. It emphasized private ownership, removal of the national minorities from industry and commerce, and preservation of the privileged position of the Catholic Church. According to the ZLN program, Poland should be a parliamentary republic; however, the civic rights of the minorities should be limited. In 1923 and 1926, the ZLN created a coalition with the Polish Peasant Party "Piast,"* known as the Chjeno-Piast* coalition, but was not able to stay in power. The ZLN's influence diminished after the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat* and, in October 1928, the Popular National Union was transformed into the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe [SN]).* J. Holzer, Mozaika Polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (The Political Mosaic of the ond Polish Republic) (Warsaw, 1974), 102-153, passim; A. Polonsky, Politics in Ind pendent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972); WEP, XII, POPULISM, movement stressing the special value of the common people as opposed to the upper classes. Its goal was to mobilize the hitherto unused energy of the lower masses (especially peasants) for national goals. In the Polish case, it was also a natural result of the defeats of national uprisings against foreign rule of a predominantly gentry character. Populism developed as a radical ideology among Polish exiles in the West in the mid-nineteenth century. Later it was represented in the peasant parties. P. Brock, Nationalism and Populism in P titioned Poland (London, 1974); P. Brock, Polish Revolutionary Populism: Study Agrarian Socialist Thought from the 1830s to the 1850s (Toronto, 19 POSITIVISM, one of the main philosophical currents of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, initiated by A. Comte. Derived partly from the philosophy of the Enlightenment, it dominated European intellectual history from the 1840s. Its main characteristics were rejection of metaphysical values and recognition of "positive knowledge," which was limited to the sphere of empirical data based on scientific facts. In Poland, positivism developed as a dominant intellectual and social current among the intelligentsia and liberal bourgeoisie in the

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1864-1890 period. It was represented more in literary and sociopolitical movements than in scholarly-philosophical activities. It became a reaction against Romanticism* in literature and politics. As such, it assumed a critical, realistic, and practical attitude; emphasized the economic and educational foundations of political programs; and developed particularly after the fall of the 1863 January Insurrection,* when Polish political Romantic scenarios failed completely. The proponents of positivism were ready to accept a temporary loss of independence but advocated intense development of economic, educational, and cultural activities to overcome the backwardness of the Polish nation and to strengthen it by means of "organic work." Positivism fought the remaining elements of feudalism; supported the emancipation of women, Jews, burghers and peasants; praised economic entrepreneurship; and claimed that every citizen of Poland, regardless of his or her social and national background, can contribute to the development of the country. Positivism established a cult of daily work, the fight against backwardness, and modernization. Writers created new popular heroes undertaking new sorts of social initiatives. Most active in that literary field was Warsaw's* intelligentsia during the first decade after the January Insurrection. In the 1880s, the dynamics of positivism began waning in the context of growing socialist and nationalistic programs. Positivism was raised to the highest levels in the works of such writers as E. Orzeszkowa* and B. Prus.* S. A. Blejwas, "Warsaw Positivism—Patriotism Misunderstood," Polish Review, XXV 1-2 (1982), 47-55; L. Kolakowski, The Alienation of Reason: A History of Posit Thought (New York, 1968); J. Kulczycka-Saloni, Pozytywizm (Warsaw, 1971); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 281-3 POSSEVINO, ANTONIO (1534-1611), Italian Jesuit,* missionary, linguist, Papal diplomat, and vigorous opponent of the Reformation.* An outstanding preacher and theologian, he was appointed a secretary to the Jesuit General and, then, a Papal personal representative to Sweden. In 1580, he went to Russia as a Papal Legate in order to mediate between the Tsar Ivan the Terrible* and King Stefan Batory* of Poland. The Tsar suggested that there was a possibility of a union between the Orthodox Church and Rome, if the Papacy would improve Polish-Russian relations. In 1582, Possevino arrived in Poland as a Papal Nuncio* to continue working for reconciliation with Russia and the union, which became impossible after Ivan's death in 1584. In 1587, Possevino returned to Italy. O. Halecki, From Florence to Brest, 1434-1596 (Hamden, 1968); New Cath Encyclopedia, vol. 11 (New York, 1967), 627. POTOCKI, noble family which originated in the fourteenth century in the Cracow* region. Its name was derived from the Potockis' village of Zloty Potok, near Czestochowa. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the family was politically associated with Chancellor* J. Zamoyski* and King Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa).* It was related to the Moldavian Mohyla* dynasty, became prominent in Poland, and acquired many towns, hundreds of villages,

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and large latifundia.* The Potockis became one of the most powerful magnate* families of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and served as Castellans,* Palatines, Hetmans,* and Senators. After the Partitions* of Poland, the family remained very active in the politics of Galicia* and Austria, holding such positions as Austrian Prime Minister and Viceroy of Galicia. Encyclopedia Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 4 (Toronto, 1988), 171-172; WEP, IX, 329POTOCKI, ANDRZEJ (1861-1908), conservative politician. One of the wealthiest land and factory owners in Austrian and Russian Poland, he held various offices in Galicia.* During 1901-1903, he was a Marshal of the Galician Diet, and, in 1903, he was appointed Viceroy of Galicia. He opposed the Ukrainian national movement and was assassinated by a Ukrainian nationalist. PSB, XXVII, 778-782. POTOCKI, FELIKS (7-1702), military leader and the son of Stanislaw Rewera Potocki.* He distinguished himself in fighting against the Cossacks* and in diplomatic services for King Jan Kazimierz (John Casimir)* of Poland, but, in 1664, he joined the Lubomirski rebellion against the King. After the abdication of Jan Kazimierz, Potocki opposed a French candidate to the Polish throne and supported Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki.* After Wisniowiecki's death, Potocki supported the Habsburg* party against the future King Jan Sobieski.* Potocki held several important offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth;* those of Royal High Steward, Sejm* (Parliament) Speaker, and Palatine (wojewoda) of Sieradz, Kiev, and Cracow.* He participated in the Polish-Turkish Wars of the late seventeenth century and in the Battle of Vienna in 1683. In 1692, he was appointed Crown Field Hetman* (hetman polny koronny) and, in 1702, Crown Grand Hetman (hetman wielki koronny). PSB, XXVII, 807-812. POTOCKI, IGNACY (1750-1809), statesman and Grand Master of Polish freemasonry from 1781 to 1784. Educated at Warsaw* Collegium Nobilium* and in Rome, he joined the Czartoryskis' "Familia"* progressive political party and, from 1773, served on the Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej).* In 1778, he became a member and Marshal of the chief Polish administrative authority, the Permanent Council (Rada Nieustajaca). During the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792, he supported reform plans and an antiRussian coalition with Prussia.* Together with King Stanislaw August,* H. Kollataj,* and S. Piatolli,* he authored the text of the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* and, when it was passed, he joined a new council of ministers, called the "Guardians of Law"* (Straz Praw), as Minister of Police. To counteract Russian intervention, he went to Berlin in May 1792 for futile negotiations on Prussian assistance against the Russians. When the King joined the Targowica Confederation,* he emigrated to Dresden, where he helped to prepare the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794. During the uprising, he directed the foreign policy of the insurrectionary government. After the fall of the uprising, he was

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arrested by the Russians and jailed in St. Petersburg. Released after the death of Catherine the Great in 1796, he returned to Poland, settled on his estate, and devoted himself to political writing. CHP, II, ch. 6; PSB, XXVIII, 1-16; A. Zamo ski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992). POTOCKI, JAN (1761-1815), explorer, scholar, and "a cosmopolitan aristocrat writting in French" (Milosz). Educated in Austria, France, and Switzerland, he traveled extensively in Europe, Africa, and Asia. During the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792, he supported reform plans and the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* After 1792, he retired from public life and concentrated on writing, travel, and research on Slavic pre-history, a precursor of Slavic archaeology. He wrote historical and geographical scholarly works, travel books, short comedies, and a bizarre novel, The Manuscript Found in Saragossa, which reflected his preoccupation with mystical experience. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 192-194; PSB, XXVIII, 36-42. POTOCKI, MIKOLAJ (1593-1651), military leader. As a sixteen-year-old boy, he participated in the Siege of Smolensk.* During the Cecora* expedition in 1620, he was captured by the Turks but was released a year later. In 1625, he commanded a regiment against the Cossacks,* during 1626-1629 he fought against the Swedes and, in 1630, 1633, and 1637-1638, he again participated in a struggle with the Cossacks. He held several important state offices, such as General of Podolian* Lands, Palatine (wojewoda) of Bratslav, Field Hetman,* Castellan* of Cracow* and, from 1646, Grand Crown Hetman. As such, he commanded the Polish Army against the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising* during 1648-1651. PSB, XXVIII, 105-110. POTOCKI, STANISLAW KOSTKA (1755-1821), politician, writer, and the brother of Ignacy Potocki.* Educated in the Warsaw* Collegium Nobilium* and abroad, he followed the politics of his brother and participated in the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792 and, as a General of Artillery, in the 1792 war with Russia. He co-founded the Society of the Friends of Science and was a typical man of the Enlightenment.* In 1806, he was appointed to the provisional Governing Commission of the Polish lands captured by Napoleon. After the establishment of the Duchy of Warsaw,* he became a Senator, President of the Council of State, and Director of the Office of Education. After the fall of the Duchy, he served in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* as Minister of Religion and Education. During 1812-1821, he was a Grand Master of Polish freemasonry. He wrote many literary and political works, including his famous anti-clerical Journey to Dunceville (Podroz do Ciemnogrodu). Historical Dictionary of Napoleonic France, 1799-1815, ed. by O. Connelly (Westport, Connecticut, 1985), 401-402; P XXVIII, 148-169.

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POTOCKI, STANISLAW REWERA (1579-1667), military leader and Palatine (wojewoda) of Bratslaw and then Podolia,* Kiev, and Cracow.* He participated in the Siege of Smolensk* in 1611, the Battles of Cecora* in 1620 and Chocim* in 1621, and the Swedish Wars of 1626-1629 and 1655-1660. He also fought against the Cossack* uprisings of 1630, 1633, and 1648. Appointed Grand Crown Hetman* (hetman wielki koronny) in 1654, he defeated the Russian Army in 1655 and 1660. WEP, IX, 332. POTOCKI, STANISLAW SZCZ^SNY (1752-1805), Palatine of Ruthenia* (wojewoda ruski) and head of the Targowica Confederation.* One of the richest magnates* in Poland, he owned latifundia encompassing 240,000 people. He opposed King Stanislaw August* of Poland and political reforms in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth* and dreamed of transforming it into a federal republic ruled by the magnates. He supported firm cooperation with Russia and closely collaborated with its Ambassadors in Poland. He protested against the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* and, moreover, formed with Russian help the Targowica Confederation* of 1972 to annul the Constitution. Disappointed that the Russians did not dethrone his enemy, the King; surprised by the Second Partition* of Poland; and branded as a traitor, he retired to his estates. J. Czernecki, Maty Krol na Rusi ijego Stolica Krystynopol (Cracow, 1939); PSB, XXVIII, 201. POTOCKI, WACLAW (1621-1696), major poet of the Polish Baroque period. A scion of an Arian family, he participated in the wars against the Cossacks* and the Swedes. In 1658, he converted to Catholicism. One of the most prolific Polish poets, he wrote long epic poems and short satirical and political works. He idealized the patriarchal way of living of the Polish gentry, but, simultaneously, his satires criticized shortcomings of contemporary Polish society. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 132-137; C. Milosz, Th History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 135-137; PSB, XXVII, 220-224.

POTSDAM CONFERENCE, last Allied conference of WW II, held in Potsdam outside ruined Berlin from July 17 to August 2, 1945, after the Allied victory over Nazi Germany. The USSR was represented by J. Stalin and V. Molotov; Great Britain by W. Churchill and A. Eden and, from July 25, by C. Attlee and E. Bevin; the United States was represented by H. Truman and J. F. Byrnes. The purpose of the conference was to discuss the operation to be conducted against Japan and to reach an agreement on a post-war international settlement. The conference issued a Declaration demanding the "unconditional surrender" of Japan and affirming that the Allies would eliminate militarism from that country. Germany was divided into four zones of occupation. Demilitarization, de-nazification, and democratization of that country and punishment of the Nazi war criminals were decided. The conference approved the Oder-Neisse Line* as the western border and the modified "Curzon Line"* as

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the eastern frontier of Poland. The Allies recommended a resettlement of Germans from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. H. Feis, Between War and Pea The Potsdam Conference (Princeton, New Jersey, 1960); Z. Nagorski, "The Potsda Conference: Two Viewpoints," Polish Review VI/3 (1961), 108-116. POZNAN (Posen), main city of Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* on the Warta River. A stronghold of the Polanie* tribe from the eighth century, it became the capital of Poland in the tenth century. In 968, the first Polish Bishopric and the first cathedral were established there. Ruined in 1038 during a Czech invasion, the town gradually recovered as a major center of the Polish Piast* monarchy. In 1138, when Poland was divided among the heirs of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth),* Poznari was assigned to Mieszko III Stary (the Old)* and his successors. The town grew in the thirteenth century, as a trade and crafts settlement. In 1244-1253, it acquired Magdeburg* town rights, and, in 1314, it was incorporated into a new Polish state, re-united by Wladyslaw Lokietek.* The moving of the capital of Poland to Cracow* affected Poznari, but by the end of the fourteenth century, when Poland and Lithuania* were united and the transit route going through Poznari from the east to the west was revived, the city developed greatly. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries it reached a peak of economic and cultural growth. This development was stopped by the Swedish "Deluge"* of 1655 and the Northern War* of 1700-1721. The devastated town declined, and, at the Second Partition* of Poland in 1793, it was annexed by Prussia.* Liberated in 1806 by Napoleon, it was included in the Duchy of Warsaw* but, after 1815, was again given to Prussia as the capital of the autonomous Grand Duchy of Poznari.* A Prussian military garrison and a growing number of German officials arrived in the city and its Germanization started. This process was intensified after the November Insurrection* of 18301831 in Russian Poland and during Bismarck's "Kulturkampf."* In 1886, a Prussian Colonization Commission* was organized to buy Polish land for German colonists. The German oppression met with the Polish resistance under the banners of "Organic Work"* and the Polish national movement. Poznari became a center of Polish learning and business. The Polish character of the city was strengthened in the late nineteenth century. On December 27, 1918, the Great Poland Insurrection (Powstanie Wielkopolskie)* started in Poznari and led to the liberation of the city and all of Great Poland in the spring of 1919. During the interwar period, Poznari flourished, with three new theaters, a newly established university and several other institutions of higher learning, and a National Fair. In 1939, Poznari was occupied by the Nazis and incorporated into the Third Reich as the capital of Warthegau (Wartheland).* The Germans deported and exterminated a large part of its Polish population. In February 1945, Poznari was taken by the Red Army and returned to the Poles. WEP, IX, 361-364. PRAGIER, ADAM (1886-1976), socialist leader, economist, and lawyer. He joined the socialist youth movement during his studies in Cracow* and, in 1906,

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became a member of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* After the split in the party, he opted for the PPS-Left (PPS-Lewica).* During WW I, he served in the Polish Legions* and in the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* During 1919-1927, he worked for the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare and, at the same time, taught finance at the Free Polish College (Wszechnica Polska). In 1919, he rejoined the PPS; he soon became part of its leadership and, from 1922, represented it in the Sejm* (Parliament). In 1926, he supported the Pilsudski coup d'etat* but soon became one of the leaders of the opposition against the Sanacja* regime. In 1930, he was arrested and tried for his involvement in the Centrolew* movement. He spent the years 1933-1935 in political exile in Czechoslovakia. During WW II, he lived in France and England, where he was a member of the Polish Parliament-in-Exile and of the National Council (Rada Narodowa)* during 1942-1944 and Minister of Information and Documentation during 1944— 1945. PSB, XXVIII, 342-346. PRAZMOWSKI (BELINA), WLADYSLAW. See BELINA-PRAZMOWSKI, WLADYSLAW. PR^DZYNSKI, IGNACY (1792-1850), General. In the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw* from 1807, he participated in the war with Austria in 1809 and joined the Engineer Corps in 1810. Recognized as its most able officer, he participated in the demarcation of the frontiers of the Duchy and the fortification of Modlin.* He also fought in the campaigns of 1812 and 1813. During the initial period of the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* he studied and, then, taught war theory, military fortification and strategy in officers' schools in Warsaw. Active in several secret anti-Russian Polish patriotic organizations, he was arrested in 1826. Released from prison in 1829, Pradzyriski was sent to direct construction work on the Augustow Canal. During the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he became a leading strategist of the uprising. Unfortunately, his operational plans against the Russian Army were weakened by the procrastination of the dictators, both J. Chlopicki* and, later, J. Skrzynecki.* In February 1831, Pradzyriski was appointed Quartermaster General of the Polish Army, and, in April, he won the Battle of Iganie.* He was then promoted to the Chief of Staff. After the fall of the uprising, he was taken to Moscow, where he wrote his noted Memoirs on the 1830-1831 warfare. After his return from Russia, he settled in his estate and concentrated on historical writing. C. Bloch, Gen. Ignacy Pradzyriski (1792-1850) (Warsaw, 1974); PSB, XXVIII, 399-4 PREVENTIVE WAR, Marshal J. Pilsudski's* plan of March 1933 to destroy Hitler's power before he was militarily ready to attack neighboring countries along the concepts presented in his Mein Kampf. After Hitler's rise to power Pilsudski informed the French government that the Germans had started to arm themselves, violating the Treaty of Versailles.* The Polish Marshal proposed to

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Western powers a preventive war against a still weak Germany in order to stop its buildup of military strength. He further stated that the Polish Army was ready to act if France could be depended on to support Poland. Pilsudski anticipated that the Poles would invade Eastern Prussia, and France would enter the Ruhr industrial region, and Great Britain would then intervene politically. French diplomats gave the Poles a negative answer and Pilsudski decided to sign a tenyear non-aggression pact* with Germany. W. Jedrzejewicz, "The Polish Plan for a Preventive War against Germany in 1933," Polish Review XI/1 (1966), 62-7 PRIMATE (Latin primus: the first one), Archbishop who is the head of a Catholic hierarchy in a given country. In Poland, the first Primate was M. Traba,* Archbishop of Gniezno,* consecrated in 1417. From that time, the office was linked with the Gniezno Metropolis. The Primate had certain rights of a Papal Legate, especially during the absence of an Apostolic Nuncio.* In addition, from 1572, he occupied in Poland the elevated political position of interrex,* who was responsible for calling the election of the next monarch. During 1807-1831, the office of Primate was a joint appointment to the Archbishoprics of Gniezno* and Warsaw.* In the interwar period, Cardinals E. Dalbor* and A. Hlond* served as Primates. J. Kloczowski, (ed.), Chrzescijanstwo w Polsce: Zar Przemian, 966-1945 (Lublin, 1980 PRINCIPAL SCHOOL. See SZKOLA GLOWNA. PRINCIPAL SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY (Szkola Glowna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego [SGGW]), agricultural university established in Warsaw* in 1918. Until the outbreak of WW II, it had forty scientific institutes, twenty-two chairs, and three departments. Though closed by the Germans during WW II, it continued teaching underground and issued 130 diplomas, a number of doctorates, and postgraduate degrees. WEP, XI, 230. PRINCIPAL SCHOOL OF COMMERCE (Szkola Glowna Handlowa), largest and oldest economic school in Poland, established in Warsaw* in 1906 as a private trade school. In 1915, it was named the Higher School of Commerce, and, in 1924, it obtained the right to give academic degrees. Renamed SGH, it was one of the main Polish centers of practical business and economics and competed with Lvov's Academy of Foreign Trade. During WW II, it operated as the city's school of commerce. WEP, XI, 230. PRINCIPAL WELFARE COUNCIL (Rada Glowna Opiekuricza [RGO]), major welfare organization established in German-occupied Poland during WW I and WW II. The first RGO, led by A. Ronikier* and S. Staniszewski, was active between 1916 and 1920. The second Council, presided by the same A. Ronikier and K. Tchdrznicki, helped the population of the General Government* between February 1940 and January 1945 and was the only legal de facto representation

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of the Polish people under the German occupation. J. T. Gross, Polish Society under German Occupation (Princeton, 1979). PRINTING, initiated in Poland about 1470 by traveling German printers, in the sixteenth century, centered in Cracow.* The first Polish prayer book, Raj duszny (Souls' Paradise), was printed in 1513. Early printers were also publishers and booksellers. In sixteenth-century Cracow, the printing shops of J. Haller, F. Unger, H. Wietor, and M. Wierzbienta also printed musical works. In the age of Reformation, printing became an instrument of religious struggle. Polish Protestants maintained printing shops in Piriczow, Luslawice, Brzesc, Rakow, Leszno, Elk and Krolewiec. About 25 percent of the 3.5 million books and brochures circulating in sixteenth-century Poland were locally printed. In the seventeenth century, during the Counter-Reformation, Protestant printing shops were closed, and the Jesuits,* the Basilian Fathers, and the Piarists* took over major printing. Books were produced in great numbers and Warsaw* became the main Polish printing center from the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth century, the printing craft assumed the character of an industry, and, in 1826, the first shop using the stereotype method was opened in Warsaw. From the mid-nineteenth century, as a result of the political oppression in Russian Poland, the major center of Polish printing moved to Austrian-occupied Galicia,* where 50 percent of Polish books were published. S. Zimmer, "Cracow's Printing Press," Antemurale XIV (1970), 173-192.

PRIPET (Prypec), river in Belorussia,* principal tributary on the right bank of the Dnieper River. Pripet starts in Volhynia* near Kowel and flows through the largest European marshland, Polesie.* The Pripet marshes played an important role in the military history of Poland and Europe, protecting them from the east. Invading armies, going west or east, had to bypass the marshes and attack through the Smolerisk* gate in the north or Ukraine* in the south. Napoleon, Hitler, and other military leaders split their forces because of the impassable Pripet swamps. WEP, IX, 500. PRIVILEGES OF NOBILITY, privileges of nobles issued in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries by Polish monarchs in exchange for stipulated concessions, mostly in regard to dynastic and international politics. The privileges secured specified political, economic, and judicial rights of the nobility and released it from certain duties of a public character. The privileges derived from individual or group immunities* of the knights in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and were a source of growing power of the gentry vis-a-vis the magnates* and the Kings. They also created a basis for the nobility's well-being and had an important impact on its economic activities. The privileges of Koszyce* (1374), Czerwierisk (1422), Jedlna (1430), Cracow* (1433), Nieszawa* (1454), Piotrkow* (1496), Radom* (1505), and several less important privileges offered the gentry exemption from taxes, limited the peasants' mobility, intro-

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duced the corvee,* exempted the nobility from customs, and secured their personal, political, and religious freedoms. J. Maciszewski, Szlachta polska ijej panstwo (Warsaw, 1969). PROLETARIAT, FIRST (Great Proletariat), first Polish political workers' party established in 1882 in Warsaw on the initiative of a radical Polish socialist, L. Waryriski.* Its program called for the abolition of capitalism through strikes and terrorist actions against exploiting employers and bourgeois state authorities. The party operated in Russian Poland, mostly in such industrial centers as Lodz,* Zgierz, Bialystok,* Vilna,* Czestochowa,* Zyrardow, and Dabrowa.* The party ceased to exist in 1886 after the series of arrests made during 18831885. The main leaders of the party were executed in Warsaw's citadel. L. Blit, The Origins of Polish Socialism: The History and Ideas of the First Polish Socialist Parties, 1878-1886 (London, 1966); N. Naimark, The History of the "Proletariat": The Emergence of Marxism in the Kingdom of Poland (Boulder, Colorado, 1979). PROLETARIAT, SECOND (Small Proletariat), Socialist political party established in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* on the initiative of L. Kulczycki* in 1888 as the successor to the First Proletariat.* The party consisted mostly of young intelligentsia and was especially active in the years 1890-1892. Its program called for revolution to achieve autonomy for Poland. The party organized several terrorist attacks on high-ranking Russian officers, such as Warsaw's Governor, Gen. I. Hurko. Its representatives took part in the founding Congress of the Second International in 1889. In 1893, some of the party leaders joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])*, others the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania [SDKPiL]).* WEP, IX, 457. PROMETHEISM, term used in ethics to indicate the inspiration of the mythical hero Prometheus as a symbol of struggle with anti-human forces to improve the situation of the people. In interwar Poland, prometheism indicated full support for national movements fighting for liberation from the USSR. Discreetly patronized by J. Pilsudski,* it was led from Warsaw by T. Holowko,* T. Baczkowski, and R. Wraga. PSB, IX, 600-602; R. Woytak, "The Promethean Movement in Interwar Poland," East European Quarterly XVII/3 (1984), 273-278. PRONASZKO, ANDRZEJ (1888-1961), scenographer and painter. He began working as a scenographer in 1915 in Zakopane.* In 1917, he co-founded an avant-garde group of painters known as the Polish Formists (Formisci Polscy), who combined elements of folk and medieval art. Throughout the interwar period, he worked as a scenographer in the theaters of Lodz,* Cracow,* Warsaw,* and Lvov.* About one-fifth of all his scenographic works, usually including architectural decorations, were devoted to Polish Romantic playwrights, such as C. Norwid* and S. Wyspiariski.* During WW II, he lived in Warsaw and was active in the clandestine Theater Council and the Bureau of Propaganda and

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Information of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* After the Warsaw Uprising,* he moved to Cracow, and, in January 1945, he became director of the Old Theater. PSB, XXVIII, 496-500; SBTP, 567-569; WEP, IX, 466-467. PROCHNIK, ADAM (1892-1942), socialist activist, historian, and journalist. As a student of Lvov* University, he was active in the progressive youth organization "Promieri" (The Ray) and in a Polish paramilitary movement in Galicia.* In 1911, he joined the Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia (Polska Partia Socjal Demokratyczna Galicji i Slaska Cieszyriskiego [PPSD]).* After the outbreak of WW I, he was drafted into the Austrian Army. After his discharge, he continued his studies, and, in 1917, he joined the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* From 1919, he worked for the State Archives in Piotrkow Trybunalski,* where he headed a local organization of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and was active in a teachers' union. During 1928-1930, he was a member of the Sejm* (Parliament). In the 1930s, he was one of the leaders of the PPS and the Polish Teachers' Union (Zwiazek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego), both of which opposed the Sanacja* regime. During WW II, Prochnik edited a left-socialist periodical, Barykada Wolnosci (Barricade of Freedom), and helped to organize a radical group, known as the Polish Socialists.* In his scholarly work, he concentrated on the history of workers' movements, the French Revolution, and the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794. PSB, XXVIII, 552-556. PRUGAR-KETLING, BRONISLAW (1891-1948), Polish General. He commanded an infantry division during the 1939 September Campaign* and the Polish Second Infantry Division during the 1940 French-German campaign. Together with his unit, he crossed the Swiss border and was interned till 1945. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 151; WEP, IX, 490.

PRUS, BOLESLAW (1847-1912), outstanding novelist, whose real name was Aleksander Glowacki. He took part in the 1863 January Insurrection* and, wounded at a battle near Siedlce,* was jailed by the Russians. After being released, he continued his education and, in 1864, started writing short stories, essays, and satirical columns for the Warsaw* press. Throughout the years, he improved his writing and began to publish larger and more serious works. His first novel, Placowka (Outpost), dealt with the hardships of the Polish peasantry and its special role in preserving Polish national consciousness in partitioned Poland. His Lalka (A Doll), considered one of the best Polish novels, described the dilemmas and achievements of the Warsaw merchant class, while his Faraon, based on solid historical research on ancient Egypt, discussed the timeless problems of political power. For twenty years, Prus wrote regular essays, called Weekly Chronicles (Kroniki Tygodniowe), in Kurier Warszawski (Warsaw Courier), which discussed the most important problems of late-nineteenth-century

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Russian Poland and provide a valuable historical source today. Prus, classified usually as a leading Polish positivist, is one of the most outstanding Polish writers. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 388-394; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 291-303; I. Nagdrski, "Prus's The Outpost: Peasants and Positivism," Polish Review XXIII/1 (1977), 3-3 PRUSSIA, East German kingdom created as a result of the unification of Brandenburg and Ducal Prussia,* under the Hohenzollern* dynasty. Originally, Prussia was a land between the lower Vistula* and lower Niemen Rivers, inhabited by pagan Baltic Prussians. The attempts to convert them to Christianity ended in failure during the tenth through thirteenth centuries. Piast* Prince Konrad Mazowiecki (Conrad of Mazovia),* unsuccessful in his attempts to subjugate the Prussians, asked for help from the Teutonic Knights,* who built their powerful state along the Baltic coast in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The Baltic Prussians were partly assimilated and partly exterminated, and their name was taken by the German settlers. The Teutonic Order became one of the largest military powers in Northern Europe. It threatened Poland and Lithuania,* which united to face the common challenge together. They defeated the Teutonic Knights, who lost the lands on the Vistula, known later as Royal Prussia.* In 1525, the last Grand Master of the Order, Albert Hohenzollern,* secularized his state and accepted Polish sovereignty over his fief, later known as Ducal Prussia.* In 1618, when Albert's son died without a male heir, Ducal Prussia passed to the Hohenzollern Elector of Brandenburg. During the Swedish "Deluge" of 1655-1660, the Elector of Brandenburg ended Poland's suzerainty over Ducal Prussia. In 1701, Elector Friedrich III crowned himself King of Prussia. His son, Friedrich Wilhelm I, built a strong central Prussian authority and a powerful Army, which conquered Silesia* under Friedrich the Great in the 1740s. He initiated and participated in the First Partitions* of Poland. His son, Friedrich Wilhelm II, obtained large areas of Poland after the Second and Third Partitions. During the Napoleonic era, Prussia went through a period of crisis, but, after 1815, it recovered and established its leading position in fragmented Germany, which eventually was united under Prussian leadership in 1871. F. L. Carsten, The Origins of Prussia (Oxford, 1954); H. Holborn, A History of Modern Germany, vol. 2 (New York, 1964). PRUSSIAN COLONIZATION COMMISSION, institution established in 1886 to buy land owned by the Poles in Prussian Poland and to sell it to the German settlers. Such a policy was conceived to counteract the near-drastic "flight from the East" (Ostflucht) of Germans from the Prussian eastern provinces, which offered fewer opportunities than the western parts of that kingdom. Furnished with an initial fund of 500 million marks, the Commission was also empowered to purchase vacant estates and sell them to approved candidates. In the twenty-seven years of its existence, it could not prevent a decline in the absolute number of German householders in Prussian Poland. The Committee's

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activities were countered by those of the Polish Land Purchase Bank, founded in 1897, and by Polish agrarian cooperatives. N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. II (New York, 1982), 112-139. PRUSZKOWSKI, TADEUSZ (1888-1942), painter. Educated in Warsaw* and Paris, he was an initiator and the first Chairman of the artistic association "Young Art." During WW I, he served in the Polish Legions.* From 1922, he was a professor of the Warsaw Academy of Fine Art and, briefly, its Rector. An outstanding teacher and organizer of higher education, he wished to create a distinct school of Polish painting. He specialized in portrait painting, working mainly in oils. H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (London, 1942); PSB, XXVIII, 604-606. PRUSZYNSKI, KSAWERY (1907-1950), journalist who, before WW II, worked for conservative newspapers, opposing both the radical left and the nationalistic right. He published several books based on his travels, such as Sarajevo 1914-Shanghai 1932-Gdansk 193? and In Red Spain (W czerwonej Hiszpanii). During WW II, he served in the Polish Army in the West. He participated in the 1940 German-French campaign, the Battle of Narvik,* and the 1944 Allied landing in France. He also worked as a diplomat of the Polish Government-in-Exile* in its embassies in Moscow and Kuybishev. In 1945, he returned to Communist-dominated Poland and became its envoy to Holland. He wrote several works illustrating the fate of Polish soldiers during WW II and some polemical books on Polish history. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 649; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 448; PSB, XXVIII, 617-62 PRYSTOR, ALEKSANDER (1874-1941), politician and one of the closest associates of Marshal J. Pilsudski.* After studies in Moscow and Dorpat and one year of service in the Russian Army, he joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1904. He was one of the founders and leaders of its Fighting Organization (Organizacja Bojowa). Arrested by the Russian police in 1912, he remained in Tsarist prisons until 1917. Released after the February Revolution, he worked at various Polish institutions in Russia, and, in the spring of 1918, he returned to Poland. He joined the leadership of the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In November 1918, he became an Under-Secretary of State in the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare of independent Poland. He fought in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921 and played a key role in the establishment of Central Lithuania (Litwa Srodkowa).* He then served on the Polish General Staff. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* Prystor and W. Slawek* were considered by the Marshal his most trusted people. During 1929-1933, Prystor served successively as Minister of Labor and Social Welfare, Minister of Industry and Trade, and Prime Minister (1931-1933). Prystor was a member of the Sejm* (Parliament) from 1930, and, in 1935, he was elected as a Senator and became Speaker of the

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Senate, a position he held until late 1938. After the outbreak of WW II, he moved to Lithuania. When the Soviets occupied that country in 1940, he was arrested; he died in a Soviet prison. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 187, 202, 282-344; Prezydenci i Premierzy Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Presidents and Premiers of the Second Polish Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wr6bel (Warsaw, 1992), 307-324; PSB, XXVIII, 630-635. PRZEDSWIT (The Dawn), socialist periodical published 1881-1905 in Geneva, Leipzig, London, Paris and, from 1901, Cracow.* It was established as a continuation of the Rownosc (Equality), edited by S. Mendelson* and S. Dickstein.* During 1884-1886, Przedswit was an organ of the party known as the First Proletariat.* In 1888, it became an organ of the Second Proletariat.* From 1893, it represented the Union of Polish Socialists Abroad and was edited by W. Jodko-Narkiewicz* and, then, L. Wasilewski.* During 1900-1905, Przedswit was a theoretical organ of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* In 1907, it was revived by the PPS Revolutionary Fraction* and was published until 1920 by the PPS. WEP, IX, 518. PRZEGL&D HISTORYCZNY (Historical Review), periodical published in Warsaw* since 1905 as the prestigious organ of the Association of Lovers of History (Towarzystwo Mitosnikow Historii). WEP, IX, 518-519. PRZEGL&D WSZECHPOLSKI (All-Polish Review), periodical published by the National League (Liga Narodowa)* during 1893-1905 in Lvov* and Cracow.* From 1897, it was also an organ of the National Democratic Party (Partia Narodowo Demokratyczna)* in Russia, edited by R. Dmowski,* Z. Balicki,* and J. Poplawski.* It continued as Przeglgd narodowy (National Review) in Warsaw* during 1908-1915 and Sprawa polska (Polish Question) in Petrograd during 1915-1917. Przeglgd was revived in 1922 in Poznari (Posen),* and, in 1926, it merged with the weekly Mysi narodowa (National Thought). WEP, IX, 520. PRZEMYSL I (1220-1257), Piast* Duke of Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* from 1241, the son of Wladyslaw Odonic and the father of Przemysl II.* After the death of Henryk Pobozny (Henry the Pious),* who controlled Great Poland, Przemysl I became a duke of the Poznari (Posen)* segment of Great Poland. The goal of his life, partially realized, was to re-unite that province. He cooperated with the hierarchy of the Catholic Church in his principality and developed it economically. During his reign, Poznari received German city rights and Great Poland regained its position as the leading political center in medieval Poland. CHP, I, 93, 103; PSB, XXVIII, 728-730. PRZEMYSL II (1257-1296), King of Poland and the son of Przemysl I.* He became a Duke of Poznari (Posen)* Principality in 1277, and, in 1279, he ruled

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over all of Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* He allied with Princes of Western and Eastern Pomerania* against the expansion of Brandenburg. During 12901291, he also ruled over Little Poland (Malopolska),* and, in 1295, he inherited Eastern Pomerania and incorporated it into his realm. In this way, Przemysl II became the most powerful Piast* Duke of Poland. Supporters of the idea of reunification of Poland came to believe that he was able to reverse the feudal disintegration of the country. In 1295, Archbishop J. 3winka* helped him regain the Polish throne and crowned him King in Gniezno.* It was the first such coronation in Poland in 200 years. It emphasized the idea of the symbolic unity of Poland and evoked hopes that real unification was also possible. However, in 1296, Przemysl II was murdered by agents of Brandenburg, whose rulers felt threatened by the possible revival of a strong Poland. CHP, I, 100-114; Poczet krolow i ksigzgt polskich (The Register of the Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 212-217; PSB, XXVIII, 730-733. PRZEMYSL (Peremyshl), town on the San River in southeastern Poland. First chronicled in the year 981, it was annexed into Kievian Rus' in 981. An important trading post, located on the border between Rus' and Poland, Przemysl frequently changed its rulers. During 1018-1031 and 1071-1079, it belonged to Poland, and in the late eleventh century it became the capital of a separate principality, which later had its seat in Halicz (Halych).* In 1349, Przemysl was incorporated into Poland by Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great),* who developed and fortified the town. In 1375, the Roman Catholic Diocese was established there, and, in 1389, King Wladyslaw Jagiello (Jogaila)* granted the town the rights of Magdeburg law.* During the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries, Przemysl flourished as a center of trade and Polish culture. After the wars of the mid-seventeenth century, the town declined, and, in 1772, at the First Partition* of Poland, it was transferred to Austria. Przemysl revived in the second half of the nineteenth century, when it was linked by a railway with Lvov,* Cracow,* and Hungary. It became an important center of the Ukrainian national movement and culture. In 1876, the Austrian authorities started to build a powerful fortress in Przemysl, which became one of the largest in Europe and played a major role during WW I. In November 1918, after a short fight with the Ukrainians, Przemysl was regained by Poland. In September 1939, the town was divided between the Germans and the Soviets. In June 1941, the whole city was in German hands. Recaptured in July 1944 by the Red Army, it was given to Poland according to the Polish-Soviet border agreement of 1945. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 4 (Toronto, 1988), 840-844; WEP, IX, 533-534. PRZESMYCKI, ZENON ("MIRIAM") (1861-1944), literary critic, translator, poet, and editor. He spent a part of his life in Western Europe and became the leading popularizer of the Moderna in Poland. He wrote about and translated such authors as Maeterlinck and Rimbaud and published his works in various

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periodicals in Poland. During 1901-1907, he edited and published an artistic literary magazine, Chimera, which was criticized by some contemporaries for supporting "art for art's sake." The main contribution of Przesmycki was the discovery of the then-completely-forgotten Cyprian Norwid.* Przesmycki collected most of Norwid's works and edited and published them. In November 1918, Przesmycki became Under-Secretary in the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts, and, in 1919, he served as its Minister. In 1933, he was appointed a member of the Polish Academy of Literature.* B. Czajkowski, "Poetic Theories in Poland: Przesmycki and Przybyszewski," Polish Review XI/3 (1966), 45-55; J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 465-466; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 333; PSB, XXIX, 15-. PRZYBYSZEWSKI, STANISLAW (1868-1927), writer and the main representative of Polish Modernism. The son of a schoolteacher from Kujavia,* he graduated from a German high school in Toruri (Thorn)* and studied architecture and medicine in Berlin. There he edited a Polish socialist newspaper for some time, but he soon became a member of Berlin's Boheme and befriended such well-known writers and artists as A. Strindberg, E. Munch, and O. Hansson. Fascinated with Nietzsche, he started writing himself "satanic" and "naked soul" works. He was acclaimed a genius, gained many followers and, when he returned to Cracow,* was considered a literary prophet. In Cracow, he edited the modernist periodical Zycie (Life), where he published his manifesto "Confiteor," which sharply criticized Positivism.* During 1900-1906, he lived in Warsaw, then in Munich, Gdarisk (Danzig),* and again in Warsaw from 1924. His plays, literary essays, novels, and poems, translated into many languages, have provoked controversy to the present time. B. Czajkowski, "Poetic Theories in Poland: Przesmycki and Przybyszewski," Polish Review XI/3 (1966), 45-55; J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 457-460; M. Kuncewicz, "A Polish Satanist: Stanislaw Przybyszewski," Polish Review XIV/2 (1969), 3-20; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 329-333; PSB, XXIX, 149154. PSIE POLE (Dogs' Field), suburb of Wroclaw (Breslau),* where a major Polish-German battle was fought by troops of Boleslaw III Krzywousty (the Wrymouth)* and the German Army of King Henry V in 1109. When Boleslaw drove his older brother, Zbigniew, out of the country, the German King intervened. According to W. Kadlubek's* chronicle, the German expedition ended with a Polish victory, though the contemporary chronicler Gallus Anonymous* fails to mention it. WEP, IX, 348. PSKOV, SIEGE OF, major operation during the Polish-Russian War for Livonia* in the summer of 1581. In 1577, Ivan the Terrible* invaded and occupied Livonia, fighting for access to the Baltic Sea for Russia. Poland fought back, and, after the campaigns of 1579-1580, King Stefan Batory* prepared a decisive

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expedition, which reached Pskov in August 1581. The Poles managed to capture the principal bastions of Pskov on September 8, but they were driven off with heavy losses. A shortage of powder and supplies forced them to continue the siege through the winter. In January 1582, negotiations were conducted by the Jesuit* A. Possevino* at Yam Zapolski and concluded with a ten-year truce. Ivan surrendered Livonia,* Polock,* and Welich to Poland and recovered Velikiye Luki and the rest of the territories occupied by the Polish Armies. The Tsar did not manage to gain access to the Baltic Sea, and Batory abandoned his plans to subjugate Russia. CHP, I, 384-385. PTASNIK, JAN (1876-1930), historian. Educated at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* he taught history and geography in the high schools of Cracow and Przemysl.* Simultaneously, he continued his research and visited Rome several times, searching for Polonica in Vatican archives. In 1910, he became professor of cultural histoiy at the Jagiellonian University and continued his research and travels to Nuremberg, Brussels and London. After the outbreak of WW I, he served in the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN])* and in the Polish Legions.* In 1919, he was appointed a professor of medieval history at Lvov University, and, in 1929, he became a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU]).* He specialized in urban, cultural, and medieval history and was a prolific author and a popular professor. PSB, XXIX, 303-308. PUCK, fishing port in the Bay of Gdarisk. A Castellan* stronghold in the thirteenth century, it was under the control of the Teutonic Knights* from 1309. Regained by Poland in 1466, it became an administrative center in Polish Royal Prussia.* During the reign of Wladyslaw IV,* Puck was fortified and a naval port was built there. During 1772-1920, it was in Prussian hands. In the interwar period, until the harbor of Gdynia* was built, Puck was the only Polish seaport. SHP, 386. PULASKI, ALEKSANDER (1800-1838), politician and Piarist monk. Ordained in 1830, he taught in Warsaw* at the Collegium Nobilium* and several provincial colleges. During the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he was very active as a radical democratic agitator. He joined the Patriotic Society, opposed the conservative and procrastinating governments of the uprising, and demanded the creation of a revolutionary tribunal to prosecute spies and counterrevolutionaries. In his homilies, he claimed God selected the Polish people to prepare the unification of Asia and Europe with eternal links of freedom and enlightenment. In February 1831, he joined Gen. J. Dwernicki's* expedition to Volhynia* as its Chief Chaplain. Arrested for plotting against the insurrectionist government, he escaped to Paris, where he was active in J. Lelewel's* National Polish Committee and the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokra-

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tyczne Polskie [TDP]).* Expelled from France, he continued his radical activity in Belgium and England. PSB, XXIX, 363-366. PULASKI, KAZIMIERZ (1747-1779), Polish and American General. The son of Jozef Pulaski, one of the founders of the Bar Confederation,* he also joined the Confederation and distinguished himself as one of its best military commanders operating against the Russian Army. He defended Berdichev in 1768, and Zwaniec and Okopy Swietej Trojcy (Trenches of St. Trinity) in 1769. His guerrilla units operated between the Carpathians* and Poznari (Posen).* He gained international fame through his defense of Czestochowa Monastery in 1771. Involved in an attempt to kidnap King Stanislaw August* of Poland, he was falsely accused of trying to murder the King and left Poland for Saxony after the First Partition* of Poland in 1772. After a stay in Paris, he went to the Balkans in 1774 to fight on the Turkish side against Russia. He tried to organize a Polish unit within the Turkish Army, but Turkey signed a peace treaty with Russia. Pulaski returned to Paris, where he met Benjamin Franklin and, encouraged by him, moved to America. He joined the American Army fighting against the British and, in 1777, became Commander of the American Cavalry. In 1778, he formed the Pulaski Legion, a mixed corps of cavalry and infantry, which used Pulaski's guerrilla experience from Poland. Pulaski was mortally wounded in a cavalry charge during the siege of Savannah on October 9, 1779. D. Abodasher, Freedom Fighter: Casimir Pulaski (New York, 1969); C. Manning, Sol-

dier of Liberty, Casimir Pulaski (New York, 1945); A. Pienkos, "A Bicentennial Look at Casimir Pulaski: Polish, American and Ethnic Folk Hero," Polish American Studies XXXIII/1 (1976), 5-17; PSB, 386-395.

PULAWY, town on the right bank of the Vistula* River in Lublin* province (wojewodztwo), which was a residence of the Lubomirski family in the seventeenth century and the Sieniawski family in the eighteenth century. In 1784, A. K. Czartoryski* bought Pulawy and created there a noted center of cultural life which predominated in Poland until the fall of Napoleon. The Pulawy palace, reconstructed by the French artist C. Aigner, was visited by leading writers, statesmen and artists. In 1805, Pulawy hosted Tsar Alexander I,* who prepared there a plan for a new European order together with his host A. J. Czartoryski.* After the fall of the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, the Czartoryskis' estate was confiscated by the Russian authorities and subdivided, becoming a boarding school for girls in 1844 and the Institute of Rural and Forest Economy in 1869. WEP, IX, 612-613. PULAWY LEGION (Legion Pulawski), Polish military unit created in Russian Poland in 1914 on the initiative of the pro-Russian Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP]),* primarily to counter-balance politically the Polish Legions* founded on the Austrian side. The Legion, consisting of about 1,000 volunteers, fought as part of a Russian Corps from March to September

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1915. Then, it was developed into the Polish Riflemen Brigade (Brygada Strzelcow Polskich), which became the nucleus of the Polish Riflemen Division, established in 1917, and the First Polish Corps in Russia. WEP, IX, 427. PULTUSK, town on the Narew River located north of Warsaw.* Chronicled first as a Castellan* stronghold in the thirteenth century, it became a property of the Bishops of Plock.* It received its city rights twice: in 1257 and 1339. Destroyed by the Lithuanians several times, it became one of the main economic and cultural centers of Mazovia* in the fifteenth century. In the second half of the sixteenth century, P. Skarga* and J. Wujek* taught there in a local Jesuit* college. WEP, IX, 613-614. PUZYNA, JAN (1842-1911), Cardinal from 1901. After years of work as a civil servant in Galicia,* he enrolled in a seminary and was ordained a priest in 1878. In 1886, he became Auxiliary Bishop of Lvov,* and, in 1894, he was appointed Bishop of Cracow.* He began his tenure with the restoration of the Wawel* Cathedral. Politically conservative, he opposed populist and socialist movements and punished priests involved in party agitation. He improved the clergy's discipline and education. He forbade the burial of J. Stowacki's* ashes in Wawel Cathedral and refused to celebrate a mass on the 500th anniversary of the Battle of Grunwald* in 1910. Both these decisions provoked protests and street demonstrations in Cracow. PSB, XXIX, 488-491. PUZAK, KAZIMIERZ (1883-1950), socialist leader. He joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1904, took part in the 1905 Russian Revolution as one of the party leaders, and, after the 1906 split in the PPS, opted for its Revolutionary Fraction. Arrested by the Russian police in 1911, he remained in a labor camp in Siberia* until 1917. He returned to Poland in October 1918 and became Secretary General of the Post and Telegraph Ministry in J. Moraczewski's* government. During 1919-1935, Puzak represented the PPS in the Sejm* (Parliament). In May 1919, he was elected to the Central Executive Committee of the PPS and held various top positions in its leadership until WW II. He opposed Pilsudski's* Sanacja* regime and, in 1929, was one of the organizers of the Centrolew* coalition. Simultaneously, he was against the "popular front" of the Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP])* and instead favored cooperation with peasant parties. In 1939, he joined national fundraising for anti-aircraft defense, and, a few months before the outbreak of WW II, he secretly organized a network of PPS fighting squads to challenge the German invaders. During the 1939 September Campaign, Puzak participated in the defense of Warsaw* as a member of the Workers' Committee of Social Welfare. After the fall of Warsaw, he became one of the main founders and leaders of the clandestine continuation of the PPS under the German occupation. He also represented his party in the leadership of the underground Polish state and commanded guerrilla units of the underground PPS. In March

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1945, Puzak, with fifteen leaders of the underground state, accepted the Soviet invitation for talks, and was then abducted together with his colleagues to Moscow, where he was sentenced to a year and a half in prison for anti-Soviet activities. In 1946, he returned to Poland, was re-arrested by the Polish Communist authorities and died in prison. S. Korboriski, "Kazimierz Puzak (pseudo: Bazyli)," Bohaterowiwe Paristwa Podziemnego—jak ich znalem (New York, 1987), 58-62; G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy (New York, 1988), 64, 95-96, 140, passim; PSB, IX.

Q QUAKERS, English Protestant sect of Christian pacifists founded by George Fox in the mid-seventeenth century. Though the Quakers operated mostly in the Anglo-Saxon world, they reached Poland through Gdarisk (Danzig)* in the late seventeenth century and had some impact on the Polish Enlightenment.* During the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, the Polish Quaker W. Jastrzebowski published a pacifist, anti-Tsarist pamphlet against the uprising. The main impact of Quaker activities began in Poland with WW I, when the sect became involved in helping refugees and, during WW II, with Quaker humanitarian assistance to war-torn Poland. P. Brock, "A Pacifist in Wartime: Wojciech Bogumil Jastrzebowski," Polish Review XII/2 (1967), 84-87; M. Wajsblum, "Quakers and Poland, 1661-1959," Polish Review XI/2 (1966), 11-22. QUARTER TROOPS (Kwarciane Wojsko), origins of the regular Army in Poland based financially on one-quarter (hence the name) of income from Royal estates. Quarter Troops were established by Zygmunt II August (Sigismund II Augustus)* in the mid-sixteenth century in order to defend the southeastern borders of Poland threatened by the Tatars* and Moldavians. Usually, the Troops numbered between four and six thousand men. In the late seventeenth century, Quarter Troops were merged with other mercenary troops. M. Kukiel, Zarys Historii Wojskowosci w Polsce (The Outline of the Military History of Poland) (London, 1949).

QUI PRO QUO, name of cabaret active in Warsaw* during 1919-1932. It became a model for political and social satire. Song texts, monologues and sketches were written by the best Polish poets, such as J. Tuwim,* A. Slonimski,* and M. Hemar.* During 1937-1939, the Male (Small) Qui pro Quo enriched Warsaw's nightlife. R. Nowicki, Warsaw, the Cabaret Years (San Francisco, 1992); WEP, IX, 638.

R RAABE, LESZEK (1913-1943), socialist youth leader. A Red Scouting activist from 1928, he was one of the leaders of a radical student organization, the Union of Independent Socialist Youth (Zwiazek Niezaleznej Mlodziezy Socjalistycznej [ZNMS])* when he studied at the Universities of Warsaw* and Vilna* during 1931-1937. Then, he joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and became one of its youth leaders. He fought in the September Campaign* of 1939 and, later, was active in the socialist resistance in Germanoccupied Poland. He attempted to organize help for the fighting Warsaw Ghetto,* participated in sabotage operations against German military installations, and edited socialist underground periodicals. He was killed in mysterious circumstances, probably by Communists, in December 1943. K. Dunin-Wasowicz (ed.), Leszek Raabe we wspomnieniach przyjaciol (Warsaw, 1963); G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy (New York, 1988); PSB, XXIX, 535-537. RACLAWICE, BATTLE OF, major encounter of Russian and Polish troops during the Kosciuszko Insurrection* on April 4, 1794, near the village of Raclawice in the Miechow county of Cracow* province (wojewodztwo). The Polish Army of 6,000 men was commanded by T. Kosciuszko* and included about 2,000 peasant volunteers armed with scythes. The Poles, marching from Cracow, defeated Russian units of some 3,000 soldiers and opened the way to Warsaw.* The decisive blow to the Russians was given by the scythe bearers (kosynierzy) led by Bartosz Glowacki* in their daring attack on the Russian Artillery. The scene was immortalized in Raclawice Panorama* painted by W. Kossak* and J. Styka.* The battle became a symbol of the peasants' contribution to Poland's fight for independence. CHP, II, 161; WEP, IX, 649. RACZKIEWICZ, WLADYSLAW (1885-1947), President of Poland during 1939-1947. After law studies in St. Petersburg and Dorpat and a year in the

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Russian Army, he began his legal career in Minsk in 1912. Drafted into the Russian Army in August 1914, he took an active part in the organization of Polish Armed Forces in Russia after the February Revolution of 1917 and became a Chairman of the Polish Military Committee (Naczelny Polski Komitet Wojskowy [Naczpol]). He supported the Regency Council (Rada Regencyjna)* established by the Germans in Warsaw,* and, in the spring of 1918, he became the council's representative for military affairs in Russia. From December 1918, Raczkiewicz was a member of various Polish governmental institutions administering the eastern provinces of Poland. In 1921, 1925-1926, and 1936, he served as Minister of Interior and, during 1921-1924, 1926-1930, 1935, and 1936, as Palatine (wojewoda) of Nowogrodek, Vilna,* Cracow,* and Pomerania,* respectively. He was also President of the World Union of Poles Abroad (Swiatpol) from 1934 and the Speaker of the Senate during 1930-1935. After the outbreak of WW II, he was nominated by President I. Moscicki,* who was interned in Romania, as his successor. As a new President, Raczkiewicz appointed the first Polish Government-in-Exile of Gen. W. Sikorski* in October 1939. After the fall of France, Raczkiewicz was evacuated with the whole Polish Government to London. He opposed the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement,* and the Soviet government pressed for his resignation. In addition, the relationship between Raczkiewicz and the new Premier, S. Mikolajczyk,* was not good. G. Lerski, "Emigracyjny Rzad Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej," Wysilek zbrojny w II Wojnie Swiatowej (London, 1988); G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy, 1939-1945 (New York, 1988); PSB, XXIX, 607-614.

RACZYNSKI, EDWARD (1891-1993), diplomat. A scion of a Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* magnate* family, he worked in Polish diplomacy from 1919. During 1932-1934, he represented Poland in the League of Nations,* and, during 1934-1945, he was a Polish Ambassador in Great Britain, where he contributed to the signing of the Polish-English Alliance on the eve of WW II. During 1940-1943, he was an Acting Foreign Minister in the Polish Government-in-Exile* of Gen. W. Sikorski.* Politically, he assumed a position of compromise between Sikorski and his opponents. E. Raczyriski, In Allied London (London, 1962). RADEK, KAROL (1885-1939), socialist and Bolshevik leader. Born as Karl Sobelsohn to an assimilated Jewish family in Galicia,* he became involved in socialist activities as a student of a Tarnow* high school. While studying at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* from 1902, he wrote for the socialist press. In 1903, he moved to Switzerland, and, in 1905, as a member of the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL]),* he returned to Warsaw* and took part in the First Russian Revolution. Arrested by the Russian police, he was deported to Austria in 1908 and moved to Berlin, where he became a leading journalist of the German Social Democratic Party. After the Bolshevik Revolution, he

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arrived in Soviet Russia and became a member of the Soviet leadership. However, after Lenin's death, he sided with Trotsky against Stalin, and, as a consequence, he was expelled from the Bolshevik Party in 1927 and arrested in 1936. He died in a gulag in the Arctic region. W. Lemer, Karl Radek: The Last Internationalist (Stanford, California, 1970); The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 30 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1981), 139-143; PSB, XXIX, 680-688; J. Tuck, Engine of Mischief: An Analytical Biography of Karl Radek (New York, 1988).

RADOM, town in Central Poland. Established as a stronghold in the tenth century, it belonged to the Bishops of Wroclaw (Breslau)* and developed as a result of its location on a trade route from Lithuania* to Silesia.* In 1360, Radom received urban rights from King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great),* who fortified the town and made it the seat of a District Governor (starosta). In the fifteenth century, it became a center of textile production. Located in the middle of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* it often served as the site of congresses of the nobility. In 1505, the Sejm* (Parliament) adopted there a significant constitution, called nihil novi* Between 1613 and 1766, the financial court of the Commonwealth resided in Radom, and, in 1767, the Radom Confederation* was signed there. During 1795-1809, it was occupied by Austria, then was a part of the Duchy of Warsaw* and, after 1815, belonged to the Russian-occupied Congress Kingdom of Poland,* serving as the capital of a province. In the second half of the nineteenth century, Radom developed into an important industrial center. SHP, 395-396. RADOM CONFEDERATION, alliance formed by nobles of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth* in order to oppose the reforms proposed by King Stainislaw August* and the party of the Czartoryskis known as "Familia."* The Confederation was organized with the help and on the initiative of the Russian Ambassador to Poland, N. Repnin.* Moscow had installed Stanislaw August on the Polish throne but was against his plans for reforms. Large portions of the nobility opposed the King as both an impostor and a reformer. The confederates met at Radom,* elected K. RadziwiH* as their leader and, on June 23, 1767, signed an act thanking Catherine the Great* for promising to safeguard the old rights and freedoms and guaranteeing the religious freedoms of the dissidents.* In July 1767, the Confederate Diet moved to Warsaw* and conceded to Catherine the right to maintain the old order and the so-called cardinal rights. The Radom Confederation marked an inherent weakness of the Commonwealth, leading directly to the First Partition* of 1772. CHP, II, 98; G. Lukowski, "The Szlachta and the Confederacy of Radom, 1764-1767/68: A Study of the Polish Nobility," Antemurale XXI (1977), 9-291; A. Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (Oxford, 1992), 155-171. RADZIEJOWSKI, AUGUSTYN MICHAL STEFAN (1645-1705), Cardinal, Archbishop of Gniezno,* and Primate* of Poland, who dethroned King August

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II Mocny (Augustus II the Strong).* A scion of a magnate family and a son of the famous Hieronim Radziejowski,* he was educated in Paris and Rome and became a priest in 1668. Then, he became a secretary of King Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki* and a chaplain to Hetman* Jan Sobieski.* When the latter was elected King of Poland, Radziejowski represented him in several diplomatic missions and was appointed Bishop of Warmia (Ermland)* in 1678. In 1685, he became Deputy Chancellor* of Poland, in 1686 Cardinal and, in 1688, Archbishop of Gniezno. After Sobieski's death, Radziejowski served as Primate and supported the candidacy of Louis de Bourbon to the Polish throne. When the French Prince lost to August II, Radziejowski reconciled with the new monarch but soon started plotting against him. When the Swedes occupied Poland during the Northern War,* he dethroned August II in 1704. Simultaneously, he opposed S. Leszczyriski* and accepted his election only under Swedish pressure. When the Army of August II approached Warsaw,* Radziejowski escaped to Gdarisk (Danzig).* In 1705, he was suspended in his duties by the Pope, charged as responsible for the chaos in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* the betrayal of the King, and the bringing of Swedish-Lutheran heretics to Poland. PSB, XXX, 66-76. RADZIEJOWSKI, HIERONIM (1612-1667), magnate* who convinced Sweden to invade Poland in 1655. He participated in the Polish-Swedish War of 1626-1629 and expeditions against the Cossacks.* In 1632, he became a courtier of King Wladyslaw IV Waza (Vasa),* who used Radziejowski in various political missions. He represented his native L^czyca* province in the Sejm* (Parliament) and, in 1645, was elected its Speaker. After King Wladyslaw's death, Radziejowski supported the candidacy of his brother, Jan Kazimierz.* During the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising,* Radziejowski advocated a compromise with the Cossacks and maintained secret contacts with them. His plotting and inflammatory propaganda caused the dispersal of the levee en masse prepared to fight the Cossacks in 1651. Tried and pursued as a criminal, he went to Stockholm, where he helped to plan a campaign against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* He entered Poland with the invading Swedish Army in 1655 and contributed greatly to its initial successes. Hunted by troops loyal to the Polish King, he was jailed by the Swedes, who came to distrust him. Pardoned by the Polish Sejm* (Parliament), he returned to Poland and was sent as an envoy to Turkey. PSB, XXX, 50-63. RADZIWILL (Radvilas), Lithuanian Polonized family who played a prominent political role in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* The family, one of the wealthiest of its time, originated in the fifteenth century. In 1547, the Radziwills were awarded the title of Princes of the Holy Roman Empire. The family, divided into several branches, produced numerous Chancellors, Marshals, Hetmans, Palatines, and other dignitaries of the Commonwealth. Barbara RadziwiH* became a Polish Queen. Her cousins maintained large private armies and

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exercised virtually sovereign control over Lithuania.* The House of RadziwiH lost its dominant position in the late seventeenth century, but its members played important roles in Polish politics until the interwar period. K. Bartoszewicz, Radziwillowie (Warsaw, 1922); Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 411; T. Nowakowski, The Radziwills: The Social History of a Great European Family (New York, 1974). RADZIWILL, BOGUSLAW (1620-1669), Polish-Lithuanian magnate of Calvinist* persuasion who sided with the Swedes during their invasion of Poland in the years 1655-1660. The son of J. RadziwiH,* the Castellan* of Vilna,* and Elizabeth Hohenzollern,* he was educated abroad and traveled extensively in Western Europe. Elected several times as a member of the Sejm* (Parliament), he participated in the 1635 war with Sweden and in the expeditions against the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising.* Together with his cousin, Janusz RadziwiH,* he declared his readiness to serve Sweden in exchange for a part of Lithuania* as a Duchy ruled by him. He also discussed plans for a partition of Poland with a Prince of Transylvania. During the first period of the Swedish "Deluge,"* he fought on the Swedish side against the troops loyal to the Polish King. Taken prisoner of war, RadziwiH escaped to his uncle, the Elector of Brandenburg; he was granted amnesty by the Poles and, from 1657, fought against the Swedes. During 1657-1665, he served the Elector of Brandenburg as Governor General of Ducal Prussia.* T. Nowakowski, The Radziwills: The Social History of a Great European Family (New York, 1974); PSB, XXX. RADZIWILL, JANUSZ (1579-1620), Castellan* of Vilna* from 1619. During 1600-1601, he participated in the war against Sweden. One of the opponents of Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa),* he, together with M. Zebrzydowski,* led a rebellion against the King. After the fall of the rebellion, he retired from politics and spent several years abroad. T. Nowakowski, The Radziwills: The Social History of a Great European Family (New York, 1974); PSB, XXX, 205-208. RADZIWILL, JANUSZ (1612-1655), Grand Hetman* of Lithuania,* one of the most powerful magnates of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* and a leader and guardian of the Lithuanian Calvinists.* He started his political career as a member of a delegation to the Courts of England and Holland to announce the election of Wladyslaw IV Waza (Ladislas IV Vasa)* as King of Poland and Lithuania. In 1646, he became the Lithuanian Field Hetman; in 1653, the Palatine of Vilna*; and, in 1654, the Grand Hetman. He successfully commanded a force during the military operations against the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising* of 1648 and the war which followed with Russia. After the Swedish invasion of Poland in 1655, he signed a union of Lithuania with Sweden, abandoning the union with Poland. His objective, aside from the personal ambition to become a Duke of Lithuania, was to strengthen his country against Muscovy. Branded a traitor, he died besieged in Tykocin by troops loyal to the Polish

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King. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 415-416; T. Nowakowski, The Radziwills: The Social History of a Great European Family (New York, 1974); PSB, XXX, 208-215. RADZIWILL, JANUSZ (1880-1967), conservative politician. He completed agrarian and economic studies, inherited large estates, and worked on their improvement. In 1911, he was elected to a local government in Volhynia,* and, after the Russian February Revolution of 1917, he headed a Polish civic committee in the capital of Volhynia, Rowne. In 1918, he served in the Government of the Regency Council (Rada Regencyjna)* as the Director of the Political Department. He participated in the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-1921* and headed the Polish Armistice Delegation in Moscow. He presided over the Central Union of Polish Mining, Commerce and Finance (Lewiatan)* for several years. After the Pilsudski coup d'etat* of 1926, RadziwiH became an important political liaison between Polish conservatives and the dictator. He joined the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR])* and represented it in the Sejm* (Parliament) during 1928-1935. Afterward, he served as a Senator in 1935-1939. He quietly opposed both the German and the Russian occupation of Poland during WW II and was eventually jailed in Russia. T. Nowakowski, The Radziwills: The Story of a Great European Family (New York, 1974); PSB, XXX, 215-225. RADZIWILL, KAROL (1669-1719), Chancellor* of Lithuania* from 1689. He served as a diplomat for Jan III Sobieski* and participated in the war with Turkey during 1688-1689. After the King's death, he supported a French candidate to the Polish throne but later established working relations with the new King, August II Mocny (Augustus II the Strong).* After the King was dethroned, RadziwiH was seriously considered as a candidate to the Polish Crown. T. Nowakowski, The Radziwills: The Story of a Great European Family (New York, 1974); PSB, XXX, 240-247. RADZIWILL, KAROL STANISLAW (1734-1790), one of the wealthiest magnates in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and Palatine (wojewoda) of Vilna* during 1762-1764 and 1780-1790. Nicknamed "Panie Kochanku" (My dear sir) after his pet expression, he was very popular among the middle and small gentry for his simplicity, generosity, and hospitality. Together with Hetman* J. K. Branicki,* he opposed the election of Stanislaw August* as King of Poland and Lithuania.* His troops were defeated by the Russian Army, which backed the election, and he was ejected to Moldavia in 1764. However, the Russians were against the political reforms started by the King and the Czartoryski family. The Russian Ambassador to Poland, N. V. Repnin,* arranged for the return of RadziwiH in 1767. He became Head of the Radom Confederation,* organized on the initiative of the Ambassador by the conservative aristocracy, which was in danger of losing their decisive role in public affairs and

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opposed the reformative policy of Stanislaw August. The Confederation, a Russian tool for undermining the reforms, did not dethrone Stanislaw August, and the disappointed RadziwiH joined the anti-Russian, conservative Bar Confederation* in 1768. After its fall, he left Poland again and then returned in 1777. During the Great Sejm* (Parliament) of 1788-1792, he was a member of the conservative political camp opposing the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* Basically uneducated and an excessive drinker, he found a place in the Polish national tradition as a symbol of the backward and corrupt magnates, who brought about Poland's destruction. T. Nowakowski, The Radziwills: The Story of a Great European Family (New York, 1974); PSB, XXX. RADZIWILL, MIKOLAJ ("CZARNY") (The Black) (1515-1565), Chancellor* of Lithuania* and founder of the political power of the RadziwiH family. His career started in 1542, when he became Court Marshal and then a friend of Zygmunt August (Sigismund Augustus),* who at that time was Grand Prince of Lithuania and heir to the Polish throne. In 1547, Zygmunt August secretly married RadziwiH's cousin, Barbara RadziwiH.* In the same year, RadziwiH obtained the hereditary title of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire. After Zygmunt August became King of Poland and Lithuania, RadziwiH was appointed Chancellor of Lithuania in 1550 and Palatine (wojewoda) of Vilna* in 1551. He opposed the 1569 Polish-Lithuanian Union of Lublin* and wanted Lithuania to remain a sovereign state and with only a personal union based on royal marriage with Poland. Concerned with the growing power of Muscovy, he contributed greatly to the Polish-Lithuanian victory in the Livonian War of 1558— 1582. Deeply engaged in the Reformation in Lithuania, he converted to Lutheranism and later to Calvinism, and also made large endowments to Protestant churches. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 416-417; J. Jasnowski, Mikolaj Czarny RadziwiH, 1515-1565: Kanclerz i marszalek ziemski Wielkiego Ksiestwa Litewskiego, wojewoda wilenski (Warsaw, 1939); T. Nowakowski, The Radziwills: The Story of a Great European Family (New York, 1974); PSB, XXX, 335-347. RADZIWILL, MIKOLAJ ("RUDY") (the Redhead) (1512-1584), Chancellor* and Grand Hetman* of Lithuania* and a brother of Barbara RadziwiH.* Educated in Germany, he traveled extensively in Western Europe. In 1547, together with his cousin, Mikolaj RadziwiH "Czarny" (the Black),* he received the title of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire. After his sister married Zygmunt August (Sigismund August),* RadziwiH established close relations with the King. In 1550, he became Grand Hetman and, in 1565, Chancellor and Palatine (wojewoda) of Vilna.* Like his cousin, RadziwiH the Black, he opposed the 1569 Polish-Lithuanian Union of Lublin* and preferred that both countries remain in a personal union based on royal marriage or just a military alliance. He commanded the Polish-Lithuanian Army during the Livonian War and defeated the Russians in a spectacular battle on the Ula River in 1564. His troops routed the Muscovites from Livonia* in 1578-1579, captured Velikie Luki in 1580,

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and besieged Pskov* in 1581. RadziwiH the Redhead was one of the main leaders of the Reformation in Lithuania, and he reshaped his residential town of Birze into an important center of Calvinism. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 417-418; J. Nowakowski, The Radziwills: The Story of a Great European Family (New York, 1974); PSB, XXX.

RADZIWILL, MIKOLAJ KRZYSZTOF ("SIEROTKA") (Little Orphan) (1549-1616), Chancellor* of Lithuania.* A son of RadziwiH the Black, he studied in Germany and spent some time in Paris and Rome. In 1567, he returned to Poland and soon became a Royal Court Marshal. In 1579, he was appointed Grand Marshal; in 1590, Palatine (wojewoda) of Troki (Trakai)*; and, in 1604, Palatine of Vilna.* He participated in two campaigns against Muscovy, in 1568 and 1579-1581. Raised in a Calvinist family, he converted to Catholicism in 1567 under the influence of P. Skarga.* He became a zealous supporter of the Jesuits* and was very active in fighting Protestantism. In his residential town of Nieswiez, reshaped by him into one of the most powerful fortresses of Europe, RadziwiH established a Jesuit college. In 1582, he traveled to the Holy Land and described his pilgrimage in a lively diary. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 4 (Boston, 1973), 418-419; T. Nowakowski, The Radziwills: The Story of a Great European Family (New York, 1974); PSB, XXX, 349-359. RAKOW, village in the Kielce* region established in 1557 by J. Sienieriski, who guaranteed religious tolerance to its future inhabitants. During 1569-1572, Rakow was the seat of the radical commune of the Polish Brethren. After 1599, it became their main center with its famous academy and printing shop. The Rakow Cathechism published there in 1605 was a basic book of the Unitarians.* The Polish Brethren, also called the Arians,* attempted to establish in Rakow a commune based on common property and duty of manual labor. During 16021638, more than thirty Arian Synods took place there. In 1638, a Court of the Sejm* (Parliament) decided to close the academy and printing shop and then dissolved the Arian congregation. In 1869, Rakow lost its town rights. SHP, 398399. RAMORINO, ANTONIO (1790-1849), Italian officer of the French Army and later a Polish and Piedmont General. He served in the French Army during 1808-1816. In 1821, he participated in an anti-Austrian uprising in his native Piedmont, and, in March 1831, he volunteered to join the Polish Army of the November Insurrection.* He was appointed a Colonel, commanded a Brigade, and participated in several battles of the uprising. In spite of his poor showing, he was promoted to two-star Division General. His inept leadership caused several defeats of the Polish Army. In September 1831, he crossed the border of Galicia* together with his troops, capitulated and was interned by the Austrians. Released, he rejoined the French Army and later participated in the Springtime

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of Nations* in Piedmont, where he was sentenced to death and executed for disobeying orders of his Army Commanders. PSB, XXX, 545-550. RAPACKI, MARIAN (1884-1944), activist and theoretician of the cooperative movement in Poland. Involved in the Polish Youth Union "Zet" (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej "Zet")* and in the National Workers' Union in Russian Poland, he was arrested by the Russian Police in 1907 and expelled to Austrian Poland. In 1920, he became editor of a cooperative organ, Spolem (Together). During 1921-1944, he was a member of the leadership of the Union of Polish Consumers and Cooperative Associations. WEP, IX, 703-704. RAPACKI, WINCENTY (1840-1924), actor. He began his career in 1861 with the Vilna* Theater and then performed in most major Polish cities. He was also a playwright and wrote novels and studies on the history of the theater. SBTP, 582-583. RAPALLO TREATY, agreement signed on April 16, 1922, in the town of Rapallo in northern Italy by the Soviet Foreign Minister, G. Chicherin, and the German W. Rathenau during the Genoa Conference of Western Powers. Both the Germans and the Soviets were invited to the conference. However, since recently defeated Germany was responsible for the outbreak of WW I and the Soviet government's legitimacy was not recognized by most states, the Germans and the Soviets were not considered full partners and regular conference participants. They surprised the Western Powers, however, by signing a treaty, which stipulated mutual Russo-German cancellation of war reparations and public and private property claims. The treaty opened the way to friendly cooperation between the USSR and the Weimar Republic. It also enabled the USSR to return to the European political and economic system and strengthened Germany visa-vis the Entente countries. The agreement was supplemented by secret deals for training German officers and developing German military installations in Russia, forbidden by the Versailles Treaty. It augured badly for Poland and other countries of Central Europe and paved the way for the future Nazi-Soviet collaboration. A. Cienciala and T. Komamicki, From Versailles to Locarno: Keys to Polish Foreign Policy, 1919-1925 (Lawrence, Kansas, 1984); J. Karski, The Great Powers and Poland, 1919-1945 (Washington, D.C, 1985). RAPPERSWIL, town in Switzerland where W. Plater* opened a Polish Museum in 1870. The museum gathered numerous valuable manuscripts and other artifacts related to Polish history. During the interwar period, a part of the collection was transferred to the National Museum in Warsaw,* where it was destroyed by German bombs in September 1939. Rappers wil remains an important center of Polish culture abroad. WEP, IX, 705.

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RARANCZA, BATTLE OF, battle fought by a part of the Polish Auxiliary Corps (Polski Korpus Posilkowy), formerly the Second Brigade of the Polish Legions,* under Gen. J. Haller* with the Austrians near the town of Rararicza in Bukovina on February 15-16, 1918. After the Brest-Litovsk Treaty,* which was very disadvantageous to Poland, the Polish Legionnaires, fighting on the Austrian side, rebelled and crossed the Austrian front lines to join the Polish First Army Corps in Russia. The Poles won the battle with great losses. A part of Haller's troops broke through the front to Russia, but numerous Legionnaires were jailed by the Austrians. M. Kukiel, Zarys Historii Wojskowosci w Polsce (Survey of Polish Military History) (London, 1949). RASZYN, BATTLE OF, encounter of Polish and Austrian troops on April 19, 1809, at the village of Raszyn near Warsaw.* After the outbreak of the 1809 war between Austria and France, the Austrian Army attacked the Duchy of Warsaw,* which was Napoleon's ally. Polish troops, 12,000 strong and commanded by J. Poniatowski,* tried to stop 30,000 Austrian soldiers under Archduke F. d'Este who were approaching Warsaw. The key position of the battle was a dike near Falenty village, defended by Col. C. Godebski,* who was killed in the battle. The Poles had to abandon their position and evacuate to Warsaw, but their tough defense strengthened the morale of the Polish Army. CHP, II, 229-231. RATAJ, MACIEJ (1884-1940), statesman. Born into a peasant family, he studied classical philology at Lvov* University during 1904-1908. Then he taught in several high schools and as a private tutor and, in 1913, joined the peasant movement. In 1918, he became one of the main activists of the Polish Peasant Party "Liberation" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Wyzwolenie")* in the Zamosc* region, where he was elected to the Sejm* (Parliament). He served as a Member of Parliament during 1919-1930 and 1934-1935. In the years 19191921, he distinguished himself as a Vice President and President of the Parliamentary Constitutional Committee. He contributed greatly to the drafting and acceptance of the Constitution of March 1921.* During 1922-1928, he was a Speaker of the Sejm, and, as such, he acted as head of state after the assassination of President G. Narutowicz* in 1922 and after the Pilsudski coup d'etat* in 1926. Later, he opposed the Sanacja* regime and helped to organize the Centrolew* movement. His activities led to the unification of the peasant movement in 1931, and he became one of the main leaders of the united Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL]).* In September 1939, he participated in the establishment of the underground state in German-occupied Poland. He represented the clandestine Peasant Party in Polish underground authorities. Arrested by the Gestapo* in November 1939, released and rearrested in March 1940, he was killed in a mass execution in Palmiry.* PSB, XXX, 619-624. RATAJSKI, CYRYL (1875-1942), statesman. Born into a peasant family, he graduated from Berlin University and, in 1905, became an attorney in Raciborz,

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Opole* Silesia,* where he was active on behalf of the Polish population. In 1911, he moved to Poznari (Posen)* to take care of his father-in-law's business. He was an enthusiast and pioneer of tourism in Poland. In 1916, he joined the National League (Liga Narodowa),* and, in 1918, he took charge of the Industrial-Commercial Department of the newly established Polish authority in Poznari, the Commissariat of the Supreme People's Council (Naczelna Rada Ludowa). During 1924-1934, he served as Mayor of Poznari and contributed greatly to the development of the city. In 1924-1925, he was also Minister of Interior in the cabinet of W. Grabski.* He opposed the Sanacja* regime and, during 1934-1939, was very active in a right-of-center opposition coalition called the Front Morges.* In 1937, he joined the newly created Labor Party (Stronnictwo Pracy [SP]).* He served again as a Mayor of Poznari in September 1939. Early in 1940, he was deported to German-occupied central Poland, the General Government.* On December 3, 1940, Premier W. Sikorski* appointed Ratajski Chief Delegate of the Polish Government-in-Exile* to the occupied country. He remained head of the Polish underground state till August 5, 1942, when he was replaced by Dr. J. Piekalkiewicz,* as a result of the opposition of the Peasant Party and the socialists. J. Gariiriski, Poland in the Second World War (New York, 1985), 136-137; J. Karski, Story of a Secret State (Boston, 1944); S. Korboriski, "Cyryl Ratajski," Bohaterowie Paristwa Podziemngo—jak ich znalem (The Heroes of the Underground State—as I Knew Them) (New York, 1987); S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978), 36-47; PSB, XXX, 629-632. RATTI, ACHILLE (1857-1937), Apostolic Nuncio* in Poland, later Pope Pius XL In 1918 Benedict XV appointed him Apostolic Visitator and, in June 1919, Nuncio to Poland, which had just established diplomatic relations with the Vatican. He also served as Papal Delegate on the Inter-Allied Commission for the plebiscite* area in Upper Silesia,* where his sympathy was with the Poles. As a consequence, Ratti was transferred to Milan as its Archbishop. In 1922, he was elected Pope Pius XI. He published several important Encyclicals, among them Quadragesimo Anno. In 1925, he signed a Concordat* with Poland. New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. XI (New York, 1967). RAYSKI, LUDOMIL (1892-1977), General of the Polish Air Force. During 1912-1914, he belonged to the Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki),* and, after the outbreak of WW I, he joined the Polish Legions.* Later, as a Turkish subject, he was transferred to the Turkish Army and served in its Air Force. In 1919, he joined the Polish Air Force and participated in the PolishUkrainian and Polish-Soviet Wars.* Throughout the interwar period, he occupied several leading positions in the Polish Air Force, including its Commander-in-Chief from 1936 and Vice-Minister of Defense from August 25, 1939. After the German invasion, he obtained an assignment to ship Polish gold out of the country to France, where the new Commander-in-Chief, W. Sikorski,* refused to accept Rayski into the Polish Air Force, holding him responsible for

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insufficient air preparation during the pre-war period. He volunteered to serve as a pilot with Finnish forces, then he joined the Foreign Legion and, after 1940, flew as a transport pilot under British command. From 1943, he was a Delegate of the Polish Air Command for the Middle East. PSB, XXX, 58. RED RUTHENIA (Rus' Czerwona), historical designation of the southwestern corner of Kievian Rus' (or Ruthenia) in the basins of the upper San and Dniester Rivers. The name was derived from Czerwieri ("red" in Slavonic), one of the largest strongholds in this region, also called Grody Czerwieriskie (Czerwieri Castles). From the eleventh century, Red Ruthenia was a part of the Halicz (Halych)* Principality. Conquered by King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great)* of Poland, the region became a Polish province (wojewodztwo ruskie) with its main city Przemysl.* A terrain of expansion of Polish nobility, it became strongly Polonized. After the First Partition* of Poland in 1772, Red Ruthenia was occupied by Austria as a part of Galicia.* During the interwar period, the region belonged to Poland, and, after WW II, it became the western part of Soviet Ukraine. However, the name Red Ruthenia was not used after the 1772 Partition* of Poland. N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1 (New York, 1984), 30; P. Jasienica, The Commonwealth of Both Nations: The Silver Age (Miami, 1987). "REDS," political movement established in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in the early 1860s in order to start an anti-Russian uprising associated with social reform. In the spring and summer of 1861, many young artisans and intelligentsia members formed secret groups in Warsaw.* They called themselves "Reds," criticized the "organic work"* program, and organized mass demonstrations which were to lead to a general insurrection and liberation of Poland. The Reds believed that such an insurrection could be successful only with the support of the masses. Therefore, they planned to abolish the corvee and institute other social reforms. During the patriotic demonstrations in Warsaw in 1861, several "Red" circles united, formed Warsaw's City Committee, and contacted the Russian revolutionaries and secret groups of Polish officers in the Russian Army. One of them, J. Dabrowski,* officially a staff officer of the Tsarist garrison in Warsaw, became "the Head of the City of Warsaw," united secret organizations, and planned the outbreak of the uprising for the spring or summer of 1863. The Red organization expanded, reached Prussian and Austrian Poland, established the National Central Committee, and was building a "secret Polish state." The head of the Tsarist administration in the Congress Kingdom, A. Wielopolski,* tried to smash the Red network and announced the conscription of politically disloyal young men. The day before the levee, the young conspirators left Warsaw and hid in the neighboring woods. On the night of January 22-23, 1863, the insurgents attacked the Russian Garrisons, and the January Insurrection* started. It was opposed by another political movement, the Whites.* They did not believe success of the uprising possible and mainly

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wanted to dominate the underground National Government and use the fighting merely as pressure on the Russian government. Throughout the entire insurrection, the Reds and Whites competed for leadership of the uprising, which was crushed in the spring of 1864. CHP, II, 376-386; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 516-524; WEP, II, 744-745. REFORMATION, religious movement started by M. Luther in 1517, which rejected or modified some doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and led to the formation of various Protestant denominations. In Poland, the Reformation appeared first as Lutheranism* among German merchants and craftsmen, while the nobility remained indifferent till the mid-sixteenth century. In 1525, Albrecht Hohenzollern* secularized the state of the Teutonic Knights* and converted to Lutheranism. The Reformation started spreading from Ducal Prussia* to Gdarisk (Danzig)* and Toruri (Thorn).* Poland was situated close to the origins of the movement, and, soon, the Reformation reached the western parts of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* through Frankfurt on the Oder and Wroclaw (Breslau).* King Zygmunt Stary (Sigismund the Old)* tried to stop the spread of the Reformation in Poland and, among other measures, called the young Poles studying in Wittenberg to return home. They brought to Poland Luther's ideas and soon were joined by new adherents, who asked that the national language be used for the Mass, and demanded the abolition of celibacy and property privileges of the clergy, plus its moral improvement. About onesixth of the gentry of the Commonwealth abandoned Catholicism. After Luther's death, his followers became involved in some controversies. Many noblemen withdrew from Lutheranism and turned to the more radical religion of Calvinism.* In 1569, there were fifty-eight lay Protestant Senators, seventy Catholics, and two Eastern Schismatics in the Polish Senate. Rakow* of the Arians* and Leszno* of the Czech Brethren* became the Reformation centers of European importance. Rich religious and political literature was influenced by the Reformation, which was joined by some prominent Polish writers, such as Mikolaj Rej.* In the sixteenth century, there were about 250 Protestant congregations in Little Poland (Malopolska)* and about 120 in Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* Challenged by the Counter-Reformation in the late sixteenth century, the Reformation gradually began to lose strength. There were only thirteen Protestant congregations in Little Poland, and eight Calvinist and one Lutheran congregation in Great Poland in the mid-eighteenth century. In contrast, there were 3,064 Catholic parishes in both these provinces in the eighteenth century. A. Bruckner, "The Polish Reformation in the 16th Century," Polish Civilization, ed. by M. Giergielewicz (New York, 1979), 68-88; P. Fox, The Reformation in Poland: Some Social and Economic Aspects (Westport, Connecticut, 1971); M. Hillar, "Poland's Contribution to the Reformation: Socinians and Their Ideas on Religious Freedom," The Polish Review, vol. XXXVIII no. 4 (1993), 447-468. REGENCY COUNCIL (Rada Regencyjna), provisional supreme authority of the Kingdom of Poland at the end of WW I. The Kingdom was pronounced by

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the joint Proclamation of the German and Austrian Emperors of November 5, 1916. Initially, the highest authority of the Kingdom was the Provisional Council of State, which resigned in the summer of 1917. On September 12, 1917, a Regency Council was formed in Warsaw. It was to exercise power in the Kingdom until the proclamation of a King. Three conservative politicians were appointed members of the Council: A. Kakowski,* Archbishop of Warsaw; Prince Z. Lubomirski*; and Count J. Ostrowski. They were controlled by the German Governor-General, H. Beseler, and were not allowed to have diplomatic relations with foreign countries. Their activities were limited to education, administration, and justice. Accompanied by the new Council of State as a semi-Parliament, they called into being the governments of the half-fictitious Kingdom. The first of these was headed by J. Kucharzewski* and the second by J. Swierzyriski.* On October 7, 1918, the Regency Council proclaimed the independence of Poland and took over control of the "Polnische Wehrmacht"* on October 12. Eventually, the Regents passed their power on to J. Pilsudski.* On November 11, he became Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army and, on November 14, the Regents transferred full civil authority to him. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 620-622; T. Komarnicki, Rebirth of the Polish Republic (London, 1957). REJ, MIKOLAJ. See REY, MIKOLAJ. REJEWSKI, MARIAN (1905-1980), mathematician. He worked at the Coding Department of the Second (intelligence) Department of the Polish General Staff and broke the code of the German coding machine "Enigma*" in 1938. Polish specialists built replicas of "Enigma" and transferred them to the Intelligence Services of France and Great Britain. After the outbreak of WW II, Rejewski and his staff went to France and worked for French and Polish military cryptology cells. From 1943, he worked for the British Intelligence and contributed greatly to its wartime success. J. Gariiriski, Intercept: Secret of the Enigma War (London, 1979); W. Kozaczuk, Enigma: How the German Machine Cipher Was Broken and How It Was Read by the Allies in World War Two (London, 1984). RENAISSANCE, term widely used in discussions of European history and culture and referring usually to literary and artistic movements stimulated by classical studies in Italy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Later, the Renaissance passed beyond the Alps into Northern Europe, and, in the early sixteenth century, it reached Poland and shaped the new face of its political and cultural elites. It helped to develop Polish national literature with such personalities as Biernat of Lublin,* L. Gornicki,* J. Kochanowski,* and M. Rej.* Polemical literature, represented by such writers as A. Frycz Modrzewski,* Gregory of Sanok,* S. Orzechowski,* and J. Ostrorog,* was engaged in the struggle for reform of the Polish political system and of the Church. The Renaissance also generated spectacular advances in mathematics and natural science,

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medicine (Wojciech of Brudzew*), astronomy (N. Copernicus*), geography (M. Bielski and M. Miechowita), and printing as an art. The number of schools increased, sons of wealthy gentry and burghers studied abroad, numerous foreign books were translated into Polish, and Polish scholarly works, generally written in Latin, penetrated to the West. The Italian wife of King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old),* Bona Sforza,* took with her to her new country numerous Italian artists, who reshaped arts in Poland, especially architecture and music. French artists arrived in Poland with Henryk Walezy (Henri de Valois),* and Hungarian artists with Stefan Batory.* S. Fiszman (ed.), The Polish Renaissance in Its European Context (Bloomington, Indiana, 1988); H. Segel, Renaissance Culture in Poland: The Rise of Humanism, 1470-1543 (Ithaca, New York, 1989). REPNIN, NIKOLAJ (1734-1801), Russian diplomat. As the Russian Ambassador in Warsaw* during 1764-1769, he opposed the constitutional reforms of the last Polish King, Stanislaw August,* and the political party known as * 'Familia."* He initiated the Radom Confederation* in 1767 in order to stop the reforms and re-establish the traditional "Golden Freedom"* of the Polish gentry, policy advantageous to Russian plans for expansion. During the 1767-1768 Sejm* (Parliament), he deported to Russia four patriotic and influential Senators, who were opposing Russian interference in Poland. This action provoked the formation of the strong anti-Russian Bar Confederation* in 1768. As a consequence, Repnin was recalled from Warsaw and returned to Army duties. He commanded Russian troops in a war with Turkey and negotiated the 1774 peace. After the outbreak of the Kosciuszko Insurrection* in 1794, he served as Commander-in-Chief of Russian troops in Poland, although his command was mostly in Lithuania.* During 1795-1797, Repnin served as Governor-General of the Lithuanian lands incorporated into Russia after the Third Partition* of Poland. The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 31 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1981); WEP, IX, 787; A. Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992).

REPUBLIC OF CRACOW (Rzeczpospolita Krakowska) (1815-1846), puppet mini-state established in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna* as a result of a compromise among Russia, Prussia* and Austria, which divided the Duchy of Warsaw* after the fall of the Napoleonic system in Europe. The Republic included the city of Cracow*; the three small towns of Jaworzno, Chrzanow and Krzeszowice; and 244 villages, altogether 1164 square kilometers with about 140,000 inhabitants (123,000 Catholics and 18,000 Jews). It bordered Prussian Silesia* on the west, the Congress Kingdom of Poland* on the north, and Austrian Galicia* on the south. According to the original proclamation, the Republic was to be "free, independent and neutral" but "under the protection" of the three powers that partitioned Poland. In 1818 the Republic was given a liberal constitution written by A. Czartoryski.* The Lower House of the Sejm, the Assembly of Representatives (Zgromadzenie Reprezentantow), was responsible

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for legislation. The Upper House, the Ruling Senate (Sanat Rzadzacy), was in charge of the executive. It was chaired by the City President, whose decisions required the approval of the three Residents of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The Republic had a small Militia of 550 men. For the first ten years of its existence, the Republic prospered as a free-trade zone and a smuggling center. After the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, Cracow became a refuge of Poles fleeing from Russia, and the main link between Poland and the emigration. In 18311833 the Constitution was suspended, and the Republic was ruled by the Residents, from 1836 it was occupied by the three powers, and, after the Cracow Insurrection* of 1846, it was incorporated into Austria. A. Bieniarz6wna, Z dziejow liberalnego i konspiracyjnego Krakowa (Cracow, 1948); N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 2 (New York, 1984), 334-339. RESISTANCE (Polish: ruch oporu), underground movements in the Germanoccupied countries during WW II, characterized by either active or passive resistance to the German authorities with the goal of regaining full independence. It grew in all occupied countries of Europe, taking a more active character in Poland, Norway, France, Yugoslavia, Greece, Albania, Slovakia, and the occupied western territories of the USSR. Less organized resistance existed in Bohemia, Belgium, Holland and Denmark, whereas in other European countries belonging to the Axis camp, such as Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania, there was a different type of resistance against their own fascist governments. Resistance also developed in Asian countries occupied by Japan and in Africa, notably in Ethiopia against the Italians. It had a different character in each country, but some elements were common. European resistance could be divided into three periods, the first one from the Nazi aggression against Poland in September 1939 to Hitler's attack on the USSR in June 1941; the second period lasting to the Allied offensives in Western and Eastern Europe in the summer of 1944; and the third period lasting till the end of the war. The Nazi occupation was especially cruel in Poland and provoked the mass resistance of almost the entire Polish nation. It began at the last stage of the 1939 September Campaign, when the Service for Polish Victory (Sluzba Zwyci^stwu Polski [SZP])* was established in the underground. The SZP was reshaped into the Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ])* in November 1939; in 1942, after the unification of various secret organizations, it developed into the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* Parallel to the military sector, a civilian sector developed in the underground. It was composed of the representatives of the four major pre-war parties: Peasants, Socialists, Nationalists, and Labor. Outside the main clandestine network, controlled by the Polish Government-in-Exile* in London and assuming the shape of a secret state, were the right-wing National Armed Forces (Narodowe Sily Zbrojne [NSZ])* and the Communist Polish Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza [PPR])* with its armed People's Guard and later People's Army. T. B6r-Komorowski, The Secret Army (London,

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1950); J. Karski, The Story of a Secret State (Boston, 1944); S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State 1939-1945 (New York, 1978). RETINGER, J6ZEF HIERONIM (1888-1960), politician, political writer, and probably British (and Soviet?) intelligence agent. Educated in Western Europe, he established contacts with the best French writers and, after his return to Cracow* in 1911, edited a literary monthly. In 1912, he moved again to Western Europe, where he engaged in anti-German activities on behalf of the Polish population of the Prussian partition. During 1918-1924, Retinger lived in Mexico and was active in its political life. In 1924, he settled in London and became a go-between of the Polish and British Socialist Parties, literary circles, and entrepreneurs. After the formation of the Polish Government-in-Exile* in Paris in 1939, he was appointed Head of Polish Propaganda in Great Britain. After the fall of France, he played a crucial role in the evacuation of Gen. W. Sikorski* and his government to London, where he became an "eminence grise" of the Polish government. He helped to establish links between Polish and British politicians, accompanied Sikorski in his diplomatic travels, and contributed to the signing of the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement* of July 30, 1941. Afterward, he was sent to Moscow as a charge d'affaires of the Polish Embassy. After Sikorski's death, his political role diminished. However, in the summer of 1944, he was parachuted into German-occupied Poland to pave the way for a Soviet-Polish rapprochement among underground leaders. S. Jankowski, Emisariusz "Witold" (New York, 1991); J. Pomian (ed.), Memoirs of an "Eminence Grise" (Sussex, 1972); PSB, XXXI, 148-152. REVOLUTION OF 1905-1906, wave of strikes, uprisings, and mutinies in the Russian Empire stimulated by Russia's defeat in the 1904 war with Japan and widespread discontent with the Tsarist political system. The revolution was started by the "Bloody Sunday" of January 22, 1905, in St. Petersburg, when the members of a peaceful demonstration led by the priest Gapon who were to present a loyal address to the Tsar were massacred by the police. The Congress Kingdom of Poland,* one of the most industrialized regions of the Empire, became an important center of the revolution. The Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* organized the first armed demonstrations in Warsaw in October 1904. After "Bloody Sunday," a general strike was proclaimed in the Congress Kingdom. The strike took on a stormy character and spread to the countryside. The National League (Liga Narodowa)* demanded the introduction of Polish into the schools and administration of the Kingdom. A school boycott was organized and lasted till 1908. In June 1905, a strike in Lodz* evolved into a fierce struggle between the workers and the Tsarist troops. In October, the Polish workers participated in the general strike in the Empire, and, in December, the PPS proclaimed an uprising in the Kingdom. It assumed a partly national character. After the suppression of the uprising in Moscow in December 1905, the revolution started to decline. In 1906, the revolutionary

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spirit collapsed but the political, social, and moral consequences of the revolution were irreversible. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 592597; The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 76-86; SHP, 404, 454; W. Walling, "Poland: Her Labor Movement and Revolution," American Federationist XII (October, 1905), 741-744. REY (REJ), MIKOLAJ (1505-1569), first outstanding Polish writer, commonly called the father of Polish literature. Born into a noble family in Little Poland (Malopolska),* he received a weak formal education and undertook serious self-education after he became a courtier of his relative, A. Teczyriski, Palatine (wojewoda) of Sandomierz,* in 1524. Rey was deeply involved in public life as a Protestant activist of the Polish Reformation* and a supporter of the movement for the "Execution-of-the-Law."* He was also busy as an administrator of his estates and amassed considerable wealth. Nevertheless, he always found time for drinking, hunting, and social life, and began to write light verse and little jokes in Polish (his Latin was too weak) to amuse his companions. Gradually, he realized that he had a real talent and started to write serious works. His satirical Short Conversation between a Squire, a Bailiff, and a Parson (Krotka rozprawa miedzy Panem, Wojtem a Plebanem) included a critique of the King of Poland, Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old)* and supported demands of the nobility. Rey's interest in religion was reflected in his Postilla, an exposition of Protestant faith, and in his adaptation of David's Psalter. He also wrote dramas, philosophical treatises, epigrams, polemics and didactic works. His rich Polish language created a literary breakthrough, and Rey summarized his program with a famous saying: "Let the neighboring nations know

that Poles are not geese, but have their own language." J. Krzyzanowski, A History

of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 51-58; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature

(London, 1969), 56-60; PSB, XXXI, 196-203; W. Weintraub, "The Paradoxes of Rej's Biography/' Indiana Slavic Studies IV (1967), 215-237.

REYMONT, WLADYSLAW (1867-1925), writer. Son of a village church organist, he worked as a tailor, a traveling actor, a minor railway employee, a factory hand, and a railroad switchman. Living in a small village on the line, he began to write about his experience and life in the countryside. He published his essays and short stories in various periodicals and, in 1893, moved to Warsaw,* where he joined literary circles and the National League (Liga Narodowa).* His first novels on wandering actors and the industrial life of Lodz,* the Polish Manchester, were followed by a huge novel in four volumes, The Peasants (Chtopi). The book, the major endeavor of Reymont's career, splendidly depicted the hard life of Polish peasants and earned him the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1924. J. Krzyzanowski, Wladyslaw S. Reymont (New York, 1972); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 369-371; T. Napierkowski "Reymont after Fifty Years," Polish American Studies XXXI/2 (1974), 48-54; PSB, XXXI, 222-229.

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REYTAN (REJTAN), TADEUSZ (1742-1780), member of the Sejm* (Parliament) of 1773, whose spectacular protest against the ratification of the First Partition* of Poland made him a national symbol of uncompromising resistance to foreign pressure and the opportunism of the magnates.* A scion of a PolishLithuanian noble family, one of the political clients of the Radziwills,* he served in the Army and was elected to the Parliament from his native Nowogrodek region. He was instructed by his local dietine to demand evacuation of the foreign troops from Poland and to protest its Partition. Most of the members of the Sejm were previously selected by the partitioning powers to form a confederation* (which excluded the liberum veto*) and to ratify the First Partition. Reytan opposed the establishment of the confederation and the candidacy of the corrupt A. Poniriski* for the Speaker, and he asked for a free debate about the threat of Partition. When the deputies wanted to leave the conference room of the Sejm for the chamber of the Senate, which would mean utilizing the confederation* or voting of the whole Parliament in corpore for the First Partition, Reytan laid down in the exit and asked the deputies to walk over his body if they would abandon their Parliamentary duties. A dozen of the members of Parliament remained with Reytan in protest, blocking the exit for thirty-eight hours, but the majority left the room by another exit and ratified the Partition. In 1773, Reytan addressed a manifesto to European powers asking them to respect the integrity of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* It was futile, and a few years later, he committed suicide. PSB, XXXI, 231-237. RIBBENTROP-MOLOTOV PACT, agreement signed on August 23, 1939, in Moscow by Joachim Ribbentrop, the Nazi Foreign Minister, and Viacheslav M. Molotov, the Soviet Commissar of Foreign Affairs, which provided for de facto partitioning of Eastern Central Europe. It consisted of two parts. The nonaggression pact, which bound the two governments to refrain from aggressive action against each other, to give no support to any third power at war with one of the signatories, to consult each other about problems affecting their common interests, and to settle any disputes "through friendly exchange of opinion." The second part, the secret protocol, recognized the spheres of interest of both powers, extending the Soviet sphere to Finland, the Baltic states, eastern Poland, and Bessarabia. The pact cleared the way for the German attack on Poland. In addition to the Soviet participation in the invasion of Poland, the Third Reich gained a steady supply of vital strategic minerals and foodstuffs in exchange for industrial equipment. Nazi-Soviet Conspiracy, Series D (Washington, 1950); E. Oberlander (ed.), Hitler-Stalin Pakt 1939: Das Ende Ostmitteleuropas? (Frankfurt, 1989). RIFLEMEN ASSOCIATION (ZWIAZEK STRZELECKI). See "STRZELEC." RIGA PEACE TREATY, agreement signed on March 18, 1921, in the capital of Latvia by representatives of Poland and Soviet Russia, which terminated the

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Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1920. After the Polish counter-offensive of August 1920, peace negotiations were conducted in Minsk, Belorussia. From September 21, they were continued in neutral Riga. The Polish Delegation was headed by the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs, J. Dabski,* and the Soviet side by a diplomat, A. Joffe. After the Polish victory in the Battle of Niemen River,* peace preliminaries were signed in Riga on October 12, 1920. The war was concluded thereby, although the final peace treaty was not signed until March 18, 1921. The treaty of twenty-six articles determined the Polish-Soviet frontier, problems of sovereignty of the signatories, matters of citizenship, and repatriation rules. It also stipulated restitution of Polish art treasures remaining in Russia. It regulated the principles of commercial exchange and diplomatic relations between both countries. The new frontier, established in Riga, ran east of the Lvov*-Vilna* railway line. In the north, a strip of territory linking Vilna with Latvia near Dyneburg separated Lithuania* from Soviet Belorussia.* In the south, the Zbrucz River became a frontier. This frontier included large territories populated by Belorussians and Ukrainians within Poland. S. Dabrowski, "The Peace Treaty of Riga," Polish Review V/l (1960), 3-34; P. Wandycz, "The Treaty of Riga: Its Significance for Interwar Polish Foreign Policy," Polish Review XIV/4 (1969), 31-36. RINGELBLUM, EMANUEL (1900-1944), Jewish historian, social activist, teacher, and organizer of the Jewish resistance during WW II. He studied history at Warsaw University* and later taught in several Jewish high schools. Simultaneously, he was active in the Jewish Scientific Institute (YIVO) in Vilna* and published numerous scholarly works on the history of the Jews* in Poland. In 1938, he devoted himself to humanitarian activities on behalf of the Polish Jews deported from the Third Reich. During WW II, he was active in secret Jewish anti-German organizations, and his greatest achievement was the organization of the Archive of the Warsaw Ghetto.* After the extermination of the Jewish population, he hid in a Polish home. Denounced to the Gestapo,* he was executed together with his family and his Polish hosts. PSB, XXXI, 298-299; M. Szulkin, "Dr. Emmanuel Ringelblum: A Historian and Organizer of the Warsaw Ghetto's Underground Archives," Biuletyn Zydowskiego Institytutu Hist. XXX (1973). ROBOTNIK (The Worker), title of several Polish socialist periodicals. The earliest of them, a biweekly, was published in Lvov* during 1890-1899; from 1892, it was an organ of the Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia (Polska Partia Socjal-Demokratyczna Galicji i Alaska Cieszyriskiego [PPSD]).* During 1894-1906, another Robotnik was published, as an irregular and illegal organ of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* It was edited in many places by such outstanding activists as J. Strozecki, J. Pilsudski,* S. Wojciechowski,* and F. Perl.* After the split in the PPS, two papers under the same name were published: an illegal organ of the Polish Socialist Party-Left* in Warsaw during 1906-1911 and a clandestine

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organ of the Polish Socialist Party-Revolutionary Fraction* from 1906. During 1915-1939, Robotnik appeared as a daily organ of the PPS, and it reached a circulation of 30,000 in the 1930s. During WW II, the same title was used for periodicals of three socialist underground groups. WEP, X, 17. RODAKOWSKI, HENRYK (1823-1894), painter, one of the most outstanding Polish portraitists of the nineteenth century. Educated in Vienna, he made his artistic debut in Paris, where he also started a close relationship with the Hotel Lambert.* In 1867, he returned to Galicia.* H. Gotlib, Polish Painting (London, 1942); PSB, XXXI, 341-347. RODZIEWICZOWNA, MARIA (1864-1944), novelist. Her first novel, Scary Grandpa (Straszny dziadunio), was published in 1887 and, after that date, her works appeared systematically every year. Considered shallow, banal, and sensational by literary critics, her books were very popular among general readers of public libraries. Rodziewiczowna supported the traditional values of landed gentry, presented anti-urban views, and disliked bourgeois mentality. She was active in women's and humanitarian organizations. K. Czachowski, Maria Rodziwiczowna na tie swoich powiesci (Poznari, 1935); J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 409; C. Milosz, "Rodziewiczowna," Kultura 3/522 (1991); PSB, XXXI, 369-373. RODZINSKI, ARTUR (1894-1958), orchestra conductor. He began his career as a pianist, then changed to musicology and learned conducting. In 1918, he began to work as a conductor in the Lvov* Opera. During 1921-1925, he conducted in Warsaw's Grand Theater and in the Philharmonic. Invited by L. Stokowski to the United States, he settled there in 1926 and worked as Stokowski's assistant. In 1929, he was invited to become conductor of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, where he worked until 1933. He also conducted great philharmonic orchestras in other American cities and performed in many cities of both Americas and Europe. PSB, XXXI, 374-377; H. Rodziriski, Our Two Lives (New York, 1976); K. Wierzyriski, "Artur Rodziriski (1892-1958): Tribute of a Friend," Polish Review V/2 (1960), 3-7. ROGALSKI, STANISLAW (1904-1976), airplane designer and producer, who held chairs in plane construction at Warsaw* and Lvov* Technical Universities. He designed Polish sport planes in the interwar period and worked for the British during WW II. PSB, XXXI, 416-417. ROGOZINSKI (SZOLC-ROGOZINSKI), KAROL (1861-1896), explorer. As an officer of the Russian Navy, he traveled around the world. In 1882, he retired from the Navy and organized a private Polish expedition to Cameroon and Nigeria. He tried to stop German colonial expansion in Cameroon. Rogoziriski acquired a large African ethnographic collection, became a member of

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the British Royal Geographic Society, and made plans to establish a Polish colony in Africa. PSB, XXXI, 470-473. ROJA, BOLESLAW JERZY (1876-1940), General. A graduate of the Kadettenschule in Vienna, he served in the Austrian Army. In 1905 he retired from the military and worked in municipal offices in Cracow.* After the outbreak of WW I, he joined the Polish Legions* and later commanded one of their regiments. After the dissolution of the Legions, he was active in the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* and was transferred to the Austrian Army. In October 1918 he co-organized the ejection of Austrian troops from Cracow, and the Polish "Liquidation" Committee* appointed him a Commander of Polish Military Forces in Galicia.* He participated in the Polish-Ukrainian War* of 1918-1919 and the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-21. Demobilized in 1922, he managed his estate near Warsaw* and was active in the peasant movement. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he was one of the radical opponents of the Sanacja* regime. In 1940 he was arrested by the Germans and killed in the Sachsenhausen* concentration camp. PSB, XXXI, 508510. ROKITNA, BATTLE OF, engagement between Austrian and Russian forces during WW I on June 13, 1915, at the village of Rokitna near Czerniowce (Chernovtsy), Bukovina. The battle ended with spectacular success, as a result of a charge by a squadron of uhlans of the Second Brigade of the Polish Legions* under Z. Dunin-Wasowicz on two lines of Russian trenches. With another victory at nearby Rararicza, the Battle of Rokitna constituted the apex of the Brigade's successful contribution to the 1915 Austrian offensive against the Russians. W. Lipiriski, Walka zbrojna o niepodleglosc Polski w latach 1905-1918 (The Armed Struggle for the Independence of Poland during 1905-1918) (Warsaw, 1990), 98. ROKOSZ, rebellion of the gentry against the King. The term was derived from the Hungarian village of Rakos, where the Hungarian nobility gathered for political discussions. In Poland, the gentry tried to improve its position and challenged the Royal power by organizing the rokoszs. The best known were the "Hens War" (Wojna Kokosza) in 1537 against King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old)* and Queen Bona;* the Zebrzydowski* rokosz in 1606 against King Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa)*; and the Lubomirski rokosz of 1665 against King Jan Kazimierz (John Casimir).* SHP, 407. ROMANTICISM, intellectual trend that dominated literature and the arts of Western civilization from the late eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth century. It was a rejection of classicism with its order, harmony, and rationality, and a reaction against the Enlightenment* with its emphasis on materialism. Polish Romanticism was modeled on Western European forms but also included specifically Polish factors, related to the political situation of the Polish nation at

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that time. The beginnings of Romanticism in Poland can be traced back to the epoch of King Stanislaw August,* when the influence of Jean-Jacques Rousseau penetrated into Poland. Polish writers started translating Western European Romantic works and published their own versions, usually written in a similar genre. However, the main flourishing of Polish Romanticism, especially in poetry, was during the first half of the nineteenth century. Romanticism in Poland became more than an artistic current; it was linked to the Polish struggle for independence. In its first phase, lasting until 1831, emotionalism, irrationalism, fantasy, and cult of personality prevailed, with recognition of folk culture and emphasis on patriotic sacrifice. Its young representatives took part in the patriotic conspiracies of the 1820s and in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. In its second phase, which lasted until the fall of the January Insurrection* in 1864, Romantic poets became leaders in the Polish national struggle. Some of them embraced mystical Messianism or Hegelian nationalism. The main writers of the first phase were A. Mickiewicz,* S. Goszczyriski,* A. Malczewski, T. Zan, and M. Mochnacki.* In the second phase, the Great Emigration,* which left Poland after the November Insurrection, was dominated by three prophetic poets: A. Mickiewicz, J. Siowacki,* and Z. Krasiriski.* Romanticism began to decline in 1849, after the failure of the Springtime of Nations,* and, after the January Insurrection, it was challenged by positivist advocates of "organic work."* J. Krzyzanowski, Polish Romantic Literature (Manchester, New Hampshire, 1931); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 195-266.

ROMER, EUGENIUSZ (1871-1954), geographer. Educated in Cracow,* Lvov,* Halle, Vienna, and Berlin, he is considered the father of modern Polish cartography. He taught at the Universities of Lvov and Cracow, participated in numerous geographical expeditions, and published many noted scholarly works. Besides cartography, he also developed geomorphology, hydrography, climatology, and regional geography. Romer believed that geographical conditions and social laws determine the history of mankind. During the 1919 Paris Peace Conference,* he was the geographical expert of the Polish Delegation, and, in 1921, he contributed to the delimitation of the Polish-Soviet and Polish-German borders. PSB, XXXI, 636-645. ROMER, TADEUSZ (1894-1978), diplomat, a scion of a noble PolishLithuanian family from the Kowno (Kaunas) region, and a cousin of E. Romer.* He studied in Lausanne, where, during 1915-1917, he served as Secretary of the Committee to Assist Victims of War in Poland and of the Editing Board of the Grande Encyclopedie Polonnaise. In 1917, he became Private Secretary to R. Dmowski* and, later, Secretary of the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP])* in Paris. In 1919, Romer was appointed First Secretary of the Polish Legation in Paris. He spent the years 1921-1927 in the headquarters of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Warsaw.* From 1928, he worked at the Polish Legation in Rome, and, during 1935-1937, he served

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as Minister in Lisbon. In the years 1937-1941, he was the Polish Ambassador to Tokyo and, during 1942-1943, to Moscow. In 1943, he worked as the Commissar for Polish Affairs in the Near East, and, in July 1943, he became the Foreign Minister in S. Mikolajczyk's* Polish Government-in-Exile.* After the Anglo-American compromises with Stalin, Romer resigned in November 1944 and settled in London and then Canada. PSB, XXXI, 656-659; E. Raczyriski, In Exiled London (London, 1960). RONIKIER, ADAM FELIKS (1891-1952), architect and philanthropist. Before WW I, he joined the National Democracy,* but, as a leader of the landowner group, he split with the party, accusing R. Dmowski* of subservience toward Russia. After the occupation of Warsaw* by the Germans, Ronikier renamed his group as a conservative National Party and supported cooperation with Germany. Being especially interested in philanthropy, he accepted the Presidency of the Principal Welfare Council (Rada Glowna Opiekuricza [RGO]). He also reactivated and presided over this organization during 1940-1943. PSB, XXXII/1, 18-21. ROOSEVELT, FRANKLIN D. (1882-1945), American President. Hailed by many for his energetic implementation of "New Deal" domestic policies aimed at reviving the American economy during the Great Depression of the 1930s, Roosevelt would be severely criticized for some aspects of his wartime leadership. In particular, WW II summit diplomacy with Churchill and Stalin at Tehran* and Yalta* in which Roosevelt agreed to ceding eastern Poland to the USSR and decisions generally enabling the USSR to become the dominant power in post-war Eastern Europe were scored as betrayals. The resulting anger and disappointment felt in American Polonia became clearly palpable. J. Karski, The Great Powers and Poland 1919-1945: From Versailles to Yalta (Lanham, Maryland, 1985); E. Rozek, Allied Wartime Diplomacy: A Pattern in Poland (New York, 1958); A. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt (Boston, 1957-1960). ROSEN, JAN (1854-1936), painter. He specialized in historic battle scenes, especially from the Napoleonic period and the November Insurrection.* PSB, XXXII/1, 53-56; J. Rosen, Wspomnienia (1860-1925) (Warsaw, 1933). ROSEN, JAN HENRYK (1891-1982), painter, the son of J. Rosen.* He specialized in portraits, battle scenes, stained glass windows, and murals. He decorated the walls of the Armenian Cathedral in Lvov* and of the summer Papal residence in Castel Gondolfo. PSB, XXXII, 56-57. ROSIENKIEWICZ, MARCIN (1795-1847), Polish community leader in America. Deported from Austrian Poland, he arrived in the United States in 1833. He became President of the Polish National Committee, organized in 1834

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in Philadelphia. J. Lerski, A Polish Chapter in Jacksonian America (Madison, Wisconsin, 1958); PSB, XXXII, 84-85. ROSKOSZ, STANISLAW ("FRANEK") (1915-1972), journalist. Educated in Poznari (Posen),* he was active in nationalist youth organizations and contributed to their periodicals. After the outbreak of WW II, he joined the antiGerman underground Fatherland (Ojczyzna) movement. From 1942, he was on the board of Western Bulletin (Biuletyn Zachodni), published by the office of the Delegate of the Polish Government-in-Exile.* Roskosz was also appointed Secretary of the Western Section of the underground Bureau of Information and Propaganda. During the Warsaw Uprising,* he edited a frontline press and radio news service. PSB, XXXII, 86. ROSMARYN (ROSMARIN), HENRYK (1882-1955), lawyer, journalist, and Jewish political leader in interwar Poland. A scion of an assimilated Jewish family in Eastern Galicia,* he joined the Zionist organization as a student and was elected a member of its Central Committee. Before WW I, he edited the Zionist weekly written in Polish, Wschod (East), and, during 1918-1939, the Zionist daily, also in Polish, Chwila (Moment). During the interwar period, he was one of the leaders of the Polish Zionists, presided over the Maccabi organization, and represented Zionist interests in the Polish Sejm* (Parliament) during its three terms. He was one of the heads of the Jewish Club in the Sejm. After the outbreak of WW II, he left Poland for Palestine, where he represented the Polish Government-in-Exile* as its Consul-General during 1941-1945. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. XIV (Jerusalem, 1971), 313; PSB, XXXII, 102-103. ROSSMAN, HENRYK (1896-1937), attorney and National Democratic politician. In 1918, he became a member of the National League (Liga Narodowa).* He participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-21 and, after demobilization, became a private secretary to R. Dmowski.* In 1922, he was elected to the Supreme Council of All-Polish Youth (Mlodziez Wszechpolska). After the founding of the Greater Poland Camp (Oboz Wielkiej Polski [OWP])* in 1926, he helped to organize its semi-fascist Youth Movement (Ruch Mlodych). Rossman was one of the main National Democratic "young" leaders, and, after disbanding of the OWP by the state authorities in 1933, he joined the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe)* and created its Youth Section. In 1934, he cofounded the National Radical Camp (Oboz Narodowo-Radykalny [ONR]),* and, after its split, he became the leader of the ONR-ABC group. PSB, XXXII, 139140; S. Rudnicki, Oboz Narodowo-Radykalny (Warsaw, 1985). ROSTAFINSKI, J 6 Z E F (1850-1928), leading Polish botanist and historian of biological sciences who created the basis of the Polish botanic vocabulary. Educated in Western Europe, he directed the Botanical Garden in Cracow* for twenty-three years until 1901. Professor of the Jagiellonian University,* he

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wrote several noted textbooks and founded the first Polish school of botanical studies. He also was among the pioneers of alpinism in the Tatra Mountains* and was an active member of the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejetnosci [AU]).* B. Hryniewiecki, "Jozef Rostafiriski," Acta Societatis Botaniorum Poloniae XX (suppl.) 1951; PSB, XXXII/1, 147-151.

ROSTWOROWSKI, KAROL HUBERT (1877-1938), playwright, poet, and musician. A scion of an aristocratic family from Cracow,* he was active in the National League (Liga Narodowa),* the Camp of Greater Poland (Oboz Wielkiej Polski [OWP])* during 1926-1933, and later the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe).* He made his debut as a poet in 1901, but he is best known as an author of historical dramas in verse, written in the style of modernist symbolism and naturalism. His naturalistic tragedy in prose, Surprise (Niespodzianka), dealt, as did his other plays, with social, ethical, and psychological problems. From 1933, Rostworowski was a member of the Polish Academy of Literature (Polska Akademia Literatury [PAL]),* but he withdrew from it in 1937 for political reasons. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 515-516; PSB, XXXII/2, 213-221. ROTA, patriotic hymn with words by M. Konopnicka* (1908) and music by F. Nowowiejski (1910). It was sung for the first time on the five hundredth anniversary of the Battle of Grunwald* to express a strong protest against the Germanization of Poles. This powerful song, starting with the words "We shall not abandon our land from which we originated, we will not let our language be buried'' (Nie rzucim ziemi, skad nasz rod, nie damy pogrzesc mowy), was used in dramatic situations as an expression of an attachment to the Polish land and as a protest against the German menace. WEP, X, 116. ROWECKI, STEFAN ("GROT," "RAKON") (1895-1944), General of the Polish Army, organizer, leader, and a legend of the Polish anti-German resistance during WW II. He was active in Polish para-military organizations before WW I, and, after its outbreak, he served in the Polish Legions* as a Platoon and later a Battalion Commander. In 1918, he joined the Polish Army and participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-21. During the interwar period, he occupied several important military positions, such as Chief of the Publishing Department of the Army, Deputy Chief of the Scientific Military Institute, and editor of several military periodicals. In June 1939, he became a Commander of the Warsaw Armored Brigade but was unable to organize it before the outbreak of WW II. He participated in the 1939 September Campaign,* and, after the fall of Warsaw,* he joined the anti-German resistance. In December 1939, Rowecki was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ])* in German-occupied Poland, whereas Gen. M. Tokarzewski* was sent to command it in the Polish provinces occupied by the Soviets. In 1942, Rowecki managed to unify most of the military under-

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ground organizations into the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* and developed it into the largest anti-German resistance group in Europe. On June 30, 1943, he was arrested by the Germans and sent to the concentration camp in Sachsenhausen,* where he was killed on H. Himmler's special order shortly after the outbreak of the Warsaw Uprising* of 1944. S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1969); T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (London, 1976), 36-37; PSB, XXXIII, 333-338; T. Szarota, Stefan Rowecki (Warsaw, 1988). ROYAL CASTLE (Zamek Krolewski), Warsaw* seat of the Polish monarchs after the nation's capital was moved by King Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa)* from Cracow* to Warsaw in 1609. The construction of the castle was started in the late thirteenth century by the Mazovian* Princes on the high west bank of the Vistula* River. Originating in an earth and wood fortification, the castle was built later. A residence was added, and, after the incorporation of Mazovia into the Polish Kingdom in 1526, the castle became one of the royal residences. During the Swedish invasion of 1655, the castle was devastated, but, later, it was renovated, especially by King Stanislaw August.* After the Partitions* of Poland, the Royal Castle was neglected and its treasures stolen. In 1918, when Poland regained its independence, reconstruction was started, and the castle became the seat of the President of Poland. During WW II, the Germans leveled the castle as a celebrated symbol of the Polish state. S. Kozakiewicz, History of the Royal Castle in Warsaw (Warsaw, 1972); A. Krol, Zamek Krolewski w Warszawie (Cracow, 1926). ROYAL PRUSSIA (Prusy Krolewskie), province of the Polish Kingdom. Located on the lower Vistula* River, it was previously called Eastern or Gdarisk (Danzig)* Pomerania.* The latter, incorporated into Poland in the tenth century, was conquered by the Teutonic Knights* in 1308. Regained by Poland after the Toruri (Thorn) Peace Treaty* of 1466, it received the name Royal Prussia. Unlike Ducal Prussia,* which was a fief of Poland, Royal Prussia became a province of the Polish Kingdom. Royal Prussia included, besides Gdarisk (Danzig) Pomerania, the Chelmno* land and Warmia (Ermland).* It was divided into three smaller provinces (wojewodztwa) with the capitals in Chelmno, Malbork,* and Gdarisk. Warmia remained a separate domain belonging to its Bishops. Royal Prussia enjoyed some autonomy; temporarily it had a separate currency and Treasury and a local Parliament. Unlike other lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* the towns, especially Gdarisk, played a large role in the politics of Royal Prussia. In the late sixteenth century, Royal Prussia without Warmia contained 300,000 inhabitants, one-third of them German-speaking Lutheran burghers. In the years 1770-1772, Royal Prussia, without Gdarisk, was incorporated into Prussia,* which later took Gdarisk after the Second Partition* of Poland in 1793. N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1 (New York, 1984), 29.

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ROZWADOWSKI, TADEUSZ (1866-1928), General. In 1886, he graduated from the Miltary Technical Academy in Vienna and held various positions in the Austrian Army. During 1896-1907, he served as an Austrian military attache in Bucharest. He fought in WW I as an Austrian General; in 1915, he was in charge of an Army group on the Eastern Front and was promoted to Field Marshal. In 1916, he submitted a memorandum to the Emperor accusing the Austrian authorities in Galicia* of ill treatment of the local peasants. Falling into conflict with the Austrian High Command, he retired in 1916. In October 1918, the Regency Council (Rada Regencyjna)* in Warsaw appointed Rozwadowski Chief of General Staff of the "Polnische Wehrmacht."* After J. Pilsudski's* return to Warsaw, Rozwadowski accepted his command and fought in the Polish-Ukrainian War* of 1918-1919. On July 22, 1920, he was appointed Chief of Staff by Marshal Pilsudski. In August 1920, he was in charge of the defense of Warsaw,* when Pilsudski was preparing his decisive operation against the Soviets. After the Battle of Warsaw,* Rozwadowski successfully commanded in the southern part of the front but came into conflict with Pilsudski. In 1921, Rozwadowski was relieved from his position and nominated an Army Inspector in Warsaw. During the Pilsudski coup d'etat* of 1926, Rozwadowski became Commander-in-Chief of the troops loyal to the legal government. He retired after the coup. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 25; PSB, XXXII/ 3, 418-421.

ROMMEL, JULIUSZ (1881-1967), General. A scion of a noble Lutheran family from Courland* and son of an officer of the Russian Army, he started his career as an officer of the Russian Artillery. He participated in the RussoJapanese War of 1904-1905 and in WW I. In 1917, he joined the First Polish Corps and, in November 1918, was accepted as a Colonel in the Polish Army. He fought in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921 and occupied several high Army positions during the interwar period. In March 1939, Rommel was appointed Commander of the Army Group "Lodz" and started the 1939 September Campaign* in this capacity. On September 8, he arrived in Warsaw* and took charge of its defense. On September 27, when he began surrender negotiations with the Germans, he transferred his command to Gen. M. Tokarzewski* in order to continue the struggle in the underground. Taken prisoner by the Germans, he was kept in a POW camp till May 1945. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 59; PSB, XXXII, 492-495. ROZYCKI, LUDOMIR (1884-1953), composer, predominantly of dramatic works and programmatic orchestral music. A member of the "Young Poland" group of composers, he was an opera conductor and conservatory professor in Lvov* before WW I. After six years in Berlin, in 1920 he returned to Poland, where he became a conductor of the Warsaw Opera and a founder of the Polish

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Composers' Union. The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. by S. Sadie, vol. 16 (London, 1980), 291; PSB, XXXIII, 521-522. RUBINOWICZ, WOJCIECH (1889-1974), physicist. From 1922, he was a professor at the Lvov Technical University and, from 1931, a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU]).* His main field was quantum theory of rays, theory of diffraction, electrodynamics and mathematical physics, including atomic electromagnetics. Biogramy Uczonych Polskich (Biographies of Polish Scholars), vol. 3 (Wroclaw, 1968); PSB, XXXIII, 569570; Who's Who in the World (Chicago, 1974-1975). RUBINSTEIN, ARTUR (1886-1982), Polish pianist of Jewish origin who began performing in concerts at the age of twelve. From 1904, he appeared in most of the major music centers of Western Europe and both Americas. During WW I, he gave concerts for the Allied forces and, seeing the results of German brutality among civilians, decided never to appear again in Germany. He eventually left Poland, lived in several countries and, in 1946, became an American citizen. Rubinstein mainly played Chopin, Schumann, Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 14 (Jerusalem, 1971), 374-375; A. Forsee, Artur Rubinstein, King of the Keyboard (New York, 1969); The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. by S. Sadie, vol. 16 (London, 1980), 300-301; PSB, XXXII, 572579; A. Rubinstein, My Many Years (London, 1987). RUDNICKI, KLEMENS (1897- ), General. Trained in Polish para-military youth organizations in Galicia,* he joined the Polish Legions* after the outbreak of WW I and, after the dissolution of the Legions, served in the Austrian Army. In 1918, he transferred to the Polish Army and fought in the wars with the Ukrainians and the Soviets during 1918-1921. He spent the interwar period in the Polish Army and participated in the 1939 September Campaign.* Afterward, he escaped from a POW camp and joined the anti-German resistance. In 1940, he became Chief of Staff of the Lvov* region of the Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ]).* Arrested by the Soviets, he was deported to Siberia.* Released after the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement* of 1941, he joined the Polish Army in Russia and commanded one of its Divisions and, then, a Polish Brigade in the Italian campaign. He participated in the Battle of Monte Cassino* and his units conquered Bologna. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 157; K. Rudnicki, The Last of the War Horses (London, 1974) RUMKOWSKI, CHAIM (1877-1944), Chairman of the Judenrat* in Germanoccupied Lodz.* Before WW II, he directed a Jewish orphanage and, in 1937, was elected to the Jewish community board on behalf of the Zionists. After the Germans captured Lodz, in October 1939, they appointed him "Elder of the Jews," a position he held until August 1944. Rumkowski became directly re-

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sponsible for the administration of the Lodz ghetto,* the second largest in Poland (after Warsaw*). He set up factories working for the Germans and helped to organize deportations of the Jews of Lodz to the extermination camps of Chelmno* and Auschwitz.* Hated by the Jews for his dictatorial way of ruling the ghetto, he believed that the only way to save some Jews was to sacrifice others and fulfill all the wishes of the Nazis. In August 1944, the ghetto was liquidated, and Rumkowski with his family joined the last transport to Auschwitz, where they were murdered. L. Dobroszycki, The Chronicle of the Lodz Ghetto, 1941-1944 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1984); Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 3 (New York, 1990), 1312-1314; PSB, XXXIII, 89-90. RUS'. See RUTHENIA. RUSSIFICATION, Tsarist policy of eliminating the Polish language from schools, administration, and jurisdiction. The policy was applied first in the 1820s and as a reprisal for the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 in the eastern (Lithuanian and Ruthenian) parts of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* In the late nineteenth century, it was forbidden to speak Polish in public in this region. In the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* Russification was implemented after the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and intensified after the January Insurrection* of 1863, when the Kingdom was renamed "Prewislianskii Krai" (Land on the Vistula River). Russification was vigorously contested by Polish patriots, especially in the early twentieth century, when school strikes were organized. CHP, II, 387-408. RUTHENIA (Rus'), original name of the East European territories populated by Eastern Slavic tribes Christianized in the tenth century by the Greeks. Initially, Ruthenia (or Rus') was controlled by the Kievian state, which was divided into several Principalities. Many of them, devastated by the Mongolian invasion of the thirteenth century, were later incorporated into Poland and Lithuania* in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. Ruthenia included numerous small regions, such as White, Black, and Red Ruthenia. Ruthenians spoke a language slightly different from that of the inhabitants of the Moscow region and they predominated in the politics and culture of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where ethnically Lithuanian regions constituted only a small part of this large state. There was also a Ruthenian province (wojewodztwo ruskie) in Poland. In the fifteenth century, one of the principalities of Rus', Muscovy, started to gather and unite Ruthenian lands, mostly at the expense of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.* Gradually, the name Ruthenia was replaced by the modern names Belorussia,* Ukraine,* and Russia. The latter was used for the first time as an official name of the state by Peter the Great,* who united Muscovy with most of Ukraine. P. Jasienica, The Commonwealth of Both Nations: The Silver Age (Miami, 1987).

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RUTKOWSKI, JAN (1886-1949), historian and professor of Poznari (Posen)* University who specialized in social, economic, and agricultural history. PSB, XXXIII, 227-229; J. Topolski, O Nowy Model Historii: Jan Rutkowski (1886-1949) (Towards a New Model of History: Jan Rutkowski) (Warsaw, 1986). RYBARSKI, ROMAN (1887-1942), economist, activist of the National Democracy,* and professor of Cracow* and Warsaw* Universities. During 19201921, he served as a Deputy Minister of the Treasury and, during 1928-1935, as Chairman of the Parliamentary Club of the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe).* His research concentrated on the modern economic history of Poland. He was killed by the Germans in Auschwitz.* WEP, X, 218. RYBINSKI, MACIEJ (1784-1874), General. He fought under Napoleon during 1809-1813. He participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 as a Commander of the First Infantry Division. He fought in the Battles of Wawer* and Ostroleka* and in the defense of Warsaw.* After its fall, he was appointed the last Commander-in-Chief of the uprising on September 9, 1831. He negotiated its capitulation with the Russian Marshal I. Paskevich* and crossed the Polish-Prussian border with his Army. In his Paris exile, he was a leader of a military party. In 1848, he tried to organize a Polish Legion under French command. WEP, X, 219. RYDEL, LUC JAN (1870-1918), poet, playwright, and translates He won fame through his translations of the Iliad, Greek and Roman lyric poetry and Moliere's comedies. A representative of the ''Young Poland,"* he wrote emotional lyrics, which included numerous folk motifs. His most popular play, Enchanted Circle (Zaczarowane kolo), became a theatrical event in Cracow* in 1899. He also wrote a number of novels and short stories. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 473-474; WEP, X, 225.

RYDZ-SMIGLY, EDWARD (1886-1941), Marshal of Poland. As a young man, he was a watercolor painter. In 1912, he joined the Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki)* and assumed the pseudonym "Smigly." He became a faithful follower of J. Pilsudski* and one of his closest collaborators. During WW I, he served as an officer in the Polish Legions* and was a Commander of the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* from July 1917. In November 1918, he became a War Minister in the Polish government of I. Daszyriski. Next, he was in charge of the Warsaw* Military District. Rydz played an important role during the Polish-Soviet War* of 19191921 and commanded the Army which occupied Kiev on May 7, 1920. During 1921-1925, he served as an Army Inspector, and, after Pilsudski's death in 1935, he became the General Inspector of the Polish Armed Forces. On November 10, 1936, President I. Moscicki* appointed Rydz Marshal of Poland. He supported a program of strengthening the executive power in Poland and patronized

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the Camp of National Unity (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego [OZN]).* During the 1939 September Campaign,* he was the Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army. He left Poland together with its government for Romania on September 17-18, 1939, which was criticized by a large part of Polish society. In 1941, he returned to Poland in disguise and tried to organize an underground anti-German organization but died in Warsaw. C. Lezeriski, Kwatera 139: Opowiesc o Marszalku Rydzu-Smigtym (Grave 139: A Story about Marshal Rydz-Smigly) (Cracow, 1989); R. Mirowicz, Edward Rydz-Smigty (Warsaw, 1988). RZEPECKI, JAN ("PREZES") (1899-1983), officer and historian. During WW I, he served in the Polish Legions* and, from 1918, in the Polish Army. In the years 1935-1939, he was a professor of the War School in Warsaw.* He participated in the 1939 September Campaign* as an operational chief of the Army Group "Cracow," after which he joined the anti-German resistance. At first he was a Chief of Staff of the Warsaw area. In 1940, he became chief of the Bureau of Information and Propaganda. He fought in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising.* On May 13, 1945, he was appointed the Delegate of the Armed Forces in the country by the Polish Government-in-Exile* in London but was soon arrested by the Communist authorities. G. Mazur, Biuro Informacji i Propagandy: SZP-ZWZ-AK, 1939-1945 (Warsaw, 198 RZESZOW, town on the Wislok River in Little Poland (Malopolska)* with interesting Gothic, Baroque* and Renaissance* architecture. In 1354 it received its urban rights from King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great).* Destroyed several times by fire, the Tatars,* the Swedes, and the Transylvanians, it served as a local center of trade and manufacturing. Before the First Partition* of Poland, guerrilla units of the Bar Confederation* operated in the region. During 1772-1918, Rzeszow was under Austrian control and its economic role diminished. In 1895, the town hosted the First Congress of the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Chlopskie).* During the interwar period, Rzeszow was included in the Central Industrial Region (Centralny Okreg Przemyslowy [COP])* and revived economically. In 1939, it had 30,000 inhabitants. During WW II, the Rzeszow region became an important area of peasant anti-German resistance. WEP, X, 249-250. RZEWUSKI, SEWERYN (1743-1811), Field Hetman* of Poland during 1774-1793. As a member of the 1767 Sejm* (Parliament), he opposed equal rights for religious dissidents* supported by Russia. Arrested with his father on the order of the Russian Ambassador in Poland, N. Repnin,* he was deported to Russia. Upon his return to Poland, he opposed King Stanislaw August* and his reform program and fought for the re-establishment of the old political system and the "Golden Freedom" of the Polish gentry. He joined the Targowica Confederation* as one of its leaders. After the Second Partition* of Poland, he

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retired to his estates in Austrian-occupied Galicia.* R. Lord, The Second Partition of Poland (Cambridge, 1915); A. Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992). RZYMOWSKI, WINCENTY (1883-1950), journalist and politician. He edited or contributed to numerous periodicals of interwar Poland. One of the best Polish publicists, he was a member of the Polish Academy of Literature (Polska Akademia Literatury [PAL])* from 1933. Originally a supporter of J. Pilsudski,* Rzymowski opposed the Sanacja* regime after 1926. In 1937, he helped to organize the Democratic Club in Warsaw* and, just before WWII, the Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Demokratyczne [SD]).* In 1944, he became the Director of the Culture Department of the Moscow-controlled Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego [PKWN]).* In 1945, Rzymowski became the first Foreign Minister of the Communist government of Poland, which he represented at the Potsdam Conference. SHP, 423.

s "SABALA" (JAN KRZEPTOWSKI) (1809-1893), highlander bard. A robber and poacher in his youth, he became a guide in the Tatra* Mountains and famous for his folk stories and songs accompanied by a fiddle. He befriended several intellectuals fascinated with the Tatras. He is considered the composer of many highlander songs and musical compositions (Sabala Music Notes). His stories were published by B. Dembowski and A. Stopka-Nazimek, and his colorful personality became a subject of literary and musical works. WEP, X, 281. SACHA, STEFAN (1888-1943), politician and lawyer. One of the level-headed leaders of the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe [SN])* in Warsaw,* he edited its daily, Warszawski Dziennik Narodowy (Warsaw National Daily), during 1935-1939. During 1941-1943, he played an important role as Chairman of the underground National Party. He cooperated closely with the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* and the clandestine Delegate of the Polish Governmentin-Exile* in London. He was arrested and killed by the Nazis in mid-1943. G. Lerski, Poland's Secret Envoy (New York, 1988), 98-99, 128.

SACHSENHAUSEN, Nazi concentration camp in the Berlin suburb of Oranienburg, established in September 1936. Until the end of WW II, about 200,000 prisoners were held in the camp, half of whom died there. Usually about 50,000 inmates were imprisoned in Sachsenhausen, including 184 professors of Cracow's* Jagiellonian University* and the Mining Academy, imprisoned on November 6, 1939. Fourteen of them died in the camp; many others left the camp fatally ill. Sachsenhausen was among the first camps where lethal medical experiments were performed. A group of Polish resistance leaders was murdered there in August 1944 after the outbreak of the Warsaw Uprising,* among them Gen. S. "Grot" Rowecki,* the Commander-in-Chief of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* WEP, X, 284.

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SAHAJDACZNY, PIOTR. See KONASZEWICZ-SAHAJDACZNY, PIOTR. SAINT CROSS HOMILIES, name of six sermons considered the oldest text in the Polish language. Given late in the thirteenth or early in the fourteenth century, they were preserved in the Benedictine* Monastery of St. Cross on Lysa Gora (Bald Mountain) in the Kielce* region. The only full text was devoted to St. Catherine, the other five to St. Michael, St. Nicholas, Christmas, Epiphany and Our Lady of Candlemas Day. The original texts were copied in the midfourteenth century. They were used in parchment stripes (of which eighteen survived) for binding of Latin codices as found by A. Bruckner in St. Petersburg Library in 1890. I. Chrzanowski, Historia Literatury Niepodleglej Polski (History of the Literature of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1971), 28; J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 12. SALOMEA (ca. 1101-1144), second wife of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth)* and a daughter of Count Henry of Berg. After Boleslaw's death, she remained in Poland and used the title "ducissa Poloniae." She ruled in a principality assigned to her in Boleslaw's testament, where she took care of her two youngest and minor sons, Henry and Kazimierz. She participated actively in the political life of Poland and the conflicts between her older sons. PSB, XXXIV, 364-365. SALT, mineral sodium chloride used as an additive to foods and, from the nineteenth century, widely used in industry, mainly as a food preservative and as an essential additive to cattle feed. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Poland used 10 to 12 kilograms of salt per person yearly, and its needs were filled largely by home production. Salt mines existed in the sub-Carpathian region, Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* Kujavia,* and Pomerania.* Salt was also imported from Germany, Ruthenia,* Transylvania, and Western Europe. From the mid-thirteenth to the end of the eighteenth century, the basis of home production was rock salt from the Royal Salt Mines (Zupy Krolewskie) in Wieliczka* and Bochnia,* which produced between 10,000 and 20,000 tons a year in the Middle Ages and reached about 37,000 tons in the mid-seventeenth century. About 40 percent of the home production was exported abroad as an important segment of Polish export trade. After the Partitions* of Poland, the largest salt mines remained in Austrian-occupied Galicia,* which produced about 100,000 tons of salt a year in the mid-nineteenth century. In the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* the most important salt mine was in Ciechocinek,* while Inowroclaw* produced the most salt in the Prussian Partition. In 1913, the total salt production of the Polish lands reached almost 1 percent of world output, with 190,000 tons. In the interwar period, production rose from 458,000 tons in 1926 to 643,000 in 1938. K. Bukowski and A. Jackiewicz, Sol i saliny Polski (Salt and Salt-Mines in Poland) (Warsaw, 1926); EHGP, II, 304-305.

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SAMOGITIA. See ZMUDZ. SAMOSTRZELNIK, STANISLAW (14857-1541), painter. A Cistercian* monk, he became a chaplain and Court painter of Chancellor K. Szydlowiecki.* Samostrzelnik directed a painting studio in Cracow* and concentrated on miniatures and murals. He illuminated, among others, Bishop P. Tomicki's* Missal, Szydlowiecki's privilege for Opatow, and prayer books for King Zygmunt Stary (Sigismund the Old)* and Queen Bona.* He also painted portraits and completed the frescoes in the Mogita monastery during 1537-1538. WEP, X, 327. SAN, right tributary of the Vistula* River. The San River was considered a border between Eastern and Western Galicia,* and, after WW II, its fiftykilometer-long section became part of the frontier between Poland and the USSR. Several historic towns are located on the river, among them Sanok, Przemysl (Peremyshl),* Jaroslaw, and Stalowa Wola. WEP, X, 330. SANACJA, colloquial name for the political camp of J. Pilsudski* and his followers after the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat.* The term was derived from the Latin word sanacio, "cleansing," and reflected the main point of Pilsudski's program after his coup, "moral cleansing" (sanacja moralna) of public life in Poland. The core of the Sanacja regime were former members of the WW I Polish Legions* and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* During 1918-1926, they were active in the military and various centrist and leftist political parties, such as the Polish Peasant Party"Liberation" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe-"Wyzwolenie"),* the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]),* and small political groupings of the intelligentsia. They represented different ideologies but were united by the frustration caused by the political chaos in Poland and their frequently bad personal situations. The veterans of WW I believed that Poland regained its independence as a result of their fighting and that they were predestined to rule in their country. They also believed in the crisis of democracy, the necessity of strong executive powers, and political elites, which should exercise real power. Among them the leading role was played by a small group of Marshal J. Pilsudski's close collaborators: J. Beck,* S. Car,* T. Holowko,* W. and J. Jedrzejewicz,* A. Koc,* M. Koscialkowski,* I. Matuszewski,* B. Miedziriski,* B. Pieracki,* A. Prystor,* A. Skwarczyriski,* and W. Slawek.* In 1928, they formed the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR]).* After Pilsudski's death in 1935, Sanacja became more radical, and, in 1937, its activists established the semi-totalitarian Camp of National Unity (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego [OZN]),* which gained the support of some splinter groups of the National Democracy.* The legal expression of the Sanacja doctrine was the Constitution of April 1935.* In its last period of 1935-1939, the Sanacja was divided into several groups. After the September 1939 defeat, Sanacja was replaced by the representatives

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of the pre-war centrist opposition. However, numerous members of the Pilsudski camp still occupied important positions in the exiled government and the underground state in German-occupied Poland. N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. II, (New York, 1982), 393-434; The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 159-209; A. Jedruszczak, Pilsudczycy bez Pilsudskiego (Warsaw, 1963); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972). SANDOMIERZ, town in south central Poland on the Vistula* River. A settlement existed there from the eighth century. By the end of the tenth century, it was fortified and became the capital of one of the tribal states that existed on future Polish territories before the tenth century. By the end of the eleventh century, Sandomierz was the second most important urban center of Little Poland (Malopolska)* after Cracow.* In the twelfth century, the town became the capital of an independent principality, whose first ruler was Henryk, son of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth).* In 1227, Sandomierz obtained city rights. However, in the years 1241 and 1259-1260, it was destroyed by the Tatars.* Eventually re-built, it became an important trade center, a Royal residence, and the site of gentry conventions. Devastated during the wars of the second half of the seventeenth century, Sandomierz then deteriorated. During 1795-1809, the town was occupied by Austria, then it was in the Duchy of Warsaw* and, after 1815, in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In 1918, Sandomierz was returned to Poland, but it never regained its medieval importance. It has many architectural treasures of the late Romanesque, Gothic, and Baroque* periods that are popular tourist attractions. WEP, X, 334-335. SANGUSZKO, Lithuanian magnate family of the descendants of Prince Theodore, the son of Olgierd (Algirdas).* Originally the Sanguszkos belonged to the Greek Orthodox Church,* but, in the seventeenth century, they embraced Roman Catholicism. With their huge estates in Lithuania,* Volhynia,* and Galicia,* they were among the richest families in Poland. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol (Boston, 1976), 52-53; PSB, XXXIV/3, 462-472. SANTO DOMINGO, the eighteenth-century name of a French colony, today Haiti, where two half-brigades of H. Dabrowski's* Polish Legions* were sent in 1802. The 1801 peace treaties between France and Austria in Luneville and between France and Russia in Paris stipulated that the signatories would avoid any activities which might cause damage to the other side. As a consequence, the two Polish Legions, who fought under Napoleon and had altogether some 13,000 soldiers, were transformed into half-brigades in the Italian or Etrurian service. This decision caused great agitation among the disappointed and bitter Poles. Officers left the ranks and some established contacts with the French antiNapoleon opposition, with the result that the greater part of the Legions, about 6,000 men, were sent to Santo Domingo to retake the island, lost in the ongoing

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revolt of the black slaves. The Legionnaires fought there unwillingly, most died in battles or of tropical diseases, some went over to the rebels, and only 300 returned. The island was lost to France, and the name of "San Domingo" became a symbol of Napoleon's controversial policy toward Poland. CHP, II, 225; A History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 408-409; J. Pachoriski and R. Wilson, Poland's Caribbean Tragedy: A Study of The Polish L in the Haitian War of Independence, 1802-1803 (Boulder, Colorado, 1 SAPIEHA, Lithuanian magnate family established by Semon, Palatine (wojewoda) of Podlasie* and secretary to King Kazimierz Jagielloriczyk (Casimir Jagiellon).* Some members of the family received the titles of Count and Prince from the Holy Roman Emperors. The Sapiehas defended the independence of Lithuania* in the sixteenth century and opposed a close union with Poland. Later, they Polonized themselves totally, and, in the nineteenth century, they were considered some of the richest Polish landowners. The family produced numerous Lithuanian and Polish statesmen and military leaders. Encyclopedi Lituanica, vol. 5 (Boston, 1976), 5 SAPIEHA, ADAM (1828-1903), politician. A scion of the powerful Lithuanian* magnate* family and one of the richest landowners of Galicia,* he initiated a petition to the Austrian Emperor asking for autonomous status for Galicia. In 1861, he was elected to the Galician Parliament in Lvov* and became a leader of the Galician "Whites."* He appealed to the Galician nobility to support the January Insurrection* of 1863. Exiled in 1864-1866 from Austria, he represented the insurrectionist National Government in France and England. Upon his return to Galicia, he continued the struggle for its autonomy. During the 1877 Turkish-Russian War, he organized a Polish national government in Vienna. In 1879, he became a member of the Austrian House of Lords. He favored the "organic work"* movement, opposed both Galician conservatives and Galician democrats, and participated in various initiatives in order to improve the economic situation of Galicia. S. Kieniewicz, Adam Sapieha (Lvov, 193 SAPIEHA, ADAM STEFAN (1867-1951), Cardinal and Archbishop of Cracow* from 1925. Consecrated Bishop of Cracow in 1912, he organized a committee to help the victims of war during WW I. During the interwar period, he became the dominant personality of the Polish hierarchy. He opposed J. Pilsudski's* regime and, in 1937, caused a highly publicized incident by ordering the removal of Pilsudski's body from the Royal crypt at Wawel* Castle. During WW II, he cooperated with the Polish underground state. WEP, X, 354. SAPIEHA, EUSTACHY KAJETAN (1881-1963), politician and diplomat. From 1916, he served as a President of the Warsaw Welfare Committee and the Principal Welfare Council (Rada Glowna Opiekuncza [RGO]).* In January 1919, he helped to organize an unsuccessful coup d'etat against J. Pilsudski* as

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Head of State and J. Moraczewski* as Prime Minister. In 1919, Sapieha became the first Polish Minister in Great Britain, and, during 1920-1921, he served as Foreign Minister. Affiliated to the National Democracy* and the conservative landowners, he joined the Sanacja* camp of J. Pilsudski after the 1926 coup d'etat. During 1928-1930, he was a Member of the Polish Parliament, and, in 1944, he left for exile. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 ford, 1972), 221, 235, 238; WEP, X, 354. SAPIEHA, LEON (1803-1878), statesman. He participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and then settled in Galicia,* where he served as the Speaker of the Galician Parliament during 1861-1875 and presided over numerous Polish economic and educational institutions. He supported the "organic work"* movement and demanded the abolition of the corvee and the introduction of the use of the Polish language in schools in the Austrian-held Partition land. The History of Poland, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 7-10; WEP, 355. SAPIEHA, LEW (1577-1633), founder of the powerful Sapieha* family. He occupied several important state positions in the Lithuanian* segment of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* From 1585, he served as a Deputy Chancellor of Lithuania and, then, as a Chancellor* from 1589, Palatine (wojewoda) of Vilna* from 1621, and Grand Hetman* of Lithuania from 1625. He participated in the Moscow wars of King Stefan Batory.* In 1581, he helped to establish the Lithuanian Tribunal. An ardent supporter and adviser of King Zygmunt III Waza,* he was one of the main initiators of the Polish intervention in Muscovy during its early Time of Troubles. He supported King Zygmunt's plans to become Tsar of Russia. In 1617, Sapieha accompanied his son, the future King Wladyslaw IV Waza,* in an expedition to Moscow and participated in the negotiations leading to the Deulino* armistice of 1619. CHP, I, 466, 482; Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 5 (Boston, 1976), 58; WEP, X, SARBIEWSKI (SARBIEVIUS), MACIEJ (1595-1640), poet. Educated by the Jesuits,* he taught in their colleges in Zmudz* (Samogitia) and Polotsk. He also studied theology in Rome; joined the Court of Pope Urban VIII; taught rhetoric, philosophy, and theology in Vilna Academy; and served as Court homilist for King Wladyslaw IV Waza.* Sarbiewski became popular in Western Europe with his Latin collection Lyricorum libri tres, published in 1625. In his writings he combined Catholic ideology with elegance and masterly command of Horacelike poetic form. He expressed hostility to the Turkish incursions into Europe and wrote panegyrics to eulogize Christian rulers and epigrams resembling those of Horace. He also wrote theoretical works on the teaching and writing of poetry, and he became the best known Polish poet in early modern Europe. J. Jasnowski, Casimir Sarbiewski, the Polish Horace in England (London, 1949); C. Milosz, T

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tory of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 119-122; J. Sparrow, "Sarbiewski's Silv and Their Italian Source, Oxford Slavonic Papers VIII (195 SARMATISM, Latin designation used to describe the culture of the Polish gentry in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The concept crystallized in the sixteenth century in a vague scholarly search for a genealogy of the Polish nation. Contemporary chronicles, written by such historians as Miechowita and M. Bielski,* proposed a thesis that in the first centuries of the modern era a part of the Iranian Sarmatian people left the Black Sea steppes and settled in the Dnieper and Vistula* River valleys, turning the local Slavic population into slaves. According to this fantastic concept, the descendants of the Sarmatian horsemen-warriors became the Polish knights. This theory, justifying the nobles' rule over the lower classes, developed into an anarchistic ideology of unrestrained personal freedom, xenophobia, self-adulation, and national megalomania, combined with belief in a historical Polish mission and the Orientalization of noble behavior and aesthetic concepts. The Polish gentry opposed any attempts to strengthen executive power in their state and believed that it had the best sociopolitical system, the "Golden Freedoms"* with its liberum veto* and special privileges for the upper class. Poland's frequent need to fight nonCatholic nations led to the conviction that a good Pole should be a staunch Catholic. That, in turn, led to abandonment of religious tolerance. Exponents of Sarmatism, which developed during the period of the Counter-Reformation* in Poland, claimed that Poland was the nation chosen to serve as the Antemurale* (bulwark) of Christianity against Moslem invasions. Religious fanaticism, superficial devotion, and self-glorification were accompanied by excessive wealth in some magnate* families, and poverty and ignorance among the petty gentry. Sarmatism became the cultural cause of political regression in Poland, and freedom slogans degenerated into anarchy. The Sarmatian ideology was also reflected in art, which combined Oriental models with Baroque* trends, and in literature, where it was best expressed in the memoirs of J. Pasek,* J. Los, and S. Maskiewicz and the poetry of W. Kochowski. S. Cynarski, 'The Shape of Sarmatian Ideology in Poland," Acta Poloniae Historica XIX (1968), 5-17; History Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 262-272; T. Marikowski, Genealogia s matyzmu (Genealogy of Sarmatism) (Warsaw, 1946); C. Milosz, The History of Poli Literature (London, 1969), 170; WEP, X, 362-363. SAXON TIMES, period in Polish history between the years 1697 and 1763, when the country was ruled by August II Mocny (the Strong)* and August III* of the Saxon Wettin* dynasty. Their rule was interrupted twice, during 17041709 and 1733-1736, when Stanislaw Leszczyriski,* backed by France and Sweden, was announced as King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* However, he had to resign after being ejected from Poland by the followers of the Saxon dynasty and the Armies of Russia and Prussia.* The descendants of the Saxon monarchs of Poland were considered twice for the Polish throne. The

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Constitution of May 3, 1791,* stipulated that the free election would be canceled and the childless King Stanislaw August* would be succeeded by the Wettins. After the founding of the Duchy of Warsaw,* Napoleon made Friedrich August I,* the King of Saxony and the grandson of August III, the nominal ruler of the Duchy. Both Saxon Kings engaged Poland in Saxon wars and unsuccessful dynastic enterprises. They spent only a very short period in Poland, which was ruled by Royal favorites and corrupt Ministers. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* declined culturally and economically, was devastated by foreign armies, and was increasingly controlled politically by Russia. The decline was so steep that the dramatic struggle for reforms and re-construction under King Stanislaw August* did not preserve the independence of the country. CHP, II 1-49; A History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 272-312; L. Lewitt "Poland under the Saxon Kings," New Cambridge Modern History, vol. VII (C bridge, 1957). SCHEIBLER, KAROL (1820-1881), Lodz* industrialist of German origin. In 1854, he established the largest Polish mechanized cotton mill. After WW I, it merged with L. Grohman's enterprise and became the main textile company in Poland. EHGP, II, 256-257; SHP, All. SCHILLER, LEON (1887-1954), scenographer. As a student in Cracow* in 1906-1907, he began playing in the theaters and sang for the cabaret "Zielony Balonik"* (Little Green Balloon). Then, he studied at the Sorbonne in Paris, returned to Warsaw,* performed in its literary cabarets, and studied again in Paris, where he co-organized an association of the Polish artists, working together with W. Reymont,* A. Strug,* and S. Zeromski.* In 1912, he completed his commercial studies in Cracow but remained faithful to his artistic interests, writing theatrical reviews, producing projects of stage paintings, and organizing the first exhibit of Polish expressionists. In 1917, he became a secretary to the Polish Theater in Warsaw, where he made his debut as a scenographer. His stagings became famous, and Schiller, appreciated as the top Polish scenographer, directed several theaters in Warsaw and Lvov* and served as a professor of scenography at Warsaw's State Institute of Theatrical Arts. He also participated in radio programs and film productions. During WW II, he sang and accompanied singers in Warsaw coffee houses and opposed the registration of actors with the Nazi authorities. In 1941, he was arrested by the Gestapo* and sent to Auschwitz.* Released after several months, he concentrated on writing and participated in the clandestine theater council. He fought in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising* and, as an officer of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]),* was imprisoned in a POW camp in Germany. E. Csato, Leon Schiller (Warsaw, 1968); SBTP, 627. SCHIPPER, IZAAK (1884-1943), Jewish historian. A member of the Po'alei Zion* movement and, from 1922, of the General Zionist* Organization, he rep-

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resented it in the Polish Sejm* (Parliament) during 1922-1927. He specialized in the economic history of the Jews* and published many noted works, among them Dzieje handlu zydowskiego na ziemiach polskich (History of the Jewish Trade in Polish Lands) and, as a co-author, Zydzi w Polsce Odrodzonej (The Jews in Reborn Poland). Encyclopedia Judaica, XIV (Jerusalem, 1971), 967. SCHOOL STRIKE, demonstration of the Polish students of the high schools and universities in the Russian-controlled Congress Kingdom of Poland* during the Russian Revolution of 1905-1906. The Polish youth boycotted its Russified schools and demanded the introduction of Polish as the language of instruction, control of the school system in the Kingdom by the Polish society, and curbing of police interference and religious and national restrictions. The strike was started by Polish secret youth organizations supported by the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL]),* but gradually the leadership of the boycott transferred to the organizations influenced by the National League (Liga Narodowa).* The intensity of the strike led to minor Russian concessions. On October 14, 1905, a "ukase" of Tsar Nicholas II allowed private high schools to be opened with Polish as the language of instruction. In 1908, the National Democracy* withdrew from the strike, which ended soon afterward. The boycott was of great importance for the awakening of a Polish patriotic atmosphere among the youth in the Congress Kingdom. A History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 594; WEP, XI, 37. SCHULZ, BRUNO (1892-1942), writer and illustrator of Jewish origin. Educated in Vienna and Lvov,* he taught art at a Drohobycz high school during 1924-1941. Intellectually formed by "Young Poland"* and German literature, he made his debut in 1934 with a cycle of short stories, Cinnamon Stores (Sklepy cynamonowe). Later, he published The Sanitarium under the Sign of the Hourglass (Sanatorium pod klepsydrga) and his brilliant The Street of Crocodiles. He also translated F. Kafka and illustrated his own and other authors' works with etchings and lithographs. In 1938, he was awarded the golden laurel of the Polish Academy of Literature (Polska Akademia Literatury [PAL]).* After the Germans occupied Drohobycz in 1941, he was moved to its ghetto* and was shot in the street. His stories have the mythical character of a fantasy based on childhood memories. Their action takes place in a provincial town and concentrates usually on the father figure, who is involved in a pathetic struggle against the vulgar. Such a confrontation is presented as a conflict between spirit and matter, good and evil, male and female, patriarchal family tradition and shabby modernism. Schulz is considered one of the most original Polish writers of the twentieth century. R. Brown, "Metamorphosis in Bruno Schulz," Polish Review XXX/4 (1985), 373-380; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969),

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429-430; T. Robertson, "Bruno Schulz and Comedy," Polish Review XXXVI/2 (1991 119-126. SCHWARZBART, ISAAC IGNACY (1888-1961), Zionist leader in Poland. In 1913, he graduated from the law school at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* was active in a student Zionist association and, during 1921-1924, edited the Polish-language Zionist daily Nowy Dziennik (New Daily). Chairman of the Zionist Federation of Western Galicia* and Silesia,* he co-founded the world movement of the General Zionists and presided over the movement during 1931-1935. He led several other Zionist organizations and institutions and, in 1938, was elected a member of the Polish Sejm* (Parliament). At the outbreak of WW II, he fled to the West. He joined the Polish National Council, the Parliament-in-Exile, where he articulated the Jewish viewpoint. He was also active as a publicist and a writer. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. XIV (Jerusalem, 197 1028-1029. SDKPiL. See SOCIAL DEMOCRACY OF THE KINGDOM OF POLAND AND LITHUANIA. SEASONAL EMIGRATION, annual migration of Polish workers, especially farm workers, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to Germany. This industrialized country was in need of unskilled physical labor, and overpopulated Polish villages delivered it, mostly in the summer season. Migrant workers did not acquire German citizenship, being happy to take their wages home to Poland. In colloquial language, seasonal emigration was defined as "going to Saxony" (Chodzenie na Saksy), because that region needed most of the workers. Frequently, they provided unskilled labor every year for the same employers. WEP, III, 418. SECOND ARMY CORPS, Polish military unit organized in 1942 in Iraq mainly of Poles previously deported to the USSR and allowed to form an Army after the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement,* once they were released from labor camps and prisons. On Gen. W. Anders's* request, they were allowed to cross through the Caspian Sea to Iran and, then, to Iraq. After intensive training in Palestine, the Second Army Corps, commanded by Gen. Anders, was transferred to southern Italy and merged with the Eighth British Army. The total number of soldiers was 48,000; the main components of the Corps were the Third Division of Carpathian Riflemen under Gen. B. Duch,* the Fifth Borderlands Infantry Division under Gen. N. Sulik, and the Second Armored Brigade under Gen. B. Rakowski. In the winter of 1944, the Second Army Corps was assigned to defend the mountain range over the Sangro River and, in May, it fought to conquer fortified positions on the German "Gustav" and "Hitler" defense lines, thrice attempted without success by other Allied troops. The Poles first took the San Angelo hills, then the old Monte Cassino* Benedictine monastery and Pied-

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monte, opening the way to Rome for the Allies in June. After these spectacular victories, the Second Army Corps was sent on an independent operation along the Adriatic coast and took the city of Ancona. In October 1944, it fought in the Apennine Mountains and, in April 1945, it took part in the Battle of Bologna. After twelve days of fighting, it broke through the German positions and entered the city. Total losses of the Corps in the Italian campaign reached about 3,000 killed and 14,000 wounded. After WW II, a large part of the Second Army Corps soldiers remained in exile. W. Anders, An Army in Exile (London, 1949); W Madeja, The Polish Second Corps and the Italian Campaign, 1943-1945 (Allen Pennsylvania, 1984). SECOND INTERNATIONAL, umbrella organization for Socialist parties created in 1889 at its first congress in Paris called on July 14 on the 100th Anniversary of Bastille Day. It greatly strengthened the international cooperation of the Social Democratic movement founded on the Marxist concept of scientific socialism. The key role was played by the Socialist Parties of Germany, France, Belgium, and Great Britain. Its leading activists and theoreticians were F. Engels, A. Bebel, K. Kautsky, W. Liebknecht, G. Plekhanov, V. Adler, R. Luxemburg,* C. Huysmans, and K. Branting. Polish socialists were represented in various periods by A. Ciolkosz,* H. Diamand, B. A. Jedrzejowski,* W. JodkoNarkiewicz,* H. Lieberman, R. Luxemburg,* M. Niedzialkowski, H. Walecki (M. Horwitz), and C. Wojnarowska. Before WW I, there were nine Congresses of the Second International. Its Executive Committee, opened in 1900 in Brussels, coordinated the Socialist movement and dealt with such issues as the eighthour working day, the universal electoral law, the May Day solidarity of the working class, the general strike, the colonial question, and the attitude toward the war of member parties. The Socialist International supported the cause of Polish independence, as represented devotedly by the delegation of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 33 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1983), 179-187. SEJM, lower chamber of the Polish Parliament and the main legislative body of Poland. It originated early in the fifteenth century as the King's meetings with his Council and representatives of various estates. In 1463, it was transformed in Piotrkow* into a two-chamber institution composed of the Senate* and Sejm, whose deputies represented the sejmiki (dietines).* Until 1505, the lower chamber of Parliament included representatives of towns. In the sixteenth century, only Vilna* and Cracow* were represented; however, they did not have voting rights. The Sejm legislated bills and taxes, confirmed nobility status for deserving candidates, received foreign envoys, and directed foreign policy. It controlled the Treasury, decided the calling of a levee en masse, and played the judicial role of a Supreme Court. It possessed the right of pardon and amnesty. From 1573, it met regularly every two years for a six-week period and, in case

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of need, more frequently for two weeks. It met in Warsaw,* but from 1679 also in Grodno.* To pass bills, a simple majority was originally sufficient. From the mid-seventeenth century, however, unanimity was required; that requirement gave birth to the destructive liberum veto* After WW I, the Sejm was recreated by the 1919 elections, which were universal, equal, direct, secret and proportional. In January 1919, the one-chamber Constitutional Sejm* elected J. Pilsudski* as the Head of the State. The main task of the Constitutional Sejm was to prepare the supreme law of the country, which was passed on March 17, 1921. The new Constitution defined the two-chamber Parliament, consisting of the Sejm with 444 members and the Senate with 111 members. Both chambers jointly, as the National Assembly, had the duty of electing the President of the Republic. The Sejm included representatives of numerous political parties and national minorities. The 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat* changed the character of the Sejm by imposing substantial limits on its power, as stipulated by the law of August 2, 1926, which enhanced the legislative power of Presidential decrees. The Sejm could not work freely and the regime of J. Pilsudski put an end to the development of the Polish Parliamentary system. The new authoritarian Constitution of April 23, 1935,* gave the President executive "prerogatives" not accountable to Parliament, while the rights of the Senate were strengthened by making that upper chamber equal to the Sejm. Altogether there were six Parliamentary elections in the interwar period: in 1919, 1922, 1928, 1930, 1935 and 1938. CHP, II, 54-57; K. Gdrski, "The Origins of the Polish Sejm," Slavonic and East European Review XLIV (1966), 122-138; A. Groth, "Polish Elections, 1918-1939," Slavic Review XXIV/4 (1965), 653-666; B. Lesnodorski, Historia paristwa i prawa ski (History of the Polish Law and State) (Warsaw, 1966); WEP, X, 429^43 SEJMIK (Dietine), institution of local Polish territorial self-government, which took shape in the late fourteenth century. It was composed of two parts: the Council of Landlords, mainly the higher landed bureaucracy, and the total gentry of a region. In the fifteenth century, with the growth of political activity of the nobility,* the Council of Landlords disappeared and the dietine became a representation of the total nobility of a province (wojewodztwo) or other territorial unit. In Lithuania,* the dietines met in each of the countries and decided on legislative matters on the basis of the Nieszawa* privileges of 1454. In Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* dietines had the power to call the levee en masse and additional tax levies. From the late fifteenth century, such important matters were decided by the central Sejm* (Parliament). From the sixteenth century, dietines' main function was to give instructions to their Deputies to the Sejm and to listen to their reports. They also chose candidates for land courts, and, in the case of an interregnum, they acquired supreme power in the provinces. With the weakening of the central power in Poland in the late seventeenth century, the importance of the dietines grew, especially in economic matters and in recruitment of military forces. In the eighteenth century, dietines became dominated by local magnates. The Constitution of May 3, 1791,* denied the

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dietines taxation rights and power of binding instructions for Parliamentary deputies but enlarged their role in the selection of local officials and judges. It also gave them the right to present three candidates for each vacated place in the Senate and made it possible to recall a member of Parliament. In the Duchy of Warsaw* and in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* during 1815-1830, the name of the dietines (sejmik) was given to the county electoral meetings of the nobility, who had the right to select members of Parliament. After the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, the dietines ceased to exist in Russian-occupied Poland but survived in Prussian-occupied Poland as county dietines (Kreisstende). CHP, II, 57-58; B. Lesnodorski, Historia paristwa i prawa Polski (Histor the Polish Law and State) (Warsaw, 1966). "SELECTIVE" INFANTRY, infantry units organized during the reign of King Stefan Batory* on the basis of the Sejm* (Parliament) bill of 1578. The units, composed of peasants, were formed by recruiting one soldier (wybraniec: "chosen," recruit) from every twentieth Ian (about 320 hectares) of the Royal estates. They were equipped according to the Hungarian model and included the first sapper formation. Selective infantry became unpopular among the nobility, who were afraid of giving weapons to the peasants and saw Batory's initiative as an attempt to achieve a stronger and more independent position. Therefore, the nobles tried to replace the personal service of these infantrymen by monetary compensation. Selective infantry proved to be more disciplined and effective on the battlefield than the gentry's levee en masse. Composed of about 2,000 men, it played an important role in the King's second Moscow campaign. A Histor of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 193; M. Kukiel, Zarys historii wojskowosci w Polsce (London, 1949).

SEMENENKO, PIOTR (1814-1886), priest. He took part in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and, after its fall, emigrated to France, where he was a member of the radical Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]).* He opposed the mystical group of A. Towiariski* and assumed responsibility for the spiritual care of the Polish exiles. In 1842, he cofounded the Resurrectionist Order in Rome and served twice as its General. E. Janas, "Father Peter Semenenko, C.R., and His Message," Polish American Studies XI 2 (1956), 1-18. SEMKOWICZ, WLADYSLAW (1878-1949), historian and professor of medieval history at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* from 1916. He specialized in the auxiliary branches of history: genealogy, paleography, historical geography and diplomacy. He founded a school which specialized in the genealogy of Polish nobility.* WEP, X, 445; SHP, 434. SEMPOLOWSKA, STEFANIA (1870-1944), pedagogue. Before WW I, she was active in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* as an organizer of an illegal

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educational movement and of assistance to political prisoners. She participated in the 1905 school strike* and was jailed three times by the Russian authorities. On behalf of the Red Cross, she visited Japan to arrange the transport of almost 1,000 Polish orphans from Siberia* to Poland after WW I and took care of the Red Army prisoners during 1919-1921. She also represented the Soviet Red Cross in Poland. In the interwar period, she was one of the leaders of the teachers' union, the Union of Polish Teachers (Zwiazek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego [ZNP])*; struggled for universal education and democratization of the school system; and was active in several humanitarian institutions and organizations of leftist intellectuals. She also wrote popular books for children and young people. WEP, X, 446. SENATE, upper chamber of the Polish Parliament. Before the Partitions,* its members were appointed by the monarch from among the highest state officers, spiritual and temporal. The spiritual officers were represented by Archbishops and Bishops; the temporal, by the highest-ranking local officials, such as Palatines (wojewodowie), Castellans,* Ministers, and other officials of state or important leaders. The Senate was not elective; its members received Senatorial rank in the state, and it retained the old function of Royal Council. The Senate's role was to express opinions on Sejm* (lower chamber) legislation and to discuss foreign policy. The King summoned the Senate to obtain its opinion and sometimes consulted the Senators by letter. Usually, the Senate assembled after the end of the session of the Sejm. The Senate also existed in the Duchy of Warsaw* and the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* but it did not play an important role. Only in the tiny Cracow* Republic (1815-1846) was the Senate significant as a supreme power of that free city. In the interwar period (1919-1939), it had the right to amend or reject bills passed by the lower chamber (Sejm) by submitting them for additional debate, after which an 11/20 majority of the Sejm was decisive. CHP, II, 55-57; SHP, 434.

SENIORATE, term indicating the principle of transferring inheritance to the oldest member of a given family, regardless of line or proximity of relation. Used in medieval Poland for succession of rulers, it was formalized in the 1138 testament of the Piast* ruler Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth).* In 1146, it was broken by the expulsion of his oldest son, Wladyslaw II,* from Cracow.* According to the original idea, which was to preserve Poland's integrity and, at the same time, prevent a civil war between brothers as rival successors to the throne, the oldest Piast should rule Poland from Cracow, exercising sovereign power over junior members of the dynasty. The "senior" or Princeps, endowed with the largest Principality, was to conduct Poland's foreign policy, issue currency, maintain fortresses, and invest Bishops. Similar arrangements existed in other European countries and most led to feudal disintegration. CHP, I, 43-60.

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SEPTEMBER CAMPAIGN OF 1939, designation for the first stage of WW II and of the Polish-German War, which began with the unprovoked Nazi invasion at 4:45 A.M. on September 1. It started with mass bombing of Polish airports and ended with the capitulation of the last Polish formations on October 5. It was triggered by the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact* with its secret protocols signed in Moscow on August 23, 1939. Its main goal was the liquidation of the Polish state and destruction of the Polish nation. According to the Fall Weiss war plan, isolated and encircled Poland was to be eliminated as fast as possible by the outflanking Blitzkrieg strike. The Germans had overpowering superiority at the start of the campaign, especially in the air and in their Armored Divisions with twenty-five hundred modern tanks and over 2,000 planes. Their Army was 1.8 million strong, while the Polish Army reached about 1,250,000 soldiers, 300 tanks, and 400 planes, mostly outdated. The Nazis also had a tremendous strategic advantage by being able to attack Poland simultaneously not only from the west but from the north (East Prussia) and the south (subjugated Slovakia). The Polish High Command, under Commander-in-Chief Marshal E. RydzSmigly* and Chief of Staff Gen. W. Stachiewicz,* did not have an effective plan for defense of Poland from the west. A large part of the Polish Army, particularly the troops extended along the northern and western frontiers, was encircled and destroyed in the early stage of the struggle, which lasted until September 6. The only serious attempt to regain the initiative was the Battle on the Bzura* River, which brought initial success but ended with withdrawal eastward. The Commander-in-Chief with his staff left Warsaw* on September 6, moved to Brest-Litovsk (Brzesc nad Bugiem)* and, then, to Wlodzimierz Wolyriski* on September 11 and to Kolomyia in southeastern Poland on September 17. As a result, the Polish High Command lost contact with most fighting units. In mid-September, the bulk of the Polish forces were annihilated and most Polish ethnic territories occupied by the Germans. On September 17, the Red Army crossed the eastern frontier of Poland and, within several days, occupied Western Ukraine* and Western Belorussia,* the territories assigned to the USSR in the secret protocol of the RibbentropMolotov Pact. A few hours after the Soviet invasion, the Polish government of Gen. F. Slawoj-Skladkowski,* President I. Moscicki,* and Commander-in-Chief Rydz-Smigly crossed the Romanian frontier. They had hoped to pass through that neutral country to the west, but were unexpectedly interned. At the same time, Great Britain and France broke their agreements with Poland, did not attack Germany, and limited themselves to the "sitting" or "phony war." Polish soldiers defended the Westerplatte fort in Gdarisk (Danzig)* for seven days, the Oksywie base near Gdynia* until September 19, Modlin* fort until September 29, and the Hel* Peninsula until October 2. Warsaw, the only European capital besieged by the Germans during WW II, fought till September 27. The last regular battles were fought in early October in the Kock region by the "Polesie" operational group under Gen. F. Kleeberg.* Thousands of civilians were killed by bombs or executed by the Germans, especially in the western

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and northern provinces of Poland. The defeat caused a great depression and disillusionment with the state authorities. However, during the last days of the defense of Warsaw, the first secret units of the anti-German resistance were organized. Their propaganda agencies convinced the Poles that it was only the first campaign which was lost, and the war had only started. N. Bethell, The War Hitler Won (London 1972); L. Moczulski, Wojna polska (The Polish War) (Poznari, 1972); R. Kennedy, The German Campaign in Poland (1939) (Washington, D.C., 1956); S. Zaloga and V. Madej, The Polish Campaign 1939 (New York, 1989). SERFDOM. See CORVEE. SERVICE FOR THE VICTORY OF POLAND (Sluzba Zwyci^stwu Polski [SZP]), first major Polish clandestine anti-German military organization established by Gen. M. Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski* in September and October 1939. The SZP cooperated with representatives of the main Polish political parties active in the underground and started building a network of anti-German and anti-Soviet resistance in occupied Poland. In November 1939, the SZP was transformed into the Union of Armed Struggle.* S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978), 14-21. SEYDA, MARIAN (1879-1964), politician. As a student of law in Berlin, he joined the secret Association of Polish Youth "Zet" (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej "Zet")* and co-edited a Polish daily, Dziennik Berlinski (Berlin Daily). Later, he became a member of the Central Committee of the National League (Liga Narodowa)* and the leader of the National Democracy* in the Prussian part of Poland. From 1906, he edited the Kurier Poznanski and a Catholic periodical, Oredownik (Champion). From 1909, he supported the anti-German policy of R. Dmowski.* During WW I, he was active in the Central Polish Agency in Switzerland and, during 1917-1919, in the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP])* in Paris, notably in charge of the Committee's Press Division. From 1919, he was one of the leaders of the Popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy [ZLN])* and its continuation, the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe [SN]),* and became its chief spokesman in Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* In 1923, Seyda served in W. Witos's* cabinet as Minister of Foreign Affairs. During 1919-1927, he was a member of Parliament and, during 1928-1935, of the Senate. In the late 1930s, he opposed the rightwing leadership of the SN and supported the Front Morges* moderate coalition. One of the most constant supporters of Gen. W. Sikorski* and his policy, he served as Minister of Congressional (post-war) Affairs in the Polish Government-in-Exile* during 1940-1944. He advocated the plan of establishing the Polish-German frontier on the Oder-Neisse (Odra-Nysa) line* and was criticized by the official leadership of the SN for his allegedly soft attitude toward Soviet expansionism. S. Kozicki, Historia Ligi Narodowej (London, 1964); WEP, X, 471.

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SEYDA, WLADYSLAW (1863-1939), politician and lawyer. From the 1880s, he was active in the Polish national movement in Silesia* and Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* where, among others, he defended in courts Polish national leaders who were persecuted by the Prussian authorities. A member of the National League (Liga Narodowa),* he was one of the organizers and leaders of the National Democracy* in Prussian Poland. During 1907-1912, he served as a Deputy in the Prussian Landtag; during 1912-1918, in the German Reichstag; during 1914-1918, he was also President of the Polish Club there. A member of a Commissariat of the People's Supreme Council in Poznari (Posen)* during 1918-1919, he was a Minister for the Former Prussian Partition during 19191920. During 1920-1928, he served as a Deputy of the first Parliament of the Second Polish Republic and as President of its Supreme Court. WEP, X, 47 S£P-SZARZYNSKI, MIKOLAJ (1550-1581), poet. A scion of a Protestant family, he studied in Wittenberg, Leipzig, and Padua. Upon his return to Poland, he became a fervent Catholic. His first poems were mostly patriotic odes, but, later, he concentrated on metaphysical works devoted to speculative philosophy, human fear, spiritual nostalgia, and death. He tried to revise Renaissance* ideas in the Catholic spirit, expressing his subjective attitude to God. His poems, including beautiful sonnets, were published posthumously in 1601, and their author was acclaimed one of the best Polish poets of his era. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 80-82; R. Sokolski, "Mikolaj SepSzarzyriski: Editions and Interpretations," Polish Review XXXII/3 (1987), 255-27 SGGW. See PRINCIPAL SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY. SGH. See PRINCIPAL SCHOOL OF COMMERCE. SHATZKY (SZACKI), JAKUB (1893-1956), Jewish historian. From 1913, he wrote Polish articles and reviews on Jewish literature and historical subjects. During WW I, he served as an officer in the Polish Legions.* In 1922, he received his doctorate on nineteenth-century Polish-Jewish relations. In the same year, he settled in the United States, where he established the American section of YIVO (Yiddish Scientific Institute). In America, he published, mainly in Yiddish, numerous scholarly works, including his noted History of the Jews in Warsaw. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. XIV (Jerusalem, 1971), 1318. SHTETL (Yiddish: small town), a small Jewish community in Eastern Europe, with a unique social-cultural pattern. Its size varied from much fewer than 1,000 inhabitants to 20,000 or more. It first took shape within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* before the Partitions.* The Jews* had been invited to settle in private towns owned by the nobles on relatively favorable conditions. In many such towns, Jews soon formed the preponderant majority of the population and created a specific way of life, which integrated religious and secular elements.

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The Jews lived mostly in one, usually densely built, town district. Their life revolved around synagogue, home, and market. The mixture of the traditional ideals of piety, learning, communal justice, and charity created a relatively safe environment. Each shtetl tried to maintain its own schools, public baths, ritual slaughterer, hospitals, orphanages, and several charitable organizations. Community elders, the kahal, cared for the needs of their people. It was more bearable to be a poor Jew than a poor Christian in many East European towns. On the other hand, the community regulated the entire life of its members according to religious law. Increasing numbers of young Jews did not want to accept those rules in the late nineteenth century, and the traditional shtetl began to erode. In the Prussian part of partitioned Poland, modernization came earlier, and the typical shtetl did not appear. In the Russian-controlled Congress Kingdom of Poland* and in Austrian-occupied Galicia,* the shtetl structure survived until WW I and beyond. As a result, interwar Poland became the main center of Orthodox Jewry in Europe. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. XIV (Jerusalem, 1971), 14661473; M. Zborowski and E. Herzog, Life Is with People (New York, 1955).

SIBERIA, immense, poorly populated Asian region of Russia; the Ural Mountains mark its western border, the Arctic Sea the northern, the Pacific Ocean the eastern, and the Kazakh and Mongolian provinces the southern. In modern times, Siberia became one of the most dreaded words in the Polish vocabulary because of the growing numbers of people deported there from Poland by the Russian authorities. Polish patriots were sent to Siberia after the defeats of the November (1830-1831) and January (1863-1864) Insurrections* and settled there as forced laborers or farmers. In 1866, the Polish Insurrection broke out in the Baikal region and was crushed by the Tsarist Army. There were about 20,000 Poles in Siberia in the mid-1860s. By the end of the nineteenth century, some Poles immigrated there voluntarily, attracted by the tremendous development possibilities. The next wave of Poles arrived there after the 1905-1907 Revolution, and many became engaged in the economic and scientific life of the province. Hundreds of skilled Polish builders participated in the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railroad. In biological research, great services were contributed by such scholars as B. Dyboski, W. Godlewski, and A. Czekanowski, while in geology, geography, archaeology and paleontology, Siberia owes much to J. Czerski, M. Witkowski, and B. Pilsudski,* and in ethnography to W. Sieroszewski.* Numerous deportees managed to return from Siberia during and after WW I. However, during 1939-1941, the Soviet authorities deported about 1.5 million Polish citizens from the territories occupied by the Soviet Union after the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact.* A large portion of this population was sent to Siberia, where the Polish community has survived to the present day. M. Janik, Dzieje Polakow na Syberii (A History of the Poles in Siberia) (Cracow, 1928); W. Jewsiewicki, Na syberyjskim zeslaniu (In Siberian Exile) (Warsaw, 1959).

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SICHULSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1879-1942), painter and a representative of Polish modernism. Educated at the Cracow* Academy of Fine Arts and in the Kiinstgewerbeschule in Vienna, he was a professor at the State School of Industrial Art in Lvov* during 1920-1930 and at the Academy of Fine Arts in Cracow during 1930-1939. Strongly influenced by S. Wyspiariski* and the Vienna Secession, he painted motifs taken from the highlanders' folk art and symbolic religious pictures, including stained glass and mosaics. W. Jaworska, Polish Painters (1850-1950) (Montreal, 1984), 90SICINSKI, WLADYSLAW (7-1664), member of the Sejm* (Parliament), who broke off the Parliamentary session in 1652 by using the liberum veto* the first Deputy to do so in Polish history. A political client of J. RadziwiH,* Siciriski acted on his orders and created a political precedent, which was later followed by other Deputies. WEP, X, 493. SIECIECH (eleventh/twelfth centuries), magnate* who served as Palatine (wojewoda) in Little Poland (Malopolska)* under the Piast* ruler Wladyslaw Herman.* Most likely, Sieciech led a revolt against Wladyslaw's predecessor, King Boleslaw Smialy (the Bold),* in 1079. After Wladyslaw Herman assumed power, Sieciech exercised a decisive influence on him and became the actual ruler of Poland. He even issued currency in his own name. His policy provoked the strong opposition of magnates and knights, who claimed to defend the interests of the ruler's sons, Zbigniew and Boleslaw. Trying to regain Polish control over Pomerania,* Sieciech led an expedition to the Baltic coast, but his efforts were fruitless, and Pomerania remained independent. After extended struggles in 1093 and 1097, Sieciech was expelled from the country, and, after his illegal re-entry, he was blinded. CHP, I, 43-60; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 78.

SIEDLCE, town about 80 kilometers east of Warsaw.* First mentioned in the fifteenth century, it received Magdeburg* town rights in 1549 and developed as a local industrial center. In 1670, Siedlce became a property of the Czartoryski* family. In the mid-nineteenth century, the town became an educational and cultural center of Podlasie* and, in 1857, the seat of the Bishopric. A strategic point on a highway linking Warsaw with Brest-Litovsk (Brzesc nad Bugiem),* Siedlce was an object of various military activities during the November and January Insurrections* of 1830-1831 and 1863, respectively. In the late nineteenth century, the town became an important railroad junction and its population grew from 2,700 in 1810 to 26,800 in 1910 and about 40,000 in 1939. During the revolution of 1905-1907, Siedlce witnessed demonstrations by workers and school strikes. During WW II, the city was badly damaged. There were five labor camps and two camps for Soviet POWs there. The Jewish population was exterminated at Treblinka* and thousands of Polish non-Jewish inhabitants of the town also perished. SHP, 435.

540

SBEDLECKI GRZYMALA, ADAM

SIEDLECKI GRZYMALA, ADAM (1876-1967), literary critic. During 1906—1911, he was a Literary Director of the J. Siowacki Theater in Cracow,* during 1913-1915, of the Rozmaitosci Theater in Warsaw* and, during 1916— 1918, of the City Theater in Cracow. He also wrote theatrical reviews, scholarly works on the theater, novels, and comedies. In 1937, he was awarded the Golden Laurel by the Polish Academy of Literature (Polska Akademia Literatury [PAL]).* WEP, X, 496. SIEMASZKOWA, WANDA (1867-1947), actress. She made her debut in 1887 and, then, performed in all major Polish cities, Vienna, and Paris. During 19201922, she directed a theater in Bydgoszcz,* and also later in Chicago and Lvov.* SBTP, 639-640. SIENICKI, MIKOLAJ (1521-1582), politician. A member of the Polish Brethren (Unitarians), he was an activist of the Reformation* movement in Poland and took part in the preparation of the Warsaw Confederation,* which dealt with religious tolerance of non-Catholics. He criticized the political dependence of the church hierarchy on the Papacy and the Church's reluctance to assume diplomatic burdens on behalf of the country. He demanded the calling of a national synod presided by the King. Sienicki was also one of the leaders of the movement for the "Execution-of-the-Law." He supported plans for the reform of the administration and legal system, the strengthening of the Royal power, and the return of Royal lands illegally kept by the magnates.* Sienicki held several official posts, including Speaker of the Sejm* (Parliament) during 1556-1563. An outstanding orator, he was called the "Polish Demosthenes." During the electoral Sejm of 1575, he backed the Transylvanian candidate Stefan Batory,* and, during the 1578 Sejm, he co-authored the bill establishing the Crown Tribunal. WEP, X, 503 SIENKIEWICZ, HENRYK (1846-1916), writer. In the 1870s and 1880s, he contributed to the Warsaw* press as a reporter and feuilletonist; later, he was co-owner of the periodical Niwa (Field) and, during 1882-1887, edited the Slowo (Word). From the early 1870s, he traveled extensively in Western Europe, America, Asia, and Africa. After twenty-five years of literary activities, he became the best-known Polish writer. In 1900, he received the Oblegorek estate near Kielce* as a jubilee gift from the general Polish society. In 1905, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his Quo Vadis, a novel of the first Christians in Rome. In the first years of the twentieth century, he was engaged in the struggle against the anti-Polish policy of the Prussian government. During the 1905 Revolution, he demanded autonomy for the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and supported the National Democracy.* During WW I, Sienkiewicz lived in Switzerland, where he organized and led the committee of help to Polish war victims. His first acclaimed works were letters from his travels to America and Africa and short stories. Ten years after his first novel, Na marne (Waste), appeared,

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Sienkiewicz began publishing his great Trilogy as a newspaper series in Slowo (Word) in 1884. The first part, Ogniem i Mieczem (With Fire and Sword), depicted the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising.* The second part of the Trilogy, Potop (The Deluge), was devoted to the Swedish invasion of 1655, and the third part, Pan Wolodyjowski (Sir Wolodyjowski), covered the Turkish Wars.* The Trilogy, based on solid research, although biased in a clearly pro-Polish way, made Sienkiewicz the leading Polish writer and remains the most popular historical novel cycle in Poland. Its original role was to uplift Polish hearts in hard times, showing how the defeats of the seventeenth century were overcome by the patriotic nobility. Sienkiewicz's next psychological novels, Bez dogmatu (Without a Dogma) and Rodzina Polanieckich (The Polaniecki Family), were much weaker. His last historical novel, Krzyzacy (Knights of Cross), ends with Poland's great victory of Grunwald.* His more than 40 years of writing ended with a charming book for children, W pustyni i puszczy (In the Desert and the Jungle), the story of two children traveling across Africa during the Mahdi Uprising in the Sudan. M. Giergelewicz, Henryk Sienkiewicz (New York, 1959); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 308-314; D. Welsh, "Sienkiewicz and the Historical Novel: Evolution of a Genre," Polish Review XIII/1 (1968), 39-57. SIERAKOWSKI, ZYGMUNT (1827-1863), revolutionary. A scion of Polish petty gentry from Volhynia,* he was caught in an attempt to cross the RussianGalician* border and was deported for forced labor to Siberia* in 1848. Upon his release, he enrolled in St. Petersburg Academy of the General Staff. As an officer of the Russian Army, he demanded the abolition of corporal punishment and organized a conspiracy of Polish officers in St. Petersburg. He cooperated closely with the Russian revolutionary movement. After the outbreak of the January Insurrection* of 1863, he commanded the guerrilla detachment in Zmudz* (Samogitia) and, then, became the head of the uprising in Kowno (Kaunas) province. His units, composed mostly of peasants, had several successes but, in the battle near Birze on May 7-9, 1863, his troops were annihilated. Seriously wounded, Sierakowski was taken prisoner and executed by the Russians. Z. Marciniak, Zygmunt Sierakowski, Bojownik o Sprawedliwosc spoleczna zwolenie narodowe (Warsaw, 195 SIEROSZEWSKI, WACLAW (1858-1945), writer. A participant in a secret socialist group organized by L. Waryriski,* Sieroszewski was imprisoned by the Russian police in 1878 and deported to Siberia* in 1880. In 1883, he was transferred to lifelong imprisonment in Kolyma for his escape attempt. There, he wrote his first ethnographic studies and, on the intervention of the Russian Geographic Society, was allowed to settle in Irkutsk, where he completed his scholarly work, Jakuty (Yakuts). In 1896, Sieroszewski returned to Poland, and, in 1900, he was again deported. On another request of the Geographic Society, he was allowed to study in Japan. He also visited Mongolia, Manchuria, China,

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Sakhalin, Korea, Ceylon and Egypt. He returned to Poland in 1904 and was arrested for his participation in the 1905 Revolution. He escaped to Galicia,* where he established a close association with J. Pilsudski.* Sieroszewski joined the Riflemen Association* and, during WW I, fought in the Polish Legions.* He was also one of the main activists of the National Sovereignty Party (Stronnictwo Niezawislosci Narodowej). In 1918, he became a Propaganda Minister in the Lublin* Provisional Government of the Polish Republic. During 19271930, he presided over the Union of Polish Writers and, during 1933-1939, over the Polish Academy of Literature (Polska Akademia Literatury [PAL]).* Most of his books were devoted to the life of Siberia and the Far East. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 316-317; J. Teslar, "Waclaw Sieroszewski: Some Reminiscences on the Literary Career of a Political Convict," Polish Review VI/ 3 (1961), 11-18. SIERPINSKI, WACLAW (1882-1969), mathematician. A professor of Lvov* University from 1910 and of Warsaw University from 1918, he was also a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU])* and a co-founder of the Lvov-Warsaw School of Mathematics.* He specialized in topology and mathematical plurality and published numerous noted scholarly works on those subjects. M. Fryde, "Waclaw Sierpiriski—Mathematician," Polish Review VUUI (1963), 3-10; International Who's Who (London, 1965); M.S., "Polish Mathematician Honored at Tercentary of Academie des Sciences," Polish Review XI/3 (1966), 74-78; WEP, XI, 508-50 "SIEW" (Sowing), actually the Central Union of Peasant Youth, "Siew" was a peasant youth organization established in 1919 mainly for educational work. Originally, it operated within the framework of the Central Union of Agrarian Circles (Centralny Zwiazek Kolek Rolniczych [CZKR]) based in the former Russian partition. In 1919, it counted 13,000 members and about 60,000 in 1933. In 1928, its leaders J. Niecko, I. Solarz, and Z. Zaleski split as a protest against the Sanacja* regime's control over Siew and created an independent union of peasant youth, "Wici"* (Call to Arms), but Siew continued its dynamic activity. During WW II, it operated under the name "Raclawice" as the countryside army units of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* J. Holzer, Mozaika Polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Political Mosaic of the Second Polish Republic) (Warsaw, 1974), 161, 191; WEP, XI, 512. SIKORSKI, WLADYSLAW (1881-1943), statesman. He graduated from Lvov* Polytechnical University and became engaged in the Polish independence movement in Galicia* before WW I. He cooperated with J. Pilsudski, helped to organize the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC])* in 1908 and, in 1912, was elected to the Provisional Commission of Confederated Independence Parties (Komisja Tymczasowa Skonfederowanych Stronnictw Niepodleglosciowych), which provided secret patriotic organizations with a legal

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political forum. From the fall of 1914, he was a member of the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]), which united Polish parties in Austria after the outbreak of WW I. In 1916, Sikorski was appointed chief of the NKN's military department and had a conflict with J. Pilsudski over the future of the Polish Legions.* In 1917, Sikorski retired when the Legions were reshaped into the Polish Auxiliary Corps. Early in 1918, he was interned for his association with the Second Brigade, which had crossed the front lines to Ukraine* as a protest against the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty.* After the fall of the Austrian Empire, he became a Chief of Staff of the Polish military Przemysl (Peremyshl)* district in November 1918 and co-organized relief operations for Lvov and Przemysl, then partially taken by the Ukrainians. He played an important role in the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-21,* especially during the Battle of Warsaw.* During 1921-1922, he served as Chief of the General Staff; during 1922-1923, as Premier and Minister of Defense; during 1923-1924, as General Inspector of Infantry; and, during 1924-1925, again as Minister of Defense. He clashed with Pilsudski over the structure of the command of the Polish Armed Forces, and, after the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* Sikorski's career ended. During 1925-1928, he commanded the sixth Army Corps in Lvov* but, then, he was relieved of command and transferred to the disposal of the Ministry of Defense. Taking advantage of more free time, he began writing on military matters. In the 1930s, he joined the active opposition and, in 1936, was one of the organizers of the Front Morges* coalition. With the outbreak of WW II, Sikorski declared his readiness to return to active service but was refused by Marshal E. Rydz-Smigly.* Sikorski left Poland on the night of September 17-18, 1939, and went to France. Known for his proFrench attitude, he was appointed a Commander of Polish Armed Forces in France, and, on September 30, he became the Premier of the Polish Governmentin-Exile* and its Minister of Defense. On November 7, he was appointed the Commander-in-Chief (Naczelny Wodz) of Polish Armed Forces by President W. Raczkiewicz.* Sikorski mobilized almost 100,000 Polish troops under the French command. After the defeat of France in 1940, he moved with his government to London, where he signed the Polish-Soviet agreement on July 30, 1941. Soon after the Katyri* Forest crisis and the severance of diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and his government, Sikorski was killed in an airplane catastrophe in Gibraltar.* He is considered one of the most talented Polish political leaders of the twentieth century, and numerous historians believe that the post-war fate of Poland would have been different if Sikorski had lived. K. Popiel, General Sikorski w mojej pamieci (General Sikorski in My Remembranc (Warsaw, 1983); S. Smith (ed.), Sikorski: Soldier and Statesman: A Collection of E (London, 1990); O. Terlecki, General of the Last Legend: Wladyslaw Sikorski (W 1972); R. Wapiriski, Wladyslaw Sikorski (Warsaw, 1978).

"SILENT SEJM" (Sejm Niemy), one-day-long Parliament held on February 1, 1717, in Warsaw.* In fear of a liberum veto* no one except the Speaker and

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a reader of the proposed bill was allowed to speak. It ended the struggle between King August II Mocny (the Strong),* who tried to establish absolute power in Poland, and the Tarnogrod Confederation* of the nobility,* who defended the traditional political system of the "Golden Freedom"* The decisions of the "Silent Sejm" confirmed the fundamentals of the old system but also limited the number of Saxon troops in Poland, disallowed the jailing of noblemen without a court decision, and passed stable taxes to maintain the Polish Army, reduced at that time under Russian pressure to only 24,000. Both sides of the conflict asked Russia to mediate, and the Russian Ambassador to Poland, G. Dolgorukii, and Russian troops took care that the "Silent Sejm" acted quickly and without any surprises. Russia guaranteed the implementation of the decisions of the Silent Sejm, thus marking the beginning of the Russian "protectorate" over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* CHP, II, 1-25; History o Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 281-282; L. Roberts, "Peter the G Poland," Slavonic and East European Review V (1926/7), 537-5 SILESIA, historic southwestern province of Poland on the upper and middle Oder* River. Inhabited by West Slavic tribes, it fell under Czech control in the tenth century. In the 990s, it was incorporated into Poland. The 1138 testament of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth),* which divided Poland into semisovereign principalities, made Silesia a principality. Later it was further subdivided into several smaller Dukedoms, held by the members of the Silesian branch of the Polish Piast* dynasty. Because of German colonization and close economic contacts with Germany, Silesia became the richest and, simultaneously, the most Germanized segment of Poland. In the fourteenth century, the Silesian principalities were taken over by the Czechs, and, in 1526, with all of Bohemia, it became a part of the Habsburg* Empire. During 1740-1741, Silesia was conquered by the Prussians with the exception of the Cieszyn* and Opawa regions, which remained under Austrian control until 1918. Most Silesian lands taken by Prussia* stayed within German borders till 1945. Only a part of Upper Silesia was ceded to Poland after the Silesian Uprisings* of 1919-1921. From the early Middle Ages, gold and silver and, later, coal, zinc, and other minerals were mined in Silesia. Their exploitation was a basis of Silesian prosperity and of the urbanization and industrialization of that region. It was also a strong agricultural center, with its large farms producing commodities for export. Silesia became one of the most populated areas of Europe. About 1.7 million people lived there in 1787 and about 5.2 million (130 people per square kilometer) in 1910. In Upper Silesia, one of the richest coal basins and steel industry centers in Europe, population density reached about 500 people per square kilometer. Coal mining and other heavy industry also developed in Austrian Cieszyn Silesia, which was one of the most economically developed parts of the Habsburg Empire. It became the bone of contention between reborn Poland and Czechoslovakia after 1919. W. Drzewiecki, The German-Polish Frontier (Chica 1959); K. Maleczyriski, W. Dlugoborski, and S. Michalkiewicz (eds.), Historia Slgsk

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(History of Silesia) (Wroclaw: 1960-1970); K. Popiolek, Silesia in German Eyes (Katowice, 1964); H. Zieliriski, "The Role of Silesia in Central Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries," Acta Poloniae Historica XXII (1970), 108-122. SILESIAN UPRISINGS, three anti-German insurrections of the Polish population in Silesia* that occurred in the years 1919-1921. During WW I, the Germans introduced anti-Polish legislation in Silesia. After the outbreak of the 1918 November Revolution in Germany, Soviet workers and soldiers were organized in Silesia. The German Commissioner declared martial law in the region, which was also directed against the Polish population, terrorized by units of German volunteers. In February 1919, the conspiratorial Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* of Upper Silesia was founded. In June 1919, the Treaty of Versailles assigned to Poland only a small portion of Silesia and provided for a plebiscite in Upper Silesia. The decision disappointed Poles, both in Silesia and in Poland, who had expected that the whole of Upper and a half of Middle Silesia would be incorporated into the Second Polish Republic. On the night of August 16-17, 1919, the First Silesian Uprising broke out. The insurrectionists took several towns of the region and started guerrilla warfare in the countryside. The uprising was crushed by the Germans on August 24, and some of the Polish fighters fled to Poland. Detachments of the Allied Forces and a Commissioner were sent to Silesia, but they were unable to control German anti-Polish officials and stop the growing PolishGerman friction. Simultaneously, the Poles won communal elections in Silesia, and the Polish Sejm* (Parliament) in Warsaw ddcided that Silesia, once incorporated into Poland, would have broad autonomy with extensive local selfgovernment and a separate Parliament. On August 19-20, 1920, the second Silesian Uprising began. Most industrial towns of the region were taken by the insurrectionists or paralyzed by a strike. Heavy fighting lasted several days, until the Germans suppressed the uprising on August 25, 1920. Germany declared that without Silesian industrial output, it would not be able to pay war reparations. The Allies were divided on the Polish-German conflict and decided to fix the plebiscite for March 20, 1921. Contrary to Polish claims that only residents of Silesia should participate in the plebiscite, the Allies agreed that all natives of Silesia could vote. Nearly 200,000 Germans were brought in from outside the region to participate in the plebiscite, in which 678 communes and 479,000 individuals voted for Poland, and 844 communes and 707,000 individuals voted for Germany. Berlin began to claim the whole of Silesia, and the British and Italians proposed to give Poland only two small districts. On May 2-3, 1921, the third, largest Silesian Uprising broke out. Accompanied by a general strike of Upper Silesian workers, insurrectionists occupied most of Silesia east of the Oder River.* The Germans counter-attacked and heavy fighting followed, especially at St. Anne Mountain. Under pressure from the Allies, the fighting stopped on July 5, and both sides withdrew their units. On October 20, 1921, the League of Nations* divided Silesia. Poland

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received most industrial installations of the region and about one-third of the contested area. Several hundred thousand Poles remained beyond the Polish border, but, at the same time, a significant German minority existed in western Upper Silesia, incorporated into Poland in July 1922. CHP, II, 514-519; G.S.F.C Kaeckenbeeck, The International Experiment of Upper Silesia: A Study in the W of the Upper Silesian Settlement, 1922-37 (London, 1942); I.F.D. Morrow, The P Settlement in the German-Polish Borderlands (London, 1936); H. Zieliriski, "The S and Political Background of the Silesian Uprisings, 1919-1922," Journal of Moder History XLII (1970). SKALSKI, STANISLAW (1915- ), pilot. He participated in the 1939 September Campaign* and shot down several German bombers. At the 1940 Battle of Britain,* he was assigned to a British Squadron and, then, commanded the Polish Fighter Squadron. Subsequently, he commanded various elite units in RAF operations in Europe and North Africa. Awarded the highest Polish and British decorations, he was considered the best WW II Polish pilot in Great Britain. J. Kalinowski, Lotnictwo polskie w Wielkiej Brytanii, 1940-1945 (Polish Air Force in Grea Britain, 1940-1945) (Paris, 1969).

SKALKA, part of the Kazimierz suburb of Cracow.* At the side of the Romanesque rotunda of St. Michael and the St. Stanislaw's Gothic church, where according to the legend St. Stanislaw* was killed, a Baroque-Rococo Pauline church and monastery were built in 1733-1742. Numerous prominent Poles, such as the historian J. Dlugosz,* the novelist J. Kraszewski,* the poet S. Wyspiariski,* and the famous actor L. Solski,* were later buried in its crypt. WEP, X, 540. SKALKOWSKI, ADAM (1877-1951), historian. From 1919, a professor at Poznari* University and member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU]),* he specialized in the military and political history of Poland of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. He published a series of biographies of outstanding Poles and edited J. Poniatowski's* correspondence. His work is noted for a revisionist attitude in a scholarly attempt to demythologize national heroes. WEP, X, 540. SKALON, GEORGII (1847-1914), Russian Governor-General of Warsaw* and Commander of its Military District appointed during the 1905 Revolution, on August 28. He distinguished himself with bloody reprisals, and the Fighting Organization (Organizacja Bojowa) of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* organized an unsuccessful attempt on his life. WEP, X, 541. SKAMANDER, poetry monthly edited in Warsaw* during 1922-1928 and 1935-1939 by M. Grydzewski* and a designation for the group of poets con-

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tributing to this monthly, also called Skamandrites. They included such poets as J. Iwaszkiewicz,* J. Lechori,* A. Slonimski,* J. Tuwim,* and K. Wierzyriski,* who played the key role in Polish interwar poetry. Loosely linked with them were K. IHakowicz,* M. Jasnorzewska-Pawlikowska,* J. Wittlin,* S. Baliriski,* M. Hemar,* T. Hollender,* and others. They considered the Lvov poet L. Staff* their patron. The group began forming itself around the magazine Pro arte et studio (1916-1919) and met in the poets' cafe "Pikador" (1918-1919). They also worked with the expressionist organ Zdroj (Spa) (1917-1922), and then with two weeklies, Wiadomosci Literackie (Literary News),* edited by Grydzewski during 1924-1939, and Cyrulik warszawski (Warsaw Barber) (1926-1934). The Skamandrites did not have a common theoretical program. They only stressed the desire to reflect contemporary life and problems in poetry, emphasizing the characteristics of life in its biological fullness, with an accent on vitality. Those elements were formulated between 1917-1926, when the future Skamandrites parted with the poetic canons of "Young Poland"* and national martyrology themes. They attempted to bring poetry close to everyday life, making the average human being the new lyrical hero. They also liked to combine lyrical expression with elements of satire, irony and absurd humor. In contrast to avant-garde literary trends, the Skamandrites used the heritage of Polish Romanticism and traditional classic forms of poetic structure. J. Krzyzanowski, "Skamander or the Triumph of Lyric Poetry," History of Polish Literatu (Warsaw, 1978); C. Milosz, History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 385-3 SKARBEK, FRYDERYK (1792-1866), economist, publicist, and writer. Educated at the College de France, he was a professor of political economy at the University of Warsaw* during 1818-1831. He published numerous economic works appreciated in Western Europe. When the university was closed after the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, Skarbek worked in the administration of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in such positions as member of the Supreme Welfare Council, Chairman of the Insurance Directorate, and Head of the Justice Commission. He was also involved in philanthropy and continued his research on political economy, supporting economic liberalism. He also edited one of Warsaw's main periodicals and wrote satirical essays, comedies, historical works, and novels resembling W. Scott's. WEP, X, 546-547. SKARGA, PIOTR (1536-1612), leader of the Counter-Reformation* in Poland, theologian, religious writer, and preacher. Educated at Cracow* Academy and ordained in 1564, he became a Chancellor of the Lvov* Catholic chapter. During 1569-1571, he was in Rome, where he joined the Jesuits.* During 15741584, he headed the Jesuit College in Vilna* (from 1579 known as Vilna Academy) and organized Jesuit schools in Polotsk,* Riga, and Dorpat. He published religious works, which fought the ideas of the Reformation and prepared the ground for the Union of Brest-Litovsk (Brzesc).* He promoted the cult of asceticism and defended matters attacked by Protestants, such as priestly celibacy,

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the importance of Holy Mass and pilgrimages. From 1584, he resided in Cracow, involved in philanthropic activity. During the election after King Stefan Batory's* death, Skarga supported the candidacy of Sigismund Vasa, later King Zygmunt III Waza,* who in 1588 appointed him Court homilist, a function Skarga performed for twenty-four years. In his sermons and writings, he opposed religious tolerance, sought to eliminate the Protestants from political life, and supported the King's policy. In his Parliamentary Homilies (Kazania sejmowe), he advocated the strengthening of Royal power, dynastic succession within the Royal family, and limiting of the legislative power of the Sejm* (Parliament), making it more of an advisory body. He also condemned class egoism of the nobility and its exploitation of the peasants, preaching selfless love of the motherland. After his death, and even more after the Partitions* of Poland, a legend of Skarga designed by some poets and independence activists depicted him as a prophet, uncompromising patriot, and protector of the peasants, whose advice could have saved Poland. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw 1978), 58-65; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 90 SKARZYNSKI, STANISLAW (1899-1942), pilot. He participated in the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-21,* gained fame in 1931 by his flight around Africa, and fought in WW II in England. He drowned in the North Sea in an antiGerman operation. F. Kalinowski, Lotnictwo Polskie w Wielkiej Brytanii, 1940(Polish Air Force in Great Britain, 1940-45) (Paris, 1969). SKARZYSKO-KAMIENNA, town in the Kielce* region on the Kamienna River. It was established in the nineteenth century as an agglomeration of eight villages of which Bzin, owned by the Cistercian* Order, had played an important industrial role since the mid-fifteenth century because of its iron-ore deposits and metallurgic industry. After the creation of the Central Industrial Region (Centralny Okreg Przemyslowy [COP]) in interwar Poland, Skarzysko grew to a midsize town of 20,000 inhabitants, but it was 60 percent destroyed in WW II. EHGP, II, 293. SKIERNIEWICE, town in central Poland which belonged to the Archbishopric of Gniezno* until 1795. It received its urban rights in 1463 but developed only after 1612, when the Archbishops built their residence there. During the 1807— 1814 period of the Duchy of Warsaw,* the town passed to French Marshal L. Davout. From 1822, it became part of Grand Duke Constantine's* estates, called the Duchy of Lowicz.* A large park and a zoo were opened in the town, where a meeting of three Emperors took place in 1884. Connected by a railway with Warsaw* in 1845, Skierniewice had 22,000 inhabitants in 1939. During WW II, the Germans established a Jewish ghetto* in the town and exterminated all its Jews.* SHP, 439.

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SKLADKOWSKI (SLAWOJ), FELICJAN (1885-1962), General and a Premier of the Second Polish Republic. He joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1905 and was active in Polish patriotic paramilitary organizations before WW I. After its outbreak, he served as a military physician in the First Brigade* of the Polish Legions* and became a blind follower of J. Pilsudski.* In 1918, Skladkowski commanded the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* in the Dabrowa* basin and organized a medical service of the reborn Polish Army. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* Skladkowski served as a Minister of Interior during 1926-1931 and, then, as a Deputy Minister of Defense and Chief of Army Administration. After Pilsudski's death, Skladkowski established close relations with Marshal E. Rydz-Smigly* and, in 1936, became the last Premier of the Second Polish Republic. Though a witty orator and talented writer, he proved none too tactful as a politician. He antagonized the Jews* by his public approval of economic anti-Semitism.* In September 1939, he escaped with his government to Romania, where he was interned. In 1940, he fled to Turkey and during 1943-1945 was an Army Medical Chief of the Polish troops in the Middle East. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 164, 214, Prezydenci i premierzy Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Presidents and Premiers of the Sec Polish Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wrobel (Wroclaw, 1992), 359-373; WE X, 555. SKLODOWSKA-CURIE, MARIA. See CURIE-SKLODOWSKA, MARIA. SKOCZYLAS, WLADYSLAW (1883-1934), sculptor, wood engraver, sketcher, and painter. Educated at art academies in Vienna, Cracow,* Leipzig, and Paris, he taught sculpture in the wood industry school in Zakopane* from 1908, and drawing in the Polytechnic University in Warsaw* during 1918-1920. From 1922, he was a professor of the Warsaw Academy of Fine Arts. Artistically close to the Polish Formists,* he participated in the artistic life of the country and was one of the founders of the Rytm (Rhythm) group in 1922, of the Ryt (Rite) group in 1925, and of the Institute of Propaganda of Art in 1930. His favorite themes were highland motifs, especially those of the Podhale* region, and architecture of old towns. He also painted watercolors and illustrated books. WEP, X, 557 SKRZYNECKI, JAN (1787-1860), General and Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army during the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. He served in the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw* and took part in the Napoleonic campaigns of 1809 and 1812-1814. In the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* he commanded an infantry regiment. On February 26, 1831, he was appointed Commander-inChief of the insurrectionist Army. Extremely conservative, he tried to reach an agreement with the Russians, delaying decisive war activities and negotiating with Russian Marshal I. Diebitsch. The negotiations were cut off by the Rus-

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sians, but Skrzynecki still procrastinated, interrupted the offensive operations of his subordinates, and contributed to defeats and losses. He tried to strengthen his power and paralyze the leftist opposition. Under public pressure, he undertook some aggressive actions against the Russians, but his operations ended with failure. On August 11, 1831, the Polish Parliament replaced Skrzynecki with Gen. H. Dembiriski.* Skrzynecki crossed the Austrian border with one of the Polish units. After the fall of the Uprising, he served well as an organizer of the Belgian Army and, in 1839, settled in Cracow.* WEP, X, 575. SKRZYNSKI, ALEKSANDER (1882-1931), diplomat and Premier of the Second Polish Republic. A lawyer by education, he worked in Austria and, from 1918, was involved in Polish diplomacy. During 1919-1922, he served as an envoy in Romania and, then, as a Minister of Foreign Affairs during 1922-1924 and 1925-1926. In the latter period, he was also Prime Minister of a Coalition Government. In 1925, he signed the Locarno* Agreement on behalf of Poland. Although close to Cracow* conservatives, he represented a liberal program. After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he withdrew from politics. A. Cienciala and T. Komarnicki, From Versailles to Locarno: Keys to Polish Foreign Policy, 1925 (Lawrence, Kansas, 1984); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland (Oxf 1972), 122-155; Prezydenci ipremierzy Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Presidents and Prem of the Second Polish Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wrobel (Wroclaw, 1992) 199-211. SKULSKI, LEOPOLD (1878-1942), politician and Premier of the Second Polish Republic. A chemical engineer by profession, he organized the Falcon Association (Sokol)* in Lodz* in 1906. A member of the National League (Liga Narodowa)* from 1916, he was Mayor of Lodz* during 1916-1919. In 1919, he served as Vice President of the Popular National Union (Zwiazek LudowoNarodowy [ZLN]).* He represented this party in the Sejm* (Parliament) of 1919-1922, and was a Chief of its Parliamentary Club. After I. Paderewski* resigned as Premier, Skulski cut a deal with the peasant deputies and formed a coalition cabinet in December 1919. The cabinet retired in June 1920, facing the beginning of the Red Army offensive during the Polish-Soviet War of 19191921.* However, Skulski remained a member of the Council of the Defense of the State (Rada Obrony Paristwa) and, during 1920-1921, he served as Minister of Internal Affairs and, from 1925, as a member of the State Tribunal. During 1923-1928, he was a Vice President of the Polish Peasant Party "Piast" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Piast" [PSL "Piast"])* but, in 1935, he switched allegiance to the pro-regime Camp of National Unity (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego [OZN]).* A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland (Oxford, 1972), Prezydenci i premierzy Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Presidents and Premiers of the Second Polish Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wrobel (Wroclaw, 1992), 115-121. SKWARCZYNSKI, ADAM (1886-1934), politician, theoretician of the Pilsudski* political camp, and brother of S. Skwarczyriski.* Before WW I, he

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participated in Polish patriotic para-military organizations in Galicia.* After the outbreak of the war, he served in the First Brigade* of the Polish Legions* and, from 1916, in the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* Close collaborator of J. Pitudski,* he formulated and propagated the ideological concepts of the Pilsudski camp. In 1920, Skwarczyriski edited Gazeta Polska in Warsaw* and, in 1922, founded Droga (Way), the theoretical periodical of the Pilsudskiites. In his writing, he adapted some of the concepts of H. Bergson and S. Brzozowski* about the irrational character of mass movements, and he advocated the "truth of acts" and subservience of history to human will, especially that of heroic personalities. Seriously ill during his last years, he tried to shape the minds of the youngest followers of Pilsudski as a sponsor of the intellectual monthly Kuznia Mlodych (Forge of Youth)* and the elitist "Straz Przednia" (Avant-Garde) movement involved with improving the lower classes of reborn Poland. W. Pobog-Malinowski, Najnowsza Historia Polski (Contemporary History of Poland), vol. 2 (London, 1985), 106, 108; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland (Oxford, 1972), 175, 224; WEP, X, SKWARCZYNSKI, STANISLAW (1888-1981), General and brother of A. Skwarczyriski.* A member of Polish patriotic para-military organizations in Galicia* before WW I, he served in the Polish Legions* and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* after its outbreak. During the interwar period, he occupied several medium-level military positions. In 1938, he was appointed a Chief of the authoritarian Camp of National Unity (Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego [OZN]).* He participated in the 1939 September Campaign* as Commander of the Intervention Corps within the Army Group "Prusy" and, then, left Poland for the West. W. Pobdg-Malinowski, Najnowsz Historia Polski (Contemporary History of Poland), vol. 2 (London, 1985), 804-8 Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland (Oxford, 1972), 434-435; WEP, X, 582. SLAVIC CONGRESSES. Modern Pan-Slavism,* a tendency to emphasize the ethnic ties of the Slavs, emerged in the nineteenth century, inspired by German Romanticism and nationalist movements in Central Europe. In 1848, during the Springtime of Nations,* two Pan-Slavic activists, P. J. Safarik, a Slovak, and F. Palacky, a Czech, called a Slav Congress in Prague, which met in June. There were 341 delegates, mostly Austrian Slavs, a few Poles from Prussian Poland, and two Russians. They called for the continuation of efforts to cultivate Slav unity. They supported a plan for a Pan-Slavic federation under Habsburg* rule, which ideally would give them a national status and liberty and protect them against Germanization and Magyarization. The Congress had no immediate practical results. In the second half of the nineteenth century, Pan-Slavism, which was previously a Western Slav phenomenon, was dominated by the Russians. After the January Insurrection* of 1863, most Russian Pan-Slavists did not accept Poland as a Slavic nation. In 1867, the second Pan-Slavic Congress was organized in Moscow. Over eighty Slavic delegates from outside Russia at-

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tended, most of them Czechs. No Poles were present, although the Polish issue was the most difficult issue to resolve. Some Western Slavic delegates were offended by the chauvinistic Russian ideas, namely that the Poles should be grateful for the Tsar's beneficial rule. In 1868, the laying of the cornerstone for the Czech National Theater was another occasion for an all-Slavic gathering, which did not have the character of an official congress. In the 1870s and 1880s, Pan-Slavism declined. At the beginning of the twentieth century, two Slavic congresses were held, in Prague in 1908 and in Sophia in 1910. Both were dominated by the Czechs and the Southern Slavs and their problems. S. Kimball, "The Poles at the Prague All-Slavic Congress of 1868," Polish Review IV/1-2 (1959), 91-107; H. Kohn, Pan-Slavism (Notre Dame, Indiana, 1953); Modern Encyclopediaof Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 26 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1984), 229-236; O. Odlozilik, "The Slavic Congress of 1848," Polish Review IV/4 (1959), 3-16. SLAVS, Indo-European group of peoples divided into three major segments: Eastern Slavs (Russians, Belorussians, Ukrainians), Southern Slavs (Bulgars, Croats, Serbs, Macedonians, Montenegrins, and Slovenes), and Western Slavs (Czechs, Lusatian Serbs, Poles, and Slovaks). In pre-historic times there were many Slavic tribes, which gradually coalesced into the nations listed. The Slavs were first mentioned in historical sources by Roman historians of the first and second centuries A.D. as Wends on the Baltic. Then, the Sclavines and Ants in the Black Sea region were mentioned. From the fifth century, the Slavs expanded from their probable original habitat between the Vistula* and Dnieper Rivers westward beyond the Elbe River, southward down to Greece, eastward to the Ural Mountains, and northward to the White Sea. The Poles are the third largest Slavic nation after the Russians and the Ukrainians. F. Dvornik, The Slavs in European History and Civilization (New Brunswick, 1962); WEP, X, 600SLAWEK, WALERY ("GUSTAW") (1879-1939), Colonel of the Polish Army, a leader of the Polish independence movement, and Premier of the Polish Second Republic. In 1900, he joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and became one of its main leaders. He co-founded the Party's Fighting Organization (Organizacja Bojowa) and Polish patriotic paramilitary organizations in Galicia.* During WW I, he served in the First Brigade* of the Polish Legions* and organized the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In independent Poland, Slawek became an officer for special assignments for J. Pilsudski* as the Head of State. During 1924-1936, he presided over the Union of Polish Legionnaires (Zwiazek Legionistow Polskich), and, in 1928, he created and became President of the Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem [BBWR]).* During 1928-1938, he was a member of the Sejm* (Parliament) and, in 1938, its Speaker. He served as a Premier of Poland in 1930-1931 and 1935. An advocate of a strong executive power, he was one

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of the main authors of the authoritarian Constitution of April 1935.* He was the most trusted friend and adviser of J. Pilsudski, who thought of him as his potential successor. After Pilsudski's death, Slawek was ousted from power by other successors of the Polish dictator. Slawek, a man of great personal integrity, committed suicide on April 2, 1939, when he realized that he was unable to prevent the deterioration of the Polish situation. J. Nowakowski, Walery Slawek: Zarys Biografii Politycznej (An Outline of Political Biography) (Warsaw, 1988); Prezydenci i premierzy Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Presidents and Premiers of the Second Polish Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wrdbel (Wroclaw, 1992), 285-306. SLAWOJ-SKLADKOWSKI. See SKLADKOWSKI (SLAWOJ), FELICJAN. SLONIMSKI, ANTONI (1895-1976), poet, publicist, playwright, essayist, and a grandson of Chaim Zelig Slonimski.* Educated in the School of Fine Arts in Warsaw,* he worked as a cartoonist for satirical periodicals, where he began to publish his poems, reviews, and sketches. During 1917-1919, he contributed to the monthly Pro arte et studio, co-organized the literary cabaret "Pikador" and, in 1920, became one of the leaders of the poetic group "Skamander."* From 1924, he worked regularly with the periodical Wiadomosci Literackie (Literary News),* where he published his theater and book reviews and a weekly feuilleton, and, from 1926, with the satirical Cyrulik Warszawski (Warsaw Barber), where he satirized bourgeois ignorance and stupidity. During WW II, he lived in Paris and, from 1940, in London, where he edited a literary monthly, Nowa Polska. Several years after the war, he returned to Poland, where he was one of the most prolific and interesting literary personalities, a living symbol of the intellectual's independence and freedom of thought. His poetry and writing influenced generations of Polish intellectuals. C. Milosz, History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 393-395; J. Slawiriski, "O poezii Antoniego Slonimskiego," Tworczosc no. 8 (1957); WEP, X, 590. SLONIMSKI, CHAIM ZELIG (1810-1904), popular science writer and activist of the Jewish Haskalah* (Enlightenment) in Poland. In 1862, he founded the first scientific periodical in Hebrew, published works on mathematics and astronomy, and further developed a counting machine of his son-in-law, A. Sztern. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 14 (Jerusalem, 1971), 1674-1675.

SLOWACKI, JULIUSZ (1809-1849), poet and playwright who, with A. Mickiewicz* and Z. Krasiriski,* dominated Polish Romantic literature. The son of a university professor, he graduated from the law school of Vilna* University and moved to Warsaw,* where he worked at the Department of the Treasury. He published only one work before the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. After its outbreak, he wrote a series of patriotic poems. In March 1831, he left Poland, afraid that the uprising would fall quickly, and moved to Dresden.

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There, he received a diplomatic mission from the insurrectionist government and went to London. Soon, he moved to Paris, where he joined the Great Emigration,* the wave of Polish political refugees who left Poland after the fall of the Insurrection. However, Siowacki did not like the atmosphere of political quarrels of the Great Emigration, whose members did not appreciate his poetry. In 1833, he moved to Geneva, then to Italy and, during 1837-1838, traveled in the Middle East. In 1838, he settled in Paris, where he lived until the end of his life, except for several months in 1848 in Poznari (Posen)* and Wroclaw (Breslau),* where he witnessed the Springtime of Nations.* His works passed beyond the boundaries of Romanticism.* Siowacki became a symbolist poet, with his own mystical doctrine, visionary views of history, and technical virtuosity. His plays, inspired by Shakespearean, classical Greek and Roman drama, had a powerful influence and are still staged in Poland. Most of them deal with Polish history or crucial problems of the Polish independence movement and were written as Slowacki's answer to the contemporary discussions led by the Polish emigres. He died of tuberculosis and was buried at Montmorency. His poetry, unknown to most of his contemporaries, became extremely popular in the 1860s, especially among the generation of the January Insurrection* of 1863. In 1927, his remains were taken to Cracow,* and at the request of Marshal J. Pilsudski,* buried in the Royal Crypt of Wawel* Castle next to those of Mickiewicz. W. Folkierski, M. Giergielewicz, and S. Stroriski (eds.), Juliusz Siowacki, 1809-1849 (London, 1949); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 232-243; S. Treugutt, Juliusz Siowacki: Romantic Poet (Warsaw, 1959); WEP, X, 596-598. SMOLENSK, town in Western Russia on the upper Dnieper River. Successively a stronghold of the Krivich tribe, an important town of Kievian Rus', and the capital of an independent Principality, Smolerisk developed into a large trade and religious center. In the late fourteenth century, it became the bone of contention between Lithuania* and Muscovy. The Lithuanians occupied the town in 1403, but, in 1514, it was recovered by Basil III, who constructed a fortress there. In 1609-1611, it was occupied by Polish troops and remained in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* until 1654. It became the capital of a province (wojewodztwo) and the seat of a Catholic Bishopric. Re-taken by Moscow, it lost its importance after the Russians occupied the Baltic* ports and built St. Petersburg. In 1812, the Russian Army resisted the French invasion there briefly but was forced to retreat. Similarly, during WW II, heavy fighting near Smolensk delayed the Nazi attack on Moscow. The Katyri* Forest, located close to Smolensk, became the mass graveyard of more than 4,000 Polish officers massacred in the spring of 1940 by the NKVD. The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 36 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1984), 45-6 WEP, X, 616-617. SMOLENSKI, WLADYSLAW (1851-1926), historian. Educated as a lawyer, he worked in the legal profession to the end of the nineteenth century, taking a

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special interest in eighteenth century Polish history. He represented the liberal patriotic orientation of the Warsaw* historical school. A member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU])* from 1918 and, from 1919, a professor of Warsaw University,* he criticized conservatism, clericalism, and the conciliation policy toward the powers which had partitioned Poland. WEP, X, 617. SMOLKA, FRANCISZEK (1810-1899), politician and father of S. Smolka.* He was a lawyer and a representative of the Polish liberal bourgeoisie. In the 1830s, he was one of the main leaders of Polish secret patriotic organizations in Galicia.* He opposed uprisings and social revolutions and, in 1837, dissolved the Galician conspiracies out of fear of a takeover by radical elements. In 1841, he was arrested by the Austrians and sentenced to death in 1845 but soon pardoned. He played an important role in the 1848 Springtime of Nations* in the Austrian Empire. From 1861, he was a member of the Galician Parliament and, from 1862, of the Austrian Parliament in Vienna. From 1879, he was Vice President and, during 1881-1893, President of the lower chamber of the Austrian State Council. WEP, X, 618. SMOLKA, STANISLAW (1854-1924), historian and son of F. Smolka.* As a professor at Lvov* University during 1876-1883 and, then, at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* he belonged to the "Stariczyk"* camp of conservative critics of the Polish past. A professor emeritus from 1902, he again became a professor at the Catholic University of Lublin (Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski [KUL]) in 1919. From 1881, he was a member of the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejetnosci [AU])* and its President during 1890-1893. He specialized in the history of the Piast* and Jagiellonian* periods of Polish history, and later the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* Great Historians of the Modern A ed. by L. Boia (New York, 1991), 496; WEP, X, 618. SMOLUCHOWSKI, MARIAN (1872-1917), physicist and professor at the Universities of Lvov* and Cracow.* His main achievements were in the field of the kinetic theory of matter. WEP, X, 618. SOBIBOR, Nazi concentration camp on the Bug* River near Wlodawa in the Lublin* region. In March 1942, the Germans established an extermination camp there. Active from May 1942, it served mainly for mass liquidation of the Jews,* who were taken by trains directly to the gas chambers. The chambers were run by the inmates guarded by SS men. On October 14, 1943, a rebellion of these workers occurred. Twelve SS men were killed and about 300 prisoners died in the fighting, but 600 managed to escape. After the insurrection, the camp was liquidated and a forest was planted in its place. Altogether, about 250,000 victims, mainly Polish Jews, were killed in Sobibor. Y. Arad, Operation Reinhar

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Death Camps: Sobibor, Treblinka and Belzec (Bloomington, Indiana, 1987); Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 4 (New York, London, 1990), 1373-1378.

SOBIESKI, Polish passenger ship built in 1939 in Great Britain for the GdyniaAmerica Lines.* She could accommodate 778 passengers. During WW II, Sobieski was remodeled for military transport and took part in the evacuation of Polish troops to England after the fall of France in June 1940, and in landing operations in the Mediterranean in 1944. WEP, X, 62 SOBIESKI, JAKUB LUDWIK (1667-1737), son of King Jan III Sobieski.* The King tried unsuccessfully to assure his son's succession to the Polish or Moldavian throne. During the Northern War* of 1700-1721, Charles XII of Sweden planned to replace King August II Mocny (the Strong)* with Sobieski, and August imprisoned him during 1704-1706. WEP, X, 624. SOBIESKI, JAN. See JAN III SOBIESKI. SOBIESKI, WACLAW (1872-1935), historian, professor at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* from 1910, and a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU])* from 1920. He advocated the historical concepts of J. Lelewel* and opposed the historical interpretations of the Cracow conservative school of M. Bobrzyriski.* His main work was a three-volume study of Polish history published during 1923-1925. SHP, 442443. SOCIAL DEMOCRACY OF THE KINGDOM OF POLAND AND LITHUANIA (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL]), Marxist party established in July 1893 in Warsaw* as the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland. The party was organized by former activists of the Union of Polish Workers (Zwiazek Robotnikow Polskich [ZRP]) and the Second Proletariat.* Among the organizers and the leaders of the party were such revolutionaries as R. Luxemburg,* J. Tyszka,* A. Warski,* J. Marchlewski,* and B. Wesolowski. The party was active in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and, in 1900, also embraced historical Lithuania.* The development of the SDKPiL was interrupted in 1893-1895, when numerous party leaders were arrested by the Russian police. In 1899, the party was rebuilt, mostly as a result of the activities of F. Dzierzyriski.* During the 1905-1907 Revolution, the SDKPiL was one of the main political actors, and became a mass party of about 30,000 members. In 1906, it became an autonomous part of the Russian Social Democracy. After the fall of the Revolution, the party went through a crisis, splits, and internal conflicts. During WW I, the SDKPiL supported the pacifist movement and participated in the International Socialist Conventions in Zimmerwald in 1915 and Kienthal in 1916. After the 1917 Revolution in Russia, numerous party groups were organized in that country. In December 1918, during a con-

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gress in Warsaw,* the SDKPiL merged with the Polish Socialist Party-Left (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna-Lewica [PPS-Lewica])* and created the Communist Workers' Party of Poland, the future Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP]).* The SDKPiL saw as its ultimate goal the foundation of the international Socialist republic, eventually embracing the whole world and based on "scientific" Marxism. The Social Democrats believed that the workers' revolution would solve all the problems of their times, including the national question. Therefore, they did not strive for the re-building of an independent Polish state and planned only the autonomy of the Congress Kingdom within the future Socialist Republic of Russia. Its creation was to be the first step toward the final goal and required the cooperation of the international workers' movement. The SDKPiL did not see the peasantry* as the workers' allies but as a kind of countryside bourgeoisie. The Polish Social Democratic leaders emphasized the importance of a mass spontaneous movement, and they did not share Lenin's belief in the necessity of an elite professional revolutionary party. Those and other "mistakes," attributed mostly to the ideological influences of R. Luxemburg, determined that the party line was opposed by the Bolsheviks. M. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland: An Outlin History (Cambridge, 1959); History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 592-595; The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 128; SHP, 443. SOCIAL INSURANCES (Ubezpieczenia Spoteczne), system protecting employees and their families against various economic risks. The first nation-wide insurance programs were established in late-nineteenth-century Germany, and they also embraced the parts of Poland under Prussian control. In the 1880s, social insurance programs were introduced to Austria and started appearing in Galicia.* In Russia, insurance legislation was started in 1912, but it did not include the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In the interwar period, Poland created its own insurance system, which, in some respects, was more advanced than parallel insurance arrangements in other European countries, including Great Britain. WEP, X, 765-767. SOCIETY OF CHRIST (Societas Christi pro Emigrantibus Polonis; Towarzystwo Chrystusowe dla Wychodzcow Polskich), congregation composed of ordained priests and brethren established on September 8, 1932, by August Cardinal Hlond.* Its purpose was the priestly care of Polish emigrants. The first missionaries left Poland for Paris and London in 1937. On the eve of WW II, there were forty missionaries active abroad. During WW II, they also operated in German-occupied Western Poland and among Poles deported for forced labor to Germany. A. Woznicki, W sluzbie Polonii swiata: Powstanie i rozwoj Towarz Chrystusowego (In the Service of the Polish Community Abroad: The Creation and D velopment of the Society of Christ) (Orchard Lake, Michigan, 1963).

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SOKOLNICKI, MICHAL (1880-1967), diplomat and historian. A member of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* from 1905, he fought in the Polish Legions* during WW I. After the war, he served in Polish diplomacy, including positions as envoy to Finland during 1920-1922 and to Denmark during 1931-1936, and as Ambassador to Turkey during 1936-1945. In Ankara, he performed valuable services, including an attempt to pull Hungary and Romania out of Hitler's camp. As a historian, Sokolnicki was especially interested in the military history of the nineteenth century. WEP, X, 652. SOKOLNICKI, MICHAL (1760-1816), General. During the Polish-Russian war of 1792, he served as quartermaster of the Lithuanian Army and also fought in the 1794 Kosciuszko Insurrection.* Later, he emigrated to France and participated in the organization of the Polish Legions* under French command. He took part in the Napoleonic campaigns in 1807, 1809 and, as a General, 18121813. After the fall of Napoleon, he joined the Army of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and was killed in a tragic accident during a military review in Warsaw.* WEP, X, 652. SOKOL (Falcon), calisthenics association established by the Czechs in Bohemia that also thrived in Galicia* from 1867. Later, it developed in the Prussianoccupied Partition and, in 1905, illegally in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* Politically controlled by the National Democracy,* it also served as a socialeducational institution. On the eve of WW I, it took on a para-military character and also operated among American Poles, especially in Pennsylvania. In 1919, the Sokol organizations from the three former partition areas united, and, in 1933, it had about 90,000 members. D. Pienkos, One Hundred Years Young: A Centennial History of the Polish Falcons of America, 1887-1987 (Boulder, Colorado, 1987); WEP, X, 655. SOKOL (Falcon), submarine given by the British to the Polish Navy on January 19, 1941. It had just been built and replaced the lost Polish submarine Orzel.* It participated in British operations in the region of Brest and the Bay of Biscay. It was then sent to the Mediterranean and, together with another Polish submarine, Dzik (Tusker), took part in destroying Axis supply lines to Africa. In November 1944, Sokol was directed for its last patrol along the Norwegian coast. During the war service, it spent 630 days at sea with thirty-two patrols, sinking forty-two enemy vessels. Okrety Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej—Album Plandw (War of the Polish Republic: The Album of Plans), ed. by S. M. Piaskowski (Albany, New York, 1984), 90-93. SOKOLOW, NACHUM (1859-1936), Zionist leader and a pioneer of modern Hebrew journalism. A scion of an old Jewish family of rabbis and public figures deeply rooted in Poland, he contributed to many Jewish periodicals and wrote numerous popular books dealing with natural sciences, geography, geology, and

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foreign languages. In 1880, he moved to Warsaw,* where he became one of the main Zionist leaders. He helped to organize the First Zionist Congress and, in 1906, was invited to serve as Secretary General of the World Zionist Organization. With the outbreak of WW I, he moved to London and played an important role in efforts which led to the Balfour Declaration concerning the future Jewish state. In 1931, Sokolow was chosen President of the World Zionist Organization. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. XIV (Jerusalem, 1971), 85-89; S. Kling, hum Sokolow, Servant of His People (London, 19 SOLSKI (SOSNOWSKI), LUDWIK (1855-1954), actor. He made his debut in Cracow* in 1875 and then performed in most Polish cities. From 1905, he also served as a Director of various theaters in Poland, including the Polish National Theater in Warsaw.* During WW II, he lived in Warsaw, and, in March 1945, he returned to the Cracow Theater. A versatile actor and stage director, he was one of the most outstanding personalities of the Polish theater. SBTP, 668-669. SOLTYS (derived from German: Schultheis), in the Middle Ages, a person in charge of village government based on the German law. His function was to collect rent payment for the feudal Lord, on whose land a new village was settled. The soltys also presided over the village jury court and was obligated to provide cavalry service to his Lord. Frequently the soltys received several fiefs where he could settle peasants. He took part in his master's incomes, usually with one-sixth of rents and one-third of court fines. Often he had special rights; for example, he could own a flour mill or butchery. The soltys became an influential social group, sometimes competing with the gentry. In 1423, the nobles obtained from King Wladyslaw Jagiello* the right to purchase the soltys' fiefs. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the number and importance of men acting as soltys greatly diminished. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the title of soltys was used by a head of the lowest administrative unit, called gromada (community). EHGP, II, 303-304; SHP, 446. SOMO SIERRA (Samosierra), canyon pass in the Sierra de Guadarrama, about 80 kilometers north of Madrid, part of the highway from Madrid to Burgos. On November 30, 1808, during the Napoleonic Peninsular War of 1807-1813, after a number of unsuccessful French attempts, the spectacular charge of Polish Light Cavalry, led by J. Kozietulski,* broke the Spanish resistance and opened the road to Madrid for Napoleon. The five-kilometer-long canyon surrounded by high peaks was defended by four batteries (sixteen guns) and 10,000 soldiers. The attack lasted only eight minutes. The Poles took all the guns, six standards, and many prisoners. In Polish tradition, Somo Sierra became a symbol of reckless bravery. Historical Dictionary of Napoleonic France, 1799-1815, ed. by O nelly (Westport, Connecticut, 1985), 385-388; M. Kukiel, Zarys historii wojskowosc Polsce (An Outline of the History of the Polish Military) (London, 1949

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SOSABOWSKI, STANISLAW (1892-1967), General. As a student in Cracow,* he was active in Polish patriotic para-military organizations. Mobilized into the Austrian Army during WW I, he secretly joined the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* From November 1918, he served in the Polish Army. He commanded an Infantry Regiment during the 1939 September Campaign* and participated in the defense of Warsaw.* Then he moved to France, where he commanded an Infantry Regiment of the Polish Army in the West. After the fall of France, he was evacuated to Great Britain, where he organized and commanded the First Independent Airborne Brigade. The aim of his unit was support of the forthcoming anti-German uprising in occupied Poland, but instead it was directed by the British for the continental operation near Arnhem, Holland. Sosabowski opposed the decision to use his elite troops for the ill-planned action. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Gen eralowie Polski Niepodleglej (The Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 199 169; S. Sosabowski, Parachute General (London, 196 SOSNKOWSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1885-1969), General. As a student at Lvov* Polytechnical University, he was active in Polish patriotic para-military organizations in Galicia.* A close assistant of J. Pilsudski,* he helped create the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC]).* From the outbreak of WW I to 1916, he was a Chief of Staff of the First Brigade* of the Polish Legions.* In 1917, he was imprisoned by the Germans together with Pilsudski. From November 1918 to March 1919, he commanded the Warsaw* Military District. In 1920, he organized the Reserve Army to fight the Bolshevik invasion of Poland. During 1920-1925, he served as Minister of Defense and a member of the State Defense Council (Rada Obrony Paristwa). In response to the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he attempted suicide. Later, he served as an Army Inspector. During the 1939 September Campaign,* he was in charge of the Southern Front. In October 1939, he went to France and was appointed Commander of Polish resistance operations in occupied Poland, and then went to London. After Gen. W. Sikorski's death, he became the Commander-in-Chief of Polish Forces on July 8, 1943. He was relieved of this duty under British pressure on November 30, 1944, and retired to Canada. S. Babiriski, Kazimierz Sosnkows Mysl-Praca-Walka (Kazimierz Sosnkowski: Thoughts—Work—Fight) (London, 198 T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (The General Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 26. SOSNOWIEC, industrial town northeast of Katowice.* It developed in the second half of the nineteenth century after it was linked by railroad with Upper Silesia* and Warsaw.* Located in the Dabrowa* coal basin, it was within the borders of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and constituted a Russiancontrolled extension of Silesia. Its population rose from 9,000 in 1880 to 60,000 in 1902, when it received city rights. It had numerous heavy-industrial plants, coal mines, textile mills, and glassworks. During WW II, the town was included

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in Germany and was the location of three camps for British prisoners. EHGP, II, 304; SHP, 446-447. SOWINSKI, J6ZEF (1777-1831), General. Educated in the Knights' School* in Warsaw,* he fought in the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794. Then he served in the Prussian Horse Artillery, but, after the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw,* he returned to Polish service. He lost his leg during Napoleon's Russian campaign of 1812. He served in the Army of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. During the defense of Warsaw in September 1831, he was a Commander in the suburb of Wola.* Killed on the ramparts during the Russian attack, he became a patriotic legend. WEP, X, 680. SPA, town in Belgium where an international conference was held on July 5 16, 1920, devoted to the problems of the disarmament of Germany and its postwar reparations. Poland, represented by Premier W. Grabski,* asked for help against the invading Soviets, who had broken through the Polish front and were approaching Central Poland. Opinion in Western Europe was divided over the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-21, and the Western Allies proposed that England and France would give Poland diplomatic and military help if Poland accepted three conditions: sign an armistice based on the Curzon Line*; participate in a conference attended by the Soviets, Lithuania,* Latvia, and the Ukrainians from Eastern Galicia*; and accept the decision of the League of Nations* on the Polish-Lithuanian border, the future of Eastern Galicia, the division of Cieszyn Silesia,* and the limitation of Polish rights to Gdarisk (Danzig).* Grabski accepted this proposal, and the Conference sent an Allied Mission to Poland. Grabski's decision provoked a wave of protests in Poland, and his government resigned on July 24, 1920. Moreover, the Bolsheviks, whose offensive was increasingly successful in Poland, rejected the British mediation on July 17, 1920. CHP, II, 572; SHP, 44 SPASOWICZ, WLODZIMIERZ (1829-1906), lawyer, politician, publicist, and literary historian. During 1857-1861, he was a law professor at St. Petersburg University but resigned in protest against Tsarist reprisals of riots by students. He became an attorney in the capital of Russia and, then, in Warsaw.* He specialized in criminal law and published numerous treatises in that field. From 1875, he was a member of the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejetnosci [AU]).* Representative of the most conciliatory wing of Polish positivism in the tradition of A. Wielopolski,* Spasowicz advocated the concept of Polish cultural autonomy within Russia and fought ideas of the revolutionary left and independence movements. He presented his ideas in two periodicals he co-founded: the Atheneum monthly in Warsaw and, then, the loyalist weekly Kraj (Country) in St. Petersburg. WEP, X, 690

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SPASOWSKI, WLADYSLAW (1877-1941), philosopher, pedagogue, and a left-wing activist of Polish teachers' organizations, who developed his own socialist pedagogical theory. WEP, X, 69 SPOLEM, Union of Consumer Cooperatives (Zwiazek Spotdzielni Spozywcdw), established in 1908 in Warsaw* on the initiative of two leaders of the Cooperative Association, R. Melczarski and S. Wojciechowski.* Before WW I, it had 274 consumer cooperatives with 40,000 members. Politically, it proclaimed neutrality to avoid involvement in political conflicts. In 1925, it merged with the Workers' Cooperatives. The Spolem designation was formally accepted in 1935; until then it was only the name of its organ. It built its own food industry in Kielce,* Wloclawek, and Dwikozy. Before WW II, there were altogether 1776 Spolem cooperatives (87 percent in villages), with almost 400,000 members. It was one of the successful progressive institutions of interwar Poland, one which managed to survive the Nazi occupation. EHGP, II, 326. SPORT, organized and planned activity to improve people's physical condition, which originated in ancient Greece and developed in modern times, first in Great Britain. During the period of the Partitions,* the first Polish sport institution, called "Sokol" (Falcon),* was established in Lvov* in 1867. In addition to physical culture, it propagated patriotic goals. Its clubs grew in the late nineteenth century in Warsaw.* The oldest Polish clubs promoting a variety of sports were "Pogori" and "Czarni" in Lvov, organized in 1903, and "Cracovia"* and "Wisla" in Cracow,* established in 1906. The Polish Olympic Committee was created in 1919, and numerous sport associations embraced the entire country. The most popular were soccer clubs. In 1927, an Office for Physical Education was organized within the Ministry of Defense. A scientific council of physical education was established in 1929 in Warsaw and named the Central Institute of Physical Education (Centralny Instytut Wychowania Fizycznego [CIWF]). In 1938, it was renamed the Academy of Physical Education (Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego [AWF]) with its headquarters in the Bielany suburb of Warsaw. From 1924, Poland participated in the Olympic Games, gaining twenty medals before WW II. WEP, X, 719-72 SPRINGTIME OF NATIONS (1848-1849), a series of revolutions in Europe, sparked by the revolution of February 1848 in Paris, which was followed by revolutionary events in German and Austrian countries. The revolutions of the Spring of Nations were directed against the international order established at the Congress of Vienna* and against conservative European monarchs. In France, the monarchy of Louis Philippe was replaced by the Republic. German and Austrian rulers faced popular uprisings in their capitals and had to make their policies more democratic and liberal. In the Polish territories, a national insurrection broke out in the Grand Duchy of Poznari (Posen)* and riots took place in the towns of Galicia,* where the Austrian authorities were forced to repeal

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the corvee. Numerous Poles also took part in the revolutions in Germany and Austria, and in the Hungarian War for Independence of 1848-1849. CHP, II, 352-364; F. Kieniewicz, Historia Polski (Warsaw, 1975), 173-20 SPYTKO OF MELSZTYN (1398-1439), one of the three medieval magnates of the same name. The best known was the youngest, the Castellan* of Biecz from 1427, leader of the Polish Hussites, and an opponent of Cardinal Z. Olesnicki.* He favored the idea that King Wladyslaw Jagiello* accept the Czech crown from the Hussites. During the Church Synods of Warka (1434), Sieradz and Piotrkow (1435), he tried in vain to abolish the Peter's Pence.* In 1439, he organized the Confederation* of Korczyn, directed against the influence of Olesnicki at the Royal court. Besieged by Royal troops near Grotniki, Spytko was killed in battle. WEP, X, 735. STABLEWSKI, FLORIAN (1841-1906), Archbishop of Gniezno* and Poznari* from 1891. A member of the Prussian Parliament from 1876, he fought for Polish language rights. During 1892-1893, he initiated Christian trade unions in Prussian-occupied Poland to counter-balance leftist organizations. H. Rosenthai, "Election of Archbishop Stablewski," Slavic Review XXVIII (June 1969), 26 277. STACHIEWICZ, JULIAN (1890-1934), General, historian, and an older brother of W. Stachiewicz.* Before WW I, he was active in Polish patriotic para-military organizations in Galicia.* During the war, he fought in the Polish Legions.* A trusted follower of J. Pilsudski,* he was detached in 1916 to command the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* in Galicia. From October 1918, he served in various commanding positions in the Polish Army. During 1923-1924 and from 1926, he was in charge of the Military Historical Institute in Warsaw and, from 1928, served as Secretary General of the Research Institute of Recent Polish History. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (The Generals of Independent Pola (Warsaw, 1991), 169; W. Stachiewicz, Journey through History: Memoirs (Montreal, 1988). STACHIEWICZ, WACLAW (1894-1973), General and a younger brother of J. Stachiewicz.* A member of Polish patriotic para-military organizations in Galicia* before WW I and a close associate of J. Pilsudski,* he fought as an officer of the First Brigade* of the Polish Legions* during the war, serving as the Chief of Staff of the Supreme Command of the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* during 1917-1918. In interwar Poland, he served at various command posts in the Polish Army, including Chief of the General Staff during 1935-1939. On September 17, 1939, he left Poland together with Marshal E. Rydz-^migly* and was interned in Romania. In 1940, he escaped to Algeria and, in 1943, he moved to London, where he remained

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without an assignment, considered a member of the Sanacja* military elite responsible for the September defeat. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (The Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), W. Stachiewicz, Journey through History: Memoirs (Montreal, 1988). STACKELBERG, OTTO MAGNUS (1736-1800), Russian diplomat of the Baltic-German aristocracy. During 1772-1790, he was an envoy and then Ambassador to Warsaw,* where he achieved the Polish recognition of the First Partition* of Poland. He had a decisive influence on King Stanislaw August* and the Permanent Council.* Stackelberg opposed the policies of F. Branicki,* supported by Stackelberg's adversary, Prince G. Potiomkin. When his influence waned in the first years of the Great Sejm* (Parliament) of 1788-1791, he was transferred as an Ambassador to Stockholm. WEP, X, 74 STADNICKI, STANISLAW (1551-1610), famous adventurer called the Devil of Laricut* He opposed the candidacy of Sigismund Vasa (Zygmunt III Waza)* to the Polish throne and fought against him at the battle of Byczyna.* One of the leaders of the Zebrzydowski rebellion,* he waged a civil war against the Opaliriski* and Ostrogski* families, derided Polish jurisdiction, and was killed in a skirmish, surrounded by his enemies. WEP, X, 744. STAFF, LEOPOLD (1878-1957), poet, playwright, and translator, who was one of the most outstanding Polish lyricists of the twentieth century. Educated at Lvov* University, he traveled in Western Europe, and, from 1909, he worked for a publishing house as an editor of a series called Sympozjon, popularizing in Poland the most important philosophers. His first collections of poems were published in 1901 and bore the hallmarks of the "Young Poland"* movement. But he soon revolted against modernism and, inspired by Nietzsche, filled his works with vital and life affirmation elements. He spent WW I in Kharkiv, moved to Warsaw* in 1918, and was acclaimed as a guru by the poetic group "Skamander."* From 1933 he was a member and, from 1934, a Vice President of the Polish Academy of Literature (Polska Akademia Literatury [PAL]).* During WW II, he lived in Warsaw, worked on translations from Latin, and contributed his poems to clandestine publications. His aesthetic theory stressed the glory of art as the most lasting testimony of man's creativity. A model humanist, he helped shape three generations of Polish poets. J. Balbin, "Leopold Staff, 18781957," Polish Review II/2-3 (1957), 113-119; J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Poli Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 485-490; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature ( don, 1969), 343-347. STANISLAW II AUGUST PONIATOWSKI (1732-1798), last King of Poland (1764-1795). Talented, carefully educated, and related to the most powerful magnate families in Poland, he traveled extensively in Western Europe. During 1755-1758, he lived in St. Petersburg as a secretary of the British Embassy and,

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then, of an Envoy of Saxony. During his sojourn in Russia, he became romantically involved with Grand Duchess Catherine, wife of Peter, the heir to the Russian throne. He planned to marry her and become King of Poland with Russian help. When Catherine became the Empress of Russia and August III* died, Catherine supported Poniatowski's candidacy for the Polish throne. On September 6, 1764, protected by Russian troops and those of the Czartoryski Familia,* he was elected King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* At first, he tried to free himself from Russian dependence, searching for an understanding with Austria and France. He tried unsuccessfully to placate the magnate opposition to him, to create his own party, and to begin the Europeanization of the anarchical Commonwealth system. Some of his reforms were introduced during 1764-1766, but his attempt to limit the liberum veto* and reject the antidissident* legislation manipulated by the foreign powers led to the emergence of a strong magnate opposition. During the Bar* Confederation of 1768-1772, a large part of the Polish gentry fought against the proposed Royal reforms, which limited the traditional "Golden Freedom" and challenged foreign interference in Polish internal affairs. The confederates considered Poniatowski a usurper, declared the absence of monarchical rule, and organized an abortive attempt on his life on November 3, 1771. The revolt made the King even more dependent on Russia, thereby crushing the Confederation and, together with Prussia* and Austria, annexing large portions of Polish territory in 1772. Stanislaw August unsuccessfully protested against this First Partition,* appealed to the Western powers, and tried to obtain their support. Eventually, he compromised with Catherine II, recognizing the virtual control of his reign by Russian Ambassador O. Stackelberg.* For that concession, he obtained Russian protection of the remaining Polish territory from further Prussian and Austrian annexations and even anticipated possible recovery of Austrian-occupied Galicia.* He hoped that once in an alliance with Russia, Poland would be able to strengthen its Army and reform its political system. With Russian help, he strengthened the Permanent Council* (Rada Nieustajaca) and reduced the power of the Hetmans.* Other reforms, strongly opposed by the magnates, were rejected by St. Petersburg. During 1775-1778, the King created his own political party and continued cultural and economic reforms. In 1765, he founded the Knights School (Szkola Rycerska),* promoted the educational system of the Piarists,* and established the Commission of National Education* in 1773. He was a patron of writers and artists and contributed to the development of Polish literature and art. In the economic field, Stanislaw August supported the creation of manufacturers of weaponry, wool and chinaware, as well as minting and mining. He submitted his plans for reforms to the Great Sejm* (Parliament) of 1788-1792. The King's constitutional project, modified by I. Potocki* and H. Kollataj,* became the basis of the Constitution of May 3, 1791.* The Constitution, the symbol of the end of Polish decay, provoked major Russian intervention in Poland. A group of conservative magnates, backed by Russia, organized the

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treacherous Targowica* Confederation, aiming at the reversal of all the reforms. Stanislaw August wanted to terminate the hostilities of the 1792 Polish-Russian War and joined the Targowica Confederation. Then he was forced to participate in the 1793 Russian-controlled Sejm of Grodno,* which ratified the Second Partition of Poland. During the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, the King had no influence on state affairs. After the fall of the uprising, on the Empress's demand, he left Warsaw for Grodno, where he stayed till the death of Catherine II and where he abdicated on November 25, 1795, in view of the final Partition of Poland. At the request of Tsar Paul II, Poniatowski went to St. Petersburg, where he died in semi-captivity. During his last years, he tried to defend his policies and wrote Memoires du roi Stanislas Auguste Poniatowski. He is among the most controversial Polish Kings, and his rule is a permanent controversy among Polish historians. R. Bain, The Last King of Poland and His Contempora (New York, 1971); CHP, II, 112-137; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 315-394; Poczet krolow i ksigzgt polskich (Register of the Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 444-445; WEP, X, 757-758; A. Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992). STANISLAW KOSTKA (1550-1568), Saint. The son of a Castellan* of Zakroczym, he was educated in a Jesuit* college in Vienna and resolved to become a Jesuit* himself. Encouraged by St. Peter Canisius, he went to Rome, where he was received into the Jesuit novitiate by St. Francis Borgia in 1567. Stanislaw died within a year, but, during that period, he gained a reputation for angelic innocence. He was beatified in 1605 by Pope Clement VIII and canonized in 1726 by Benedict XIII. The Book of Saints (London, 1989) 519; Butler's Lives of the Saints, vol. 4 (London, 1956), 335-340; J. Majkowski, Saint Stanislaus Kostka: A Psychological Hagiography (Rome, 1972).

STANISLAW I LESZCZYNSKI (1677-1766), King of Poland during 17041709 and 1733. A scion of one of the most powerful magnate families of Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* he initially supported King August II Mocny (the Strong)* and was appointed by him Palatine (wojewoda) of Poznari (Posen).* In 1702, during the Northern War,* King Charles XII of Sweden invaded Poland and encouraged the Polish nobility to depose August II. Leszczyriski became one of the leaders of Great Poland's opposition to August II and of the Warsaw Confederation.* He supported an alliance with Sweden and the announcement of vacancy of the throne. Backed by Charles XII, Leszczyriski was elected King of Poland and started a civil war with the guerrillas, who supported the deposed King August II and opposed the Swedish protectorate over Poland. The new King did not manage to extend his authority over the entire Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* which became a marching ground for foreign armies during the Northern War* of 1700-1721. When the Russians defeated Charles XII in the Battle of Poltava in 1709 and moved into Poland, Leszczyriski had to escape to Sweden. In 1719, he settled in the French province of Alsace, and his political

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influence grew greatly when his daughter, Marie, married King Louis XV of France in 1725. When August II died in 1733, Leszczyriski returned to Poland and was elected King by the great majority of the Polish gentry, who after thirty years of Saxon rule wanted a Polish monarch. However, Russia and Austria, which were afraid that Leszczyriski could form a powerful Swedish-FrenchPolish coalition, invaded Poland and ejected its new King, first to Gdarisk (Danzig)* and then back to France. A minority of the Polish gentry elected August III* King of Poland; Leszczyriski abdicated in 1736 and remained in France as a Prince of Lorraine for life. There he wrote a political treatise against the liberum veto* titled A Free Voice Assuring Freedom (Glos wolny wolnosc ubezpieczajacy). CHP, II, 6-28; M. K. Dziewanowski, "King Stanislaw Leszczyriski— Some Remarks and Question Marks," Jahrbuch fiir Geschichte Osteuropeas, vol (1968), 104-116; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 276-292; Schlimgen, "Stanislaus Leszczynski, King of Poland, Reformer in Exile," Bulletin o the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America, vol. 3 (1944-1945), 621-649. STANISLAW, SAINT (1030-1079), Bishop of Cracow.* His cult is widespread in Poland, especially in Cracow, which honors him as patron saint. A scion of the noble Szczepanowski family, he was educated in Gniezno* and Paris. He was ordained as a priest by Lampert Zula, Bishop of Cracow,* who gave him a canonry in Wawel* Cathedral and subsequently appointed him preacher and Archdeacon. After Lampert's death, Stanislaw was consecrated Bishop of Cracow in 1072. Poland at that time was ruled by Boleslaw II Smialy (the Bold),* who opposed the Bishop's plan of promoting the Bishopric of Cracow to an Archbishopric. The disagreement developed into a major conflict between the secular authority of the King and the spiritual power of the Bishop, who was tried and condemned to death. According to an unverified version of Vincent Kadlubek's* chronicle, Stanislaw excommunicated Boleslaw for his dissolute life-style and the latter in consequence slew the saint with his own hands while he was celebrating the Eucharist. Pope St. Gregory VII laid Poland under an interdict and Boleslaw fled the country and died a fugitive in Hungary. Stanislaw was canonized in 1253 by Pope Innocent IV. Some historians contend that Stanislaw had been guilty of treason and plotted to dethrone Boleslaw. The Book of Saints (London, 1989), 519; Butler's Lives of the Saints, vol. 4 (London, 1956), 244-246; B. Deresiewicz, Saint Stanislaw: Bishop of Krakow (Santa Barbara, California, 1979; WEP, X, 756-75 STANISLAWOW (Stanislaviv or Ivano-Frankivske), town in southeastern Poland established in 1662 by Jedrzej Potocki and so called in memory of his father, Stanislaw Rewera Potocki.* An important trade center, it had one of the largest Polish Armenian* communities. During 1772-1918, the town and its region, populated mostly by Ukrainians, was in Austrian-controlled Galicia.* It returned to Poland for the interwar period, when it was the capital of Stansilawow province (wojewodztwo) and had about 100,000 inhabitants. In

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1939, Stanislawow was captured by the Soviet Union. It remained in Soviet borders after 1945. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc, vol. 2. (Toronto, 1988), 364-366; WEP, V, 142. STANISLAWSKI, JAN (1860-1907), painter and leading representative of Polish Impressionism. A professor of landscape painting at Cracow* Academy of Art from 1897, he introduced the method of plein-air painting. He was a close friend of J. Chelmoriski and S. Wyspiariski, played an important role in Cracow's artistic milieu and co-organized the "Sztuka" (Art) association in 1897. WEP, X, 760. STANCZYK (1480-1560), Royal jester of Kings Aleksander Jagielloriczyk,* Zygmunt Stary (Sigismund the Old),* and Zygmunt (Sigismund) August.* Famous for his sharp wit directed at the monarchs or their courtiers, he was presented by Polish Renaissance writers as a politically astute patriot. His anecdotes circulated widely and he became a symbol of skeptical wisdom. J. Krzyzanowski, "The Old King's Jester Stanczyk and His Tradition in Polish Literature," Oxford Slavonic Papers III (1958), 49-65.

STANCZYKS, conservative Cracow* political group established after the fall of the January Insurrection* of 1863 and composed mainly of former followers of the Paris Hotel Lambert* from among Galician large landowners and higherechelon civil servants. The name of the group originated from the 1869 pamphlet Teka Stanczyka (Stanczyk Portfolio), conceived by its authors, S. Kozmian,* J. Szujski,* S. Tarnowski,* and L. Wodzicki, as a sarcastic condemnation of political conspiracies and the new wave of demonstrations for autonomy of Galicia.* The Stariczyks loyally cooperated with the Austrian authorities, opposed radical social movements, and desired to improve the Polish situation within the Habsburg Empire and preserve a dominant position for the landed aristocracy. The group's leaders included Count S. Tarnowski,* Prof. J. Szujski,* the publicist S. Kozmian,* S. Smolka,* Prof. M. Bobrzyriski,* Count A. Potocki,* Count K. Badeni, the literary critic W. Jaworski,* and the historian W. Kalinka.* They dominated the Galician political scene in the 1870s and 1880s and were closely associated with the Cracow school of historiography. From 1907, the Stariczyks were organized as the National Right Party (Stronnictwo Prawicy Narodowej). The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 19 12-14; P. L. Orton, "The Stariczyk Portfolio and the Politics of Galician Loyalism," Polish Review, XXVII/1 (1982), 55-6 STAPINSKI, JAN (1867-1946), radical peasant leader. Politically active in high school as a member of clandestine patriotic organizations, he joined the peasant movement in Galicia* in 1888. In 1895, he became one of the organizers and leaders of the Polish Peasant Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe [PSL]).* He edited several periodicals for the peasants and distinguished himself with the

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radical character of his articles. During 1897-1900 and 1907-1918, he served as a member of the Vienna Parliament and, during 1901-1918, also of the provincial Galician Sejm* (Parliament). In 1913 he organized a radical Polish Peasant Party-Left group and cooperated with the Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia (Polska Partia Socjal-Demokratyczna Galicji i Slaska Cieszyriskiego [PPSD]).* In interwar Poland, he served twice as a member of Parliament but did not play an important role in the peasant movement. The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 20, 26, 106; WEP, X, 794. STARACHOWICE, industrial town in central Poland on the Kamienna River. Up to 1817, Starachowice was owned by the Cistercian* Wachock monastery. In 1815, its foundry was taken over by the government of the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* which turned Starachowice into an important metal industry center. In 1885, the town was linked by railroad with major cities. In the interwar period, Starachowice was further developed as one of the major industrial areas of the so-called Central Industrial District (Centralny Okreg Przemyslowy [COP]).* EHGP, II, 336-337. STAROBIELSK, one of the three Soviet detention camps for Polish officers established by Stalin's regime after the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939. Located in the Eastern Ukraine, it contained about 4,000 prisoners, including 8 generals, about 150 Colonels, 230 Majors, and 1,000 Captains. Among the reserve officers imprisoned in Starobielsk there were numerous university professors, writers, lawyers and chaplains of various denominations. Like the Kozielsk* camp, Starobielsk was administrated and supervised by the NKVD. Its prisoners were evacuated in August 1940 and shot by an NKVD squad in Piatichatki Forest near Kharkiv. Together with the Katyri* Forest massacre, it was a part of the Soviet genocide of the Polish elite. B. Kusnierz, Stalin and th Poles: An Indictment of the Soviet Leaders (London, 1949).

STAROSTA (elderman), administrative officer in charge of a territorial unit. In the early Middle Ages, the starosta headed a Slavic territorial community; from the fourteenth century, starostas served as officers appointed by the monarch as his representatives in charge of a clearly defined area. From the time of the rule of King Vaclaw II (Venceslaus II),* starostas became an essential element in the strengthening of the central state authority. Starostas could be responsible for the administration and jurisdiction of an entire province but also for a Royal castle and neighboring land. In the sixteenth century, their importance declined. In interwar Poland, the starosta headed the administration of a powiat (county or district within a province). EHGP, II, 337; WEP, X, 800. STAROWOLSKI, SZYMON (1588-1656), writer and priest, who left about seventy works in Latin and Polish. After he graduated from the Cracow* Acad-

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emy, he served as a tutor in aristocratic families. As a secretary of J. Chodkiewicz,* Starowolski accompanied him in the Chocim* expedition against the Turks. He became the first bibliographer of Polish literature with his work Scriptorum Polonicorum Hekatontas (1625), where he listed 100 authors, giving their biographies and titles. Most of his Latin works dealt with Polish political institutions. In Polish he wrote as a publicist on the necessity for political and military reforms of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* These works resembled the preachings of P. Skarga.* EHGP, II, 337-338; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 122-1 STARZYNSKI, STEFAN (1893-1943), statesman. Before WW I, he was active in Polish patriotic para-military organizations. After the outbreak of the war, he joined the First Brigade* of the Polish Legions* and, then, the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* During 1924— 1934, he served as a Deputy Minister of Finance and, during 1934-1939, as Commissioner-Mayor of Warsaw.* In his economic concepts, he favored state control and management of the economy (£tatism). During 1930-1933, he represented the ruling Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with the Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspdlpracy z Rzadem [BBWR])* in the Sejm* (Parliament). During the 1939 September Campaign,* he distinguished himself as a heroic Civil Commissar at the High Command in the defense of Warsaw. With great personal effort, administrative talent, and radio talks, he became the spiritual leader of that battle. After the fall of the city, he helped to organize the antiGerman resistance. Arrested by the Germans on October 26, 1939, he was tortured and executed in Dachau. M. Drozdowski, Stefan Starzynski Prezydent Warsz (Warsaw, 1976); EHGP, II, 338. STASZIC, STANISLAW (1755-1826), political writer, scholar, geologist, and organizer of scientific life in Poland. A priest of burgher background, educated in Leipzig, Gottingen and College de France, he worked as a private tutor in the Zamoyski* family and as a professor of French at Zamosc Academy. At the beginning of the Great Sejm* (Parliament) of 1788-1792, he settled in Warsaw,* where he lived until his death. He translated works of contemporary French scholars and thinkers and, under their influence, designed his own program of social reforms, presented in such works as Remarks on the Life of Jan Zamoyski (Uwagi nad zyciem Jana Zamoyskiego) and Warnings for Poland (Przestrogi dla Polski). He sharply criticized the political system of pre-Partition Poland and defended the burghers and peasants. In 1808, he was elected President of the Society of the Friends of Learning and devoted himself to the organization of scholarly and economic institutions in Poland. He built a palace as a seat of the society and helped to organize the Warsaw University and the MiningMetallurgic Academy in Cracow.* He supported state-guided industrialization and promoted peasant cooperatives, workers' insurance, and brotherhoods of miners. He conducted his own geological research and continued to write on

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various subjects. EHGP, II, 338, History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Wars 1968), 366-369; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 190-192; W. Rose, "Stanislaw Staszic," Slavonic Review XXXII (June 1955), 291-303; WEP, X, 805-806. STATISTICS, science that characterizes facts, groups of people, and mass phenomena on the basis of numerical information obtained through research. Polish pioneers of statistics were F. Loyko and F. Muszyriski. The first scholar who taught statistics in Poland was W. Surowiecki at Warsaw School of Law and Administration during 1813-1815. In the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* the Statistical Committee was established, while in Galicia* several specialized periodicals were issued from the 1870s. Interwar Poland had a well-organized statistical service. The Principal Statistical Office (Glowny Urzad Statystyczny [GUS]), created in 1918, published over 300 volumes of data and studies until 1939. From 1930, the popular Maty Rocznik Statystyczny (Small Statistical Yearbook) was published regularly. EHGP, II, 34 STEFAN I BATORY (1533-1586), Duke of Transylvania from 1571 and King of Poland. He was elected Polish monarch on December 15, 1575, after the escape of King Henryk Walezy (Henri de Valois)* and on the condition he would marry Anna Jagiellonka,* the sister of the last Jagiellonian, Zygmunt (Sigismund) August.* After the election, Batory pacified the country and the supporters of his electoral opponent, the Habsburg* Emperor Maximilian II. Batory proved to be an outstanding warrior and one of the most ambitious monarchs of Poland. He considered Turkey his main enemy, and he wanted to unite Poland, Transylvania, and Muscovy under his rule to launch a Crusade against the Ottoman Empire. He strengthened the Polish Army by drafting the Cossacks* on a regular basis. After the Livonian War against Moscow (15791582), he forced the cession of Polotsk and Livonia* to Poland. In domestic policies, strongly influenced by Chancellor* J. Zamoyski,* he abdicated his judicial powers to the Nobles' Tribunals. He elevated the Jesuit* College in Vilna* to university level in 1578. Batory was probably the last Polish monarch who managed to curb the excessive freedoms and anarchistic tendencies of the gentry. CHP, I, 369-391; P. Jasienica, The Commonwealth of Both Nations (Miami, 1987 102; Poczet krolow i ksigzgt polskich (Register of the Kings and Princes of Poland), by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 353-360. STEFANSKI, WALENTY MACIEJ (1812-1877), printer, bookseller, and leader of the nineteenth-century Polish independence movement in Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* A veteran of the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he established a bookstore and a printing shop in Poznari (Posen)* in 1839. He printed valuable encyclopedic and secret emigre publications. He maintained contacts with J. Lelewel* and other leaders of the Great Emigration* in Western Europe. Stefariski organized several secret organizations with radical social pro-

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grams in Poznari. During the Great Poland Insurrection of 1848, he became a member of Poznari National Committee. Arrested several times by the Prussians, he was forced to leave Great Poland and settled in Pomerania, where he continued his activities. WEP, X, 82 STEFCZYK, FRANCISZEK (1861-1924), history teacher in Czernichow near Cracow,* who organized the first savings and loan cooperative in Poland in 1890. During 1899-1918, he played an important role in Lvov* as Manager of the Granting Office for Loan and Savings Corporations. He popularized village credit cooperatives ("Stefczyk Tills") to curb rural usury. From 1918 he managed the Central Agricultural Bank in Warsaw, and, in 1924, he organized the Union of Agrarian Cooperatives. WEP, X, 82 STEIGER TRIAL (1924-1925), trial of a Jewish student, S. Steiger, held in Lvov* on the trumped-up charge that he had conspired to assassinate the Polish President, S. Wojciechowski.* As a result of the tension in Eastern Galicia* in the wake of international recognition of Polish rule over this multi-ethnic region, the Ukrainians organized an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate the head of the Polish state when he officially opened the Eastern Fair in Lvov. The real assassin escaped to Berlin, while police arrested Steiger on the spot as a suspect. To substantiate accusations against him, the prosecution produced dubious testimonies, which attempted to minimize Ukrainian involvement and divert public attention to the alleged Jewish crime. The Ukrainian terrorists did not admit their guilt, but the details of negotiations between them and Jewish leaders that were revealed brought about Steiger's acquittal on December 20, 1925. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. XV (Jerusalem, 1971), 348-349; P. Korzec, "The Steiger Affair," Soviet Jewish Affairs HI/2 (1973), 38-58; O. Loewenstein, O Sprawie Steigera (Lvov, 1926). ST^POWSKI-JUNOSZA, KAZIMIERZ. See JUNOSZA-ST^POWSKI, KAZIMIERZ. STOCZEK, BATTLE OF (February 14, 1831), impressive victory won by Gen. H. Dwernicki* during the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 over a Russian Division of Cavalry under Gen. F. Geismar. Geismar's troops were part of a larger Russian Army led by Marshal I. Diebitsch that was advancing toward Warsaw* from Belorussia* through Wlodawa and Siedlce.* At Stoczek, where the invaders lost eight artillery guns and many prisoners of war, and during several other battles of February and March 1831, the Poles stopped the Russian offensive. Unfortunately, the Polish leadership procrastinated and did not use the advantage created by the battles. CHP, II, 300-301; M. Kukiel, Zarys Historii Wojskowosci w Polsce (London, 1949).

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STOJALOWSKI, STANISLAW (1845-1911), priest and one of the initiators of the peasant movement in Galicia.* He joined the Jesuits,* studied in Belgium and, upon his return to Galicia, purchased two periodicals, Wieniec (Wreath) and Pszczotka (Little Bee), and reshaped them into periodicals for peasants in 1875. He advocated social solidarity and tried to heal the antagonism between peasants and landowners. At the same time, he condemned laws hurting the village and organized peasant organizations. Fought by the clergy and the landowners, he was imprisoned several times. In 1893, he joined the Union of the Peasant Party (Zwiazek Stronnictwa Chlopskiego), and, in 1896, he created the Christian Popular Party (Stronnictwo Chrzescijarisko-Ludowe), cooperated with the socialists, and managed to get six of his party's activists elected to the Galician Parliament. Excommunicated by the Church, he changed his policy and reconciled with Rome. Elected to the Austrian Parliament in 1898, he followed the directives of the Polish Parliamentary Club. WEP, XI, 2 STOLARSKI, BLAZEJ (1880-1939), leader of the Polish Peasant Party "Liberation" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Wyzwolenie" [PSL "Wyzwolenie"]).* During 1916-1917, he was a member of the Polish State Council (Rada Stanu) under the German occupation. In 1918 he became a Minister without Portfolio in the Lublin* government of I. Daszyriski.* During 1918-1919, he served as Minister of Agriculture and, during 1919-1930, as a member of the Sejm* (Parliament). He resigned from the Peasant Party in 1935. He was arrested and killed by the German invaders in September 1939. SHP, 461. STPICZYNSKI, WOJCIECH (1896-1936), politician and publicist. A member of the revolutionary Zarzewie (Fire Glow) organization during 1911-1914, he was active in the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* during WW I. During 1917-1918, he was imprisoned by the Germans. Throughout 1920-1922, he was active in Upper Silesia,* where he represented the Polish government in the leadership of the Third Silesian Uprising.* A leading Pilsudskiite activist and journalist, he served as a chief of J. Pilsudski's* press bureau during the 1926 coup d'etat and as an editor of several periodicals of the Pilsudski political camp. He was a Commander of the Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki)* in 1931-1932 and Parliamentary Deputy during 1935-1936. WEP, XI, 35 STRONSKI, STANISLAW (1882-1955), politician and publicist. An activist of the secret Union of Polish Youth "Zet" (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej "Zet")* and of the National Democracy* in Galicia,* he parted with the Endeks,* established his own political group, and was a member of the Galician Parliament during 1913-1914. After the outbreak of WW I, he joined the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]),* but then, during 1914-1917, he was interned by the Austrians. During 1918-1919, he was active in the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski

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[KNP])* in Paris. From 1919, he was a professor of French literature at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* and, during 1927-1939, at the Catholic Lublin University (Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski [KUL]).* He was also active politically. During 1922-1927, he represented the Christian-National Party (Stronnictwo Chrzescijarisko-Narodowe) in the Parliament. Then, he changed his party affiliation and, during 1928-1935, was a Parliamentary Deputy of the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe [SN]).* As a fiery publicist, he contributed to several rightist periodicals. He consistently opposed J. Pilsudski's* Sanacja* regime and joined the Front Morges.* In 1939, he became one of the chief assistants of Premier Gen. W. Sikorski* as his Deputy and Minister of Information of the Government-in-Exile* during 1939-1943. International Who's Who (1944-451 835; WEP, XI, 54. STRUG, ANDRZEJ (1871-1937) (born Tadeusz Galecki), writer. Jailed by the Russian police in 1895 in Warsaw* Citadel for his cooperation with the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]),* he was deported for three years to Archangel in 1897. During 1905-1907, he was active in the left wing of the PPS in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* Then he lived in Paris, where he joined the para-military Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki)* and a group of J. Pilsudski's* political followers. During WW I, he fought in the Polish Legions* and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* In 1918 he served as Deputy Minister of Propaganda in the Lublin* government of I. Daszyriski.* In 1920, he was a founding member of the Masonic Great National Lodge of Poland (Wielka Loza Narodowa Polski). After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat, he strongly opposed the Sanacja* regime. He served as a PPS Senator during 1928-1930 and was active in the League of Defense of Rights of Man and Citizen and in the Association of Workers' Universities.* He started his literary career in 1902 as a publicist. Later, he wrote psychological novels dealing with Polish revolutionary and independence movements. He was an authentic revolutionary hero, advocated pacifist ideas, and became a moral authority for progressive intelligentsia. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 532-534; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 424, 431; WEP, XI,56. STRYJENSKA, ZOFIA (1894-1976), painter whose gouache, watercolor and tempera compositions were inspired by Polish folklore. She depicted folk customs, plays, dances, old traditions, fairy tales, and legends. They are characterized by dynamic fantasy, coarse humor, and sensuality. She illustrated novels of famous writers, designed posters, and took an interest in stage design. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 663; WEP, XI, 65. "STRZELEC" or "ZWIAZEK STRZELECKI" (Riflemen Association), legal para-military organization created in Austrian-occupied Galicia* in 1910. It was organized simultaneously as a conspiracy in the Russian-controlled Con-

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gress Kingdom of Poland* and in the Prussian part of Poland. Supervised by the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC])* and linked politically with the Polish Socialist Party-Revolutionary Fraction (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna-Frakcja Rewolucyjna [PPS-FR]),* it trained young Poles for armed struggle against Russia. A similar goal was held by the Polish Rifleman Squads (Polskie Druzyny Strzeleckie) created in Galicia in 1911 by the National Democrats.* In August 1914, both organizations became a nucleus of the Polish Legions.* In 1918, in independent Poland, "Strzelec" was rebuilt as a paramilitary youth organization tied politically to the Pilsudski* camp. The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 107-108; W. Lipiriski, Walka zbrojna o niepodleglosc Polski (Armed Struggle for Poland's Independence) (Warsaw, 1990), 32-52; SHP, 469. STRZELECKI, PAWEL EDMUND (1797-1873), explorer of Australia. He left Poland after the fall of the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and, after years in Great Britain, Western Europe, and the United States, went to Australia. There he explored the continent and did noted research on its geology, mineralogy, soil science, and ethnography during 1839-1843. Then he returned to England, where he published a classic monograph on New South Wales. L. Paszkowski, Poles in Australia and Oceania, 1790-1940 (Sydney, 1987); W. Slabczyriski, Pawel Edmund Strzelecki: podroze, odkrycia, prace (Warsaw, 1957). STUDNICKI-GIZBERT, WLADYSLAW (1867-1953), publicist and politician. An active party member of the Second Proletariat,* he was deported to Siberia* for the years 1890-1896. After his return to Poland, he joined the National Democracy.* When Warsaw* was occupied by the Germans in 1915, he established the pro-German Club of Polish State-Builders (Klub Paristwowcow Polskich). Then, he became a member of the Council of State, organized under German auspices, and remained one of the few Polish ardent Germanophiles. After the outbreak of WW II, he tried to organize a pro-German government but was imprisoned by the Nazis and deported to Berlin. After the war, he settled in London. He authored many books and articles presenting his controversial interpretation of history. Czy wiesz kto to jest (Do You Know Who That Is?), ed. by S. Loza (Warsaw, 1938), 704; WEP, XI, 74. STUMSDORF, TRUCE OF, armistice signed in Sztumska Wies (Stumsdorf), a villag e near Gdarisk (Danzig),* by Poland and Sweden on September 12, 1635, during the Swedish Wars.* For the next twelve years, it was an extension of the 1629 Altmark* Agreement, which had been disadvantageous to Poland. In Stumsdorf, the Swedes agreed to withdraw from territories which they occupied during 1626-1629, including the Prussian ports. They ceased collecting tolls in Gdarisk and returned the Polish fleet but retained Livonia.* In Stumsdorf King Wladyslaw IV* of Poland renounced his claims to the Swedish Crown. However, he considered the treaty a temporary armistice and thought about a new

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war with Sweden, but, opposed by the Polish Parliament, he had to abandon his plans. CHP, I, 487-519; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 237, 247. STUTTHOF, Nazi concentration camp near the village of Stutthof (Sztutowo) close to Gdarisk (Danzig),* established on September 2, 1939. Originally it was planned as a camp for civilian prisoners, and, until 1941, there were only Polish inmates, especially intellectuals of Gdarisk and East Prussia. On March 22, 1940, 250 leaders of Gdarisk Polonia* were executed in Stutthof. From 1941, the camp held the citizens of twenty-four countries of German-occupied Europe. Inmates were forced into hard labor, and many were killed by phenol injections into the heart or in the gas chamber in 1944. Others died in closed railroad cars, where Cyclone-B gas was used. Bodies of the executed were used in the Gdarisk Institute of Pathological Anatomy for soap production. Altogether about 120,000 people were incarcerated in Stutthof, and 85,000 of them died. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 4 (New York, 1990), 1421-1423; WEP, XI, 7778. STWOSZ, WIT (1447-1533), born Veit Stoss, German sculptor and painter from Nuremberg. He began his artistic career in his native Swabia and, in the mid-1470s, he arrived in Cracow,* where he was hired by the City Council to design the huge altar of the Marian parish church in the Market Square. Stwosz completed this Late Gothic altar, one of the most imposing in the world, in 1489. Later the artist worked for private Polish patrons, including wealthy burghers of Cracow and the clergy. His main work was on large projects in marble for the Royal Court and magnates, among them the grave of King Kazimierz Jagielloriczyk (Casimir Jagiellon)* at Wawel* Cathedral. He also produced tombstones for Bishops in other cathedrals, sculpted in stone and wood, and made models for bronze casts. In 1496, he moved back to Nuremberg. T. Chrzanowski, The Marian Altar of Wit Stwosz (Warsaw, 1985); S. Dettloff, Wit Stosz (Wroclaw, 1961); P. Skubiszewski, Veit Stoss und Polen (Nuremberg, 1983). STYKA, JAN (1858-1925), painter. Educated in Vienna, Rome, and Cracow* under J. Matejko,* he settled in Paris in 1900. His main interest was in historical painting, including battle scenes and religious topics. He also painted portraits and collaborated in the painting of huge panoramas, such as Raclawice* with W. Kossak* in Lvov* during 1892-1894 and Golgotha in Los Angeles in 1896. His sons also became famous painters, Adam of Oriental subjects and Tadeusz as a portraitist. C. Czapliriski, The Styka Family Saga (New York, 1989). STYPULKOWSKI, ZBIGNIEW (1910-1975), politician. As a young lawyer, he became one of the most dynamic leaders of National Democracy* in Warsaw* and one of the youngest members of the Sejm* (Parliament). He joined the anti-Nazi resistance movement in German-occupied Poland and co-founded

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the right-wing underground National Military Organization (Narodowa Organizacja Wojskowa [NOW]). He took part in the Warsaw Uprising* of 1944 and, in spring 1945, was kidnaped together with fifteen other leaders of the Polish secret state by Soviet intelligence, jailed, and tried in Moscow. Z. Stypulkowski, Invitation to Moscow (London, 1951). SUCHARSKI, HENRYK (1898-1946), Major of the Polish Army, who led the heroic defense of Westerplatte* in Gdarisk (Danzig)* between September 1 and 7 during the 1939 September Campaign.* Westerplatte, where the Polish garrison of Gdarisk was located, was the very first target of the German attack against Poland. Taken prisoner by Germans, Sucharski spent almost six years in a POW camp and, after the liberation, joined the Second Army Corps in Italy. WEP, XI, 87. SULIMIRSKI, TADEUSZ (1898-1983), historian. Professor of pre-history at the Universities of Lvov* and Cracow,* he served in the Polish Army in the West during WW II and co-authored projects for a post-war Federation of Western Slavs.* From 1941, he served as Vice-Minister of Education in the Polish Government-in-Exile.* His scholarly specialization was the ancient Sarmatians. J. Lerski, "Counteroffensive by the Western Slavs in Scotland," Symposiones I (London, 1981); WEP, XI, 107. SULKIEWICZ, ALEKSANDER (1867-1916), Polish Socialist leader of Tatar* origin. During 1887-1892, he was active in the Second Proletariat.* In 1892 he participated in the founding congress in Paris of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and became one of its leaders. After the 1906 split in the party, he joined its Revolutionary Fraction as a close associate of J. Pilsudski.* From 1905, he lived in Galicia* and helped to organize the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC]).* He was killed during WW I while fighting in the Polish Legions.* WEP, XI, 107. SULKOWSKI, JOZEF (1773-1798), officer of the Polish and French Armies and a Polish Jacobin.* He participated in the Polish-Russian War of 1792, showing exceptional bravery. When the last Polish King, Stanislaw August,* acceded to the Russian-controlled Targowice* Confederation, Sulkowski left Poland for Paris, where he was active in the radical wing of the Polish emigration, known as "Deputacja Polska." He was in Poland briefly during the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794. In 1796 he took French citizenship and joined the French military. Assigned to the Italian Army under Napoleon, he became his aide-decamp. In 1798, he went with Napoleon to Egypt and died fighting the Arabs in Cairo. Historical Dictionary of Napoleonic France, 1799-1815, ed. by O. Connely (Westport, Connecticut, 1985), 458; WEP, XI, 109.

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SUPREME NATIONAL COMMITTEE (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]), representative body of the Polish political parties active in Galicia,* established on August 16, 1914, in Cracow.* The NKN, presided by J. Leo* and later by W. L. Jaworski and L. Biliriski,* represented Polish interests in Vienna during WW I, helped J. Pilsudski* to organize the Polish Legions,* and became their political leadership. Among the most outstanding members of the NKN were W. Sikorski,* I. Daszyriski,* M. Sokolnicki,* and W. Witos.* The Committee dissolved itself on October 15, 1917. R. F. Leslie (ed.), The History of Poland since 1863 (Cambridge, 1980), 110-120. SUVOROV, ALEKSANDER (1729-1800), Russian Field Marshal. He began his military career in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). During 1768-1772, he commanded Russian troops fighting in Poland against the Bar Confederation.* He crushed this anti-Russian and, simultaneously, conservative rebellion. In 1772 his units besieged Cracow* and blockaded Wawel* Castle until its defenders capitulated. Then he participated in the Russian-Turkish Wars, and, in 1794, he was again sent to Poland to suppress the Kosciuszko Insurrection.* He won several battles; stormed Praga, the eastern suburb of Warsaw*; and forced the capital of Poland to capitulate. After this success, he was promoted to Field Marshal and remained in Poland until January 1796 as a Commander of the occupying Army. The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History,ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 38 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1984), 81-86; WEP, XI, 128-129. SWEDISH WARS, Polish-Swedish conflict over the control of the Baltic* area (dominium maris Baltic!) from 1563 till 1721. In 1558 Russia started the Livonian War by attacking Livonia.* Denmark, Sweden, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* were also interested in the control of this country, and a Danish-Polish coalition faced the Swedes and Russians, who already occupied large parts of Livonia. In 1561, it submitted to the Commonwealth, which, after a reversal of alliances in 1568, fought together with Sweden against Denmark and Russia. Eventually, Livonia was partitioned by the fighting powers. The new stage of the Polish-Swedish conflict started as a consequence of the election of Sigismund Vasa* as King of Poland in 1587. Sigismund, who ruled in Poland as Zygmunt III Waza,* was an heir to the Swedish throne and the son of Swedish Queen Katarzyna Jagiellonka (Catherine Jagiellon), the sister of King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August* of Poland. In 1592, Zygmunt III Waza also became the King of Sweden, but, as a supporter of the Counter-Reformation,* he was not popular in Lutheran Sweden. Dethroned by the Swedes, he started a war with his uncle, Charles of Suderman, the new King of Sweden. Zygmunt was defeated and temporarily imprisoned but then annexed Estonia to Poland in 1600, starting a new war. Charles responded with an attack on Livonia and, in spite of several Polish victories, such as the Battle of Kircholm* in 1605, he occupied most of that country. In 1611 Charles died and both countries signed an armistice. It was broken in 1617 by the new King of Sweden, Gustavus II

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Adolphus, who again occupied most of Livonia and its ports. In 1622 the Mittau Armistice temporarily stopped the hostilities, which were resumed by the Swedes in 1625. Gustavus conquered Ducal Prussia,* a part of Royal Prussia,* and several crucial ports of the region. In 1629, the Altmark Treaty,* unfavorable to Poland, gave Sweden most of Livonia and all the Prussian ports, except Gdarisk (Danzig),* Konigsberg, and Puck.* Poland started serious new military preparations and Sweden, then engaged in the Thirty Years' War in Germany, accepted the Stumsdorf Armistice* in 1635. The Swedes had to abandon the Prussian ports and cease collecting tolls in Gdarisk. In 1655, the new King of Sweden, Charles X Gustavus, started the next invasion of Poland, known in Polish tradition as the "Deluge."* Encouraged by Russia's concurrent aggression against Poland and the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising,* Charles X Gustavus believed that the Commonwealth would be an easy victory. After the capitulations of the Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* levee en masse and the Lithuanian forces of Hetman* J. RadziwiH,* the Swedes occupied Warsaw* and Cracow.* King Jan Kazimierz (John Casimir)* of Poland fled to Silesian exile. However, Swedish looting and exploitation of the country revived Polish national resistance, highlighted by the Polish defense of the monastery in Czestochowa.* In 1657, the Swedes were ejected from Poland and the war ended with the Peace Treaty of Oliwa,* signed on May 3, 1660. Both sides of the conflict gave up their respective monarchical-dynastic claims and preserved territories they had held before the war. Poland, exhausted by the wars, was unable to fight for dominium maris Baltici any more and lost control over Ducal Prussia. However, Poland was again engaged in conflict with Sweden in 1700, when the Northern War* started. Sweden was fighting against the coalition of Russia, Denmark, and Saxony. Officially, Poland did not participate in the conflict, but since the Saxon monarch, August Wettin, also ruled in the Commonwealth as August II Mocny (the Strong),* the Swedes invaded and occupied Poland. It became one of the main theaters of the war until the combatant countries signed the Treaty of Nystad in 1721. Like the "Deluge," the Northern War devastated the Commonwealth and helped the Russians to establish their protectorate over Poland. CHP, I, 475-488; N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1 (New York, 1984), 433-470; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 247-250; W. Konopczyriski, Poland and Sweden (Toruri, 1935).

SYGNALY, Lvov literary bi-weekly established by a group of young left-oriented activists and edited by T. Hollender* during 1933-1934 and K. Kuryluk until 1939. WEP, XI, 143. SYMBOLISM, literary and artistic trend which developed in the late nineteenth century in France and spread to other European and American countries. It stressed intuition, emotional experience, and mystical state of mind and used highly symbolic language. In Poland it played a minor role during the ''Young Polish"* period. Its elements appear in the dramas of S. Wyspiariski* and the

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lyrics of L. Staff.* Its theoretical concepts were promoted by Z. Przesmycki* and A. Lange. Symbolism had a strong impact on B. Lesmian's* emphasis on the magic of poetic language and the theory of rhythm. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 343-351; WEP, XI, 153-154. SYNOD, assembly of ecclesiastical representatives of a given Diocese or larger province, convoked for discussion of administrative and religious problems. Synods, called by Papal Legates, Archbishops, or Bishops, issued legal statutes regulating internal Church matters. In sixteenth-century Poland, provincial Synods performed a Parliamentary function for the clergy, which was independent of the lay dietines. Synods played an important role in the CounterReformation,* issuing laws against "heretics" and banning their books. The 1595 Synod of Brest decided to found the Union with the Graeco-Catholics. From 1554 the Polish Protestants also organized Synods to discuss theological problems and debate how to fight the Counter-Reformation.* Encyklopedia Staropolska (Old Polish Encyclopedia), ed. by A. Bruckner (Warsaw, 1939), 567-571;SHP, 471-472. SYROKOMLA, WLADYSLAW (LUDWIK KONDRATOWICZ) (18231862), poet and translator from Latin, who spent most of his life in Vilna* and wrote sentimental poems on the provincial petty gentry and on the sad life of Belorussian peasants. He used folk motifs and some of his works were written in a local Belorussian dialect. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 256; WEP, XI, 172. SZAFRANEK, JOZEF (1807-1874), priest from Bytom* in Silesia* and a member of the German Parliament of 1848-1849. He fought for Polish schools and Polish cultural rights in Prussian-controlled Silesia from the early 1840s. He was also involved in an anti-alcoholism campaign and demanded improvement of working conditions for miners and steelworkers and abolition of feudal privileges. WEP, XI, 180. SZAJNOCHA, KAROL (1818-1868), historian. During 1836-1837, he was jailed by the Austrian authorities for underground patriotic activities. Then he settled in Lvov* as a tutor and publicist. He edited several periodicals and, during 1853-1858, worked as a Deputy-Curator of the Ossolineum* Library. A specialist in the medieval and early modern history of Poland, he was one of the most influential Polish historians. However, some of his theories on the origin of Poland and its civilizing mission in Eastern Europe are controversial. He also wrote poems, novels, and dramas. WEP, XI, 181. SZANIAWSKI, JERZY (1886-1970), playwright and a member of the Polish Academy of Literature (Polska Akademia Literatury [PAL])* from 1933. He made his debut as a novelist in 1912 and as a playwright in 1917 and worked

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mostly for Warsaw* theaters. His plays ridiculed the banality of middle-class life, tried to show the complexity of human emotions, and explored the impact of the societal function of myths. His works are characterized by an ironic distance from realistic action. He also pioneered serial radio plays introducing the theater of imagination. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 608-609; SBTP, 421; WEP, XI, 185. SZANIAWSKI, JOZEF KALASANTY (1764-1843), politician. A Polish Jacobin* during the 1794 Kosciuszko Insurrection,* he went to Paris after its fall and joined the radical Polish Deputation. Then he returned to Prussian-controlled Warsaw,* became a civil servant, and continued his official career in the Duchy of Warsaw* and the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* An influential member of the Association of Friends of Learning and a Chairman of the Association of Elementary Books, he was also in charge of censorship after his thinking evolved from revolutionary ideology to a faith in Russia's historical mission. WEP, XI, 186 "SZANIEC" (Entrenchment), name of one of the most nationalistic and rightist political groups of the Polish anti-German resistance during WW II. Established in the fall of 1939 by the leaders of the semi-fascist National Radical Camp (Oboz Narodowo-Radykalny [ONR])* of the ABC group, it founded its military organization, the "Union of Salamander" (Zwiazek Jaszczurczy). Disregarding Gen. W. Sikorski's* orders, it remained outside the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* as the independent National Armed Forces (Narodowe Sily Zbrojne [NSZ]).* S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978), 104-107;Z. S. Siemaszko, Narodowe Sily Zbrojne (National Armed Forces) (Warsaw, 1988). SZARE SZEREGI (The Grey Ranks), name of the Polish Boy Scout secret organization during WW II in German-occupied Poland. Established in Warsaw* on September 27, 1939, it operated in close cooperation with the Delegatura (Delegation)* of the Polish Government-in-Exile* and the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* Carefully commanded as the well-organized youth branch of the underground state, it had as its main goal character-building education by active struggle. The Scouts attended the Fighting Schools (Bojowe Szkoly) and those eighteen years old and above were mobilized in the Assault Groups (Grupy Szturmowe). Younger Scouts played the key role in this socalled small sabotage, while the older ones took an active part in such actions as blowing up of railroad bridges, freeing of political prisoners, execution of especially cruel Nazi officials, and regular partisan warfare. The feminine branch assisted the Home Army in sanitary and liaison services. Altogether Szare Szeregi reached 10,000 trained members, who distinguished themselves in the Warsaw Uprising* of 1944, suffered great losses, and became a legend. S. Broniewski, Catym Zyciem (With All My Life) (Warsaw, 1983); S. Broniewski, Szare Szeregi (The

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Grey Ranks) (London, 1982); A. Kamiriski, Stones on the Rampart (London, 1945); S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978), 71-76. SZCZECIN (Stettin), town on the estuary of the Oder* River to the Baltic Sea.* A Slavic* stronghold and port, it developed in the tenth and eleventh centuries into an important trade and craft center. Temporarily within Polish borders under Boleslaw Chrobry (the Brave)* and Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth),* it became a town-republic recognizing the sovereignty of the West Pomeranian* Dukes. In 1124, it accepted Christianity; in 1273, it received German urban rights; in 1283, it joined the Hanseatic League* and was dominated by German settlers. The city became the major trade center of Western Pomerania. It was seized in 1630 by the Swedes, who built there a powerful fortress. As a Swedish bridgehead, besieged frequently by the enemies of Sweden and cut off from the hinterland, Szczecin deteriorated. In 1713, the city was taken by the Prussians. The restoration of trade contacts with the town's natural hinterland increased its importance. In 1826, the shipping trade on the Oder* River was opened and a railroad link was established with Berlin in 1843 and with Poznari (Posen)* in 1848. Szczecin became an export port of Silesian* coal and agricultural products from Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* Industry, notably shipyards and steel mills, developed quickly. Szczecin competed with Hamburg and its population grew to 382,000 in 1939. The town was 65 percent destroyed during WW II, and, after the war, it was incorporated into Poland. EHGP, II, 354-355; G. Labuda (ed.), Dzieje Szczecina: Wiek X -1805 (Warsaw, 1963); H. Maka, Szczecin Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow (Warsaw, 1979); WEP, XI, 193-195. SZCZEKOCINY, BATTLE OF, encounter of the Prussian and Polish Armies during the 1794 Kosciuszko Insurrection.* In May 1794, two months after the outbreak of the uprising, the Prussian Army entered Poland and joined the Russians. On June 6, the combined Prussian-Russian forces of 24,000 met 12,000 Poles at Szczekociny, about 50 kilometers north of Cracow.* The Poles, commanded by T. Kosciuszko,* lost the battle after fierce fighting and retreated to Warsaw.* On June 15, the Prussians seized Cracow. CHP, II, 168; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 388; WEP, XI,19. SZCZEPANOWSKI, STANISLAW PRUS (1846-1900), economist and the pioneer of the Polish oil industry in Galicia.* Educated in Vienna, he worked for the India Office in London during 1867-1879. Upon his return home, he realized the economic backwardness of Galicia, heavily exploited by Austria, and began preaching the industrialization of his native region. His 1888 book Galicia's Misery in Numbers and a Program for an Energetic Development of the Home Economy (Nedza Galicji w cyfrach i program energicznego rozwoju gospodarstwa krajowego) and a series of articles describing the sorrowful state of the Galician economy had a great impact on politics in Austrian-occupied Poland. Szczepanowski established the first Polish oil company, founded coal

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mines, and organized economic institutions and enterprises, schools, cooperatives, and educational societies. In 1886, he was elected to the Vienna Parliament and, in 1889, to the Galician Sejm* (Parliament) in Lvov.* WEP, XI, 201. SZCZERBIEC (Jagged Sword), name of the massive coronation sword of Polish Kings. According to the legend first mentioned by the Chronicle of Great Poland (Kronika Wielkopolska) about 1295, it was used by King Boleslaw Chrobry (the Brave)* during his expedition against Rus' in 1018 and was damaged when he struck the Golden Gate of Kiev. Szczerbiec is the only preserved coronation insignium of the Piast* dynasty. Its thirteenth-century hilt is plated with silver, and the blade is decorated with the engraved shield bearing the Piast eagle. The sword was used for the first time in 1320 at the coronation of Wladyslaw Lokietek* and served at all coronations until the Partitions* of Poland. In 1796, together with other regalia, it was looted from the Wawel* Castle Treasury by the Prussians and taken to Berlin. In the nineteenth century, it was owned by private Russian collectors. In 1884, it was deposited in the Hermitage; in 1928, it was returned to Poland; in 1939, it was taken for safekeeping to Canada. It was taken back to Poland in 1961. Encyklopedia Staropolska (Old Polish Encyclopedia), ed. by A. Bruckner (Warsaw, 1939), 578; A. Nadolski, "Szczerbiec," Acta Archaeologica Lodziensia XVII (1968); J. Sadowski, Miecz koronacyjny polski Szczerbcem zwany (Coronation Sword Called Szczerbiec) (Cracow, 1892). SZCZYPIORNO, village in the Kalisz* region in central Poland where an internment camp for 4,000 soldiers of the Polish Legions* was located from July to December 1917. The Legionnaires refused to take a loyalty oath to the German and Austrian Emperors. They did so under the influence of J. Pilsudski,* the organizer of the Legions. Pilsudski concluded that in the new circumstances that followed the revolution in Russia and in view of mounting German-Austrian military problems, the Poles should no longer fight on the side of Berlin and Vienna. The internment of Szczypiorno greatly consolidated the veteran group of former Legionnaires, who became a political and military elite in interwar Poland. W. Lipiriski, Walka zbrojna o niepodleglosc Polski w latach 1905-1918 (The Armed Struggle for Poland's Independence during 1905-1918) (Warsaw, 1990), 174176; WEP, XI, 207. SZELA, JAKUB (1787-1866), leader of a peasant rebellion in Galicia* in 1846. He represented his village in an extended conflict with its unjust lord and was arrested and lashed several times. During the 1846 rebellion, instigated by Vienna, Szela became the leader of the Galician peasants, destroyed a number of manors, and killed, among others, the family of his lord. Szela tried to organize an all-Galician peasant uprising, with the main slogan of corvee* refusal. After pacification of the rebellious villages by the Austrian Army, Szela was interned and deported to Bukovina. History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw,

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1968), 489; T. Simons, Jr., "The Peasant Revolt of 1846 in Galicia: Recent Polish Historiography," Slavic Review XXX (1971), 795-818.

SZELBURG-ZAREMBINA, EWA (1899-1986), novelist, author of books for children, schoolteacher, and editor of children's magazines. She also wrote dramas and psychological novels. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 632-633; WEP, XI, 210. SZEMBEK, JAN (1881-1944), diplomat. A scion of an aristocratic family, he served as Polish Minister in Budapest during 1921-1924, in Brussels during 1924-1927, and in Bucharest during 1927-1932. In 1932, he became a Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs under Col. J. Beck* and, in 1939, went into exile. Starting with 1933, he wrote a diary, which became an important source of information on Polish foreign policy before WW II. Czy wiesz kto to jest (Do You Know Who That Is?) ed. by S. Loza (Warsaw, 1938), 719; WEP, XI, 212. SZEPTYCKI, ANDRZEJ (Sheptytsky, Andrei) (1865-1944), Ukrainian national leader, Archbishop of Lvov,* and the brother of S. Szeptycki.* A scion of a prominent Ukrainian-Polish family, he was born a Catholic, but, in 1888, he changed his rite and entered a Basilian Greek Catholic monastery. He quickly rose through the Greek Catholic Church ranks: in 1899, he was consecrated Bishop of Stanislawow (Stanislaviv),* and, in 1901, he became the Metropolitan of Halicz (Halych),* Archbishop of Lvov, and Bishop of Kamieniec Podolski (Kamianets-Podolskyi).* From 1901, he served as a member of the Galician Sejm* (Parliament) and, from 1903, of the Austrian House of Lords and the Imperial Ministerial Council. He defended Ukrainian rights and the Eastern Church tradition in Galicia.* During WW I, Szeptycki was arrested and deported by the Russians. In 1917, he returned to Lvov, engaged in the struggle for Ukrainian independence, and became a member of the Ukrainian National Council (Rada). Interned by the Polish authorities, he moved to the West, where he lobbied for an independent Ukraine. In 1923, he moved back to Poland, was again temporarily interned by the Poles, and returned to Lvov. He became the spiritual leader of the Ukrainian independence movement. However, he condemned the terrorist activities of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).* He survived the years 1939-1941 in Soviet-occupied Lvov, and, after it was captured by the Germans, Szeptycki appealed to them to establish a united independent Ukraine. He opposed the Nazi policy in Ukraine and became critical of the activities of the Ukrainian Insurrectionist Army (UPA),* especially of its Polish genocide. Szeptycki died under the Soviet occupation. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by V. Kubijovyc\ vol. 4 (Toronto, 1984), 638-641. SZEPTYCKI, STANISLAW (1867-1950), General and the brother of A. Szeptycki.* He served in the Austrian Army until 1918 and, in 1916, became a Commander of the Third Brigade and later of all the Polish Legions.* During

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1917-1918, he served as Governor-General of Lublin* but resigned in 1918 in protest of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty.* In 1918, he became the first Chief of the Polish General Staff. He commanded an Army during the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921. In 1923, he was a Minister of Defense and, during 19231926, an Army Inspector in Cracow.* He resigned in June 1926, in protest of the Pilsudski coup d'etat.* Czy wiesz kto to jest (Do You Know Who That Is?) ed. by S. Loza (Warsaw, 1938), 720; T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991),26. SZKOLA GLOWNA (Principal School), institution of higher learning established in Warsaw* in 1862. Its opening was linked with the restoration of school autonomy in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and with activities of A. Wielopolski,* actual head of the government of the Kingdom. The school in effect replaced Warsaw University, dissolved by the Russians in 1831. It had four departments: philosophy and history, medicine, mathematics and physics, and law. It operated as a Polish institution only until 1869, playing a major role in the intellectual life of the Kingdom. Among its students were activists of Polish Positivism* and outstanding writers and scholars such as A. 3wietochowski,* H. Sienkiewicz,* B. Prus,* P. Chmielowski,* A. Kraushar,* Z. Gloger,* and J. Boudouin de Courtenay. In 1869, the school was transformed into a Russian university. WEP, XI, 231. SZLACHTA. See NOBILITY. SZTURM DE SZTREM, TADEUSZ (1892-1968), statistician and Socialist activist. He joined the Polish Socialist Party-Revolutionary Fraction (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna-Frakcja Rewolucyjna [PPS-FR])* in 1912. During WW I, he served in the First Brigade* of the Polish Legions* and in the Fighting Action Stations (Pogotowie Bojowe) of the PPS. During 1920-1944, he worked as a statistician and, with his brother, Edward, was one of the pillars of the Institute of Social Economy (Instytut Gospodarstwa Spolecznego). During WW II, he was one of the leaders of the secret PPS in German-occupied Poland. A. Leinwand, Tadeusz Szturm de Sztrem (Warsaw, 1987). SZUJSKI, JOZEF (1835-1883), historian, writer, and politician. A professor of Polish history at the Jagiellonian University* at Cracow* from 1869 and the Secretary General of the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejetnosci)* during 1873-1883, he was one of the founders of the Cracow historical school. He co-authored Stanczyk's Portfolio (Teka Stariczyka) and was one of the leaders of the conservative political group of "Stariczyks."* From 1867 he was a member of the Galician Sejm* (Parliament) and, from 1879, of the Austrian House of Lords. He stressed that Poland had a twofold mission: to defend Christianity from the pagan Eastern onslaught and to guard the Slavic peoples against Pan-

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Germanism. An advocate of a Catholic monarchy, he considered it the only system suited for Poland. WEP, XI, 258. SZWARCE, BRONISLAW (1834-1904), civil engineer and the founder of the "Red"* organization in the Bialystok* region in 1859. The son of a Polish emigrant in France, Szwarce went to the Russian Empire to build railways. He became engaged in the Polish secret independence movement as a radical leader of a party known as the "Reds." Szwarce co-edited the underground Muzycka prawda (Peasants' Truth), directed to the local Belorussian peasants. From July to December 1862, he was a member of the Central Committee of the Reds. Arrested on December 22, 1862, he spent thirty years in Siberia.* Late in his life, he settled as a civil servant in Galicia.* SHP, 476-477. SZYDLOWIECKI, KRZYSZTOF (1467-1532), diplomat and politician who held high Crown offices as Castellan* of Sandomierz,* Deputy Chancellor,* Chancellor from 1515, and Castellan of Cracow* from 1527. As a young man, he traveled to the Holy Land. Later he served as confidant councilor to King Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old).* Szydlowiecki opposed Queen Bona* and represented a pro-Habsburg orientation, supporting a plan for a common Polish-Austrian war against Turkey. He was frequently used in diplomatic missions and contributed to the establishment of Ducal Prussia* as a Polish fief under the rule of Albrecht Hohenzollern.* Szydlowiecki maintained relations with top humanist thinkers, including Erasmus of Rotterdam, and was active as a patron of arts. WEP, XI, 286. SZYFMAN, ARNOLD (1882-1967), stage director considered the creator of modern Polish theater. He studied history of art and philosophy at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* and at Berlin University. In 1906 he received a doctorate in philosophy and founded the cabaret "Figliki" (Pranks) in Cracow and made his debut as a playwright in the Siowacki Theater. In 1908 he moved to Warsaw,* where he opened the literary cabaret "Momus." He devoted himself to building Teatr Polski, opened by him in 1913. During WW I, he was deported to Russia, where he directed a Polish theater in Moscow. In interwar Poland, he was in charge of Teatr Polski, as well as its second stage, Teatr Maly (Small Theater), and three other Warsaw theaters. During the 1939-1945 German occupation, he lived in hiding. In 1945 Szyfman became a director of the Theater Department in the Ministry of Culture and Art. SBTP, 256. SZYMANOWSKI, KAROL (1882-1937), most prominent Polish composer of the twentieth century and the creator of the modern Polish national style in symphonic music, based on folklore dances and religious music. A scion of Polish landed gentry from Ukraine,* he was raised in the artistic atmosphere of a family of many artists. Educated in Elisavetgrad and Warsaw,* he moved to Berlin and co-founded the Young Polish Composers' Publishing Corporation

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there. During the last years before WW I, he traveled extensively in Western Europe and Africa. His compositions were shaped by wide interests resulting from these foreign travels. He spent the years 1914-1917 on his native family estate in Timoszowka, and then he went to Warsaw, where he settled permanently in 1919. During the interwar period, he attempted to modernize Polish music, purging it of foreign influences. After two brief periods as Director of the Warsaw Conservatory during 1927-1929 and, during 1930-1932, as its first Rector, he settled in Zakopane in 1932.* Historians divide Szymanowski's creativity into three periods: to 1914, the late Romantic with classicist elements, characterized by solo songs of the poems of contemporary Polish and foreign writers; the 1915-1919 period of interest in Scriabin's creativity and impressionistic music; and the third period, of return to the national tradition, Chopin's music and folk tunes. S. Golachowski, Szymanowski: His Life and Times (New York, 1987); M. Maciejewski, Karol Szymanowski: His Life and Music (London, 1967); The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. by S. Sadie, vol. 18 (London,1980), 499-504; J. Samson, The Music of Szymanowski (New York, 1981). SZYMONOWIC, SZYMON (Simon Simonides) (1558-1629), bucolic poet and humanist. Of burgher origin, he studied at the Cracow Academy and abroad. Upon his return, he worked as a pedagogue and, at the request of Chancellor* J. Zamoyski,* organized the Zamosc Academy* in 1593. The 1590 Sejm* (Parliament) made Szymonowic a nobleman. He was appointed Royal poet by Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa).* He was admired in Europe for his elegant Latin poetry, but he also wrote in the Polish language: poems, dramas, and, the best known work among his poetry, Idylls (Sielanki), a collection of twenty pastoral poems, fashionable in European Renaissance literature. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 84-86; J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 82-84; J. Pelc, ed., Sielanki i pozostale wiersze polskie (Wroclaw, 1864). SZYSZKO-BOHUSZ, ZYGMUNT. See BOHUSZ-SZYSZKO, ZYGMUNT. SCIEGIENNY, PIOTR (1801-1890), priest and activist of the Polish underground independence movement. Born into a peasant family, he was originally a grammar school teacher and, from 1833, served as a parish priest in villages of the Lublin* and Kielce* regions. He joined a conspiracy which later became part of the Democratic Association (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne) and agitated for revolutionary struggle against Russia. He published popular booklets and planned an anti-Russian uprising for October 1844 with Kielce as a center but was arrested and deported in 1846 to lifetime servitude in Siberia.* He returned home eventually in 1871. SHP, 477. SL4SK. See SILESIA.

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SLIWINSKI, ARTUR (1877-1953), historian, politician, and briefly Prime Minister of the Second Polish Republic in 1922. As a young man, he joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and, from 1906, was a member of its Revolutionary Fraction. During WW I, he headed the Central National Committee (Centralny Komitet Narodowy [CKN]) in 1915-1916 and was a member of the Temporary Council of State and one of the leaders of the National Independence Party (Stronnictwo Niezawislosci Narodowej), working with J. Pilsudski.* During 1918-1919, he served as Vice President of the Warsaw* City Council; during 1919-1922, as Deputy Mayor of Warsaw; and, in 1922, as Poland's Premier. His extra-Parliamentary government, consisting of experts with no party affiliation, was based on the support of J. Pilsudski* and was very short-lived, lasting from June 28 to July 7. Later, Sliwiriski directed Warsaw city theaters, headed the Polish Communal Bank (1932-1939), and served as a Senator (1935-1938). He authored several popular historical books. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 101, 179;Prezydenci i premierzy Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Presidents and Premiers of the SecondPolish Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wrobel (Wroclaw, 1992), 167-177; WEP, XI, 311. SMIGLY. See RYDZ-SMIGLY, EDWARD. SNIADECKI, JAN (1756-1830), astronomer and the brother of Jedrzej Sniadecki.* Educated in Cracow,* Gottingen, Leida, Utrecht, and Paris, he began teaching mathematics and astronomy at Cracow University in 1782. Active in the Commission of National Education,* he worked closely with H. Kollataj* on the reform of Cracow University. During 1792-1803, he directed the Cracow Astronomical Observatory. Then, he continued his studies abroad and, in 1806, settled in Vilna,* where he served as Rector of its university during 1807-1815, supervising the entire high-school system in Vilna Educational District. He taught astronomy at Vilna University and directed its Observatory till 1822. His research concentrated on planetoids. He was also a pioneer of probability theory in Poland and introduced Polish mathematical and astronomical terminology. In Vilna 3niadecki continued his research in astronomy and mathematics but also began to create a philosophical system. He played an active role in the defense of the purity of the Polish language and wrote biographies. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 209-216; B. Suchodolski, Nauka polskaw okresie oswiecenia (Polish Science in the Enlightenment Period) (Warsaw, 1953). SNIADECKI, JEDRZEJ (1768-1838), scientist and the brother of Jan Sniadecki.* Educated in Cracow,* Pavia, and Edinburgh, he taught chemistry during 1797-1822 at Vilna* University and medicine during 1826-1832 at the Principal School (Szkola Glowna) of Lithuania.* In 1832, he became a professor of the Medical-Surgical Academy of Vilna. He was a member of the Warsaw Association of Friends of Learning from 1801. One of the first teachers of

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chemistry in Poland, he created a Polish chemical vocabulary and authored the first Polish textbook on chemistry. 3niadecki discovered a new element in Ural platinum, rediscovered in 1845 as ruthenium. He advocated empirical observations in biology and elaborated a thesis on the unity of material of the living and inorganic worlds. As a prominent physician, he worked in the fields of hygiene and nutrition and pioneered physical education in Poland. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 209-216; W. Zacharewicz, Jedrzej Sniadecki (Warsaw, 1972). SWIATPOL (World Organization of Poles Abroad), organization established in 1929 as the Council of Poles Abroad (renamed in 1934). With its headquarters in Warsaw* and presided over by the Speaker of the Senate, W. Raczkiewicz,* it was established to preserve the common goals and ideas of over 10 million people of Polish descent outside Poland, to help organize their activities, and to encourage them to maintain close contacts with the country of their ethnic origin. After the German aggression against Poland, Swiatpol's headquarters was moved to Paris and then to London. SHP, 481-482. SWIDRYGIELLO (Svitrigaila) (7-1452), Lithuanian* Duke of the Giedymin* line, a son of Olgierd (Algirdas),* and the youngest brother of King Wladyslaw Jagiello (Jogaila).* As Duke of Podolia* and Czernihow (Chernihov), he was appointed Grand Duke of Lithuania by Jagiello in 1430 after the death of Duke Witold (Vytautas).* $widrygiello aimed for the complete independence of Lithuania and wanted to break the union with Poland. He granted equal privileges to the Ruthenian Orthodox boyars and the Lithuanian Catholic gentry, allied with the Teutonic Knights,* and rebelled against Jagiello. In 1434, after several years of civil war, he was defeated by a pro-Polish Lithuanian opposition, led by Sigismund, son of Kiejstut, and other Polish supporters. The union was then restored. CHP, I, 211-229; Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. V (Boston, 1976), 348-350; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 139-140; SHP,483. SWIERCZEWSKI, KAROL ("WALTER") (1897-1947), Communist and General. Moved to Russia in 1915 as a worker of the Warsaw* Gerlach Factory, he participated in the Bolshevik Revolution and the Russian Civil War. From 1918, he served in the Red Army and, during 1936-1938, commanded the International Brigade (later Division) in the Spanish Civil War. During WW II, he commanded Soviet troops and, from the summer of 1943, organized the Polish Communist Army in the USSR. During 1943-1944, he was a Deputy Commander of the First Corps of the Polish Army and, in 1944, a Deputy Commander of the First Polish Army in the USSR. During 1944-1945, he organized and commanded the Second Polish Army, which took part in the liberation of Czechoslovakia, fought the Germans in April 1945 near Bautzen, and reached the Elbe River on May 8. $wierczewski was also a member of the

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Central Committee of the Polish Workers' Party. The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 38 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1984), 141-142. SWIEZYNSKI, JOZEF (1868-1948), politician. A landowner active in the Agricultural Association (Towarzystwo Rolnicze)* in Radom,* he was one of the leaders of the National Democracy* from 1905 and represented it in the Russian Duma.* During 1915-1918, he was Chairman of the passive (toward Germany) Inter-Party Political Circle. Between October 23 and November 4, 1918, he served as Premier of the government appointed by the Germancontrolled Regency Council.* The government, dominated by the National Democrats, had conflicts with the Council, which then dissolved it. Later, Swiezyriski withdrew from politics. The History of Poland since 1863, ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 126; J. Holzer and J. Molenda, Polska w pierwszej wojnie swiatowej (Poland in WW I) (Warsaw, 1973); WEP, XI, 346. SWHgTOPELK I WIELKI (THE GREAT) (1200-1266), Duke of Gdarisk (Danzig)* and Eastern Pomerania* and a scion of a local Princely ruling family, who were probably related to the Polish Piast* dynasty. In 1227 Swietopelk helped to kill the Polish monarch Leszek Bialy (the White),* gained full independence for Eastern Pomerania, and ruled his relatively strong state. He fought successfully against both the Teutonic Knights* and Polish Princes, extended the territory of Eastern Pomerania and strengthened it economically. CHP, I, 85108; WEP, XI, 351. SWIETOCHOWSKI, ALEKSANDER (1848-1938), main ideologue of Polish positivism* and of "organic work."* Educated at the Warsaw Principal School (Szkola Glowna)* and at Leipzig University, he made his debut as a publicist in 1867. In 1871 he became a leading ideologist of the Przeglgd Tygodniowy (Weekly Review), in which he provoked conflict between old and young writers with his manifesto of positivism, Us and You (My i Wy). He then published several articles developing the program of positivism and further stimulating Polish intellectual life. &wietochowski challenged dreams of independence and held that the essence of Polish national survival lay not in armed struggle but in economic and cultural development. During the 1905 Revolution, he led the Progressive-Democratic Union (Zwiazek Postepowo-Demokratyczny), a small intelligentsia party with a program of autonomy for the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In the interwar period, he dedicated himself to historical writing and, as a skilled publicist, was associated with the National Democratic press until the 1930s. Then, he moved to the moderate position of the Front Morges.* His positivist program was critical of conservatism and clericalism, advocated improvement of the conditions of peasants and workers, favored assimilation* of and equal rights for Jews,* the emancipation of women, and open struggle with all forms of reactionary obscurantism. He also wrote philosophical dramas and novels. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 381-384;C.

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Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 286-287; J. Rudzki, Swietochowski (Warsaw, 1963); E. Szwejkowski, "Aleksander £wietochowski, 1848-1938," Slavonic and East European Review XIX (1940), 228-236. SWHgTOSLAWSKI, WOJCIECH (1881-1968), physical chemist, professor at Warsaw Polytechnical University during 1918-1939 and its Rector in 1928— 1929. During 1935-1939, he served as a Minister of Education and Religious Affairs. From 1940 he lived and continued his research in America. W. Brzostowski and W. Zielenkiewicz, "Wojciech Swietoslawski," Nauka Polska LXXVI (1968). SWflgTOSLAWSKI, ZENON (1811-1875), radical activist of the Great Emigration* after the 1830—1831 November Insurrection,* member of the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie),* and a co-founder of the Humari Commune (Gromada Humari).* WEP, XI, 350. SWI^TY KRZYZ (Holy Cross), Benedictine* monastery on top of Lysa Gora (Bald Mountain) near Kielce* which gave its name to the mountain range (Gory $wietokrzyskie). In the interwar period, the buildings of the monastery were used as a high security prison and, during the 1939-1945 German occupation, a POW camp for Soviet inmates was located there. WEP, XI, 353. SWINKA, JAKUB. See JAKUB SWINKA. SWIRSKI, JERZY (1882-1959), Vice-Admiral. He transferred from the Russian to the Polish Navy in 1919 and, in April 1920, was appointed Deputy Chief of the Navy Department in the Ministry of Military Affairs. During 1920-1925, he served as a Deputy Commander of the Polish Coastal Defense and, during 1925-1939, as the Head of the Polish Navy. During 1939-1945, he was the Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Navy in the West. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 64. "SWIT," secret WW II radio station broadcasting in the Polish language from Bletchley in eastern England. It was under the strict control of the British Special Operations Executive and pretended to broadcast from somewhere in Nazioccupied Poland. Such an operation was only possible with daily radio information sent via a code machine by S. Korboriski and Z. Korboriski* from Warsaw. S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978), 72-78. SWITALSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1886-1962), politician. A member of the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC])* and the Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki)* before WW I, he fought in the First Brigade* of the Polish Legions* after its outbreak. One of the closest associates of J. Pilsudski,* he belonged to the power elite after the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat.* During 1928-1929, he served as Minister of Education and Religious Affairs

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and, in 1929, as Premier. His cabinet (April 14-December 7, 1929) consisted of some outstanding Pilsudskiites, the members of the so-called Colonels group. It was designed by J. Pilsudski and its creation and dissolution were elements of the dictator's policy. During 1930-1935, Switalski was a member of the Sejm* (Parliament) and, during 1933-1935, its Speaker. During 1935-1939, he was a Senator and Deputy Speaker of the Senate. He spent WW II in a German POW camp. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 187-408; Prezydenci i premierzy Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Presidents and Premiers of the Second Polish Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wrdbel (Wroclaw, 1992), 261-285; WEP, XI, 353.

T

TANNENBERG. See GRUNWALD, BATTLE OF. TANSKA HOFFMANOWA, KLEMENTYNA (1798-1845), writer, pedagogue, and one of the pioneers of children's literature and education for women in Poland. During 1824-1828, she edited the first Polish journal for children. In 1831, she left Warsaw* and followed her husband into exile in Paris. She also wrote historical novels, religious essays, and textbooks for children and translated various French writings. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 410; B. Lorence-Kot, "Klementyna Tariska Hoffmanowa: Cultural Nationalism and a New Formula for Polish Womanhood," History of European Ideas, VIII/4-5 (1987), 435-450. TARASIEWICZ, MICHAL (1871-1923), actor. He made his debut in 1894 and then performed in most Polish major cities. In 1914, he became a co-owner and co-editor of the periodical Polska Scena i Sztuka (Polish Scene and Art). Evacuated to Russia during WW I, he played in Polish Theaters in Moscow and Kiev. In 1918, he returned to Poland and directed theaters in Lvov* and Warsaw.* He was one of the leading actors in the classic Polish repertoire. SBTP, 732-733. TARASZKIEWICZ, BRONISLAW (1892-1937), politician and a leader of the Belorussian community in interwar Poland. Educated at St. Petersburg University, he taught the Belorussian language there. He translated Homer's Iliad and A. Mickiewicz's* Pan Tadeusz (Sir Tadeusz) into Belorussian and developed the first grammar of the language. In 1921, he founded the Association of Belorussian Schools in Poland. During 1922-1927, he was a member of the Polish Sejm* (Parliament), where he served as a spokesman for the Belorussian minority. In 1925, he was one of the main organizers of the Belorussian "Hro-

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mada," a radical party which eventually found itself under the control of the Comintern. Taraszkiewicz also joined the Communist Party of Western Belorussia. Arrested by the Polish police and sentenced to prison in 1933, he went to the USSR, where he was arrested and killed by Stalin's police in 1937. WEP, XI, 392-393. TARGOWICA CONFEDERATION (1792-1793), political alliance formed by Polish conservative magnates opposing the reforms of the 1788-1792 Great Sejm* (Parliament) and the Constitution of May 3, 1791,* as the "French plague." The magnates, led by S. Potocki* as the Marshal of the Confederation,* Hetman* F. Branicki,* S. Rzewuski,* and S. Kossakowski* representing the Lithuanian segment of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* intended to restore the old Polish system of the "Golden Freedom"* and dethrone the King, Stanislaw August.* In order to do that, they asked for help from Russian Empress Catherine II,* who had just ended a war with Turkey and regained a free hand in Central Europe, and the magnates signed the act of Confederation on April 27, 1792, in St. Petersburg. It was later promulgated under the fictitious date of May 14 in the Ukrainian border town of Targowica. Catherine II, the guarantor of noble rights in the Commonwealth, saw the reforms of the Great Sejm as a threat to her plans of expansion and sent Russian troops to Poland, thus starting the Polish-Russian War of 1792. The Poles increased the size of their Army, fought several defensive battles, and tried to negotiate with the Russians, but Catherine demanded the King's unconditional accession to the Confederation of Targowica. As the Russian forces advanced, the Confederates increased in number and extended the territory under their control. They established new provisional authorities, first in Brest-Litovsk,* then in Grodno,* and removed the bodies called into being by the Great Sejm. They attempted unsuccessfully to create their own Army. A fear of Russian reprisals caused a mass movement to the Confederation, even by opponents of the magnates' policies. Eventually, on July 24, 1792, the King himself decided to join the Confederation in order to stop the hostilities. The legislation associated with the May 3 Constitution was annulled, Polish envoys were recalled from abroad, and a French Minister was told to leave Warsaw.* Progressive periodicals were closed and reprisals against the leaders of the reform camp began. Numerous Polish politicians and officers left the country. The costs of the defeat and the maintenance of Russian occupation troops ruined the Treasury. Instructions from St. Petersburg dictated to the Polish authorities deepened the chaos in the country. In early spring 1793, the Prussians occupied Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* Toruri (Thorn),* and Gdarisk (Danzig).* The leaders of the Confederation retired from politics and left Poland disappointed, specifically because Catherine II did not dethrone the King but rather signed with the Prussians the convention about the Second Partition* of Poland, which was ratified by the Sejm in Grodno on June 17, 1793. The word Targowica became a synonym for "treason." CHP, II, 137; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 377-380; W. Smoleriski, Kon-

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federacja Targowicka (Cracow, 1903); A. Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992). TARNOBRZEG, town in south central Poland on the Vistula* River founded in 1593 by the Tarnowski* family, which established its residence there and a monastery in nearby Dzikdw village. Tarnobrzeg developed as a center of grain growing and local trade. During 1772-1918, it was a part of Austrian-occupied Galicia.* When Austria disintegrated, the local peasants, led by the radical T. Dabal and Father E. Okori,* established a brief "Tarnobrzeg Republic" in November 1918. During WW II, the region was a center of intense guerrilla activities. EHGP, II, 380; SHP, 485-486. TARNOGROD CONFEDERATION (1715-1717), organization of the Polish gentry opposing the policy of the King, August II Mocny (the Strong),* established on November 26, 1715, in the village of Tarnogrod on the estate of the Zamoyski* family. The King intended to change the political system in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and to create a stronger union between Saxony and Poland. Accordingly, he brought Saxon troops into Poland under the pretext of military preparation against the growing Turkish threat. The provocative behavior of the Saxon troops caused riots by the gentry, who announced a General Confederation in Tarnogrod under S. Ledochowski. The Confederation was partially inspired by the Russians, since the King had tried to shake off their tutelage. After months of military conflicts, both sides accepted the mediation of Tsar Peter I.* His Envoy and the Russian Army pressed the King and the Confederates to sign the Warsaw agreement of November 3, 1716. It was approved by the "Silent Sejm"* of February 1, 1717, so called because no one was permitted to speak. The agreement put an end to the King's plans and allowed him to keep only twelve hundred of his Saxon Guards in Poland. Limited fiscal and military reforms were implemented and the prerogatives of the Hetmans* and local dietines were reduced. The system created by the Silent Sejm survived for the next fifty years. CHP, II, 11-17; History of Poland, ed.by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 281, 298. TARNOWSKI, one of the oldest magnate* families in Poland, which originated in the era of the first Polish Piast* rulers in Little Poland (Malopolska),* where they played an important role throughout most of Polish history. The first Tarnowskis who occupied high state positions are mentioned in primary sources during the reigns of Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* and Wladyslaw Jagiello.* Encyklopedia Powszechna (Universal Encyclopedia), ed. by S. Orgelbrand, vol. XIV (Warsaw, 903), 547. TARNOWSKI, JAN (1488-1561), Hetman.* Educated at the Cracow* Academy, he began his military career as an officer in the wars with the Wallachians in 1509 and the Tatars* in 1512. In 1521, he commanded Polish troops sent to

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help the Hungarian King, Louis II, against the Turks. In the same year, he defeated a Moldavian ruler, Peter IV Rare§, at the Battle of Obertyn* and recovered Pokucie (Pokutia),* invaded earlier by the Moldavians. In 1522, Tarnowski became Crown Hetman; in 1527, Palatine (wojewoda) of Ruthenia;* in 1535, Palatine of Cracow; and, in 1536, Castellan* of Cracow. He commanded Polish troops during the war with Moscow and seized Gomel and Starodub in 1535. He supported an alliance with the Habsburgs* and plans for war against the Turks. In 1537, he sided with the Polish King Zygmunt Stary (Sigismund the Old)* against the opposition of the nobles. Later he supported King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August* in his controversial marriage to Barbara RadziwiH.* He published a treatise on the art of war, Consilium rationis bellicae, based on his military experience. The work became the basis for the military education of Polish officers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. W. Dworzaczek, Hetman Jan Tarnowski: Z Dziejow Moznowladztwa Malopolskiego (Warsaw, 1985). TARNOWSKI, STANISLAW (1837-1917), historian and literary critic. During 1861-1862, he worked in a political office of the Hotel Lambert,* the headquarters of the conservative segment of the Polish Great Emigration* in Paris. He participated in the January Insurrection* of 1863 and served in the Military Department of the insurrectionist National Committee, for which he was jailed by the Austrians in 1863-1864. The co-founder of the Przeglgd Polski (Polish Review) and a co-author of the seminal work Teka Stariczyka (Jester's Portfolio), published in 1869, Tarnowski became one of the chief leaders of Cracow's conservatives (the Stariczyks).* A professor of the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow during 1872-1909 and its Rector in 1886 and 1899, he was also a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci)* from 1873 and its President from 1891. His main interest was Polish literature of the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. As a critic, he opposed the literary genre of the "Young Poland."* J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polsh Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 443-441; WEP, XI, 400. TARNOWSKIE GORY, mining town in Upper Silesia,* where silver, lead, and iron were mined from the Middle Ages. In the sixteenth century, rich new deposits of lead were discovered there and Tarnowskie Gory developed rapidly. In 1526, it received urban rights and special privileges for the miners from the Silesian Prince of Opole.* The town, bought by the German family of Donnersmarcks in 1629, was under Austrian control and, in 1742, was incorporated into Prussia.* In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the town deteriorated. In the late eighteenth century iron and zinc* metallurgy began in Tarnowskie Gory, where one of the earliest of the world's steam engines was installed in 1788 and the first mining school in Polish lands opened in 1803. The Polish population of the city participated in the Silesian Uprisings* of 1919-1921, and Tarnowskie Gory was returned to Poland in 1922 after the plebiscite. In 1939, the town of 17,500 inhabitants, with all of Silesia, was incorporated into Nazi

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Germany. After WW II, Tarnowskie Gory was returned to Poland. EHGP, II, 380-381; SHP, 486. TARNOW, town in southern Poland on the Biata River. The village of Tarnow belonged to the Benedictine* Abbey of Tyniec* in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. In 1330, Spytko of Melsztyn, the Castellan* of Cracow,* built a fortress there and gave Tarnow its urban rights. Later, the town was owned by the Tarnowski family, who developed it considerably. In the sixteenth century, it became a lively cultural center with a branch of the Cracow* Academy and numerous Renaissance* buildings in the Market Square. After the First Partition* of Poland, Tarnow was incorporated into Austria and became the seat of a Bishopric. In the nineteenth century, Tarnow grew faster than most Galician* towns, from 7,000 inhabitants in 1820 to 35,000 in 1914. It had a glass-blowing factory, tanning and textile industries, and one of the first electrical plants, which was established there in 1910. In 1929, a large nitrogen fertilizer factory was opened in nearby Moscice, so named after its founder, I. Moscicki,* the President of Poland. In 1938, Tarndw reached 55,000 inhabitants and was a strong political center of the socialist movement. The town's large Jewish population was exterminated in June 1942 in Belzec* EHGP, II, 381; SHP, 486-487. TARSKI, ALFRED (1901-1983), mathematician and logician. He received his Ph.D. from Warsaw University* in 1924 and was appointed Docent (associate professor) there in 1926. In 1939, he immigrated to America and, from 1942, taught at the University of California at Berkeley. He specialized in pure mathematics, specifically in set theory, algebra, and mathematical logic, particularly in metamathematics. His famous theorem, established jointly with S. Banach,* on the decomposition of the sphere, as well as his theory of inaccessible cardinals, have a definite bearing on the epistemology of mathematics. Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 77-81. TATAR, STANISLAW ("TABOR") (1896-1980), General. During 19161917, he served in the Russian Army and, then, in the First Polish Corps in Russia. He was also an Army officer in interwar Poland. During 1933-1938, he taught artillery tactics at the War School in Warsaw.* He participated in the 1939 September Campaign* and was in charge of the Artillery of the Third Infantry Division. Then, he joined the anti-German resistance and, from 1940, headed the Operation Division in the headquarters of the clandestine Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ])* and its successor, the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* In 1944, he was sent to London, where he joined the Command of the Polish Armed Forces in the West as a Deputy Chief of Staff for Underground Affairs. He favored S. Mikolajczyk's* compromise with the USSR and returned to Poland in 1945. WEP, XI, 408.

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TATARKIEWICZ, WLADYSLAW (1886-1966), one of the most outstanding Polish philosophers of the twentieth century. Educated at the Universities of Warsaw,* Zurich, Paris, Berlin, and Marburg, he received the chair of philosophy at the University of Warsaw in 1915. During 1919-1921, he was a professor of philosophy at the University of Vilna*; during 1921-1923, he taught aesthetics and history of art at Poznari (Posen)* University and he was a professor of philosophy at Warsaw University during 1923-1961. He edited several important periodicals and was a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU])* during 1930-1951 and of numerous other Polish and international scholarly associations. His main research dealt with aesthetics, history of philosophy and history of art. He authored numerous noted works. His three-volume Historia Filozofii, published during 1931-1950, became the most popular textbook of philosophy in Poland. W. Strzalkowski, "Historyk filozofii, estetyki i sztuki," Tydzien Polski (London) (July 16, 1988); WEP, XI, 408-409. TATARS, a generic name given to various Turkic and Mongol peoples and tribes, which were united in the Empire of Genghis Khan and invaded Eastern and Central Europe in the thirteenth century. They devastated and subjugated most of Medieval Rus' and attacked Poland, Hungary, and the regions of the Balkan peninsula. In 1241, they defeated Polish troops at the Battle of Legnica* but left Poland and turned south. After the dissolution of their Empire, the name was applied to the inhabitants of its western successor states, such as the Khanates of Khazan, Astrakhan, and Crimea. The latter, politically tied to Turkey and ruled by the Girey dynasty, developed into a strong trade and cultural center. During the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, the Tatars frequently devastated the southeastern borderlands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania* and Poland. From the fourteenth century, various Tatars settled in Lithuania and later in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* Usually, Tatarian nobles were exiled from countries after internal conflicts. The Tatarian settlers received land and all the privileges of the Polish gentry. In exchange, they served in the Polish Army. Tatarian regiments participated in the 1410 Battle of Grunwald,* and the last small Tatarian Cavalry formation survived in Poland until WW II. The Polish and Lithuanian Tatars (the "Lipkowie" or "Muslimowie") were mostly Polonized in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. However, they remained faithful to Islam and enjoyed religious tolerance in Poland. A number of Poles of Tatar background distinguished themselves in the Polish freedom movement and in the sciences. After WW II, only two Tatar communities remained in Poland: Bohoniki and Kruszyniany near Bialystok.* L. Bogdanowicz, The Muslims in Poland: Their Origin, History, and Cultural Life (London, 1942); A. Zakrzewski, "Assimilation of Tartars within the Polish Commonwealth, 16th—18th Centuries," Acta Poloniae Historica, LXV (1987), 85-106. TATRA MOUNTAINS, highest range of the Central Carpathians,* extending for about 64 kilometers (40 miles) along the border with Slovakia. The range,

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about 15 miles in width, includes about three hundred peaks. The highest, Gerlach Peak, reaches 2,663 meters. The Tatras region, with its main vacation resort of Zakopane,* is very attractive to tourism and is a center of winter sports and mountain climbing. The nearby Podhale* is one of the most interesting Polish regions in terms of folklore and nature. Z. Paryski and W. Paryski, Encyklopedia Tatrzanska (Warsaw, 1976). TE DEUM LAUDAMUS (We Praise You Lord), solemn Catholic hymn sung on special occasions. It was written by Bishop Niketas of Dacia in the fourth century or by St. Ambrose of Milan and is also known as Ambrosian Hymn. Te Deum inspired many composers in Poland. WEP, XI, 441. TEHRAN CONFERENCE, the first conference of the main leaders of the antiNazi coalition in the capital of Iran between November 28 and December 1, 1943. The President of the United States, F. D. Roosevelt;* the British Prime Minister, W. Churchill; the Soviet dictator, J. Stalin; and their staff mainly discussed military questions, such as the problems of the "second front" in Western Europe, the coordination of Allied offensives, and the total destruction of the Third Reich. There were also discussions on political issues, more numerous than during any previous meeting of Allied governments. The leaders talked about a future international organization which would replace the discredited League of Nations.* Stalin demanded that the Soviet Union retain the frontiers delimited by the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact of 1939* and the peace treaty after the 1939-1940 war with Finland, as well as a part of the Baltic coast of East Prussia. According to the Soviet plan presented in Tehran, Poland should be moved west: its former eastern territories of Western Belorussia* and Western Ukraine* should be given to the Soviet Belorussian and Ukrainian Republics. In exchange, Stalin demanded the former East German areas east of the Oder* River for Poland. The Polish question caused a sharp conflict among the Allies, especially when Stalin expressed his distaste for the Polish Government-inExile,* already housed in London. The three leaders reached a preliminary agreement on the future of Germany and Iran. However, it was clear that Stalin had assumed a dominant position within the wartime coalition, symbolized by the location of the Conference itself: in Russian-occupied Teheran. J. Karski, The Great Powers and Poland, 1919-1945: From Versailles to Yalta (Laxham, 1985);E. Rozek, Allied Wartime Diplomacy: A Pattern in Poland (New York, 1958). TEODOROWICZ, JOZEF (1864-1938), Armenian* Archbishop of Lvov* during 1902-1938, respected as a man of integrity and a brilliant homilist. He was also a member of the Galician* Sejm* (Parliament) during 1902-1918 and of the House of Lords in Vienna. In interwar Poland, he was politically close to the National Democracy.* A Deputy to the Polish Parliament of 1919-1922, he opposed the land reform.* After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* he was one

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of the opponents of the Sanacja* regime. His Diocese controlled only eight parishes with 6,000 faithful, mostly in Lvov. WEP, XI, 447. TERRITORIAL SELF-GOVERNMENT, self-government formed by the population of a territorial unit, developed from pre-historic neighborhood communities. In modern Poland, the basic unit of territorial self-government, the gromada (commune), usually consisted of one village and was governed by a village headman (soltys*). Several gromadas formed a gmina, which frequently included a small town with neighboring villages. Several gminas formed a larger territorial unit, the powiat (county). Its population usually numbered more than 25,000 and its main town served as the capital of a region. A group of powiats was united into a wojewodztwo (province, called sometimes in English "vojevodship"). Both powiats and vojevodships had their own local dietines in prePartition Poland, and the Deputies of these local Parliaments represented them in the Sejm* (Parliament) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* The network of the territorial self-government was compatible with the administrative division of the state and its main purpose was to serve the needs of the local population. In the three segments of partitioned Poland, self-government systems were slightly different and were unified in 1933 in a three-stage structure, gmina, powiat, and voivodeship, with their elected legislative organs: commune councils, town councils, county councils and, in Silesia,* a local Sejm. These authorities had their elected executive bodies headed by wojt (Executive Officer), magistrates (town governments), and mayors (burmistrz). Self-governmental activities were limited mainly to administration of local utilities and services, such as grammar schools, social welfare, local roads, sanitation, water supply, sewerage, lighting, parks, and so on. All these activities were supervised by state authorities. WEP, X, 326. TETMAJER-PRZERWA, KAZIMIERZ (1865-1940), writer, poet, and playwright. Born and raised in Podhale,* close to the Tatra* Mountains, he devoted most of his works to his native region. He made his debut in 1886 with a short story, Rekrut (Rookie), on a highlander theme. He contributed decisively to the modernist breakthrough in Polish literature and became the leading lyricist of early "Young Poland."* He excelled in erotic lyrics and valuable Tatra poems, based on highlander folklore. Tetmajer used authentic folk sources in his collection of stories written in highlander dialect. He also wrote novels and plays on historic and contemporary subjects and was active as a publicist. Before WW I, he lived mostly in Cracow* and Zakopane* and was a popular celebrity. After WW I, he settled in Warsaw.* In 1921, he was elected President of the Association of Writers and Journalists and, in 1934, honorary member of the Polish Academy of Literature (Polska Akademia Literatury [PAL]).* He ceased writing because of an incurable mental disorder, lost his sight, and died in poverty. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 468-473; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 336-338.

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TEUTONIC KNIGHTS, a military-religious order founded during the twelfthcentury Crusades. In 1226 they obtained notable powers and independence in northeast Prussia, wherefrom they clashed with heathan Slavs along the Baltic* coast—and with Polish interests—as they conquered, Christianized and Germanized territories. In 1410 a joint Polish-Lithuanian army dealt them a crushing defeat in the historic Battle of Grunwald.* In 1525, Albrecht Hohenzollern* secularized the region of the Teutonic Order, in effect eliminating them. CHP, I, 180-185, 211-215; Alan Forey, The Military Orders (Toronto, 1992).

THEATER. The first events in performing arts in Poland were liturgical spectacles and religious plays presented from the twelfth to the sixteenth century. Polish secular urban theater began in the seventeenth century and played an important role in the development of the Polish language. Plays with elements of moral or social criticism were introduced to the national literature by the minstrel theater. At the same time, theaters at the Cracow Academy, Royal Court, and magnate residences presented Latin and Polish plays. Poland owes the first operas and ballets to King Wladyslaw IV Waza (Ladislaus IV Vasa).* In the eighteenth century, separate theaters developed at some Piarist* Colleges, the Collegium Nobilium,* and the Knights' School.* A permanent stage was built in Warsaw* by King August III.* The first public stage was opened by King Stanislaw August* on November 19, 1765, in Warsaw, while drama repertoire was introduced by such playwrights as I. Krasicki,* F. Zablocki,* and J. Niemcewicz* under the patronage of major magnate families. In the last decades of the eighteenth century, a theatrical director and playwright, W. Boguslawski,* contributed greatly to the development of the Polish theater, ending the foreign domination of the national stage and improving its quality. Boguslawski's tradition was continued in the nineteenth century. In addition to Warsaw with its "Teatr Wielki" (Grand Theater), Cracow* became a theatrical capital of partitioned Poland, especially in the late nineteenth century during the era of modernism. Under the directorships of T. Pawlikowski,* J. Kotarbiriski, and L. Solski,* the Polish Romantic repertoire was supplemented by the masterpieces of classic and contemporary world drama performed by such outstanding artists as H. Modrzejewska,* A. Hoffmanowa, J. Rychter, and L. Solski. The Cracow theater was strongly influenced by the artistic activities of S. Wyspiariski.* In 1913, the Teatr Polski was established in Warsaw by A. Szyfman.* In 1936, Poland had twenty-six permanent theaters, ten of them in the capital. There were also fifty-two touring theaters, fourteen of which were Ukrainian and seven Jewish. The pre-WW II period marked the peak of the Polish theater, with such stage directors as L. Schiller,* A. Zelwerowicz,* and A. Wegierko; the stage designers W. Drabik,* A. Pronaszko,* and W. Daszewski; and the prominent actors M. Przybylko-Potocka, M. Cwikliriska, I. Eichlerdwna,* E. Barszczewska,* S. Jaracz,* J. Osterwa,* A. Zelwerowicz,* K. Adwentowicz,* K. Junosza-Stepowski,* and J. Wegrzyn.* Lighter performances also flourished,

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such as revue theaters and cabarets. On Schiller's initiative, the first school of higher theatrical learning, the State Institute of Theatrical Art, was created in Warsaw. During WW II, some theaters were destroyed and many great actors perished, though some artistic forms continued in the underground, in prisonerof-war camps and in the exiled army. M. Coleman, The Polish Drama and Theater Articles, Monographs, Translations Available in English: A Bibliography (New York, 1945); E. Csato, The Polish Theatre (Warsaw, 1963). THIETMAR (975-1018), German chronicler and Bishop of Merseburg from 1009, closely linked with the Saxon dynasty. His chronicle was conceived as a story of his Diocese but also included elements of the history of Germany and the neighboring countries. Thietmar devoted much space to Poland. Although he did not like them, he made an attempt to present the current policies of its King Boleslaw Chrobry (the Brave)* objectively. Thietmar contributed greatly to our knowledge of the Slavic tribes living between the Elbe and Oder* Rivers. He participated in German war expeditions against Poland in 1007, 1010, 1012, and 1017 and described events he eyewitnessed in detail. His chronicle is one of the most important primary sources of the history of the early Piast* dynasty. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 3; WEP, XI, 516. THIRTEEN YEARS' WAR (1454-1466), war between Poland and the Teutonic Knights* for control over Eastern Pomerania,* conquered by the Teutonic Order in 1308. The war began with the 1454 rebellion of the Prussian Union, the organization of Pomeranian estates, against the Order, whose economic policy and wars with Poland adversely affected the development of Pomerania. The Prussian Union petitioned the King of Poland, Kazimierz IV Jagielloriczyk (Casimir IV Jagiellon),* for aid against the Knights. On March 6, 1454, the King issued an Act of Incorporation of Prussia, which meant a declaration of war on the Order. On September 18, 1454, the Polish levee en masse* was badly defeated at the battle of Chojnice. International opinion was on the side of the Knights, and the Pope intervened with an anathema against Poland. In June 1457, the Poles managed to occupy Malbork,* the capital of the Order, and, in 1462, they won the Battle of Zarnowiec, the turning point of the war. Poland received important help from the Prussian towns, headed by Gdarisk (Danzig),* Toruri (Thorn),* and Elblag (Elbing).* The war ended with the Toruri Peace Treaty* of October 19, 1466, arranged by the Pope. CHP, I, 232-250; A History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 142-143. THIRTEENTH POINT, one of the fourteen points in President W. Wilson's* declaration of January 8, 1918. Following the requests of I. Paderewski* and his careful pressure on Wilson's confidential adviser, Col. G. House, the President included the Polish question as part of his blueprint for post-war Europe, which was based on his belief in self-determination of nations. The point declared that "an independent Polish state should be erected, which should include

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the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenants." At the Paris Peace Conference* Wilson insisted on the implementation of his policy and became very popular in Poland. C. Dawson, "The Thirteenth Point: An Interview with Col. House," Poland America IX/5 (1928) 261-264; O. Halecki, "The Thirteenth Point," Bulletin of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America IV/6 (1945), 51-59. THON, OSIAS (1870-1936), sociologist, Zionist leader, rabbi in Cracow,* and a gifted orator, who strongly influenced Polish Jewry. He was one of the organizers of the First Zionist Congress, played a prominent role as the President of the Galician* Zionist Federation, and was a member of the Zionist General Council. After WW I, he represented the Western Galician Jewish National Council in the Jewish Delegation at the Paris Peace Conference* in 1919. In the same year, he was elected to the first Polish post-war Sejm* (Parliament) and remained a Parliamentary Deputy until 1931. With L. Reich, he negotiated and signed the 1925 agreement (Ugoda) with the Polish government, which guaranteed Jewish support of governmental policy in exchange for domestic concessions for the Polish Jews.* It evoked a storm of protest among nationalist Jews, who regarded the agreement as a threat to the principle of the traditional independent Jewish policy. Thon was also among the founders of the Institute of Jewish Studies in Warsaw* and published numerous scholarly works. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 15 (Jerusalem, 1971), 1121-1122; N. Hollander, Joshua Thon (London, 1966). THUGUTT, STANISLAW (1873-1941), leader of the Polish peasant movement. A promoter of tourism before WW I, he joined the Polish Legions* and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW])* after the war's outbreak. He began his political career in the small National Sovereignty Party (Stronnictwo Niezawislosci Narodowej). In 1917, he joined the Polish Peasant Party "Liberation" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Wyzwolenie")* and served as secretary of its Main Board (Zarzad Gldwny) during 1918-1919 and President of its Executive Committee during 1921-1924. In the years 1922-1924, he was a member of the Polish Parliament and presided over the Parliamentary Club of his party. He also served as a Minister of Interior in the two first cabinets of independent Poland, was a member of the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP])* in Paris and, in 19241925, was a Minister without Portfolio and Vice Premier in the cabinet of W. Grabski.* A co-founder of the anti-authoritarian Centrolew* movement, he contributed to the unification of the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL])* in 1931 and became one of its main leaders. He also presided over the Research Institute on Nationalities (Instytut Badania Spraw Narodowosciowych) from 1925, was a Vice President of the League for Defense of Human and Civic

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Rights and was an activist of the cooperative movement. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972); WEP, XI, 520-521. THURSDAY DINNERS, literary-scientific meetings organized by King Stanislaw August* at Warsaw Royal Castle* or Lazienki Palace* during 17701788. They were a continuation of similar soirees at the Blue Palace of Prince A. K. Czartoryski* and modeled on the gatherings of salons litteraires in Paris. Guests represented liberal reform ideas of the Polish Enlightenment* and included such writers as F. Bohomolec,* I. Krasicki,* A. Naruszewicz,* S. Trembecki,* and F. Zablocki;* such artists and architects as D. Merlini, M. Bacciarelli,* and Z. Vogel; and such political activists as A. Zamoyski,* J. Wybicki,* and G. Piramowicz.* They discussed literary works and political plans, which were briefly realized during the Great Sejm* of 1788-1792. WEP, VIII, 80. TILSIT, TREATY OF, agreement of France, Prussia,* and Russia, signed by their monarchs in the town of Tilsit (Tylza) on the Niemen River on July 7, 1807. The treaty terminated the 1806-1807 war between France and the Prussian-Russian alliance after Napoleon's victories at the Battles of Jena* and Friedland. France and the Russia of Alexander I* became allies and divided Europe between them. Prussia and Austria were significantly reduced, and the Kingdoms of Saxony and Westphalia were established. The Duchy of Warsaw* was created out of the territories taken by Prussia in the Second and Third Partitions* of Poland, while the Bialystok* region was ceded to Russia. The Duchy was to be ruled by Napoleon's ally, the King of Saxony. Gdarisk (Danzig)* and its environs became a free city, and free navigation on the Vistula* River was stipulated. Alexander I joined the continental blockade of Great Britain and, in exchange, was given a free hand to conquer Finland from Sweden and to "liberate" the Balkans from Turkey. The international system, created in Tilsit, collapsed in 1810, when Alexander I realized that the Duchy of Warsaw constituted a threat to Russian control over the former territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and that the blockade of England seriously hurt Russian trade. Russia opened its ports to neutral ships, and Napoleon decided to invade Russia in 1812. CHP, II, 228; Historical Dictionary of Napoleonic France, 1799-1815, ed.byO. Connelly (Westport, Connecticut, 1985), 473. TITHE. See PETER'S PENCE. TOBRUK, BATTLE OF, encounter of Allied and German-Italian forces at the Libyan port of Tobruk on an important highway linking Egypt with Tunisia along the Mediterranean coast. Tobruk changed hands several times during the North African campaign of 1940-1942. The Polish Highland Brigade (Brygada Strzelcow Karpackich) under Gen. S. Kopariski* played a crucial role during the defense of Tobruk between August 19 and December 12, 1941. In the last

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stages of the Battle of Tobruk, the Polish Brigade was assigned aggressive forward operations. Gen. A. Goodwin-Austin, an Australian Commander of Allied troops, claimed, "The achievements of the independent Brigade of Carpathian Shooters in the difficult task of holding the most vital point—Tobruk, were always among the most impressive ones." In recognition of their contributions, Australia invited soldiers of the Polish Brigade to settle in Victoria province as refugees after WW II. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History, ed. by R. E. Dupuy and T. N. Dupuy (New York, 1993), 1186; WEP, XI, 550. TOCHMAN, KACPER (1797-1878), Polish community leader in America. He participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. After its fall, he emigrated to France and, in 1837, moved to America, where he co-founded the Association of Poles in America and was active in several Polish organizations. K. Tochman, Poland, Russia, and the Policy of the Latter toward the United States:By a Polish Exile (Baltimore, 1844); S. Umiriski, "Two Polish Confederates," Polish American Studies XXIII (1966). TOKARZ, WACLAW (1873-1937), historian. During 1909-1914, he was a professor of history at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow* and, from 1928, at Warsaw* University. In 1914, he joined the Supreme National Council (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN])* in Galicia* and, in 1915, became a Deputy of W. Sikorski,* the head of the NKN's Military Department. From July 1915, Tokarz fought in the Polish Legions.* During 1918-1926, he headed the Military Scientific and Publishing Institute of the Polish Ministry of Defense. He authored numerous scholarly works, particularly about the periods of the Kosciuszko* and November Insurrections.* WEP, XI, 558. TOKARZEWSKI-KARASZEWICZ, MICHAL (1893-1964), General. As a student of medicine in Lvov* and Cracow,* he was active in the Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC])* and the Riflemen Association* before WW I. After its outbreak, he fought in the Polish Legions* and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* During 1910— 1920, he also belonged to the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* In November 1918, he commanded a Polish relief operation for his native Lvov,* taken by the Ukrainians. During the interwar period, he occupied several important Army positions, such as Commander of Army Corps successively in Grodno,* Lvov, and Toruri (Thorn).* During the 1939 September Campaign,* he was in charge of the Army Group "Pomorze," and, later, he was a Deputy Commander in the defense of Warsaw.* After its fall, he helped found the Service for the Victory of Poland (Sluzba Zwyciestwu Polski [SZP]),* the first large organization of the Polish anti-German resistance.* He became the Commander-in-Chief of the SZP and of its successor, the Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC]).* Sent by the Polish Governmentin-Exile* to Lvov as a Commander of resistance in the Soviet-occupied eastern

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part of Poland, he was imprisoned by the Soviets in the winter of 1940. Released in August 1941 after the Maisky-Sikorski Pact,* he was appointed Commander of an Infantry Division in the Polish Army in the USSR. In 1942, he moved with the Army to the Near East, where he served as Deputy Commander of the Polish Army. In December 1944, he arrived in Italy, and, after the war, he remained in exile. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (London, 1976), 7; M. TokarzewskiKaraszewicz, "U Podstaw Tworzenia Armii Krajowej" (Foundation of the Home Army), Zeszyty Historyczne VI (1964), 17-43. TOKYO EPISODE, visit of two major Polish leaders, J. Pilsudski* and R. Dmowski,* representing the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and the National Democracy,* respectively, to Tokyo in 1904. The Russo-Japanese War of that year opened new opportunities for Polish politics, and the two major parties sent their leaders to Tokyo on the invitation of the Japanese government. In mid-May, R. Dmowski arrived in Japan to inform its government "about the current situation of the Polish question and also to obtain their assurances against any attempt being made to exploit the Poles in exciting anti-Russian diversionary activities in the West." Even before the trip, J. Pilsudski, who appeared in Tokyo on July 8, 1904, had expressed the common wish of Polish, Baltic and Belorussian revolutionaries for a Russian defeat and their common determination to resist mobilization. Pilsudski made an offer to a Japanese Minister in Great Britain to recruit Polish Legion members for the Japanese Army; distribute revolutionary pamphlets among the Polish soldiers serving in the Russian Army in Manchuria; and induce them to desert to the Japanese Army and destroy railroad bridges in Siberia. Pilsudski asked the Japanese government for technical assistance in weapons and ammunition for the PPS and obtained some financial help for his party. He disagreed with Dmowski's conciliatory approach. Both Polish leaders met for two long conferences and produced separate memoranda. W. Jedrzejewicz, Kronika Zycia Jozefa Pilsudskiego 1867-1935, vol. 1 (London, 1986), 181-184; J. Lerski, "A Polish Chapter of the Russo-Japanese War," The Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan VII (1959). TOLWINSKI, TADEUSZ (1887-1951), architect. During 1920-1945, he was a Chairman of the Urban Architecture Department at the Polytechnical University in Warsaw,* where he was also Dean of the Architecture Department in 1937-1938. A leading Polish urban planner, he published numerous books, designed the reconstruction of Kalisz* in 1916, and created the fundamental plan for the development of Warsaw. Biogramy Uczonych Polskich (Biographies of Polish Scholars), vol. 4 (Wroclaw, 1968). TOMICKI, PIOTR (1464-1535), Bishop, diplomat, and humanist. He was educated in Cracow* and Bologna, where he received a doctorate in civil and

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canon law in 1498. Upon his return to Poland, he was appointed Chancellor to Prince Frederick Jagiellon, and, in 1506, he became the King's Secretary with special diplomatic assignments. He supported the pro-Habsburg political orientation and opposed Primate J. Laski* and Queen Bona.* In 1514, he was appointed Bishop of Przemysl;* in 1515, Deputy Chancellor* of Poland; in 1520, Bishop of Poznari (Posen)* and, in 1524, Bishop of Cracow.* As a humanist and bibliophile, Tomicki was a Renaissance patron of the arts and literature. WEP, XI, 572. TORUN (Thorn), town, river port, rail and road junction, and cultural center on the lower Vistula* River in north central Poland with a population of seventyeight thousand in 1939. A Polish fort and trade settlement which existed on the site of Toruri was ceded to the Teutonic Knights,* who built a castle there during 1230-1231 and gave Toruri city rights in 1233. Conveniently located at the crossroads of land and waterways, it attracted settlers from the west and joined the Hanseatic League.* The policies of the Knights and their wars with Poland adversely affected the development of the town, which rebelled against the Teutonic Order in 1454. After the Thirteen Years' War,* Toruri came under Polish control and flourished economically as an important center of the grain trade. In 1473, Copernicus* was born there. During the sixteenth century, a strong Lutheran community was established. Toruri suffered major destruction during the Swedish "Deluge"* of 1655-1660 and the Northern War* of 1700-1721. In the Second Partition* of Poland in 1793, it was occupied by Prussia.* In 1920, Toruri returned to Poland and became the capital of the province of Pomerania* (wojewodztwo pomorskie). The interwar period brought the rePolonization of Toruri and its rapid economic development. In 1939, it was occupied by the Germans, who included the town in the Third Reich and deported or exterminated a large segment of its Polish population. In 1945, Toruri was again returned to Poland, and it remains one of the richest conglomerations of medieval architecture in Central Eastern Europe. Z. Gasiorowski, A Guide to Toruri (Warsaw, 1972); B. Rymaszewski, Toruri in the Days of Copernicus: Urban Development, Architecture, Art (Warsaw, 1972).

TORUN PEACE TREATIES, two peace agreements between the Teutonic Knights* and the Polish-Lithuanian state signed on February 1, 1411, and on October 19, 1466, in Toruri (Thorn).* The first treaty terminated the 1409-1411 war, whose result was determined at the Battle of Grunwald.* Under this treaty, the Teutonic Order withdrew from Zmudz* for the lifetime of King Wladyslaw JagieHo* and Grand Duke Witold.* Mazovia* regained the lands beyond the Wkra River. The cases of Dresdenko and Santok were to be settled by arbitration. The treaty also assigned the disputed Dobrzyri region to Poland and guaranteed freedom of commerce to the merchants of both sides. The Second Treaty, signed by King Kazimierz Jagielloriczyk (Casimir Jagiellon)* and Grand Master L. von Ehrlichshausen, terminated the Thirteen Years' War* of 1454-1466. The

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defeated Order ceded Gdarisk (Danzig)* Pomerania,* Chelmno* land, and Warmia (Ermland)* to Poland. These areas were named Royal Prussia* and incorporated as an autonomous province by Poland. The rest of the Teutonic state, named Ducal Prussia* after 1525, became a Polish fief. The treaty gave Poland access to the sea and the important port of Gdarisk and opened great economic opportunities to Polish nobility and merchants. CHP, I, 147-308. TORUN UPROAR (Thorner Blutbat), clash between Catholic students of a Jesuit* college and Protestants in 1724. The riots resulted in the decapitation of the city Mayor and nine Protestant participants on King August II's* order. In addition, four Catholics were admitted into the Town Council. As an indirect consequence, Toruri* became a center of the so-called Toruri Confederation, arranged by Protestant nobility* under the protection of Catherine II* to defend the rights of the dissidents.* S. Salmonowicz, "The Toruri Uproar of 1724," Acta Poloniae Historica XLVII (1983), 55-79. TOWARZYSTWO ROLNICZE. See AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. TOWIANSKI, ANDRZEJ (1799-1878), mystic. After law studies at the University of Vilna* during 1815-1818, he began a legal career. In 1832-1833, he lived in St. Petersburg, where he became convinced of his historical mission and tried to spread his views among Court circles. In 1840, he moved to Paris, where he met A. Mickiewicz* in 1841 and became a spiritual guide of the great poet and a group of Polish emigres. Towiariski considered himself a prophet and established a mystical religious sect, "The Circle of the Lord's Cause," in 1842. In the same year, he was expelled by police from France, suspected of being a Russian agent. He settled in Brussels and then in Switzerland. He followed the philosophical-mystical systems of L. C. Saint-Martin and E. Swedenborg, claiming that world history could be best explained by a formula, a ' 'plan of providence—the genial individual—nation." The circle of his followers included not only numerous famous Polish emigres, but also Frenchmen and Italians. His lukewarm attitude toward the Polish freedom struggle caused many conflicts and, in 1846, Mickiewicz left the sect and established a more patriotic mystical group. Towiariski, the leader of one of the Polish messianic trends, negatively influenced the intellectual and political life of the Great Emigration* and adversely affected the activities of Mickiewicz. K. Gdrski, MickiewiczTowianski (Warsaw, 1986); S. Szpotariski, Andrzej Towiariski: Jego zycie i nauka (Warsaw, 1939). TRADE UNIONS (Zwiazki Zawodowe), mass organizations of employees created in order to defend rights and interests of their members. The first Polish trade unions were organized in the Prussian and Austrian segments of occupied Poland late in the nineteenth century. In the Russian-controlled Congress Kingdom of Poland,* they were established during the 1905 Revolution. Most of

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them were created by the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL])* and the Polish Socialist Party-Left (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna-Lewica [PPSLewica]).* During 1906-1907, the so-called Polish, or more moderate, trade unions grew. During the interwar period, the trade union movement developed rapidly in Poland. However, the unions remained fragmented politically and ethnically. Besides Polish unions, there were also Jewish, German, and weaker Ukrainian and Belorussian organizations. The "class trade unions," supporting Marxist or Socialist ideology, established their Central Commission of Trade Unions (Komisja Centralna Zwiazkdw Zawodowych), dominated by the Polish Socialist Party.* During 1931-1935, the unions controlled by the Communists created the so-called Trade Union-Left (Lewica Zwiazkowa) with about 50,000 members. The "Polish" unions were united into the Union of Polish Trade Unions (Zjednoczenie Zawodowe Polskie) with 570,000 members in 1919 and 160,000 in 1938. In 1931, activists supporting the Pilsudski* regime organized the Union of Trade Unions (Zwiazek Zwiazkow Zawodowych [ZZZ]) with about 150,000 members. During WW II, the trade unions suspended their activities. EHGP, II, 565; SHP, 589-591. TRAUGUTT, ROMUALD (1825-1864), dictator in the January Insurrection* of 1863. He joined the Russian Army in 1845 and participated in the Russian intervention in Hungary and in the Crimean War. In 1862, he retired from the Army and established close relations with a Polish conservative group known as the "Whites."* After the outbreak of the Insurrection, he commanded a guerrilla unit in Polesie* and fought in several skirmishes. In July 1863, he arrived in Warsaw* and established contact with the War Department of the National Government. Promoted to the rank of General, he was sent to Paris for orientation on the international situation and potential Western intervention. In October 1863, he returned to Warsaw and assumed the dictatorship. He decided to transfer partisan units into the Regular Army and to reform the Polish civil and military leadership. With the decree of December 15, 1863, Traugutt reorganized the Polish Armed Forces into five Corps and centralized supply and volunteer matters. His other decree, dated December 27, 1863, ordered that the edict of the insurrectionist National Government about the liberation and enfranchisement of the serfs be put into effect. Traugutt called into being special authorities to oversee the enfranchisement. In January 1864, he sent a special instruction to local Commanders to organize a peasant levee en masse* He intended to strengthen guerrilla units significantly and to reshape the Insurrection into a people's war. In foreign policy, he renewed contacts with European revolutionary movements and severed relations with agencies of the French Second Empire. Although far from a social radical, Traugutt actually implemented the revolutionary program of the Polish radicals, known as the "Reds," and tried to mobilize maximum forces in an uncompromising struggle with Russia. Isolated politically in the spring of 1864, he was arrested by the Russians on the

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night of April 10-11, and he was executed together with a group of guerrilla leaders on August 5, 1864, on the slopes of the Warsaw Citadel. Z. Cwiek, Przywodcy Powstania Styczniowego (Warsaw, 1963); History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 508-527.

TRAWNIKI, village southeast of Lublin,* where a labor camp was established by the Nazis in the fall of 1941. From 1942, the camp accepted numerous transports of Jews* from Poland, Germany, Austria, and Czechoslovakia, who were exterminated there. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 4 (New York, London, 1990), 1478-1480. TR^BA, MIKOLAJ. See MIKOLAJ TR^BA. TR^PCZYNSKI, WOJCIECH (1860-1953), politician, lawyer, and publicist. An attorney in Poznari (Posen),* he organized private instruction of the Polish language in Poznari schools during 1890-1894. One of the main leaders of the National Democracy* in Prussian Poland, he was a member of Poznari's Town Council and a Chairman of the Polish Club in this council during 1900-1911. In the years 1912-1918, he served as a Deputy in the German Reichstag. During 1918-1919, he belonged to the Polish Supreme People's Council in Poznari and presided over the Poznari Province and Regency. In 1920, he served on the State Defense Council and directed the Central Plebiscite Committee. A Speaker of the Polish Parliament during 1919-1922 and of the Senate during 1922-1927, he was a Deputy in the Parliament again during 1928-1935. One of the leaders of the popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy [ZLN])* and its successor, the National Party, he disapproved of extreme nationalist trends within the National Democracy* and eventually became closer to the moderate Front Morges.* WEP, XI, 637. TREBLINKA, one of the main Nazi extermination centers for the Jews* during WW II. A small railroad station 100 kilometers northeast of Warsaw,* Treblinka became the final destination for the Jews taken there from the ghettos* of the General Government* and about ten European countries. The Jews were sent to Treblinka under the pretext of alleged resettlement in former Soviet territories occupied by the Germans. A 4-kilometer-long side track connected the station of Treblinka with the actual extermination center, camouflaged in a pine forest. The object known as Treblinka I was opened in 1941 as a labor camp for Poles and Jews imprisoned for political or economic offenses. Between December 1941 and July 1944, about 10,000 individuals passed through Treblinka I. Of them 70 percent were exterminated, but 90 percent of those who perished were Jews. In July 1942, the third largest extermination camp for the Jews in the General Government (after Belzec* and Sobibor*), Treblinka II, was opened. Treated by the German authorities as a state secret, it had stationary gas chambers and was organized in a way which allowed the killing of victims shortly

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after their arrival in Treblinka. The greatest number of transports arrived there in the late summer and fall of 1942. After the German defeat at Stalingrad, the Nazis decided to cremate the corpses to eliminate traces of their crimes. In October 1943, all the camp buildings were blown up and the entire area was plowed and sown with fodder to obliterate all traces of the camp. Over 750,000 Jews, mostly from Warsaw and the ghettos of Central Poland, were exterminated in Treblinka, where a monument and a mausoleum were erected after the war. A. Donat (ed.), The Death Camp Treblinka: A Documentary (New York, 1979); Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. XV (Jerusalem, 1971), 1365-1372; Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 4 (New York, London, 1990), 1481-1488; J. Steiner, Treblinka (London, 1969). TREMBECKI, STANISLAW (1739-1812), poet. He joined the Royal Court in 1769 and, four years later, became a Chamberlain of King Stanislaw August.* During 1774-1775, he was a member of the Military Affairs Commission, regularly attended the Thursday dinners* organized by the King and accompanied him in his travels, including the last, tragic journey to St. Petersburg in 1797, after the Partitions* of Poland. In 1802, invited by the Czartoryskis,* he settled in their Podolian* estates, where he spent the rest of his life. Most of his poems were odes, epigrams, and letters in verse, and a certain number of fables. An excellent translator of Voltaire, Trembecki was also an avowed deist. His political poems supported the reform ideas of King Stanislaw August. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 178-180; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 182-183; E. Rabowicz, Stanislaw Trembecki w swietle nowych zrodel (Wroclaw, 1965). TRENTOWSKI, BRONISLAW FERDYNAND (1808-1869), philosopher, publicist, and the main representative of the Polish "national philosophy." Educated in Warsaw,* Heidelberg, and Paris, he taught philosophy and pedagogy at Fribourg University in Switzerland during 1838-1847. His doctrine was inspired by German idealistic philosophy, especially that of Hegel. Trentowski attempted to create a universal system embracing human knowledge in its entirety. He believed that the Slavic nations, especially the Poles, were predestined to invent this system. He elaborated the concept that national philosophy would serve the nation in the performance of its duties. Such a philosophy, according to Trentowski, should teach patriotic love of the motherland and strive toward national education. On that basis, he created a pedagogic system, which would help achieve a national revival through the education of the Polish society in a solidarist spirit. He also created new concepts in psychology, sociology, history, and political theory, all based on his philosophy. WEP, XI, 641. TREUHANDLER (German: trustee), during the German occupation of Poland in the years 1939-1945, an administrator of the Nazi authorities responsible for seized Polish and Jewish land, businesses and estates, as well as confiscated

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public institutions and utilities. The treuhandlers designated persons in charge of recording and confiscating raw materials and products important to the German war economy. There were about 100,000 German "trustees" in the Polish territories incorporated directly into the Third Reich and about 1,200 in the General Government* in 1940. Of the latter, 80 percent were Germans living in Poland before the war. EHGP, II, 431. TRIBUNE DES PEUPLES, political daily published in Paris from March 15 to November 10, 1849. Financed by Count K. Branicki, it was founded and edited in a revolutionary and internationalist spirit by A. Mickiewicz,* who was its main contributor. The paper, an outcome of experiences of the Springtime of Nations,* raised social issues of the era; discussed the French political situation and liberation tendencies in Italy, Hungary, and Germany; and exposed the reactionary character of Russian and Vatican politics. This radical ideology was tempered by the reformist ideas of other members of the Editorial Board, and Mickiewicz's fascination with Louis Napoleon as the alleged leader of a future universal revolution. The Tribune was closed by the French police on the intervention of the Russian Embassy. H. Jabloriski (ed.), La Tribune des Peuples (Wroclaw, 1963); J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 253. TRIPLE LOYALTY (trqjlojalizm), political orientation prevailing among Polish bourgeoisie and upper classes after the fall of the 1863 January Insurrection.* Supporters of the Triple Loyalty were active in all three segments of partitioned Poland. They opposed further struggle for Polish independence and believed that in exchange for Polish loyalty vis-a-vis the three occupying powers, their governments would be friendly to Polish cultural and some national aspirations. In the Russian-controlled Congress Kingdom of Poland,* besides the aristocracy led by A. Wielopolski,* loyalists arose among the liberal bourgeoisie. Their views were best expressed by W. Spasowicz* and E. Piltz,* editors of the St. Petersburg weekly Kraj (Country).* In Austrian-occupied Galicia,* a similar orientation was represented by Cracow* Stariczyks (Jesters),* who cooperated with the Austrian authorities, opposed radical currents, and managed to achieve substantial autonomy for Galicia. In Prussian Poland, where the anti-Polish policy was toughest, loyalists were weakest. Only after the resignation of O. Bismarck did they gain influence in the Polish circle in the Reichstag and among important politicians. However, after the establishment of the "Hakata"* and the anti-Polish speech of Emperor Wilhelm II in Toruri (Thorn)* in 1894, their influence was drastically reduced. WEP, XI, 662. TROKI (Trakai), town in southeastern Lithuania,* twenty-three kilometers southwest of Vilna.* The ancient residence of the Lithuanian rulers, Troki lost its importance after 1322, when Grand Prince Giedymin* moved his capital to Vilna. In the late fourteenth century, Troki became a residence of Grand Prince Witold (Vytautas),* who settled the Karaites* there and gave them a charter of

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rights in 1388. The Karaites, moved from the Crimea, received the status of free men, commercial and professional freedom, religious liberty, and their own jurisdiction and established the oldest and one of the largest Karaite centers in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* It became a site of extended struggle between the Karaites and the Rabbinite Jews.* In 1413, Troki became the capital of a Palatinate (wojewodztwo) and served as the site of the Supreme Tribunal of Lithuania. In the last Partition* of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, Troki was incorporated into Russia. The Palatinate was abolished and divided into several Russian provinces (gubernias). After WW I, Troki was within the Polish borders. In 1939, the town was occupied by the Soviets and given to Lithuania, which was later subjugated by the USSR. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 5 (Boston, 1976), 489-494. TRZCIANA, BATTLE OF (June 27, 1629), also known as the Battle of Sztum and fought by Polish troops under Hetman* S. Koniecpolski* and Swedish forces commanded by King Gustavus Adolphus. The latter took advantage of Poland's involvement in wars with Turkey and Russia and invaded Livonia* in 1617, starting the second Swedish War. He also attacked Ducal Prussia,* took several important Baltic* ports, and threatened Poland's access to the sea. The Poles counter-attacked in 1626-1627, and the fighting continued throughout 1628. In 1629, Koniecpolski started a new offensive. After a surprise Polish attack near Trzciana, Gustavus was wounded and narrowly escaped capture. Since both sides wanted peace, the truce of Altmark was signed on September 29, 1629. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History, ed. by R. E. Dupuy and T.N. Dupuy (New York, 1993), 628; WEP XI, 677. TRZECIESKI, ANDRZEJ ("TRECESIUS") (1530-1584), poet writing in Polish and Latin, an activist of the Reformation* and the Calvinist community in Poland. From 1574, he served as a secretary of King Stefan Batory* of Poland. A friend of numerous outstanding personalities of the epoch, such as A. Frycz-Modrzewski,* M. Rey,* J. Kochanowski,* and S. Orzechowski,* he described their lives and activities in his works. J. Krokowski, Andrzej Trzecieski: poeta, humanista i dzialacz reformacyjny (Cracow, 1954); J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 52, 72; WEP, XI, 680. TUR. See ASSOCIATION OF WORKERS' UNIVERSITIES. TURKISH WARS. Fifteenth-century Turkish northward expansion via the Balkans up to Moldavia created a threat to Central Europe. In 1440, King Wladyslaw III* of Poland was crowned King of Hungary and allied himself with the anti-Turkish coalition. In 1444, he was killed at the Battle of Varna,* which determined the fate of the Byzantine Empire and the Balkan Slavs, and moved the Turkish danger closer to Poland. In 1497, King Jan Olbracht* of Poland intervened in Moldavia, a Polish vassal, to regain control over the Black

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Sea ports. This led to a war with the Moldavian ruler and a successful counteroffensive by Turkey in 1498. Polish interference in Moldavia and Transylvania, which became Ottoman vassals, followed by Cossack* attacks on the Turkish Black Sea ports, led to prolonged conflicts with Turkey. In 1620, the Poles were defeated near Cecora.* In the next year, a Turkish expedition was defeated by the Poles near Chocim,* and, after a peace negotiation, the Dniester River was designated the border between Poland and Turkey. A new plan for a Crusade against the Ottoman Empire was drafted in 1646. However, gentry opposition forced King Wladyslaw IV* to withdraw from this undertaking. During the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising,* Turkey supported the rebellious Cossacks by allowing Turkish Tatar* vassals to fight against Poland. In 1667, the Cossack Hetman P. Doroshenko recognized the Turkish Sultan as his lord, thereby rekindling Polish-Turkish hostilities. In 1672, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* had to sign the peace treaty of Buczacz, ceding Podolia* to Turkey. In 1673, J. Sobieski,* at that time a Hetman,* defeated a Turkish Army near Chocim. In 1675, already elected King of Poland, he defeated the Turks once more, but, again, he was not able to regain Podolia. In 1683, Sobieski won a spectacular victory at the Battle of Vienna. In 1684, Poland joined "The Holy League" with Austria, Venice and the Papacy and, after a long war with Turkey and the Tatars, recovered Podolia in the 1699 Karlowitz* Peace Treaty. Later Habsburg, Russian and Papal attempts to draw Poland into wars against Turkey did not succeed. Despite the prolonged conflict, Turkey was the only power which did not recognize the Partitions of Poland. CHP, I, 532-557; A History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 141, 220, 254-256; J. Pajewski, Bunczuk i koncerz: Z dziejow wojen polsko-tureckich (Warsaw, 1963).

TUWIM, JULIAN (1894-1953), one of the most outstanding Polish poets of the twentieth century. A scion of an assimilated Jewish family from Lodz,* he began writing poetry before WW I. Tuwim studied in Warsaw,* where he became a co-founder of the Skamander* group of poets. His early verse collections, full of youthful enthusiasm, expressed the poet's faith in liberated Poland. Disillusioned after a few years, he turned to social-political themes, and his poems, such as The Opera Ball (Bal w operze), attacked the realities of authoritarian Poland, although the poet was far from the political left. Tuwim experimented with words, collected rare texts, wrote about different slangs, and published children's books, translations, philological research papers, and various anthologies. He never concealed Jewish elements of his identity and was subjected to attacks by Polish nationalists. He spent WW II in France, South America, and the United States, where he became engaged in anti-fascist activities. After the war, Tuwim returned to Poland and became a literary celebrity under the new regime. A. Gillon, The Dancing Socrates and Other Poems: An Anthology of Tuwim's Poems (New York, 1968); M. Kryriski, "Politics and Poetry: The Case of Julian Tuwim," Polish Review XVIII/4 (1973); J. Krzyzanowski, A History of

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Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 568-570; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1968), 387-389. TWARDOWSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1866-1938), one of the most outstanding Polish philosophers of the twentieth century, who contributed to the transformation of European philosophy to more scientific methods of philosophical inquiry. Educated in Vienna and Munich, he taught at the University of Lvov* during 1895-1930. His concept of philosophy and his contributions to epistemology, psychology, and general theory of science facilitated the emergence of phenomenology and some forms of analytical philosophy. Like his guru, F. Brentano, Twardowski wanted philosophy to be scientific and based on clearly defined basic concepts. He implied the separation of logic and philosophy from psychology. He became a model of intellectual integrity with rigorous standards of professional excellence and educated a large group of scholarly followers. Encyclopedia of Philosophy, vol. Ill, 166-167; R. Ingarden, "The Scientific Activityof Kazimierz Twardowski," Studia Philosophica III (1948), 17-30. TWO-ENEMIES DOCTRINE, geopolitical'position of Poland between the two superpowers, Germany and Russia, which posed the very problem of survival for Polish foreign and defense policy. Polish statesmen saw four possible solutions to the problem: (1) peace on the east and the west with non-aggression and trade arrangements with both neighbors, (2) a pro-Russian and simultaneously anti-German orientation, (3) a pro-German anti-Russian policy, and (4) a war on both fronts, in which Poland would have a chance of survival if it cooperated closely with other, smaller neighbors of Central-Eastern Europe and great powers of the West. The fourth scenario was imposed on Poland several times, when the leaders of Germany and Russia decided to join forces against Poland. It happened in the eighteenth century, when Frederick the Great* of Prussia allied with Catherine II* of Russia, and in 1939, when the Soviet Union and the Third Reich signed the anti-Polish Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact.* During 1939-1941, Poland was occupied by both countries and Polish politicians in France and then in Great Britain claimed that Poland had two enemies—Germany and Soviet Russia. After the Maisky-Sikorski Pact* of July 1941, the Polish Government-in-Exile* in London cooperated with the Soviets. But when Moscow severed diplomatic relations with the Poles in London after the discovery of the Katyri* graves and started preparing a Communist administration in Poland, most Polish emigre politicians returned to the doctrine of two enemies. J. Karski, The Great Powers and Poland, 1919-1945: From Versailles to Yalt (Lanham, Maryland, 1985); A. Korczynski, ed. Symposium: "Poland between Germany and USSR, 1926-1939: The Theory of Two Enemies," Polish Review XX/1 (1975), 363. TYGODNIK ILUSTROWANY (Illustrated Weekly) (1859-1939), Warsaw literary weekly which appeared during 1859-1939. It had numerous prominent

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contributors, such as J. Kraszewski,* E. Orzeszkowa,* H. Sienkiewicz,* and B. Prus.* Tygodnik played a pioneering role in developing woodcut illustrations by such artists as W. Gerson, K. Pillati, F. Kostrzewski,* and J. Kossak,* and was one of the most popular Polish periodicals. J. Krzyzanowski, A History of Polish Literature (Warsaw, 1978), 395, 551; WEP, XI, 751. TYNIEC, Benedictine* monastery on the Vistula* River near Cracow.* One of the first and the most important Benedictine centers in medieval Poland, the abbey was established and richly endowed in the eleventh century by the Polish rulers of the Piast* dynasty. In 1259, Tyniec was destroyed by the Tatars,* but it was later reconstructed and fortified. Rebuilt several times, the monastery was closed in 1817 but reopened in 1939. WEP, XI, 753. TYSSOWSKI, JAN JOZEF (1811-1857), dictator in the Cracow Uprising* of 1846. He participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, and, in 1832, he went to Vienna to complete his legal studies. In 1838, he returned to his native Tarnow* in Austrian-occupied Galicia* and joined a conspiracy preparing a general uprising in Poland. In February 1846, he became a member of a clandestine National Government. After the outbreak of the Cracow Uprising, he proclaimed himself its dictator on February 24. Nine days later, he resigned and crossed the Prussian border with one thousand five hundred soldiers. Temporarily imprisoned by the Prussians, he emigrated to the United States in 1847 and joined the Polish Democratic Association there. M. Rutkowska, John Tyssowski (Chicago, 1943); M. Tyrowicz, Jan Tyssowski Dyktator Krakowski (Warsaw, 1930). TYSZKA, JAN (Leon Jochiges) (1867-1919), activist in Polish and international revolutionary movements and husband of R. Luxemburg.* As a student in his native Vilna,* he joined revolutionary circles, and, from 1885, he was active in the Russian Narodnaya Volia. In 1890, he emigrated to Western Europe, where he established close contacts with Polish and Russian Marxists. A co-founder of the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL])* in 1893, he became one of its main ideologues, leaders, and editors of party publications. From 1900, Tyszka lived mostly in Germany. He participated in the 1905 Revolution in Poland and was arrested and sentenced to eight years of forced labor. In 1907, he escaped to Germany, where he was one of the leaders of the left wing of the German Social Democracy. Arrested as an organizer of the 1918-1919 revolutionary events in Berlin, he was killed in prison. WEP, XI, 759. TYSZKIEWICZ, magnate family from historical Lithuania,* which descended from the Ruthenian* noble Tyszko who lived in the fifteenth century. Until the sixteenth century, the family lived mostly in the Ruthenian part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.* The family was particularly influential in the seventeenth century and produced a considerable number of Palatines, Hetmans,* Castel-

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lans,* Bishops, and other high state officials. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 5 (Boston, 1976), 517; Encyklopedia Powszechna (Universal Encyclopedia), ed. by S. Olgerbrand, vol. XIV (Warsaw, 1903), 659-661. TYSZKIEWICZ, EUSTACHY (1814-1873), archaeologist and historian. He began his research at his family estate collecting archaeological findings. He published a number of scholarly works and a practical guide for archaeologists. In 1855, Tyszkiewicz obtained the Tsar's permission for the opening of the Archaeological Museum in Vilna,* with his collection as its first acquisition. In the same year, an Archaeological Commission was established in Vilna under his direction. His research marked the beginning of archaeology in Lithuania. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 5 (Boston, 1976), 518; Encyklopedia Powszechna (Universal Encyclopedia), ed. by S. Olgerbrand, vol. XIV (Warsaw, 1903), 660; WEP, XI, 759. TYSZOWCE CONFEDERATION, gentry alliance established in the village of Tyszowce near Tomaszow Lubelski on December 29, 1655. Immediately after the Swedish invasion of Poland in July 1655, the majority of the magnates* and gentry submitted to the invaders, and King Jan Kazimierz (John Casimir)* had to escape to Silesia.* However, Swedish conduct in Poland, notably looting, exploitation, and profanation of national and religious symbols, provoked mass resistance among all the estates and anti-Swedish hatred. Encouraged by Jan Kazimierz, acting from exile, the gentry formed a confederation supporting the legitimate King. Led by the Hetmans* S. Potocki and S. Lanckororiski, who decided to abandon the Swedes and declared their loyalty to Jan Kazimierz, the Tyszowce Confederation was reshaped into the General Confederation in Laricut and became a turning point in the war with Sweden. CHP, I, 518-532; A History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 247-249. TYZENHAUZ, ANTONI (1733-1785), Lithuanian Deputy Treasurer (podskarbi nadworny litewski) and Supervisor of Royal Enterprises in the Lithuanian part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* Initially, he supported the political grouping of the Czartoryskis* known as "Familia,"* but he later became a leader of the Royal party in Lithuania.* He planned to industrialize that part of the Commonwealth to strengthen the Royal Treasury. During 1767-1780, he organized about fifty manufacturing enterprises on Royal estates, including factories for cloth, linen, stockings, lace, and hats. He developed the Lithuanian transportation system, which included regulating rivers and building new highways. In 1776, he established a Commercial Banking House in Grodno.* Most of his enterprises failed as a result of the low quality and high costs of their products, overinvestment, and inefficiency. In 1781, Tyzenhauz lost his Directorship, faced a court trial, and his debts exceeded 1.8 million zlotys.* EHGP, II 437; Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 5 (Boston, 1976), 521-522; W. Kula, Szkice o Manufakturach w Polsce w XVIII wieku (Warsaw, 1956).

u

UCHANSKI, JAKUB (1502-1581), Archbishop. First a Courtier of the Tenczyriski and Branicki families, he became secretary to Queen Bona,* then Bishop of Przemysl* (from 1551), Bishop of Wloclawek* (from 1557), and Archbishop of Gniezno* (from 1562). After the death of the last Jagiellonian King, Zygmunt (Sigismund) August,* Uchariski became the first interrex* (1572-1573), responsible for arranging the first Royal election. WEP, XI, 771. UJEJSKI, KORNEL (1823-1897), poet. He lived in Lvov,* on his estate in Galicia,* and in Paris (1847-1848), where he met Mickiewicz* and Chopin* and befriended Siowacki.* During the January Insurrection* of 1863, he joined the conspiracy but did not take part in the actual fighting. In 1877-1878 he served on the Austrian Council of State in Vienna. In his poetry he was influenced by Romantic and progressive authors. Though far from revolutionary in his ideology, he was able in his poems to paint moving scenes of the peasants' misery. In his patriotic articles he criticized the servility of certain writers and politicians. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 267-268. UKRAINE, country in Eastern Europe located on a vast lowland southwest of Russia, north of the Black Sea, and east of the Carpathian* Mountains. Ukraine is populated by the East Slavic nation of Ukrainians, some of whom belong to the Russian Orthodox Church and some to the Ukrainian Catholic (Uniate*) Church. It is potentially one of the richest countries of Europe, because of its fertile black soil, manganese-bearing ores, iron ore, coal, oil, titanium, and other minerals. The name Ukraine appeared in the seventeenth century and, in the nineteenth century, became widely used as the name of the entire country. In the tenth century, the same geographical region was known as Kievian Rus'. Baptized in 988 and culturally close to the Byzantine Empire, Rus' was one of the most powerful and rich states of Europe, and it started the colonization of

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the territories later known as Russia. In the twelfth century, Rus' was divided into several smaller principalities, and, in the thirteenth century, was devastated and subjugated by the Mongols. Because of this catastrophe, Russian or Ruthenian principalities were vulnerable to Lithuanian attacks. In the fourteenth century, most parts of Rus' were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania*; the southwestern principality of Halicz (Halych)*-Volhynia* was conquered by Poland in the 1340s. After the Polish-Lithuanian personal union based on royal marriage of the late fourteenth century, Polish gentry and Polish culture started reshaping Ukraine. After the 1569 Union of Lublin,* it was transferred from Lithuania to Poland and dominated by Polish or Polonized magnates and gentry. Social and religious strife between them and the Ukrainian population, especially the Cossacks,* resulted in several anti-Polish uprisings. In 1648, B. Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky)* led the largest revolt and created a state, which, in 1654 in Pereieslav,* recognized the suzerainty of Muscovy. During the Partitions* of Poland in the late eighteenth century, the rest of Ukraine was incorporated into Russia and Austria, which took Eastern Galicia,* later called Western Ukraine.* Eastern Ukraine became strongly Russified and the autonomous Cossack state was dismantled. In Eastern Galicia, the Ukrainian population was dominated by the Poles. After the collapse of Austria in 1918, the Ukrainians tried to rebuild their own state. The Ukrainian National Republic with the capital in Kiev was subjugated by Soviet Russia. The Western Ukrainian Republic was defeated by the Poles during the Polish-Ukrainian War* of 1918-1919. Eastern Galicia became a part of the Polish state and remained within its borders until 1939, when it was occupied by the Red Army. During six centuries of strained co-existence, the Polish and Ukrainian cultures influenced each other strongly. J. T. Gross, Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (Princeton, New Jersey, 1988); P. Podchnyi (ed), Poland and Ukraine: Past and Present (Edmonton, 1980); O. Subtelny, Ukraine: A History (Toronto, 1988).

UKRAINIAN SCHOOL OF POETRY, group of Romantic Polish poets active in the nineteenth century, who used themes from Ukrainian history and folklore. The main representatives of the school were A. Malczewski, S. Goszczyriski,* J. Zaleski, M. Goslawski, A. Groza, and T. Olizarowski. Some novelists, such as M. Czajkowski* and M. Grabowski, also used Ukrainian national themes. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 247-249. UNDERGROUND STATE, Polish conspiracy on the Polish territories occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in the years 1939-1945. After the Nazi and Soviet invasions of September 1939, Poland was divided in half by the Nazi and Soviet Armies. Immediately after the debacle, some Polish leaders convened in Warsaw* to plan a long-range strategy of liberation; others went into exile and re-created the legal framework of the Polish state. Gradually, underground organizations joined their efforts and established a Polish secret state, linked by radio contact and secret couriers with the Polish Government-

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in-Exile* in France and, from the summer of 1940, in London. Armed and civil resistance was organized, and a rump form of Parliament (composed of representatives of the four major pre-war parties) was established. The underground state was dismantled when the Red Army took the Polish territories in the years 1944-1945. J. Karski, Story of a Secret State (Boston, 1944); S. Korboriski, Fighting Warsaw: The Story of the Polish Underground State, 1939-1945 (New York, 1968);S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978). UNDO (Ukrainske natsionalno-demokratychne obiednannia [Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance]), main legal Ukrainian political party of the interwar period of a centrist and national character. It was founded on July 11, 1925, in Lvov* as a continuation of the National Democratic Party established by Ukrainian populists in Galicia* in 1899. The UNDO was hostile to the Ukrainian Soviet Republic and rejected international decisions confirming the incorporation of Eastern Galicia into Poland. It strove to create an independent capitalismoriented Ukrainian state, starting with an autonomous Eastern Galicia* within the Polish state as the first step to realization of its goals. The UNDO created a large network of cultural and economic organizations, enjoyed mass support, and considered itself the representative of the Ukrainian community in Poland. In the 1930s, the party protested against the terror in the Soviet Ukraine and tried to normalize Polish-Ukrainian relations. Its most important leaders were S. Baran, W. Celewycz, D. Lewicki and Senator V. Mudryj.* The party dissolved itself in 1939 after the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact.* Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed.by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 407-408. UNEMPLOYMENT, socioeconomic phenomenon of a surplus of people searching for employment, which appeared in Poland in connection with the industrial revolution of the late nineteenth century, which grew in size together with the numerical increase of the industrial proletariat. The most unemployment was observed in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* during WW I after the withdrawal of the Russian troops and the devastation of textile and steel industries by the Germans. Late in 1923 only 62,000 people were registered as unemployed because of the reconstruction of the united Polish economy, but the 1924-1925 crisis raised the number of unemployed people five-fold. The economic improvement between 1926 and late 1929 reduced unemployment to 125,000, but in 1931, according to the limited statistical data available, it wavered between 300,000 and 600,000. The Great Depression affected almost one million workers during 1930-1935. In the years 1936-1938 the number of registered unemployed fluctuated between 456,000 and 470,000. EHGP, I, 32-33. UNIATE CHURCH, name given to West Ruthenian segments of the Orthodox Church that, after the 1596 Union of Brest-Litovsk (Brzesc),* were received under the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Church but retained their own ritual, practice and canon law. Initially, the term Uniates carried a negative

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connotation and was used by the opponents of the Brest-Litovsk Union. The Union was one of the attempts to reunite the Christian churches of the West and the East, but it also had political roots: Polish state authorities wanted to separate the Polish and Russian Orthodox Churches. The Uniate Church in Belorussia* and Volhynia* was dismantled by the Tsarist authorities in the nineteenth century, and the Eastern Galician* branch of the Church was suppressed by the Soviet administration after WW II. O. Halecki, From Florence to Brest, 1439-1596 (Hamden, 1986); J. Himka, The Greek Catholic Church and Ukrainian Society in Austrian Galicia (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1986). UNION OF ACTIVE STRUGGLE (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC]), secret military organization created by K. Sosnkowski* in June 1908 in Austriancontrolled Lvov.* It operated in all three parts of partitioned Poland and in Polish student centers in Western Europe and Russia. In 1910 the Union called into being in Galicia* a legal Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki).* WEP, XII, 808. UNION OF ARMED STRUGGLE (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ]), largest segment of the anti-German resistance during 1939-1942 in German-occupied Poland. The organization developed from the previously organized secret Service for Poland's Victory (Sluzba Zwyci^stwu Polski [SZP]). The Union was called into being by the order of Gen. W. Sikorski* of November 8, 1939. Afraid that the SZP was dominated by the followers of J. Pilsudski,* Gen. Sikorski tried to change its composition. The Union was commanded by Gen. K. Sosnkowski* from his headquarters in France and, after France's fall, by Gen. S. Rowecki,* settled in Warsaw.* In February 1942, the Union was renamed the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* T. B6r-Komorowski, The Secret Army (London, 1950); S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978), 22-34. UNION OF BREST-LITOVSK (Brzesc), union in 1596 of West Ruthenian segments of the Orthodox Church with the Roman Catholic Church that established the Uniate Church.* The Union took as its pattern the decisions of the Council of Florence which settled the differences between Eastern and Western Christians in 1493 but did not last. Most of the population in the eastern parts of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* was of the Orthodox religion, and King Stefan Batory,* who wanted to integrate and strengthen the state, suggested to the Jesuits* that they try to convince Orthodox Ruthenians to reunite with Roman Catholics. It was agreed that the Uniates could preserve their old Slavonic rites and ceremonies, being obliged only to acknowledge dogmas from Rome and the supremacy of the Pope. After this agreement the Metropolitan of Kiev and the Bishops of Chelm (Kholm),* Luck (Lutske),* Pirisk,* Polotsk,* and Wlodzimierz Wolyriski (Volodymyr)* petitioned Rome for reunion, which was proclaimed at the Vatican and ratified by a Synod in Brest. There were also hopes that the Union would spread into the heart of Russia and the Balkans.

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Strong opposition under the leadership of Orthodox Prince Ostrogski* protested against the Union and Cossacks* rose in defense of the Orthodox Church. O. Halecki, From Florence to Brzesc, 1439-1596 (Hamden, 1986). UNION OF INDEPENDENT SOCIALIST YOUTH (Zwiazek Niezaleznej Mlodziezy Socjalistycznej [ZNMS]), organization established in 1917 among university students of Cracow,* Warsaw,* and Lvov.* It defended the economic interests of the students and undertook educational work. In December 1923, a radical group split from the ZNMS and created a new left-wing organization, called Union of Independent Socialist Youth "Zycie" (Life).* The ZNMS, closely linked with the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]),* was active mainly through the Association of Workers' Universities (Towarzystwo Uniwersytetow Robotniczych [TUR]).* The ZNMS was dissolved by the Polish authoritarian Sanacja* administration in April 1938. Its leaders, such as S. Dubois* and L. Raabe,* took an active part in the socialist underground movement during the Nazi occupation. SHP, 584. UNION OF INDEPENDENT SOCIALIST YOUTH "ZYCIE" (LIFE) (Zwiazek Niezaleznej Mlodziezy Socjalistycznej "Zycie" [ZNMS "Zycie"]), Communist youth organization of students established in December 1923. Outlawed in 1932, it assumed a somewhat different name, Organizacja Mlodziezy Socjalistycznej ' 'Zycie. * * Its activity was mainly of a propagandistic political character in the struggle against rightist and nationalistic student organizations. It also participated in revolutionary activities and strove for the formation of a popular front. SHP, 584. UNION OF LUBLIN, agreement between Poland and Lithuania* in 1569. It followed the personal union based on royal marriage of the two countries at Krewo* (1385) and the real but weak confederal Union of Horodlo* (1413). It concluded debates of the Polish and Lithuanian Parliaments and was accomplished through the determination of King Zygmunt (Sigismund) August* and the efforts of the Polish magnates of Ruthenia.* The Lublin agreement was reached on June 28 and replaced a basically personal union with a real interstate federal union based on common institutions. Henceforth, Kings were elected jointly, coronations held at Cracow* also confirmed the King's Grand Ducal power in Lithuania, and Parliaments were held jointly on Polish territory. Simultaneously, the legal systems and administrations remained separate; Lithuania preserved its code of laws formulated in its Statute of 1566, valid until the early nineteenth century, and kept its own offices, separate Chancellors,* Hetmans,* Treasurers, and Army. The regions of Podlasie,* Volhynia,* Bratslaw, and Kiev were included under the Polish Crown. The unified Commonwealth acted as a single entity in external affairs. The Union of Lublin began the process of closer integration of the two states, which were gradually dom-

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inated by Polish culture. CHP, I, 348-369; H. Dembkowski, The Union of Lublin: Polish Federation in the Golden Age (New York, 1982). UNION OF POLISH EMIGRATION (Zjednoczenie Emigracji Polskiej [ZEP]), political organization established in 1837 in France by the members of the Great Emigration* and headed by J. Lelewel.* Its goal was full Polish independence within the pre-Partition borders to be achieved by armed uprising. The ZEP tried to unite democratic groups of exiles and eventually of the entire Polish Emigration. It established regular contacts with the occupied homeland. In the late 1840s, most of its members and leaders, including Lelewel, S. Worcell,* and T. Krepowiecki,* acceded to the Polish Democratic Association (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]), while the minority of the ZEP joined the conservative Hotel Lambert.* An organization under the same title was established again in 1866 in Paris and became the largest movement of Polish exiles after the January Uprising.* It existed until 1870, when the majority of the ZEP accepted the name Unity of Polish Democracy (Zjednoczenie Demokracji Polskiej). WEP, XII, 720. UNION OF POLISH PATRIOTS IN THE USSR (Zwiazek Patriotow Polskich w ZSSR [ZPP]), pro-Soviet organization created by Stalin's government in March 1943 among Polish deportees in the USSR to establish Soviet control over Poland after WW II. The ZPP was to provide the political leadership of the Communist-organized First Infantry Division of T. Kosciuszko. The first Congress of the ZPP, held on June 9-10, 1943, proclaimed its pro-Communist ideology and elected its leadership, dominated by W. Wasilewska.* The Union became a basis for the organization of the Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego [PKWN]),* maintained intense propaganda and had almost 100,000 members in 1945. The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. H. Wieczynski, vol. 40 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1985), 234-235; SHP, 585. UNION OF POLISH SOCIALISTS ABROAD (Zwiazek Zagraniczny So cjalistow Polskich), organization established during the founding congress of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in Paris on November 17-23, 1892. Until 1900, it was the official representation of the PPS abroad. It was headed by the five-person Centralization agency which operated during 1893-1900 in London and was elected at the meetings of regional sections, among which the most important were those of Paris, Geneva, Zurich, and Brussels. The main leaders of the Union were S. Mendelson,* F. Perl,* B. Jedrzejowski,* E. Abramowski, S. Wojciechowski,* K. Kelles-Krauz, and B. Limanowski.* In 1900 the Union was incorporated into the PPS as the party's autonomous unit. L. Blit, The Origins of Polish Socialism (Cambridge, 1971); History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 570.

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UNION OF POLISH TEACHERS (Zwiazek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego [ZNP]), professional teachers' organization of all instructional levels created in 1930 by a merger of the Union of Polish Teachers of Elementary Schools and the Trade Union of Teachers of Polish High Schools, both established in 1919. The ZNP had its roots in the Polish Union of Teachers, founded by high school instructors in 1905 in Warsaw* under the impact of the revolutionary events and the struggle for Polish schools. Various political currents existed in the ZNP from its inception. In the late 1930s, leftist leaders gained a majority, which caused the suspension of the ZNP by the government and increased sharp attacks from the political right. Before the outbreak of WW II, the ZNP had over 50,000 members and maintained several auxiliary institutions, such as a Pedagogical Institute and summer vocational courses. During the war, the ZNP continued its activity in the underground. WEP, XII, 767. UNION OF POLISH WRITERS (Zwiazek Literatow Polskich [ZLP]), organization created in 1920 in Warsaw* by the outstanding novelist S. Zeromski* as a kind of trade union of Polish writers to promote the moral and material interests of the authors and their participation in the shaping of the national culture. WEP, XII, 764. UNITARIANS (ANTI-TRINITARIANS). See ARIANS. UNRUG, JOZEF (1884-1973), Rear Admiral. He served with the German Navy during WW I and distinguished himself as a submarine Commander. In 1919 he joined the Polish Navy and served in many important positions, including Commander-in-Chief (1925-1939). During the 1939 September Campaign,* he commanded the defense of the Hel Peninsula.* Taken prisoner then liberated from a German camp in April 1945, he was appointed the first Deputy of the Polish Navy in the West. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991),43. UOW (Ukrainska viiskova orhanizatsiia [Ukrainian Military Organization]), terrorist organization of Ukrainian nationalists established in 1922 and active in interwar Eastern Galicia* (Western Ukraine*). The UOW arranged attacks on representatives of Polish authorities and institutions which contributed to tensions between Poles and Ukrainians. In 1929 it took the new name Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN)* at a Vienna meeting. It was commanded by E. Konovalets* and A. Melnyk* from Prague, and then from Berlin. In the latter period, the OUN became a tool of Nazi subversive policy in Poland. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 400-401; SHP, 509. UPA (Ukrainska povstanska armia [Ukrainian Insurgent Army]), Ukrainian guerrilla units active from 1941 in the Ukraine occupied by the Germans. After the outbreak of the Nazi-Soviet war in June 1941, Taras Bulba-Borovets, a local

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Ukrainian activist, formed an irregular unit called "Polissian Sich," later renamed Ukrainska Povstanska Armiia (Ukrainian Insurgent Army [UPA]). In 1942, it was incorporated into larger partisan forces organized by Stefan Bandera's* Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists* (OUN), which took over the name UPA. It was intended to be the foundation for a regular Ukrainian Army, which Ukrainian nationalists believed would be needed to defend an independent Ukraine after the end of the Nazi-Soviet war. At its highest point in the spring of 1944, the UPA's numbers reached between 30,000 and 40,000 soldiers. At first, their activities were directed against the remnants of the Red Army and the Soviet partisans, but, later, the UPA also fought against the Germans and controlled the countryside. From the fall of 1942, the UPA became involved in an exceedingly brutal conflict with the Polish population of Volhynia* and Western Ukraine. Ukrainian nationalists were determined to drive the Poles from these territories and massacred there about 60,000 to 80,000 Polish men, women and children. J. Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism (Englewood, Colorado, 1990); Subtelny, Ukraine: A History (Toronto, 1988); Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 392-395. UPPER SILESIA (Slask), industrial region in southern Poland and northern Bohemia, altogether an area of 5,400 square kilometers, of which 4,500 square kilometers is in Poland. Its main product is coal. The region can be divided into the following segments: the Cracow* Basin (Zaglebie Krakowskie), the Dabrowa* Basin (Zaglebie Dabrowskie), and the Western Basin, known as historic Upper Silesia. The small southwestern part belongs to Bohemia and is known as the Ostrava-Karvina Basin (Zaglebie Ostrawsko-Karwiriskie). Coal reserves go to 1,000 meters in depth and are estimated at seventy billion tons. Before 1918, the western region belonged to Prussia,* Dabrowa Basin to the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* and Cracow Basin to Galicia.* Besides coal, the western part is rich in zinc*, lead, low-percentage iron ore, and sand used for construction. Mining began in the Middle Ages with lead, silver and iron, especially in the vicinity of Bytom.* It flourished in the sixteenth century but declined in the early eighteenth, when exploitation of lower levels became impractical. The first steam engine imported from England in 1788 served for the dehydration of lead and silver mines near Tarnowskie Gory. Regular coal mining began in 1751— 1754 and increased after the first iron mill in Gliwice* was established. In the first half of the nineteenth century, iron mills began operating in Chorzow,* Bytom,* Katowice,* and other towns. In 1798 a new method of zinc production was employed, and, in the late nineteenth century, Silesia became the second largest zinc producer after the United States. The decisive stimulant for coal mining was the construction of railroads in the mid-nineteenth century. In the years 1860-1930, the number of workers increased over six times, from 30,000 to 190,000, while coal mining increased from 2.4 to 43.3 million tons, iron ore from 89,000 to 995,000 tons, and zinc from 40,000 to 169,000 tons. Upper Silesia became the main mining and steel-mill center in Polish territory and one

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of the largest in Europe. In 1922, after three Silesian Uprisings* and the plebiscite of 1921, most of Upper Silesia was under Polish control. However, the Polish-German tariff war and the Great Depression caused many problems for the region. The situation began improving in 1934, but production never reached pre-WW I levels. Under the Nazi occupation, the entire Silesian industry worked for the German war effort. EHGP, I, 530-531; W. Rose, The Drama of Upper Sil (London, 1936). URBANOWICZ, WITOLD (1908- ), fighter pilot. Instructor in Deblin School of Aviation, he was a Commander of the famous 303 Polish Fighter Squadron during the Battle of Britain.* Under his command it shot down more enemy planes than any squadron ever before. In April 1941 the First Polish Fighter Wing was created under his command. F. Kalinowski, Lotnictwo polskie w Wielk Brytanii, 1940-1945 (Paris, 196 URSUS, large machinery plant near Warsaw* established in 1893 by E. Schonfeld, K. Matecki, and L. Rossman. Originally Ursus produced water and gas fixtures. After automotive production during 1924-1928 and its merging with State Engineering Enterprise (Paristwowe Zaklady Inzynierii) on April 17, 1930, the plant was transformed into the largest Polish producer of tanks, caterpillartype artillery transport, heavy trucks, plane engines, motorcycles, tractors and buses. Its work force grew from 91 in 1901 to about 3,000 in 1938-39. Ursus grew under the technical directorship of K. Gierdziejewski (1923-38) and T. Hennel (1924-49). During the Nazi occupation, Ursus produced army equipment and machinery for Germany. J. Goliriski and R. Kaczak, Zaklady Mechaniczne Ur 1893-1967 (Warsaw, 1967

V

VACLAV II (Venceslas) (1271-1305), King of Bohemia (from 1278) and Poland, member of the Premyslide dynasty, and a son of a prominent Czech ruler, Premysl Ottokar II. Vaclav expanded the Czech territories toward Poland, forcing the Principalities of Cieszyn,* Bytom,* and Opole* to become fiefs of Bohemia. Then he seized the Principality of Cracow* in 1291 and pushed out Wladyslaw Lokietek* from Sandomierz in 1292. In 1300 Vaclav was crowned King of Poland and took under his care the still minor Piast* Princes of Silesia* in 1301. He reorganized Polish administration by introducing the office of starosta (district governor).* Vaclav based his power on town and clergy support. After the extinction of the Hungarian Arpad dynasty in 1301, he tried to place his son on the throne but was forced to withdraw from Hungary. Meanwhile Lokietek regained the Cracow region, where he was supported by nobles, unhappy with the rule of Czech starostas and the rise of German elements. J. Baszkiewicz, Powstanie zjednoczonego paristwa polskiego na przelomie XIII i XIV (Warsaw, 1954); CHP, I, 102-104 VACLAV III (1289-1306), King of Bohemia (from 1305) and Hungary (13011304), the only son of Vaclav II* and the last representative of the Premyslide dynasty. He also claimed the crown of Poland and tried to seize the Cracow* region but was killed during an expedition against Wladyslaw Lokietek.* J. Baszkiewicz, Powstanie zjednoczonego paristwa polskiego na przelomie XIII i XIV (Warsaw, 1954); CHP, I, 116. VARNA, BATTLE OF (November 10, 1444), Turkish victory over Hungarian and Polish forces, ending the efforts to save Constantinople and to regain the Balkans from Turkish conquest. In 1443 Wladyslaw III,* King of Poland and Hungary, started a campaign against the Turks, which was concluded in 1444 by a favorable ten-year peace treaty. Nevertheless, Wladyslaw, influenced by

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the Papal Legate Julian Cesarini, broke the agreement, renewed his campaign and clashed with Sultan Murad II's Army near Varna. The Czech and Austrian reinforcements promised by the Legate did not arrive. Murad's troops, three times more numerous than the Christians', annihilated Hungarian-Polish forces and killed Wladyslaw. After the battle, Poland remained without a King for three years. Turkey conquered Constantinople and reabsorbed Serbia. O. Halecki, The Crusade of Varna: A Discussion of Controversial Problems (New York, VASA, Swedish dynasty which ruled that country from 1523 to 1654, and Poland from 1587 to 1668. The name is derived from Swedish vase on a coat of arms, or a bundle of hay. The dynasty began with a magnate, Gustav Vasa, who led an anti-Danish Insurrection and became Regent in 1521 and King of Sweden in 1523. His grandson, Zygmunt (Sigismund) III,* was elected King of Poland in 1587 but, an ardent Catholic, was unpopular in his native country since Sweden had become Lutheran. He lost the Swedish crown in 1599 to his uncle, Charles IX Suderman. Zygmunt's sons, the Polish Kings Wladyslaw IV* and Jan Kazimierz,* insisted on retaining the title of King of Sweden, which was a cause of the devastating Swedish Wars.* The most outstanding representative of the younger Swedish Vasa line was King Gustav II Adolf. The older (Polish) line ended with Kazimierz's death in 1672. CHP, I, 300-369; N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 2 (New York, 1984), 433VERSAILLES, PEACE OF (June 28, 1919), Post-WW I treaty with defeated Germany, signed in the Hall of Mirrors of Versailles in the western suburbs of Paris. It was not signed by Soviet Russia, which did not participate in the Paris Peace Conference.* The treaty has 440 articles arranged into fifteen parts, of which the first (twenty-six articles) deal with the establishment of the League of Nations.* The most important decisions of the treaty were that Germany was to return Lorraine and Alsace to France; Eupen, Malmedy and Morenais to Belgium; Hulczan land to Czechoslovakia; and Great Poland and Gdarisk Pomerania* (without Gdarisk) to Poland. Gdarisk* obtained the status of a free city, with special rights reserved for Poland. Plebiscites were to decide about the adherence of Warmia,* Mazury,* and Upper Silesia.* Germany recognized the independence of Poland and Czechoslovakia and admitted its guilt for causing WW I. Part four of the treaty secured proper guarantees for German observance of the treaty obligations, mainly by Allied armed occupation of the Rhineland. Part five dealt with the limitation of the German Army. The international system, created in Versailles, proved to be very unstable and gradually disintegrated from the early 1920s. W. Balcerak, "The Disintegration of the Versailles System in Central Eastern Europe (1919-1939)," Acta Poloniae Historica XXVI (1972), 47-72; CHP, II, 490-512 VIENNA RESCUE (1683), expedition of Polish troops in 1683 against the Turkish siege of Vienna. In April 1683 King Jan III Sobieski* promised Em-

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peror Leopold I to assist the Habsburg Empire in case of Turkish attack. To implement this agreement, Sobieski moved with 25,000 soldiers for a relief operation. In the vicinity of Vienna, he joined Austrian and German troops, then took hills of the Vienna Forest, and, on September 12, in charge of the entire Christian Army of 70,000, he broke through the siege of Vienna and forced the 115,000-strong Turkish Army of Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa to flee. The victory was mainly accomplished with the use of Polish heavy hussaria.* The Vienna Rescue became a watershed of Turkish expansion into the heart of Europe and started the gradual withdrawal of Turkish control from the Balkan peninsula. It also reinforced greatly the concept of the Antemurale* defining Poland as the bulwark of Western civilization. L. Lewitter, "John III Sobieski, Savior of Vienna," History Today XII (1962), 168-176, 243-252; J. Stoye, The Siege of Vienna (New York, 1965).

VIENNA TREATIES, five international treaties signed in the Austrian capital: (1) that of July 22, 1515, between two Jagiellonian monarchs, Zygmunt (Sigismund) the Old* of Poland and Wladyslaw of Bohemia and Hungary, and the Habsburgs,* with the latter given a chance for a succession in Bohemia and Hungary for their neutrality in Poland's wars with the Teutonic Knights* and Muscovites; (2) the peace treaty of November 18, 1738, which terminated the 1733-1735 war for Polish Succession;* (3) the peace treaty signed on October 14, 1809, after the Austro-French War; Austria ceded the Illyrian province of Trieste, part of Croatia, Goricia, Montfalcone, and Kraina to France, Salzburg and Innviertel to Bavaria, gains in the Third Partition* of Poland to the Duchy of Warsaw,* and the Tarnopol* region to Russia; (4) the peace treaty of October 30, 1864, after the war of Austria, Prussia* and Denmark; the latter lost Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg to Prussia* and Austria; (5) the peace treaty signed on October 3, 1866, which terminated the Austro-Italian War, when Austria lost Venice to Italy. WEP, XII, 251 VILNA (Lithuanian: Vilnius, Polish: Wilno), the largest city of Lithuania,* first mentioned in the twelfth century. In 1322 it was made a capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by Duke Giedymin,* who built a powerful castle there. In the second half of the fourteenth century it suffered from frequent attacks by the Teutonic Knights.* In 1387 it obtained urban (Magdeburg*) rights from King Wladyslaw JagieHo,* and, in connection with the baptism of the country, it became a See of a Bishopric. As part of the Commonwealth of Both Nations* in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, it developed fast as a trading and craft center, gradually acquiring a Polish character. After 1503 the city with its three castles was surrounded by fortifications with nine defense towers. In 1578 the Vilna Academy (later Stefan Batory* University) was opened by the Jesuits.* Vilna declined economically in the late seventeenth century but revived one hundred years later. Occupied by the Russians in 1792, it took part in the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794. After the Third Partition,* it fell into Russian

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hands, becoming the gubernia's capital. In 1812 it was occupied briefly by Napoleon's forces. Early in the nineteenth century it was an important Polish scholarly center. The defeats of the 1830-1831 and 1863-1864 Uprisings provoked intense Russification by Tsarist authorities. Vilna also became an important Jewish center. After the railroad linkages connecting Vilna with Warsaw,* St. Petersburg and Prussia* were constructed in 1862, the political role of the city grew substantially. During WW I, Vilna was occupied by the German Army. After its evacuation, the city was taken by the Red Army, and the LithuanianBelorussian Soviet Republic was proclaimed there on December 8, 1918. In April 1919 the city was regained by J. Pilsudski's* troops, and again (after a short period of Lithuanian control, when the Polish Army was pushed back to Warsaw by the Bolsheviks) by Gen. L. Zeligowski* in October 1920. In spite of that, Lithuanians proclaimed Vilna their capital. However, on March 15, 1923, the Conference of Ambassadors of the Great Powers recognized Poland's suzerainty over Vilna. In 1939 it had 209,000 inhabitants, mainly Polish, and had developed as a great center of Polish culture and politics. In September 1939 the Red Army occupied Vilna and returned it to Lithuania. In June 1940 the city was incorporated into the USSR. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 6 (Boston, 1978), 142-157; K. Przezdziecki, Wilno (Warsaw, 1938); L. Ran, Jerusalem of Lithuania (New York, 1974).

VILNA CRISIS, conflict between Poland and Lithuania* over Vilna* and its region after WW I. In 1918, a Lithuanian government sponsored by the Germans established itself in Vilna. Vilna then had only a small Lithuanian minority and was dominated by the Poles and the Jews,* but the city was the historic capital of Lithuania.* In December 1918, the Lithuanian-Belorussian Soviet Republic was proclaimed and, in January 1919, the Red Army occupied Vilna. In April 1919, it was taken by the Polish Army and remained within the Polish borders until July 1920, when the Soviets captured it and ceded it to Lithuania. This soon provoked a Polish mutiny. The Polish-Lithuanian fighting was stopped by an armistice arranged by the League of Nations on October 7, 1920. Vilna remained under Lithuanian control and further negotiations were indicated to settle the Polish-Lithuanian border. The Polish government did not accept this decision but could not contest it in the international arena. Encouraged by Marshal J. Pilsudski,* Gen. L. Zeligowski and his Belorussian-Lithuanian Division of the Polish Army, largely recruited in the Vilna area, "rebelled" against the Polish military leadership, took the city with its surrounding region, and on October 12, 1920, proclaimed an independent Republic of Central Lithuania.* The League of Nations tried to mediate between Poland and Lithuania. In January 1922, a Parliament of Central Lithuania was elected and voted to incorporate its state into Poland. In 1923, the League of Nations accepted this arrangement and the eastern border of Poland. However, Lithuania rejected the settlement and remained in a state of war with Poland until 1938, when a Polish ultimatum forced Lithuania to restore diplomatic relations with Warsaw. R. Lu-

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kas, "The Seizure of Vilna, October 1920," Historian XXIII (1961), 234-246; A. Senn, "Lithuania Fights for Independence: The Polish Evacuation of Vilnius, July 1920," Baltic Review XXIII (1961), 32-4 VILNA GAON (ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON ZALMAN) (1720-1779), Jewish Orthodox leader and scholar. He opposed both the Haskala (Jewish Enlightenment) and Hasidic movements. Under his spiritual leadership Vilna* became an important center of Jewish culture. Encyclopedia Judaica, (Jerusalem, 1971), v VI, 651-658; L. Ginzberg, The Gaon: Rabbi Elijah (New York, 1920); S. Schecht "Rabbi Elijah Vilna Gaon," Studies in Judaism (Philadelphia, 1911), 73-98. VIRTUTI MILITARI (Latin: for military courage), highest decoration Poland bestows on its war heroes, Polish equivalent of the American Medal of Honor or the British Victoria Cross. Virtuti Militari was established by King Stanislaw August* on June 22, 1792, to commemorate Polish victory at the Battle of Zielerice with the Russians. The first decorated were Prince J. Poniatowski* and T. Kosciuszko.* The order was abolished in 1792 by the Targowica Confederation* but re-established in 1807 by the Duchy of Warsaw with five classes existing until modern times. Abolished again in 1832 by Tsar Nicholas I, it was restored in 1919. K. Konieczny, "Virtuti Militari," Poland (January 1960), 22-24; Z Wesolowski, Polish Orders, Medals, Badges and Insignia and the Golden Book Cavaliers of the Polish Order of Virtuti Militari, 1792-1946 (London, VISTULA, main waterway of Poland, which empties into the Baltic Sea.* Its length is 1,068.3 kilometers and its basin, 193,911.1 square kilometers, constitutes 54.1 percent of the surface of Poland. The Vistula's sources are in the Beskid Slaski Mountains on the slopes of Barania Gora. At first, Vistula has the character of a mountain river and flows northward. Near Ustrori, it leaves the Carpathians* and flows through the Silesian foothills, loses its mountainous character, and changes direction eastward. It flows through the channel between the Carpathians and the Little Poland (Malopolska)* uplands and changes direction to northeast through the Sandomierz* valley. From the San* estuary, Vistula flows northward, leaves uplands below Pulawy, and flows toward the Mazovia* lowlands. From the estuary of the Narew River, Vistula turns westward and then northward, entering its seaward lagoon, known as Zulawy.* The Vistula is usually covered with ice from mid-January until late February and has served from pre-historic times as a commercial waterway. Through the Bydgoszcz canal and the Noted River, it links with the Oder and, through the Narew and Bug Rivers, it is linked with the Royal Canal (Kanal Krolewski) and the Pripet* and Dnieper Rivers. Some of the most important Polish cities, such as Cracow,* Warsaw,* Plock,* Toruri,* and Gdarisk (Danzig),* are located on the Vistula. WEP, XII, 352-35

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VOLHYNIA (Polish: Wolyri, Ukrainian: Volyn), historical region in Western Ukraine* between Polesie* to the north and Podole* to the south, the Bug* River to the west and the Slucz (Sluch) River to the east. Modern Volhynia encompasses about 70,000 square kilometers with the main towns of Wlodzimierz Wolyriski (Volodymyr-Volynskyj),* Luck (Lucke),* and Krzemieniec (Kremenets).* Volhynia changed its borders many times throughout the centuries. Originally, it was inhabited by the East Slavic tribe of Dulibians. Volhynia was probably controlled by the Great Moravian State in the ninth century and then incorporated into Kievian Rus'. In 1154, it became an independent Principality and, in 1199, it merged with the Principality of Halicz (Halych).* As the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia, it developed into a relatively strong state. In the mid-fourteenth century, its southwestern part was seized by King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great)* of Poland, while the northeastern section was subjugated by Lithuania.* After the death of King Kazimierz in 1370, the whole of Volhynia was incorporated into the Lithuanian borders, where it remained until 1569, when, after the Union of Lublin,* it was transferred to the Polish segment of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* as a separate province (wojewodztwo). After the Partitions* of Poland, most of Volhynia was incorporated into Russia and only a small segment to the Austrian Empire. After WW I, most of Volhynia returned to Poland. The population of Volhynia was predominantly Ukrainian of the Orthodox denomination and employed mainly in fairly prosperous agriculture. In September 1939, Volhynia was occupied by the Soviets and, in 1941, by the Germans. It became a battlefield of Polish and Soviet partisan warfare. From the fall of 1942, Ukrainian nationalist guerrillas started a brutal ethnic cleansing of Volhynia. They killed and drove away hundreds of thousands of Poles, many of whose families had lived in the region for centuries. After WW II, Volhynia was incorporated into the Soviet Ukraine. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toron 1993), 630-635; WEP, XII, 485. VOLKSDEUTSCHE, Polish citizens whose names were put on the German national list (Deutsche Volksliste) during the Nazi occupation of 1939-1945. On November 25, 1939, German authorities issued a temporary decree that all the inhabitants of the Polish territories incorporated into the Reich (who were not deported or imprisoned) would be considered ethnically German (Volksdeutsche). The decree of March 4, 1941, divided the Volksliste into four groups: (1) those active in the interwar period in pro-Hitler organizations; (2) those passive but considering themselves German; (3) Poles of German or mixed Polish-German origin, Silesians, Kaszubians* and Mazurs; (4) Polonized Germans. Often, people were listed on the Volksliste against their will, and, until January 1944, the list included about 2.8 million Polish citizens. In the territories of the General Government,* Polish citizens were not forced to put their names on the Volksliste, and only a small number of them, considered by other Poles as traitors, did so to receive some privileges. The Volksdeutsche, unlike the

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Reichsdeutsche (Germans from the Reich), did not have German citizenship. The Germans also established a list of the Stammdeutschen, whose ancestors migrated to Poland as German settlers. After WW II, Polish authorities rehabilitated those Polish citizens who were forced to sign the Volksliste in the territories incorporated into the Reich. K. Pogpieszalski, "Niemiecka Lista Narodowa w t. zw. kraju Warty," Documenta Occupationis, IV,V,VI (Poznari, 1952-195 VOLUMINA LEGUM (Latin: volumes of laws), collection of Polish laws and constitutions. Its publication was initiated by S. Konarski* in 1732. He edited the first two volumes, authored a penetrating foreword, and created a plan and rules for this valuable collection. In the years 1732-39, six volumes appeared, covering legislative material up to 1736. The next two volumes with recent laws were published in 1782. The collection was reprinted by J. Ohryzka in 18591860 in St. Petersburg. The constitutions of the 1782-1792 period were published by the Legal Commission of the Academy of Learning (AU)* in Cracow in 1889. WEP, XII, 65.

w "WACHLARZ" (The Fan), sabotage and diversion unit organized in the summer of 1941 within the general framework of the Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ])* and its successor, the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* The Fan operated initially only on Soviet territories occupied by the Germans. Its goal was to prepare a network of secret military groups located along the Polish pre-war eastern border. After a planned general uprising in Poland, the Fan would blow up the bridges on the Dnieper, Dvina, and Yeletz Rivers and damage German transportation routes, so that the German Armies engaged in Russia could not come to the aid of German forces fighting the Polish insurgents. This original plan was changed in the winter of 1941-1942, during the negotiations on the coordination of the military activities of the Polish resistance, the Red Army, and the Western Allies. According to a new plan, the Fan was to assist the Soviet forces by diversionary activities meant to hinder the Germans in supplying the Eastern Front, a change which caused substantial loss of life among AK soldiers. In the fall of 1942, the Fan was gradually liquidated by rendering its sectors to the respective AK regions of Vilna,* Polesie,* Volhynia,* and Lvov.* The Fan consisted of ten officers, mostly parachutists trained in Great Britain, and 268 soldiers, located in Kiev, Berdichev, Zviahl, Zhitomir, Rovne, and Shepetovka and disguised as workers of German firms supplying the German Armies. There are only fragmentary data of Fan activities. In 1942, its soldiers destroyed about thirty German rail and road transports. C. Chlebowski, Zaglada IV odcinka (The Annihilation of the 4th Divi (Warsaw, 1968); S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978) 89; Polskie Sily Zbrojne, torn. Ill: Armia Krajowa (Polish Armed Forces, vol. 3: The Home Army) (London 1950), 482-498; WEP, XII, 70. WACLAW FROM SZAMOTULY (ca. 1520-ca. 1560), Renaissance* composer and Latin poet. Educated in Poznari (Posen)* and Cracow,* he served as

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a secretary to H. Chodkiewicz, Palatine of Troki* during 1545-1547, when he published a series of Latin panegyrics celebrating events in the Royal family. In 1547, he was appointed a composer at the Court of King Zygmunt August* and provided sacred music for the Royal Chapel Choir. From about 1550, he was engaged in the Protestant movement and worked at the Calvinist Court of M. RadziwiH.* The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. by S. Sadie, v 18 (London, 1980), 487; WEP, XII, 73. WALASIEWICZ, STANISLAWA (Stella Walsh) (1911-1980), Olympic gold medalist and track star. She emigrated as a child with her parents from Poland to America, settling in Cleveland, Ohio. She took the name of Stella Walsh to accommodate her public school teachers and later developed into the world's premier sprinter in the 1930s and 1940s. In the 1932 Olympic Games, she competed for her native Poland and won the 100-meter dash in world record time (11.9 seconds). She won a silver medal for the same event in the 1936 Olympics and, during her incredible athletic career through 1955, held more than sixty world records. The Annual Obituary 1980, ed. by R. Turner (New Y 1981), 757-758; R. Schaap, An Illustrated History of Olympics (New York, 1963), 197 WALECKI, HENRYK (1877-1938), activist of the Polish revolutionary movement. Born Maximilian Horwitz in a Jewish family in Warsaw,* he joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1895 and, during the 1905 Russian Revolution, was one of the leaders of the party's left wing. After the 1906 split in the PPS, he became a member of the Central Executive Committee of the PPS-Left and co-authored its program. He supported the unification of his party with the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL]).* When both parties merged into the Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP]),* he served on its Central Committee during 1918-1919 and 1923-1925. During 1921-1925, he represented the KPP in the Communist International, and, in 1925, he transferred to the Russian Communist Party. Arrested by the Soviet secret police in 1937, he died in a prison the next year. The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynsk 43 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1986), 136; WEP, XII, 85. WALEWSKA, MARIA (nee Laczyriska) (1789-1817), Napoleon's "Polish wife." In 1804, she married the much older Count Anastazy Walewski. In 1807, she met Napoleon and accompanied him during the Prussian campaign and in Paris, persuaded that it was her duty to Poland. Forced to leave Napoleon after he married Marie Louise of Austria, Walewska returned to Warsaw* in 1810 and gave birth to Napoleon's son, Alexandre Walewski.* She visited Napoleon during his exile in Elbe Island. In 1816, she married Gen. P. A. d'Ornano. W. Gasiorowski, Napoleon's Love Story (London, 1905); Historical Dictionary of Na

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leonic France 1799-1815, ed. by O. Connelly (Westport, Connecticut, 1985), 496-497; WEP, XII, 87. WALEWSKI, ALEXANDRE FLORIAN COLONNA (1810-1868), French diplomat. The natural son of Napoleon and Maria Walewska,* he participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and was sent to London to lobby for British support. After the fall of the uprising, he took French citizenship in 1833 and entered the French Diplomatic Service. During 1855-1860, he was Minister of Foreign Affairs of Napoleon III, who made Walewski a Prince of the Empire. In 1856, he presided over the Peace Congress in Paris after the Crimean War. Historical Dictionary of Napoleonic France 1799-1815, ed. by O.Connelly (Westport, Connecticut, 1985), 497; WEP, XII, 88. WALISZEWSKI, ZYGMUNT (1897-1936), painter and a member of the "Futurist" and, subsequently, the "Formist"* and "Kapist"* groups. He painted in gouache, watercolor, and oils, often using mythological and Old Testament themes. M. Maslowski, Zygmunt Waliszewski, (Warsaw, 1962); The PolishBiographical Dictionary, ed. by S. S. Sokol (Wauconda, Illinois, 1992), 419; WEP, XI, 90. WALLENRODISM, term borrowed from the title of A. Mickiewicz's* poem Konrad Wallenrod, which, in Polish tradition and colloquial language, indicates undercover service in other countries. It originated with the name of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights,* who was active in diplomatic intrigues to split up Polish-Lithuanian cooperation in the fourteenth century. W. Kopaliriski, Slownik Mitow i Tradycji Kultury (Dictionary of Myths and Cultural Tradition) (Warsaw, 1987), 1247. WANKOWICZ, MELCHIOR (1892-1974), writer and journalist. He participated in the school strike* in Warsaw* in 1903. During WW I, he fought in the Russian Army and, then, in the Polish units in Russia. A prolific reporter, he founded and headed the literary publishing house "Roj" (Hive) in Warsaw during 1927-1939. In the years 1943-1946, he served as a Polish war correspondent in the Middle East and Italy. He created his own lively genre of writing, uniting factual authenticity of details with elements of his remembrances in popular anecdotal narration, often using the archaic language of the Polish nobility. His epic monograph Bitwa o Monte Cassino (The Battle at Monte Cassino*), with its sentimental and patriotic undertones, became a classic and is widely read. WEP, XII, 102. WARMIA (German: Ermland), historical region in the Olsztyn* and Lidzbark region. Its name was derived from the Baltic Prussian tribe of Warms who settled along the Pregola, Pasleka and Lyna Rivers. After 1236, the area was conquered by the Teutonic Knights.* In 1243, the Bishopric of Warmia was

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created with some independence and secular power over the territory. Its capital, first located in Braniewo,* was moved to Frombork and, in the mid-sixteenth century, to Lidzbark Warmiriski. The Bishops of Warmia tried to conduct an independent policy and were in frequent conflict with the Teutonic Order. In 1454, the Bishopric acceded to the Prussian union and recognized the sovereignty of Poland. As a result of the 1466 Toruri Peace Treaty,* Warmia became a part of Royal Prussia* incorporated into Poland. In 1565, Cardinal S. Hozjusz* established the first Polish Jesuit* college in Braniewo. In the sixteenth century, it was colonized with Polish settlers from the Chelmno* region and from Mazovia.* The social structure developed in Warmia differed from the social stratification in other regions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.* The nobility* was less numerous and the peasants enjoyed better legal and economic conditions. At the First Partition* of Poland, Warmia was incorporated into Prussia and its autonomy was liquidated. The region was Germanized and declined economically. In the second half of the nineteenth century, a revival of Polish culture and language took place in Warmia. After WW I, a plebiscite* was arranged in parts of Warmia on July 11, 1920, but most of its territory remained in Germany until 1945. WEP, XII, 112-113. WARSAW (Warszawa), official capital of Poland since 1611. It existed as a settlement on both sides of the mid-Vistula* River from the tenth century. In the fourteenth century, Warsaw became the seat of a Castellan,* obtained urban rights, and was surrounded by a defense wall. The town, located on the junction of trade routes and serving as an important river port, grew quickly in the fifteenth century, and Prince Janusz I* of Mazovia moved his capital from Czersk to Warsaw. In 1526, the town and the rest of the former Principality of Mazovia* were reunited with Poland. The Kings of Poland frequently visited Warsaw, located halfway from the Polish capital of Cracow* to the Lithuanian capital of Vilna.* From 1569, the Sejms* (Parliaments) and royal elections were held in Warsaw and, in 1575, a confederation* concerning the religious rights of Protestants was organized there. In 1611, King Sigismund III Vasa (Zygmunt III Waza)* moved the capital from Cracow to Warsaw, thereby accelerating its growth. In September 1655, Warsaw was occupied and looted by the Swedes during the Swedish "Deluge."* The city population fell to 6,000 in 1659, and the commercial and industrial importance of Warsaw declined. The crisis was prolonged by the Northern War* of 1700-1721. After 1740, the city revived and flourished under the last King of Poland, Stanislaw II August.* Warsaw was surrounded by new walls; banks, crafts, and manufacturing began to grow; and new districts were built. The attractive Lazienki* and Bruhl* Palaces were constructed and the Royal Castle* was restored. The city became the Polish center of the Enlightenment,* of a vigorous reform movement and vibrating cultural life. The population of the city, which numbered about 23,000 in 1754, reached 100,000 in 1792. Warsaw declined after the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, when the city was besieged and devastated by the Russians, and after

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the Third Partition* of Poland in 1795, when Warsaw was given to Prussia and declined. In 1806, it was occupied by Napoleon and became the capital of the Duchy of Warsaw.* After 1815, as the capital of the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* Warsaw enjoyed industrial development and reached 140,000 inhabitants in 1829. The city developed steadily in spite of the November and January Insurrections* of 1830 and 1863, respectively. In the late nineteenth century, Warsaw was industrialized and grew rapidly, reaching 764,000 residents in 1910. It was the largest Polish and the second largest city of the Russian Empire, with several institutions of higher learning, numerous legal and secret political parties, and hundreds of social, cultural, scientific, religious, and national organizations. During WW I, Warsaw was occupied by the Germans from August 5, 1915, to November 10, 1918, and, then, became the capital of independent Poland and one of the major European cities, growing to 1,289,000 inhabitants in 1939. In September 1939, Warsaw suffered as the only European capital to be defended against the German Army. Afterward, the city became the center of the Polish resistance and experienced the Uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto* in April 1943 and the general Warsaw Uprising* of August 1-October 2, 1944. In January 1945, the Red Army ejected the Germans from the city, which had lost over 80 percent of its buildings and was totally depopulated. W. Bartoszewski, Warsaw Death Ring, 1939-1944 (Warsaw, 1968); EHGP, II, 452-459; T. Przypkowski, Warsaw (Glasgow, 1941); SHP, 518-522; WEP, XII, 116-126; E. Wynot, Warsaw between the World Wars: Profile of the Capital City in a Developing Land, 1918-1939 (New York, 1983).

WARSAW, BATTLE OF, culminating battle of the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921 fought in August 1920 on the Eastern outskirts of Warsaw.* After the Polish spring offensive of 1920, when the Poles took Kiev on May 7, the Red Army broke the extended Polish lines, causing a prolonged retreat of the Polish Army. On July 14, Vilna* fell and the Red Army intended to take Warsaw in mid-August. On July 30, the Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee (Tymczasowy Komitet Rewolucyjny Polski [TKRP])* was established in Bialystok* as a de facto government for a future Communist Poland. In the first days of August, the Red Army reached Radzymin, a suburb of Warsaw. Panic started in the city, Western countries evacuated their Embassies, and the German press announced that Warsaw was already taken. However, the Poles defended the city and organized a counter-attack from the region of the Wieprz River. The operation started on August 16, and the Red Army was pushed out of Warsaw and then ejected from Poland. E. D'Abemon, The 18th Decisive Battle of the World; Warsaw 1920 (London, 1931); The Modern Encyclopedia of Russianand Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 43 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1986), 164-168. WARSAW CONFEDERATION (1573), nobles' confederation,* which made the Polish Sejm* (Parliament) sign a charter that guaranteed absolute religious freedom to all non-Roman Catholics in Poland. After the death of the last rep-

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resentative of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Poland, King Zygmunt II August (Sigismund II Augustus),* in July 1572, five candidates from various European ruling families vied for the Polish throne. The Polish gentry gave the strongest support to Henryk Walezy (Henri de Valois),* the brother of Charles IX of France. However, the Polish Protestants organized the confederation and objected to his election, because he was involved in the massacre of French Protestants on St. Bartholomew's Day in 1572. The objection was overcome when the lay Catholic members of the Parliament agreed on January 28, 1573, to sign the charter, which reaffirmed the religious freedoms of the dissidents* and helped prevent religious wars in Poland. CHP, I, 370-372; S. Grzybowski, "Th Warsaw Confederation and Other Acts of Religious Tolerance in Europe," Acta Polonia Historica XL (1979), 75-96; J. Tazbir, A State without Stakes: Polish Religious ation in the 16th and 17th Centuries (New York, 196 WARSAW GHETTO UPRISING, insurrection which broke out in the Ghetto* of Warsaw* on April 19, 1943, when German troops entered the Ghetto for its final liquidation. The Uprising was prepared and fought mostly by the ZOB (Jewish Fighting Organization [Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa])* headed by M. Anielewicz.* Until April 24, street fighting prevailed. The Germans withdrew from the Ghetto, regrouped, and started to burn and systematically demolish one city block after another. The Jewish fighters, some 1,500 strong, defended their bunkers, destroyed several tanks, and killed a number of German troops. On May 8, the Germans took the ZOB headquarters bunker. On May 16, the German Commander, SS Major General J. Stroop, dynamited the Great Synagogue of Warsaw and declared, "The Warsaw Ghetto is no more." However, small Jewish groups fought in the ruins of the Ghetto until mid-August. The Germans lost several hundred soldiers, and they killed and deported over 56,000 Jews to the gas chambers of Treblinka.* Several ZOB groups escaped through the sewers and joined the Polish and Jewish underground and guerrillas. The Uprising influenced resistance in other ghettos and was of tremendous importance for Jewish morale in the struggle for survival. R. Ainsztein, The Warsa Ghetto Revolt (New York, 1979); M. Edelman, The Ghetto Fights (New York, 1946); Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 4 (New York, London, 1990), 1598-1632; D. Kurzman, The Bravest Battle: The 28 Days of the Warsaw Uprising (New York, 1976).

WARSAW UNIVERSITY, institution of higher learning established in Warsaw* by the decree of Alexander I* in 1816. The university continued a tradition of educational establishments in the same location in Warsaw: the Knights School* founded in 1765, Warsaw Lyceum organized in 1800, a medical school opened in 1809, free public courses in law started in 1808, and free courses in administration available from 1811. The new university included five faculties: medicine, law and administration, pure sciences, fine arts, and a small faculty of theology. Most students came from the families of governmental officials,

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declasse gentry, merchants, and artisans. Up to 1830, about 3,000 students enrolled in the university (50 percent of them in law and administration), and about 1,100 graduated. Several secret patriotic student organizations existed at the university and participated in the preparations of the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. After its outbreak, numerous students fought against the Russians and joined the Great Emigration* after the fall of the Uprising. In 1831, the university was closed, and, then in 1862, the Principal School (Szkola Glowna)* was opened. Its students participated in the January Insurrection* of 1863, and, in 1869, the Principal School was converted into a Russian university. It existed until 1915, when it was relocated to Russia. In the same year, Polish courses started, and the university was opened and active until 1939, when another occupier, the Germans, closed it for the next six years. The Modern Encycloped of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 43 (Gulf Breeze, Flori 1986), 177-181. WARSAW UPRISING (August 1-October 2, 1944), Polish insurrection in German-occupied Warsaw* during WW II. This culmination of the Polish resistance movement was directed militarily against the Germans and politically against the Soviets. The major Polish underground military organization, the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]),* acting in consultation with the Polish Government-in-Exile* in London, attempted to eject the Germans from the Polish capital in order to create a Polish administration before the entry of the Red Army. The Polish resistance was preparing an anti-German uprising from the first days of the German occupation of Poland. Plans for the uprising changed several times, according to the changing military and international situation during the war. In December 1943, the Commander of the AK, Gen. T. BorKomorowski,* issued an order for Operation "Tempest."* The AK units were supposed to organize local risings behind the German front in order to assist the Soviets during the decisive moments of their offensive and to create local Polish authorities, cooperating with the Government-in-Exile. Operation "Tempest" began in March 1944 in Volhynia* and, then, took place in the Nowogrodek, Vilna,* Lvov,* and Lublin* regions. The Red Army cooperated with the AK during the fighting. However, immediately after them, the NKVD units disarmed the Poles, merged the soldiers into the Polish Communist Army organized in the USSR, and arrested the officers. From April 1943, there was no diplomatic relationship between the Polish London government and Moscow, which planned to install a Soviet-sponsored government in Poland. In July 1944, the Red Army reached the outskirts of Warsaw, and it seemed imminent that the Soviets would capture the city. The Germans were in panic, the Polish youth organized in the AK were keen on fighting, and Gen. T. Bor-Komorowski, in consultation with the Government-in-Exile and its Delegate in Poland, decided to start the uprising on August 1. Within three days, the insurrectionists, numbering about 40,000 badly armed fighters, gained control of most of Warsaw. However, the Red Army stopped its offensive, remained idle, and blocked help

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for the fighting city. The Germans regrouped and, using their Air Forces and heavy weaponry unavailable to the insurrectionists and committing numerous atrocities, crushed the uprising after two months of dramatic fighting. About 18,000 Home Army soldiers were killed and over 200,000 civilians died. Most of Warsaw was leveled, and its population was deported to various camps. In January 1945, the Red Army captured a gigantic deserted ruin. The Warsaw Uprising, the last great Polish insurrection, demonstrated Stalin's true intentions toward Poland, and it became one of the most important elements of Polish national tradition. A. Borkiewicz, Powstanie Warszawskie (Warsaw Uprising) (W saw, 1957); G. L. Bruce, The Warsaw Uprising (London, 1972); J. Ciechanowski, T Warsaw Rising of 1944 (Cambridge, 1974); T. B6r-Komorowski, The Secret Army ( don, 1951); J. Hanson, The Civilian Population and the Warsaw Uprising of 1944 bridge, 1982); J. Kirchmajer, Powstanie Warszawskie (Warsaw, 1959); J. Zawod Nothing but Honor: The Story of the Warsaw Uprising, 1944 (Stamford, Conne 1978). WARSKI-WARSZAWSKI, ADOLF (1868-1937), Communist leader and journalist. Born into an assimilated Jewish family, he was active in the Polish workers' movement from his early youth. He helped to organize the Social Democracy of the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy [SDKPiL])* in 1893 and participated in the 1905 Russian Revolution. During WW I, he represented the Polish Social Democrats at antiwar Conferences in Zimmerwald and Kiental in Switzerland. After the war, he was one of the founders of the Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski [KPP])* and a member of its Central Committee and Political Bureau. In 1926, he was elected as a member of the Polish Sejm* (Parliament) and won a reputation for his oratory and sharp criticism of authorities. In 1929, he emigrated to the USSR, where he worked in the Communist International and the Marx-Engels-Lenin Institute. Arrested by the Soviet secret police, he died in prison. M. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party of Poland (Cambridge, 19 Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. XVI (Jerusalem, 1971), 356; The Modern Encyclope Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 41 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 19 195. WARSZEWICKI (VARSEVICIUS), KRZYSZTOF (1543-1603), diplomat. A supporter of King Henryk Walezy (Henri de Valois)* and, later, of the proHabsburg* party in Poland, he served as a Canon of Cracow* Cathedral and was sent on diplomatic missions abroad. He advocated the ideas of the CounterReformation* and the strengthening of Royal power in Poland. He appealed for a Crusade against Turkey and wrote historical works and a treatise on diplomacy. R. Ferring, "Christofer Varsevicius: Polish Renaissance Diplomat, Statesman and Political Writer," Polish Review V/2 (1960), 98-109; WEP, XII, 1 WARTA (WARTHE) RIVER, largest right bank tributary of the Oder* River and the main waterway of Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* with such important

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towns along it as Czestochowa,* Sieradz, Kolo, Konin, Srem, Poznari,* and Gorzow Wielkopolski. WEP, XII, 133. WARTHEGAU (Wartheland), territorial administrative unit established by the Germans in October 1939 in occupied Poland. It included Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* the Lodz* region, and some districts of pre-war Warsaw* province. The unit was incorporated directly into the Reich, and its official name was the Reichsgau Wartheland. The name was derived from the name of the Warta (Warthe)* River. Almost 4,922,000 persons lived in that unit, which was declared by its Gauleiter, Arthur Greiser, the area of experimentation in National Socialism. Warthegau was simultaneously a unit of the German state administration and of the Nazi Party, an organization which was still unusual in the Reich. "Inferior persons" (Untermenschen), mostly Jews* and Poles, were gradually deported or exterminated. Most public institutions were "for Germans only," 95.5 percent of Polish property was expropriated, all Polish institutions were closed down, and use of the Polish language was restricted in public affairs. The Germans relocated 630,000 persons from Warthegau; about 450,000 were moved to labor camps; ultimately more than 450,000 were killed, including almost all the Jews. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 4 (N York, London, 1990), 1633-1635; The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich, ed. by C. Zent ner and F. Bedurftig, vol. 2 (New York, Toronto, 1991), 10247; SHP, 523-524 WARYNSKI, LUDWIK (1856-1889), Socialist activist and a revolutionary leader. A scion of a gentry family, he studied in St. Petersburg Technological Institute but was expelled in 1875 for his participation in student disturbances. Banished from St. Petersburg, he went to Warsaw* and organized workers' revolutionary circles. In 1878, he participated in the creation of the first Polish Socialist program and also escaped from the surveillance of the Tsarist police to Galicia.* Deported for his revolutionary activities from the Austrian Empire, he went to Geneva, where he was active in a Polish socialist group, known as Equality (Rownosc). In 1881, he returned illegally to Warsaw and created a revolutionary party known as Proletariat* or Great Proletariat. Two years later, he was arrested and sentenced to sixteen years of hard labor. He died in Schlusselburg Fortress in St. Petersburg. The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and S History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 43 (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1986), 186-187; WE XII, 138. WASILEWSKA, WANDA (1905-1964), writer, leftist politician, and the daughter of L. Wasilewski.* A member of the radical Independent Socialist Youth (Zwiazek Niezaleznej Mlodziezy Socjalistycznej [ZNMS]) and the Association of Workers' Universities (Towarzystwo Uniwersytetow Robotniczych [TUR]),* she worked as a teacher and an editor of children's magazines. She was a member of the Supreme Council of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* during 1934-1937 and also an activist in the

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League for Defense of Human and Civic Rights and in Red Help, assisting political prisoners. In 1936, she co-organized the Congress of the Workers of Culture and, in 1937, the teachers' strike. After the outbreak of WW II, she escaped to Soviet-occupied Lvov,* where she directed the Polish theater during 1939-1941 and joined the Russian Communist Party. After the 1941 German invasion of the USSR, she fought as a Political Commissar in the Red Army and edited a Stalinist periodical in the Polish language. In 1943, she co-founded and became the President of the Union of Polish Patriots (Zwiazek Patriotow Polskich [ZPP]).* She also helped to organize the Kosciuszko Division, the first unit of the future Communist Polish Army. In 1944, she became a Deputy President of the Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego [PKWN]),* a semi-governmental organization sponsored by Moscow. During the war, Wasilewska married A. Korneichuk, a Ukrainian writer and a Soviet Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, and, after 1945, she settled in Kiev. Her books, written from a class warfare viewpoint, emphasized the poverty of the urban and village proletariat in interwar Poland. The Modern E cyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, vol. 41 (Gulf B Florida, 1986), 207-208; WEP, XII, 140. WASILEWSKI, LEON (1870-1936), politician and scholar. He belonged to the National League* from 1893 but, in 1896, joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* and edited its organ, Przedswit (Dawn), during 1897-1905. After the 1906 split in the party, he became one of the leaders of the PPS-Revolutionary Fraction. During WW I, he was active in the Polish National Organization (Polska Organizacja Narodowa [PON]) and the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* During 1918-1919, he served as the first Foreign Minister of independent Poland. An expert on national minorities, he was called on numerous occasions to deal with Ukrainian, Belorussian, and other ethnic issues. During 1921-1923, he led Polish delegations settling Polish-Soviet and Polish-Romanian borders. He presided over the Institute of Research on the Recent History of Poland from 1924 and over the Institute of Research in National Affairs from 1931. In 1928, he became a member of the PPS Supreme Council and, from 1931, he served as the party Vice President. He authored numerous noted works on Polish history and problems of nationalities in Eastern Europe. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Hu Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 683; WEP, XII, 140. WASILEWSKI, ZYGMUNT (1865-1948), publicist and political journalist, who became an ideologue and editor of several important periodicals of the National Democracy.* WEP, XII, 141 WAWEL, castle and residence of the Kings of Poland raised in the ninth century as a stronghold of the Wislanie (Vistulians)* tribe over the left bank of the Upper Vistula* River in Cracow.* The largest and oldest medieval conglom-

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eration of pre-Romanesque and Romanesque stone structures in Poland, Wawel was originally a wooden fort re-built by King Boleslaw Chrobry (the Brave)* toward the end of the tenth century. Among several imposing buildings, the conglomeration includes a cathedral founded by the King in the first years of the eleventh century. In 1000, Wawel became the See of the Cracow Bishopric. In the 1040s, the capital of Poland was moved to Cracow, and Wawel developed as the Royal residence and the coronation place of the Polish monarchs. After the period of feudal disintegration of Poland, Wawel flourished as a cultural and artistic center under Kazimierz Wielki (the Great),* who built a number of new Gothic structures in the castle. The Wawel hill was surrounded with strong fortification walls and towers. Under Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old),* the castle became an important European center of Renaissance art and humanist culture. During 1507-1536, a Florentine architect and sculptor, B. Berecci, constructed a new Royal residence with an elegant arcaded courtyard. He also built the Zygmunt Chapel (1519-1533), a pearl of Renaissance architecture. In 1595, Wawel suffered from fires, and, when the state capital was shifted from Cracow to Warsaw* in 1611, Wawel began to decline, though the Polish monarchs and outstanding modern leaders, such as T. Kosciuszko,* A. Mickiewicz,* Prince J. Poniatowski,* and Marshal J. Pilsudski,* were traditionally buried in Wawel Cathedral. The Swedish invasion of 1655 and the Northern War* of 1700-1721 added to the destruction of the castle and its art treasures, as did Prussian and Austrian looting during the period of the Partitions* of Poland. The reconstruction of Wawel Castle was undertaken by Polish architects according to plans of A. Szyszko-Bohusz prepared in 1916. During WW II, the Nazi General Governor, H. Frank,* resided in Wawel and the Germans robbed a large part of its precious art treasures. Encyclopedia of World Art, vol. 13 (New York, Toronto, L don, 1966), 410-412; J. Szablowski (ed.), Collections of the Royal Castle of Waw (Warsaw, 1969); WEP, XII, 15 WAWELBERG, HIPOLIT (1843-1901), Warsaw* banker of Jewish origin. He distinguished himself by philanthropic activities on behalf of his native city. In 1891, together with his bank partner, S. Rotwand, he established a College of Engineering in Warsaw to assist the industrialization of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In 1929, the Polish government changed the name of the college to H. Wawelberg and S. Rotwand State College of Engineering (Paristwowa Wyzsza Szkola Budowy Maszyn i Elektrotechniki im. H. Wawelberga i S. Rotwanda). During 1939-1944, the college, with a reduced program of studies, was tolerated by the Germans in occupied Warsaw. Encyclopedia Judai vol. 16 (Jerusalem, 1971), 367; WEP, XII, 15 WAWER, southeast residential suburb of Warsaw.* During the November Uprising* of 1830-1831, a battle between the Polish and Russian Armies was fought on February 19-20, 1831. As a result of the passivity of Gen. J. Chlopicki,* the Poles lost an opportunity to destroy an Army Corps of Russian

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Gen. I. Diebitsch, and the battle ended with indecisive results. On March 31, 1831, another battle was fought there along the highway to Siedlce,* where Gen. J. Skrzynecki* destroyed a Russian Unit under Col. F. Gejsmar. During WW II, the Germans executed 107 inhabitants of Wawer and Anin on December 26-27, 1939, in one of the earliest mass executions in occupied Poland. WEP, XII, 152. WAWRZYNIAK, PIOTR (1849-1910), priest who organized a number of Polish economic and social associations in the Prussian-controlled part of Poland. He contributed greatly to the defense and strengthening of the Polish society in Prussia. During 1894-1898, he served as a member of the Prussian Parliament in Berlin. WEP, XII, 15 WEIGL, RUDOLF (1883-1957), biologist, a professor of the Medical School at Lvov University during 1920-1939, and a member of the Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU])* from 1930. He became famous for his research on spotted typhus. WEP, XII, 16 WEISS, WOJCIECH (1875-1950), painter and a professor at the Academy of Fine Arts in Cracow* from 1910. At first, he followed the modernism of "Young Poland,"* but later his creativity developed under the influence of impressionism and post-impressionism. WEP, XII, 166. WERTENSTEIN, LUDWIK (1887-1945), physicist. As a student in Paris, he was M. Curie-Sklodowska's* assistant. From 1913 he co-directed the Radiological Laboratory of the Warsaw Science Association. In 1915, he began to teach at the Free Polish University (Wolna Wszechnica Polska), and, in 1920, he cofounded the Polish Physicist Association. His primary interests were the fields of radioactivity, nuclear physics, cosmic rays, and problems of vacuum. New radioactive elements were discovered under his direction. WEP, XII, 19 WEST BELORUSSIA, designation of that part of Belorussia* which was within the Polish state during the interwar period. This agricultural area, populated by Belorussians or by people without established national consciousness, belonged to the so-called "Poland B " during the interwar period. The level of illiteracy was higher than in "Poland A," standards of life and agricultural productivity, much lower. A few towns, Grodno,* Baranowicze, Drohiczyn, Nowogrodek, and Pirisk,* were dominated by the Jewish population. According to the secret protocol of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact* of August 23, 1939, Western Belorussia was included in the Soviet sphere of interests. After the GermanSoviet aggression against Poland in September 1939 and faked elections in October 1939, it was incorporated into the Soviet Republic of Belorussia. J. Gross, Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's West Ukraine West Belorussia (Princeton, New Jersey, 198

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WEST UKRAINE, region between the San and Zbrucz Rivers also called Eastern Galicia.* It belonged to Poland from the mid-fourteenth century and, after the Partitions* of Poland, was a part of Austrian-controlled Galicia. The name West Ukraine appeared in the interwar period, popularized by the Ukrainian national movement, and also encompassed Volhynia.* It was assigned to Poland by the 1921 Riga Peace Treaty* with the USSR, and, administratively, it was divided into Lvov,* Stanislawow (Stanislaviv),* Tarnopol (Tarnopil), and Volhynia provinces (wojewodztwa). The main cities were predominantly Polish and Jewish. The Ukrainians constituted a majority in the countryside and of the total population. In September 1939, West Ukraine was occupied by the Red Army, according to the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact* of August 1939, and, after faked elections in October 1939, it was incorporated into the Soviet Ukraine. J. Gross, Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's West Ukraine and West Belorussia (Princeton, New Jersey, 1986).

WESTERPLATTE, small peninsula in the Bay of Gdarisk (Danzig)* by the estuary of one of the branches of the Vistula* delta. During the interwar period, Poland had its ammunition depot there, in the harbor area within the Free City of Gdarisk.* The depot was protected by 182 Polish Guards, with Heavy Infantry equipment, commanded by Maj. H. Sucharski.* Westerplatte was the first target of the German invasion on September 1, 1939. The Polish Infantry Battalion defended Westerplatte against overwhelming German forces until September 7. The Poles lost fifteen killed and forty wounded, while the German losses reached 400 men. Westerplatte became a symbol of determined defense against the Germans, the Thermopylae of Polish national tradition. WEP, XII, 194 WETTINS, Saxonian dynasty traceable to the start of the tenth century and named in the twelfth century after its Wettin Castle on the Saale River. It played an important role in German history, pushing its frontier eastward into the former Slavic territories. Divided into two lines, the Wettins ruled in several Principalities of Germany. The Elector of Saxony, Friedrich August I, became the King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1697 as August II Mocny (Augustus II the Strong).* In 1733, he was succeeded by his son, August III,* who ruled in Poland until 1763. His grandson, Friedrich August, obtained the title of King of Saxony in 1806 as Napoleon's ally, and, during 1807-1815, he was nominally the ruler of the Duchy of Warsaw.* Biographisches Worterbuch Deutschen Geschichte, ed. by K. Bosl, vol. 3 (Munich, 1975), 3116-3136; WEP, 197. WEYGAND DE NIMAL, MAXIME (1867-1965), French General. A Deputy Chief of the French Staff during WW I and one of the closest associates of Marshal F. Foch,* he arrived in Poland during the Polish-Soviet War* in 1920 as a member of the Allied Mission and an adviser of the Polish General Staff. He contributed to the Polish victory in the Battle of Warsaw* and is considered

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by some historians the actual author of the Polish battle plan. He remained in Poland until 1925 and, then, occupied several important positions in France. Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870-1940, ed. by P. H. vol. 2 (Westport, Connecticut, 1986), 1066-1067; Z. Musielak, General Weygand a the Battle of the Vistula, 1920 (London, 1987); P. Wandycz, "General Weygand a Battle of Warsaw of 1920," Journal of Central European Affairs XIX (January 19 357-365. WEYSSENHOF, J6ZEF (1860-1932), novelist, poet, and literary critic. A scion of a rich noble family of German origin from Zmudz* (Samogitia), he lived at his family estate and, in 1891, moved to Warsaw,* where he co-edited a prestigious magazine, Biblioteka warszawska (Warsaw Library). His early poems paid tribute to the beauty of Greece. Later, he published satirical novels, in which he ridiculed Polish "high society." Eventually, however, he became an apologist of the disappearing world of the Polish landed nobility.* C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 317; WEP, XII, WgGIERSKI, TOMASZ (1756-1781), poet and satirist. Educated at the Jesuit* college in Warsaw,* he later demonstrated a pungent literary talent. In 1774 he held the title of Chamberlain and participated in the literary Thursday dinners* arranged by King Stanislaw August.* An ardent admirer of French culture, he published various translations, including works of Montesquieu and Rousseau. However, his sharp pen and satirical lampoons of life, manners and personalities in Warsaw eventually resulted in expulsion from Poland. He then traveled to America, England and France, writing lively prose en route and later dying of tuberculosis in Avignon. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature ( don, 1969), 183-184. W^GRZYN, JOZEF (1884-1952), actor and theater director. He made his debut in 1904 in Lvov* and, then, worked in the theaters of Cracow* and Warsaw* and, from 1911, performed in Polish films (until 1939, more than fifty roles). In July 1939, he parodied Hitler in the role of Battler in Geneva, a play for Teatr Polski. As a consequence, he was imprisoned by the Germans during WW II. SBTP, 111-11 "WHITES" ("Biali"), loose conservative political group operating in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* before and during the January Insurrection* of 1863. Formed in 1861 by former members of the Agricultural Society,* the "Whites" attempted to assume the position of moral government of Poland. Dominated by the representatives of landowners and entrepreneurs, they proclaimed as their goal an independent Poland. From the end of 1861, they were directed by a secret Directory, in which L. Kronenberg* and A. Zamoyski* were the most influential figures. Like the "Reds,* they opposed the conciliatory policy of A. Wielopolski,* the head of the Kingdom's administration, but they were against

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an uprising, or at least wanted to postpone it. They also opposed the socially and politically radical program of the "Reds." Nevertheless, the "Whites" took part in the January Insurrection and gained an upper hand in its leadership. Their strategy was to strike a bargain with Russia and to mobilize diplomatic support of Western powers on behalf of Poland, but they failed to get any real help. Main "White" activists besides L. Kronenberg and A. Zamoyski were K. Rupprecht, J. Gieysztor, A. Sapieha,* J. Dzialyriski, and E. Jiirgens. CHP, II, 36 387; N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 2 (Oxford, 1981), 357; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 517-519, 521-52 WIADOMOSCI LITERACKIE (Literary News) (1924-1939), one of the most important literary weeklies of interwar Poland, edited by M. Grydzewski.* Considered an outpost of Polish liberalism, it was continued in the 1939-1945 exile as Wiadomosci. WEP XII, 232. WICHER (Gale), Polish destroyer built at the French shipyard in Blainville together with another destroyer, Burza (Storm),* and delivered to Poland in 1930. Wicher took part in the defense of Hel port in 1939. It was sunk by the Germans on September 3 and its crew participated in the land defense of the Hel peninsula up to its capitulation on October 2. S. Piaskowski, Kroniki polski marynarki wojennej, 1918-1946 (Chronicles of the Polish Navy, 1918-1946), vol. (Albany, New York, 1990). WICHMAN (7-967), Saxonian Count and adventurer related to Emperor Otto I and Margrave Gero.* He rebelled against the Emperor, fled to the Western Slavs living between the Elbe and the Oder* Rivers in today's Mecklenburg, and organized their attack against Poland. But he was defeated by the Polish ruler, Mieszko I,* and died in battle. CHP, I, 16-17; WEP, XII, 23 "WICI" (Call to Arms), peasant youth organization established in 1928. Its full name was the Union of Peasant Youth of the Polish Republic (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Wiejskiej Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej). At first, it was established as a cultural-educational association. Its radical program supported agrarianism and a democratic system. "Wici" was led by B. Babski, K. Banach, A. Bieri,* J. Niecko, I. Solarz,* and Z. Zaleski, who was its first President. In 1938, the organization, close to the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL])* and active in the opposition against the Sanacja* regime, reached almost 100,000 members. During WW II, "Wici" contributed greatly to the Polish resistance movement. R. Buczek, Stronnictwo ludowe w latach 1939-45 (London, 1975); J. Holzer, Moz Polityczna Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Political Mosaic of the Second Polish Repub (Warsaw, 1974), 478-480. WIDUKIND (925-1004) Saxon monk whose chronicle, Res geste saxonice, though mainly dealing with the reigns of Emperors Henry I and Otto I, gives

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important information on Poland, including one of the first mentions of Mieszko I.* Biographisches Worterbuch zur Deutschen Geschichte, ed. by K. Bosl, vol. nich, 1975), 3142; Lexikon der deutschen Geschichte, ed. by G. Taddey (Stuttgart, 1 1294; WEP, XII, 24 WIECH (WIECHECKI), STEFAN (1896-1986), writer. A court reporter (from 1925) who gained popularity as an author of feuilletons written in a language based on elements of the Warsaw* slang. His collections of his feuilletons and novels immortalized the patriots and the former world of Warsaw's lower classes. WEP, XII, 247 WIELICZKA, old salt-mining town near Cracow* with about 10,000 inhabitants in 1939. In the seventeenth century, it became famous as the main center of salt mining in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* and a "tourist" attraction, offering such showplaces as a chapel carved in underground salt deposits. Salt began to be exploited in Wieliczka in the eleventh century, when a marketplace owned by the Benedictine* monastery of Tyniec* developed near the mine. In 1290, Wieliczka obtained urban rights and, in the second half of the fourteenth century, King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great)* reformed the mine management, making Wieliczka the most important mining town in Poland. In 1772, Wieliczka fell under Austrian rule, and, in the late nineteenth century, it developed as an administrative center of a county (powiat) with large mines and a salt museum. WEP, XII, 253. WIELOPOLSKI, ALEKSANDER (1803-1877), statesman and representative of a conservative, conciliatory pro-Russian group within the Polish political elite of the mid-nineteenth century. He opposed conspiracy and resistance, maintaining futilely that political loyalty would be rewarded by autonomy and cultural freedom for the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* During the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he unsuccessfully tried to induce Great Britain to intervene on behalf of the Poles and was a member of the insurrectionist Parliament. In 1861, during the patriotic demonstrations in Warsaw,* Wielopolski was appointed a member of the Administrative Council of the Kingdom. The Russian government expected that he would subdue the revolutionary movement and reach a compromise with the Polish society. Wielopolski disbanded the Agricultural Society* and a Municipal Delegation of Warsaw. In October 1861, martial law was proclaimed in the Kingdom, and, in June 1862, as a concession to the rebellious Poles, Wielopolski was appointed the Chief of the Civil Administration of the Kingdom. He began a program of limited reforms: corvee was replaced by rents, Jews* received equal rights, limited self-government of towns and counties resumed, Warsaw University* was re-opened under the name of the Principal School, and a process of Polonization of administration and education was started. Simultaneously, Wielopolski fought radical groups in the Kingdom. In order to destroy the "Reds,"* he proclaimed a forced draft of

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8,000 recruits designated from among political suspects. This precipitated the outbreak of the January Insurrection and the destruction of his political plans. In July 1863, he went abroad and, in September, Alexander II* signed his dismissal. Embittered by his experiences, Wielopolski is believed to have said that "one can do a lot for Poland but nothing with the Poles." CHP, II, 373-377; T Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, ed. by J. L. Wieczynski, v (Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1986), 218-221; I. Roseveare, "Wielopolski's Reforms and Their Failure before the Uprising of 1863," Antemurale XV (1971), 87-214; S. Zyzniewsk "The Futile Compromise Considered: Wielopolski and Russian Policy, 1861-1863," American Historical Review LXX/2 (1965), 395-4 WIENIAWA-DLUGOSZOWSKI, BOLESLAW (1881-1942), General. As a student of medicine in Belgium, he became involved in the Polish patriotic movement. During 1914-1917, he served in the Polish Legions* and became an aide-de-camp to J. Pilsudski.* After the dissolution of the Legions, Wieniawa was active in the clandestine Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]).* During 1918-1922, he was again Pilsudski's aide-decamp. Subsequently, he was a Military Attache in Bucharest, studied at the Warsaw High War School, served as an officer for special assignments in the General Inspectorate of Armed Forces, and occupied several command positions in the military. In 1938, he was released from active service to become the Ambassador in Rome. In October 1939, he was considered by the President of Poland, I. Moscicki,* as his successor in exile but, because of French objections and protests of pre-war Polish opposition, he was replaced by W. Raczkiewicz.* Wieniawa remained in Italy until 1940 and, then, was sent as a Minister to Cuba. In 1942, he moved to Washington, where he committed suicide. A talented poet and patron of artists, he was one of the most popular public figures of interwar Poland and a favorite of Marshal J. Pilsudski. J. Majchrowski, Ulubieniec Cezara, Boleslaw Wieniawa Dlugoszowski: Zarys Biografii (The Favorit sar, Boleslaw Wieniawa Dlugoszowski: A Sketch of a Biography) (Wroclaw, 1990); A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 152, 154, WIENIAWSKI, HENRYK (1835-1880), violinist, composer, and a member of a Polish family of musicians. Educated in Warsaw* and Paris, he was giving successful concerts from his childhood. A traveling virtuoso, he later made tours, including through America, and lived in Poland, Western Europe, and Russia, where he taught violin during 1862-1868 in St. Petersburg. He was also a prolific composer, and his mazurkas and polonaises include many Polish folk and national motifs. He was hailed as one of the greatest violinists of his generation, after Paganini, and his style influenced many artists, especially in Russia. His brother, Jozef Tadeusz (1837-1912), and nephew, Adam Tadeusz (1879-1950), were also outstanding composers and musicians. The Grove Dictionary of Mus and Musicians, ed. by S. Sadie, vol. 20 (London, 1980), 404-

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WIERZBICKI, ANDRZEJ (1877-1962), industrialist and politician. In 1896, he co-organized the Union of Polish Youth "Zet" (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej "Zet")* among the Polish students in St. Petersburg and, from 1901, was active in the National League (Liga Narodowa).* A Director of the Association of the Industrialists of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* from 1912, he was active in the Central Civic Committee and the Main Welfare Council (Rada Glowna Opiekuricza [RGO])* after the outbreak of WW I. During 1916-1917, he served on the Provisional Council of State (Tymczasowa Rada Stanu [TRS])* and, in the fall of 1918, as Minister of Industry and Commerce in J. Swierzyriski's* Cabinet, created under the auspices of Germany. In 1919, he was a member of the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP])* in Paris and led the Polish Economic Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference.* In the same year, he helped to organize and became one of the main leaders of the Central Union of Polish Industry, Mining, Commerce and Finance (Centralny Zwiazek Polskiego Przemyslu, Gornictwa, Handlu i Finansow), known as the Lewiatan.* He was also one of the authorities of many shareholding associations. Politically close to the National Democracy,* he was a member of the Polish Sejm* (Parliament) during 1919-1928 and 1935-1938. In September 1939, he served on the Warsaw Defense Committee. During WW II, he was incarcerated by the German occupiers. EHGP, II, 47 WIERZYNEK, MIKOLAJ (7-1368), Cracow* merchant of German origin. His family immigrated to Poland in the early fourteenth century probably from Nuremberg and made a fortune in trade, mainly in Flemish cloth, and in credit operations. The family owned numerous real estate holdings in Cracow and the countryside. Founder of the family's strength was Mikolaj the Older, supporter of King Wladyslaw Lokietek,* Mayor of Wieliczka,* and knighted by King Kazimierz Wielki (the Great).* Wierzynek also served in Cracow's Town Council in the 1330s and was in charge of the Court finances of King Kazimierz. In 1364, Wierzynek entertained in his home five monarchs and nine princes, who attended an important meeting in Cracow. Among them were Emperor Charles IV, King Peter Lusignan of Cyprus, King Louis I of Hungary, and Waldemar IV of Denmark. This reception on behalf of the city of Cracow was described by the chronicler J. Dlugosz* and became a legend of the wealth of Cracow merchants. EHGP, II, 477; J. Roszko, Wierzynek i jego Sasiedzi (Wierzynek and Neighbors) (Cracow, 1980). WIERZYNSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1894-1969), poet. Educated in Cracow* and Vienna, he made his literary debut in 1913. After the outbreak of WW I, he fought in the Polish Legions* and then was drafted into the Austrian Army. Taken prisoner, he spent three years in Russia. After the war, he moved to Warsaw* and became one of the founders and most active members of the Skamander* group. He also wrote for the "Pikador" Cabaret, edited several periodicals and, as a poet, distinguished himself with a carefree juvenile opti-

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mism. Being interested in sports, he wrote odes on athletics, and his collection of poems The Olympic Laurel Wreath (Laur Olimpijski) won a special gold medal at the 1928 Olympic Games in Amsterdam. In the 1930s, he turned to more serious subjects, became more concerned with public issues, and returned to the Polish Romantic heritage. Politically, he remained loyal to J. Pilsudski,* but his poems on social issues became bitter and sad. After the outbreak of WW II, Wierzyriski emigrated to the West and settled in New York. As a homesick and dislocated emigre, he wrote on religious and patriotic subjects. Z. Folejewski, "Kazimierz Wierzyriski: Forty Years of Poetry," Polish Review VIM (1961), 3-9; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 395-396. WIGURA, STANISLAW (1901-1932), airplane builder and a pioneer of sport gliding, who constructed several gliders and tourist planes, and together with his partner, F. Zwirko,* won the European Air Races in 1932. Wigura and Zwirko died in a crash during the Czechoslovakian Air Show. T. Karwiriski, "From Sports to War, on the Traditions of Polish Aviation," Poland Magazine 292 (December 1978); WEP, XII, 317.

WILANOW PALACE, Royal and magnate residence south of Warsaw* on the Vistula's* left bank. In 1677, King Jan III Sobieski* bought the village of Milanow and started building a residence there, calling it Villa Nova, hence Wilanow. First, a one-floor manor house was erected; later, a second floor and two wings with towers were added and the palace assumed the character of a Baroque* villa. Behind the palace, a two-level French-Italian garden with fountains, grottos, and sculptures was arranged. In 1720, Wilanow was purchased by E. Sieniawska, who enlarged the palace. It passed to the Czartoryski* and Lubomirski families and received new classicist pavilions. From 1799 to 1892, Wilanow belonged to the Potocki* family, who transformed the palace's garden into an English park. The last owners, members of the Branicki family, lived in Wilanow until 1945. During WW II, the palace was looted by the Germans and became a battlefield during the Warsaw Uprising* of 1944. WEP, XII, 32 WILK, (Wolf), submarine, built in Le Havre in 1929 for the Polish Navy. During September 1-12, 1939, Wilk operated in the Baltic Sea,* then passed through the Danish Straits and reached Great Britain. It took part in several patrols and in the 1940 Battle of Norway. Later, it served as a training vessel. S. Piaskowski, Okrety Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej, 1920-1946 (Warships of the Polish Republic, 1 1946) (Albany, New York, 1984). WILNO. See VILNA. WILSON, WOODROW (1856-1924), twenty-eighth President of the United States, elected in 1912. After the outbreak of WW I, he proclaimed American neutrality but aided the anti-German coalition. Re-elected in 1916, he decided

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to declare war on Germany in 1917. The American war aims were formulated by Wilson on January 8, 1918, in his address to Congress, and proclaimed in fourteen points. The thirteenth expressly declared the independence of Poland with secure access to the sea as one of the American war aims. The thirteenth point was a result of I. Paderewski's* tactful pressure on Wilson and his adviser, Col. E. M. House. L. Gerson, Woodrow Wilson and the Rebirth of Poland (New H Connecticut, 1953); E. Kusielewicz, "Woodrow Wilson and the Rebirth of Poland," Polish American Studies XIII (1956), 65-71; V. Mamatey, "Wilson and the Resto of Poland," Florida State University Slavic Papers VII (1967). WINAWER, BRUNO (1883-1944), playwright and writer. A physicist by education, he started his scientific career as an assistant at the polytechnical universities in Amsterdam, Frankfurt am Main, and Warsaw during 1909-1920 but, then, concentrated on writing. He wrote popular scientific books and articles, cabaret songs, satirical poems, and comedies criticizing conservatism and technological backwardness. After the outbreak of WW II, he lived in Lvov;* from 1941, in the Warsaw* ghetto;* and from 1942, in hiding in the Lublin* region, where he died of tuberculosis. SBTP, 60 WISLA. See VISTULA. WISLA "MIRACLE." See WARSAW, BATTLE OF. WISZOWATY, ANDRZEJ (1608-1676), writer, member of the Polish Brethren, and a grandson of F. Socinius.* After the banishment of the Brethren from Poland in 1658, he settled in Amsterdam, where he published Bibliotheca Fratrorum Polonorum. He wrote theological treatises and works on the philosophy of nature, logic, and ethics. His concepts were later adopted by modern deists. WEP, XII, 36 WISLANIE (Vistulians), West Slavic tribe which grew in the ninth century from the unification of smaller tribes settled on the Upper Vistula.* Later, the tribe embraced the Cracow* and Sandomierz* lands, including the important centers of Stradow, Wislica,* Tyniec,* Cracow, and Sandomierz. The Wislanie were mentioned by a ninth-century Bavarian geographer and by King Alfred the Great. Their state was controlled by the Great Moravian Reich, and they accepted Christianity from Moravia. CHP, I, 12; WEP, XII, 356. WISLICA, village on the Nida River between Cracow* and Kielce.* A settlement existed in Wislica before the Polish state was created. In the ninth and the tenth centuries, it was the center of the Wislanie* (Vistulian) tribal state. It was controlled by the Great Moravian Reich and influenced by the St. Cyril and Methodius mission. In the eleventh and early twelfth centuries, already within the Polish borders, Wislica was one of the important residences of the ruling

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Polish Piast* dynasty. During 1146-1166, it belonged to Henryk of Sandomierz* and, then, was briefly a residence of Kazimierz Sprawiedliwy (the Just).* In 1241, Wislica was destroyed by the Tatars* and again, in 1305, during the struggle of Wladyslaw Lokietek* with the Czechs. Before 1326, Wislica obtained urban rights and then was enlarged by Kazimierz Wielki (the Great),* who proclaimed there the Statutes for Little Poland in 1346, which was the first attempt to codify Polish customary law. After the fifteenth century, Wislica declined. During 1795-1809, it was occupied by the Austrians; during 18091815, it was in the Duchy of Warsaw;* and, later, within the borders of the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In 1869, Wislica lost its urban rights. It was virtually demolished during the world wars. CHP, I, 178; Encyclopedia of Wo Art, vol. 13 (New York, 1966), 400; WEP, XII, 35 WISNIOWIECKI (Vyshnevetsky), Ruthenian-Polish magnate family from Volhynia,* descendents of the Turow-Pirisk (Turiv-Pynske) Rurikide dynasty. The surname derives from Wisniowiec (Vyshnivets) in Volhynia.* By the end of the sixteenth century, the family converted to Catholicism and became Polonized. In the seventeenth century, members of the family held the most important posts in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,* and Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki* was elected King of Poland. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 701 WISNIOWIECKI, JEREMI (1612-1651), Polish magnate and Palatine (wojewoda) of Ruthenia* (Rus') from 1646. A scion of a powerful magnate family, educated in Italy and the Netherlands, he colonized new lands in Ukraine,* expanded his properties, and owned large latifundia* in the Left-Bank Ukraine in the region of Lubny (Lubni). His estates included fifty towns and a population of 230,000. During 1633-1634, he participated in a war with Moscow, suppressed a Cossack* rebellion during 1637-1638 and, during 1640-1646, fought the Tatars.* He represented the interests of the highest echelons of the Polish feudal oligarchy in Ukraine and, after the outbreak of the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising,* the rebels deprived him of most of his land holdings. Wisniowiecki contributed greatly to the suppression of the uprising and distinguished himself with excessive cruelty against the Cossacks. Encyclopedi of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 701-702; W. Tomkiewic Jeremi Wisniowiecki (Warsaw, 193 WISNIOWIECKI, MICHAL KORYBUT. See MICHAL KORYBUT WISNIOWIECKI. WIT STWOSZ. See STWOSZ, WIT. WITKIEWICZ, STANISLAW IGNACY (WITKACY) (1885-1939), painter, novelist, playwright, and philosopher. The only son of the eminent art critic S.

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Witkiewicz, Witkacy was raised in a milieu of "Young Polish"* artists and literati in Zakopane.* From 1904, he studied painting at Cracow* Academy of Fine Arts, traveled in Western Europe and, in 1914, went on a scientific expedition to New Guinea and Australia with the anthropologist B. Malinowski.* A Russian citizen, Witkacy returned to Russia after the outbreak of WW I, joined the Army, and as a Guard officer witnessed the 1917 Revolutions. In 1918, he returned to Poland and was active in the group of painters known as Formists,* painting landscapes, abstract figural scenes, and portraits. He elaborated his own original theory of the philosophy of art and aesthetics. He also applied these theories to writing. Precursor of the Theater of the Absurd, he wrote over thirty plays, several novels, poems, and numerous essays. He presented the decadence of modern European society and predicted a deep general crisis of European civilization. The most "catastrophist" among the Polish writers of the 1930s, he was also extremely popular. After the outbreak of WW II, he escaped from the German Army eastward but committed suicide when the Soviet forces attacked Poland and joined the Nazi invasion. Rediscovered in the 1950s both in Poland and in Western Europe, Witkacy is among the most popular intellectual writers. D. Gerauld, Witkacy. Stanislaw Ignacy Witkiewicz as an Imaginative (Seattle, 1981); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 414-420. WITOLD (VYTAUTAS) (1350-1430) Grand Duke of Lithuania,* and a first cousin of King Wladyslaw Jagiello* of Poland and Lithuania. Witold's father, Kiejstut (Kestutis), fought with his brother, Olgierd (Algirdas),* for control over Lithuania. In 1382, Olgierd's son, Jogaila, known later as Wladyslaw Jagiello, imprisoned Witold and Kiejstut and then killed the latter. Witold escaped to the Teutonic Knights,* accepted Christianity, and tried to regain rule in Lithuania with their help. However, the Teutonic intervention failed. Witold made peace with Jogaila in 1384 and became a co-ruler of the Grand Duchy. In 1386, Jogaila was baptized, married the Polish Queen, Jadwiga,* and was crowned King of Poland. Witold participated in the negotiations of the Polish-Lithuanian Union and was promised some Lithuanian territories in exchange for his support of Jagiello's policy. When JagieHo did not keep his word, Witold rebelled, sought further assistance from the Teutonic Knights, and undertook several unsuccessful expeditions against Jagiello with them. In 1392, Witold signed a new agreement with JagieHo, obtained control over a part of the Grand Duchy, and became its Vice-Regent. He consolidated the Lithuanian internal state system, liquidating the autonomy of self-independent principalities. He subjugated the new Ruthenian territories, including Smolensk,* and organized a large military expedition against the Tatars.* Defeated by them on the Vorskla River in 1399, he ceased further expansion to the east, turned his attention westward and, together with King Wladyslaw JagieHo, prepared a war against the Teutonic Order. In 1410, the Polish-Lithuanian forces crossed the Prussian border and defeated the Knights at the Battle of Grunwald,* where Witold commanded the right wing of the Polish-Lithuanian troops. In

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Lithuania, Witold reached the position of a sovereign ruler and partner of Wladyslaw JagieHo, who agreed that his cousin would be crowned King. However, Witold died before the coronation. He is considered one of the most outstanding rulers of Lithuania, who considerably integrated and strengthened the country, by defending the independence of the Grand Duchy and exercising great influence over Polish politics. CHP, I, 210-232; P. Jasienica, Jagiellonian Poland (Miami, 1978); WEP, XII, 364-36 WITOS, ANDRZEJ (1878- ), politician and a brother of W. Witos.* An activist of the Polish peasant movement and a member of the Polish Sejm* (Parliament), he was deported to the USSR during WW II. Then he became Vice President of the Union of Polish Patriots (Zwiazek Patriotow Polskich [ZZP])* and Vice President of the Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego [PKWN]),* in which he also served as Minister of Agriculture. WEP, XII, 36 WITOS, WINCENTY (1874-1945), statesman. A son of a small farmer, he worked as a farm laborer and lumberjack in his youth. In the mid-1890s, he became close to the populist leader B. Wyslouch* and started his career in the peasant movement in Galicia.* During 1908-1918, he was a member of the Galician Sejm and, during 1911-1918, of the Austrian Parliament. After the 1913 split in the Polish Peasant Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe [PSL]),* Witos headed the Polish Peasant Party-"Piast" (PSL-"Piast"),* as it Vice President during 1913-1918 and, later, as President of its Executive Committee. After the outbreak of WW I, he joined the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]),* the umbrella organization of the Polish pro-Austrian parties in Galicia. When the Habsburg Empire disintegrated, Witos presided over the Polish Liquidation Commission in Cracow between November 1918 and January 1919. He refused to participate in the left-of-center governments of I. Daszyriski* and J. Moraczewski,* the first cabinets of independent Poland. During 1919-1933, he served as a member of the Polish Sejm* (Parliament), and, during 1919-1930, he directed the Parliamentary Club of the PSL"Piast." In July 1920, during the most dangerous moments of the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, he was appointed Premier and led the coalition Government of National Unity until fall 1921. In 1923, he organized a rightist-centrist coalition, known as the Chjeno-Piast,* and again served as a Premier until December 1923. He reconstructed the Chjeno-Piast coalition and became a Premier for the third time in May 1926, thereby triggering the Pilsudski coup d'etat. The key figure of the opposition against the Pilsudski Sanacja* regime and one of the main organizers of the Centrolew,* the union of opposition parties, Witos was arrested on September 9-10, 1930, with other Centrolew leaders and incarcerated in Brzesc (Brest-Litovsk) fortress. Sentenced to one and one-half years in prison, he went into exile in Czechoslovakia in 1933. As a proponent of unification of the peasant movement, he contributed greatly to the formation

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of the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL]),* becoming its main leader. He favored the 1937 peasant strike and participated in the opposition group known as the Front Morges.* In March 1939, after the occupation of Bohemia by the Germans, Witos returned to Poland. Jailed by the Germans during 19391940, he was later allowed to live under strict police guard in his native village. He was unquestionably the most outstanding leader in the history of the Polish peasant movement. A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Ox 1972); Prezydenci i Premierzy Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (Presidents and Premiers of the Second Polish Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wrdbel (Warsaw, 1992), 135153; W. Witos, Moje Wspomnienia (My Memories), 3 vols. (Paris, 1964-1965); A. Z krzewski, Wincenty Witos: Chlopski Polityk i Mat Stanu (Wincenty Witos: Peasa Politician and Statesman) (Warsaw, 1977). WITTEK, MARIA ("MIRA") (1899-1990), Major. The highest ranking woman officer in the interwar Polish Army, she was Commander-in-Chief of Women's Military Training (Przysposobienie Wojskowe Kobiet). During WW II, she served as Chief of Women's Services of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* and its predecessors. WEP, XII, 36 WITTIG, EDWARD (1879-1941), sculptor and a member of the "Rytm" group. He taught at the Warsaw School of Fine Arts, Warsaw Polytechnical University, and the Academy of Fine Arts in Cracow. His best known work was the monument Airman in Warsaw,* destroyed in 1939 by the Germans and restored after the war. The Polish Biographical Dictionary, ed. by S. S. Sokol ( conda, Illinois, 1992), 434; WEP, XII, 36 WITTLIN, JOZEF (1896-1976), Polish poet, writer, and translator of Jewish background. Raised in Lvov,* he studied in Vienna and, during WW I, served in the Austrian Army. One of the leading Polish Expressionists, he was connected with the Skamander* group of poets. In 1921, he moved from Lvov to Lodz,* where he was Literary Director of the Municipal Theater and, in 1929, to Warsaw.* After the outbreak of WW II, he escaped through France to America. He achieved fame with his Expressionist verse collection Hymny (1920) and distinguished himself as a translator of foreign classics, from the Sumerian Gilgamesh, through Odyssey, and Hasek's The Good Soldier Schweik. He also wrote novels, short stories, sketches, and essays. Z. Folejewski, "The Creative Path of Joseph Wittlin," Polish Review IX/1 (1964), 67-72; L. Kurpiewski, "On the Way to Ithaca," Poland Magazine (December 1981), 328; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 423-424; Z. Yurieff, Joseph Wittlin (New York, 1973).

WKRA, BATTLE OF (mid-August 1920), encounter of Soviet troops and the Fifth Polish Army led by Gen. W. Sikorski* on the Wkra River, north of Warsaw,* during the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-1921.* Warsaw is located high on the left bank of the Vistula* River, and, during the summer offensive of 1920,

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the Red Army wanted to avoid crossing the river and climbing a high cliff. The Soviets wanted to cross the river in a better place, north of Warsaw, and take the city from the west. Gen. Sikorski's Fifth Army stopped the Soviet troops on the right bank of the Vistula and engaged the main Soviet forces in battle for several days. The delay enabled the Polish General Staff and J. Pilsudski* to start an offensive, which attacked the Soviet lines from the southeast of Warsaw. This caused panic on the Soviet side, decisively reversed the strategic situation, and probably determined the outcome of the war. E. D'Abemon, The Eighteenth Decisive Battle of the World, Warsaw 1920 (London, 1931); N. Davie Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919-1920 (New York, 1972); W. Sikors Nad Wisla i Wkra (On the Vistula and Wkra Rivers) (Warsaw, 19 WLADYSLAW (English: Vladislas), name popular among Polish rulers of the Piast* and Jagiellonian* dynasties. Besides Wladyslaw I Herman,* Wladyslaw II Wygnaniec (the Exiled),* Wladyslaw I Lokietek (the Short),* Wladyslaw II JagieHo (Jogaila),* Wladyslaw III Laskonogi (Spindle-Legged),* Wladyslaw III Warnericzyk (Vladislas III of Varna),* and Wladyslaw IV Waza,* numerous Dukes of Silesia,* Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* Kujavia,* and Mazovia* had this name. WEP, XII, 374-376. WLADYSLAW I HERMAN (10437-1102), Duke of Poland and the son of Kazimierz Odnowiciel (Casimir the Restorer).* Wladyslaw succeeded to the throne when the Polish magnates* removed his older brother, Boleslaw Smialy (the Bold),* in 1079. The most powerful among the magnates, Palatine (wojewoda) Sieciech,* became the de facto ruler of the country. This, in turn, caused the growth of magnate opposition against Sieciech, and indirectly against Wladyslaw Herman. He sought the support of the petty knights and the monarchs of neighboring countries, unsuccessfully tried to restore Polish control over Pomerania,* but was challenged by constant pressure from the magnate opposition that forced the removal of Sieciech and emboldened the Duke's sons, Zbigniew and Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth),* against him. In 1097, Wladyslaw Herman divided Poland among his sons, retaining Mazovia* and important forts in their territories. CHP 1,41-44; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gie tor (Warsaw, 1968), 78; Poczet krolow i ksiazat polskich (Register of the Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 62-72. WLADYSLAW II JAGIELLO (Jogaila) (13517-1434), King of Poland (1386-1434), Grand Duke of Lithuania* (1377-1401), and founder of Poland's Jagiellonian dynasty. One of the twelve sons of Olgierd (Algirdas), he was named heir to the throne by his father, but, after Olgierd's death, Jagiello became involved in a long struggle for succession with his relatives. He secured his rule in 1382, when he killed his uncle, Kiejstut (K^stutis).* Kiejstut's son, Witold (Vytautas),* fled to the Teutonic Knights* and organized an expedition against Jagiello with them. The latter signed an armistice with the Knights on the Dub-

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issa River, surrendering the western part of Zmudz (Samogitia).* In 1383 he broke the agreement, reconciled with Witold, and continued the war with the Order. Aware that relations with Poland could give him a better chance for defense against the Knights, and trying to strengthen his position in Lithuania, JagieHo accepted the proposal to marry Polish Queen Jadwiga* and to rule both countries in a personal union based on royal marriage in Krewo* on August 14, 1385. He was baptized in Cracow* on February 15, 1386 as Wladyslaw, married Jadwiga and, on March 4, was crowned King of Poland. In 1387 he went to Lithuania to convert the country (the last part of Europe to become Christian) and to establish a Bishopric in Vilna.* After Jadwiga's death in 1399, JagieHo became an independent ruler of Poland. He ended his dissension with Witold, recognizing the latter as the Supreme Duke of Lithuania in 1401, and started preparations to stop the expansion of the Teutonic Knights. When they attacked Poland in 1409, JagieHo and Witold organized a major expedition against the Order. After the remarkable victory of Grunwald* on July 15, 1410, and a series of successful wars in 1414, 1422, and 1431-1432, Poland and Lithuania broke the financial and military power of the Knights. They lost only a small territory on the Vistula* River and Zmudz (Samogitia) but, in effect, disappeared as a threat to their neighbors. JagieHo also strengthened the southern borders of Poland. He recovered Ruthenia from the Hungarians and made Moldavia a vassal of Poland. In domestic policy, JagieHo was forced to accept the loosening of the union with Lithuania and the increasing importance of the nobility, who received several privileges from him. Jagiello restored the Cracow Academy in 1400 and supported fine arts and the development of the city of Cracow. CHP I, 210-231; N. Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1 (Oxford, 1981), 115-123; Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 2 (Boston, 1972), 532-537; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 134-161; L. Kolankowski, Dzieje Wielkiego Ksies twa Litewskiego za Jagiellonow (The History of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under the Jagiellons) (Warsaw, 1930); Poczet krolow i ksiqzat polskich (Register of the Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 275-287.

WLADYSLAW III LASKONOGI (SPINDLE-LEGGED) (11637-1231), member of the Piast* dynasty, Duke of Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* and the son of Mieszko III Stary (the Old).* He ruled during the period of feudal disintegration in Poland. On his father's death in 1202, he succeeded to the throne in Great Poland and Cracow.* The latter was considered the capital of Poland and, according to the 1138 testament of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth),* was to belong to the senior-most important Prince of Poland. However, Wladyslaw was soon removed from Cracow by the magnates of Little Poland (Malopolska)* and managed to regain the city and its region only for several months in 1228. In Great Poland, he was constantly involved in a severe conflict with his relatives and the Archbishop of Poznari (Posen),* Henryk Kietlicz,* who wanted to make the Church independent of the secular power. In 1229, Wladyslaw was ejected from his Principality by one of his rivals and died in

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exile. CHP, I, 89-91; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 105-1 W. Korski, "Wladyslaw the Spindle-Legged 1202/1227-31," Polish American Num matic Association No. 113 (1988); Poczet krolow i ksigzgt polskich (Register of t Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 147-155. WLADYSLAW I LOKIETEK (THE SHORT OR THE ELBOW-HIGH) (12607-1333), King of Poland, who reunited his country after the period of feudal disintegration. The son of Prince Kazimierz of Kujavia,* he inherited his father's Principality in 1267. After the death of his older brother, Leszek Czarny (the Black),* in 1288, Lokietek started a long fight for his brother's Dukedom and, then, for other parts of Poland, already divided into small Principalities by the 1138 testament of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth).* Wladyslaw secured the support of Pope Boniface VIII and the Hungarians to fight against the Bohemian Kings and his relatives, members of the Piast* dynasty ruling in numerous Polish Principalities. Integrating Principality by Principality, Wladyslaw managed to unite the former Polish Kingdom and was crowned King of Poland on January 20, 1320, in Cracow.* Only three regions then remained outside Polish borders: Silesia,* which was already strongly Germanized and leaned toward Bohemia and Germany; Mazovia,* which remained independent for the next two centuries; and Eastern Pomerania,* which had been in Wladyslaw's hands but, in 1308, was invaded and captured by the Teutonic Knights.* They tried to subjugate the next provinces of Poland, but, in 1331, their invading forces were defeated by the Poles at the Battle of Plowce.* Wladyslaw I also managed to halt Lithuanian raids into Poland by arranging the marriage of his son, the future King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great),* to a Lithuanian Princess. Wladyslaw I is considered one of the most outstanding Polish Kings, who built a solid base for its future growth. CHP, I, 99-104; Dlugopolski, Wladyslaw Lokietek na tie swoich czasow (Wladyslaw Lokietek in the text of His Times) (Warsaw, 1951); History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsa 1968), 107-145; P. Knoll, The Rise of the Polish Monarchy: Piast Poland in East C Europe, 1320-1370 (Chicago, 1972); Poczet krolow i ksigzgt polskich (Register o Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 238-247. WLADYSLAW III WARNENCZYK (Vladislas III of Varna) (1424-1444), King of Poland from 1434 and of Hungary from 1440, and the son of Wladyslaw II Jagiello.* At the age of ten, he was crowned King of Poland on the death of his father, but his Kingdom was ruled by a Regency Council dominated by Z. Olesnicki,* Bishop of Cracow,* the first Polish Cardinal, the main adviser of JagieHo, and a powerful magnate.* In 1438, Wladyslaw helped to install his younger brother, Kazimierz, as King of Bohemia. Kazimierz's election as Grand Duke of Lithuania* temporarily severed the Polish-Lithuanian Union. In 1440, Wladyslaw accepted the Hungarian crown as Ulaszlo I and attempted to push the Turks out of the Balkans, encouraged by Pope Eugene IV. In 1443, an Army of 40,000, led by Wladyslaw and his Hungarian supporter, Janos Hunyadi, de-

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feated the Turks and forced them to sign the Treaty of Szeged. Two days after the signing of the treaty, Wladyslaw broke it and continued his campaign, pressed by the Pope to save Constantinople. On November 10, 1444, Wladyslaw lost his Army and his life in the decisive Battle of Varna.* CHP, II, 224; Histo of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 141; P. Jasienica, Jagiellonian P (Miami, 1978); L. Kielanowski, Odysseja Wladyslawa Wamericzyka (The Odysse Vladislas of Varna) (London, 1991); Poczet krolow i ksigzgt polskich (Register of the Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 287-294. WLADYSLAW IV WAZA (Vladislas IV Vasa) (1595-1648), King of Poland from 1632, titular King of Sweden, and the son of King Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa).* In 1610, he was elected Tsar of Muscovy after the successful intervention of Hetman* S. Zolkiewski* during the Time of Troubles. The election, a part of his father's plan to subjugate Muscovy and make it Catholic, never materialized. As a young man, Wladyslaw commanded forces in the 1617-1618 war against Muscovy and in the 1621 war against Turkey. Immediately after his succession to the throne, he stopped the Russian invasion of 1632, broke the siege of Smolensk,* and signed the advantageous peace treaty of Polanowo.* Well educated, with a good knowledge of military affairs, tolerant in religious matters, he solved several problems created by his father and became popular among the Polish nobility.* Later, he antagonized the gentry by cooperating mainly with the magnates. In 1635, he signed another advantageous treaty, the armistice of Stumsdorf (Sztumska Wies),* with Sweden. He planned a renewal of war with that country, created the Polish Navy, and fortified the Polish coastline. However, his plans were paralyzed by the Polish Sejm* (Parliament). It also stopped Wladyslaw's preparation for war with Turkey. The King intended to eject the Moslems from Europe and reconquer Constantinople in an alliance with Austria. He undertook negotiations with the

Cossacks,* who were also interested in war. When the plans were cancel Cossacks, led by B. Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky),* rebelled in 1648; the rebellion coincided with the King's death. CHP, I, 509-520; N. Davies, God's Playground History of Poland, vol. 1 (Oxford, 1981), 433^70; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 208-244; P. Jasienica, The Commonwealth of Both Nations (Miami, 1987); Poczet krolow i ksigzgt polskich (Register of the Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 373-379.

WLADYSLAW II WYGNANIEC (Vladislas II the Exile) (1105-1159), Duke of Silesia* and the Senior Prince of Poland. The oldest son of Duke Boleslaw III Krzywousty (the Wrymouth),* he inherited Silesia according to the 1138 testament of his father. He also obtained control over Cracow,* Sandomierz,* and Pomerania* as the senior representative of the Piast* dynasty. Wladyslaw II tried to oust his younger brothers, who received other parts of Poland, and to re-establish a strong, centralized monarchy. He started a civil war, allied with the monarchs of Germany and Kievian Rus'; occupied most of Poland; and

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besieged his brothers in Poznari (Posen).* Eventually, excommunicated by the Archbishop of Gniezno,* he was defeated and took refuge at the Court of Emperor Conrad III. His attempts to regain power in Poland or just in Silesia failed, and Wladyslaw died in exile. CHP, I, 50-59; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 81-82; Poczet krolow i ksigzgt polskich (Register of the Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 90-98; WEP, XII, 37 WLOCLAWEK, town on the lower Vistula* River in Kujavia.* An ancient Slavic settlement, it was chronicled in the eleventh century as an important Polish stronghold overlooking a river landing and fairgrounds. During 11231133, it was the seat of the Bishops of Kujavia, who owned the town until 1793. In 1261, Wloclawek obtained urban rights, but it was destroyed in the fourteenth century by the invasions of the Teutonic Knights.* It flourished after the 1466 Toruri Peace Treaty* with the Order, as a center of corn trade on the Vistula. Demolished during the Swedish "Deluge"* of 1655, the town was occupied by Prussia* during 1793-1806. Then it was in the Duchy of Warsaw* and, after 1815, in the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In the nineteenth century, light manufacturing and cellulose, paper, chemical, and food industries developed in Wloclawek. This was accelerated after 1862, when the town was linked by a railroad with Warsaw* and Bydgoszcz.* The town population reached 36,000 in 1910. In 1918 Wloclawek returned to Poland. During WW II, the German occupiers exterminated a large part of Wloclawek's inhabitants, especially the intelligentsia. WEP, XII, 394 WLODKOWIC, PAWEL (Paulus Vladimiri), (1370-1435), lawyer and Rector of Cracow Academy. Educated in Prague and Padua, he represented Poland in discussions of the Polish conflicts with the Teutonic Knights* in Buda in 1413 and at the Council of Constanz (1414-1418), where he presented his famous treatise concerning Papal and imperial power over infidels. He condemned conversion by sword and claimed that pagans have a natural right to live free on their soil. He also argued against the writings of the German Dominican J. Falkenberg, who defended the Teutonic Knights and attacked King Wladyslaw JagieHo* of Poland. S. Belch, Paulus Vladimiri and His Doctrine Concerning Inter national Law and Politics, 2 vols. (The Hague, 1965); WEP, XII, 395-396.

WLODZIMIERZ WOLYNSKI (Volodymyr-Volynskyj), medieval town in Volhynia* on the Luga River, mentioned for the first time in 988 as a stronghold in Kievian Rus'. In 1154 the town and its region became an independent Principality. Later an Orthodox Bishopric was established in Wlodzimierz, which, in 1199, merged with the Principality of Halicz (Halych).* In 1349, the town was seized by King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great)* of Poland, who founded there a Catholic Bishopric, later moved to Luck.* After his death in 1370, Wlodzimierz was conquered by the Lithuanians. In 1431, it obtained urban rights, and, after the 1569 Union of Lublin,* it was incorporated into the Polish

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Kingdom. At the 1793 Partition* of Poland, it was assigned to Russia and returned to the Second Polish Republic in 1919, to be taken again by the Soviets in September 1939. An important center of the Ukrainian national movement, it had a large Polish garrison during the interwar period and was a rather typical provincial town of about twenty thousand inhabitants, mostly Jewish, with local food, clothing and construction industries. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 644; WEP, XII, 396. WOJCIECH FROM BRUDZEW (1445-1497), astronomer. A secretary to Aleksander Jagielloriczyk,* Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1494, and a professor of Cracow Academy, he was one of the first scholars to discover contradictions in the geocentric theory of the universe. Unlike contemporary astronomers, he was not interested in the pseudo-science of astrology; his main contributions were charts of distances between the planets (tabulae resolutae), published in Milan in 1495 as Commentum planetarum in theorieas Georgii Pursachii. WEP, II, 163. WOJCIECHOWSKI, STANISLAW (1869-1953), President of the Second Polish Republic during 1922-1926. In the early 1890s, he was a member and one of the leaders of the Union of Polish Youth "Zet" (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej "Zet")* and an activist of the Worker's Union (Zjednoczenie Robotnicze). During 1892-1895 and 1899-1906, he lived in exile and was one of the founders and leaders of the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]).* He edited the Socialist periodical Przedswit (The Dawn) in London and became a friend of J. Pilsudski.* He was also one of the pioneers of the cooperative movement in Poland. For most of WW I, he was in Russia, where he was President of the Council of the Union of Polish Parties. In 1918, he returned to Poland and, between January 1919 and July 1920, he served as Minister of Interior. He shifted from the PPS to the Polish Peasant Party-"Piast" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Piast" [PSL-"Piast"])* and represented it in the Parliament from November 1922. On December 20, 1922, he was elected President of the Polish Republic after the assassination of G. Narutowicz.* After the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat,* Wojciechowski retired to private life, protesting against this act of political violence. During 1926-1939, he was a professor at the Main School of Agricultural Economy (Szkola Glowna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego [SGGW]) in Warsaw, and, from 1927, he directed the Cooperative Sci ence Institute (Spdldzielczy Instytut Naukowy). The History of Poland since 1 ed. by R. F. Leslie (Cambridge, 1980), 64, 155; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independe Poland (Oxford, 1972); Prezydenci i premierzy Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej (President Premiers of the Second Polish Republic), ed. by A. Chojnowski and P. Wrobel (Warsaw, 1992), 49-64; WEP, XII, 42 WOJCIECHOWSKI, TADEUSZ (1838-1919), historian, professor of Lvov* University during 1883-1907, and a member of the Austrian House of Lords.

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He specialized in early medieval Polish history and published several noted scholarly works. WEP, XII, 429. WOJEWODA (Latin: comes palatinus, English: palatine or voivode), highest office in the Polish state until the fourteenth century. As ruler's deputy in a given province (Polish: wojewodztwo, Latin: palatinatus), he was in charge of armed forces and performed mainly judicial functions. In the fourteenth century, the power of the wojewoda started to decline, but as the senior-most provincial officer, he presided over electoral dietines (sejmiki), could command levee en masse in his province, and supervised its towns. The holders of that office had a right to sit in the Senate* until the late eighteenth century. In interwar Poland, the wojewoda directed the state administration of a province. WEP, XII, 431. WOJTKIEWICZ, WITOLD (1879-1909), one of the most outstanding Polish painters at the turn of the nineteenth century. A precursor of surrealism, he was linked to currents of symbolism and early expressionism. He was able to combine contradictory elements of tragedy, lyricism, the grotesque, humor and pathos. His rich and elaborate painting forms and the clearness of his color range, combined with profound metaphoric narration, raised his art to the rank of philosophical expression. WEP, XII, 468. WOLYN. See VOLHYNIA. WORCELL, STANISLAW (1799-1857), revolutionary and a political writer. He began his political involvement in the Vilna* Freemason movement. He participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 and was elected a member of the insurrectionist Parliament. After the fall of the uprising, he emigrated to France, where he established close relations with J. Lelewel.* Deported to Belgium for his contacts with the Carbonari* movement, he continued in revolutionary activities and was again deported. He settled in England, where he co-founded and led the "Grudziaz Commune."* In 1846, he joined the Polish Democratic Association (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP])* and, then, became a member of the radical "Centralization." A collaborator of G. Mazzini and A. Hercen, he was strongly influenced by the French Utopian socialists, especially St. Simon, and combined their concepts with mystical elements of human equality and Polish Messianism.* G. Gomori, "East European Federation: Worcell's Forgotten Plan," Polish Review XII/4 (1967); B. Limanowski, Stanislaw Worcell (Cracow, 1910); WEP, XII, 4 WORONIECKI, JACEK (1879-1949), Dominican Thomist philosopher and professor at the KUL (Catholic University of Lublin [Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski])* and at the Angelicum (Dominican) University of Rome. His neoThomist ideas strongly influenced several generations of Polish Catholic schol-

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ars, including Primate Stefan Cardinal Wyszyriski and Pope John Paul II. WEP XII, 489. WRN, acronym of WW II clandestine successor to the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]),* organized in October 1939 in Germanoccupied Warsaw* on the initiative of K. Puzak* and Z. Zaremba.* The full name of the organization was the Central Direction of the Movement of the Working Masses of Towns and Countryside—Freedom, Equality and Independence (Centralne Kierownictwo Ruchu Mas Pracujacych Miast i Wsi—Wolnosc, Rownosc, Niepodleglosc). A group of radical PPS interwar activists did not join the WRN and founded a separate organization, known as the Polish Socialists (Polscy Socjalisci). The WRN supported the Polish Government-in-Exile* in Paris and later in London, and all its agencies in occupied Poland. However, after the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement* of July 30, 1941, establishing PolishSoviet cooperation, the WRN withdrew its support and formed an opposition. When the Soviet Union broke off diplomatic relations with the Polish Government-in-Exile in 1943, the WRN returned to the governmental coalition. The WRN organized its underground People's Guard (Gwardia Ludowa), which was an autonomous unit within the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* In 1944, when the WRN returned to its traditional name, PPS, it had about 87,000 members, including about 70,000 in the underground military units. J. Coutouvidis and J. Reynolds, Poland 1939-1947 (Leicester, 1986), 120-183; W. Czapska-Jordan, WR PPS pod Okupacjg Niemiecka (The WRN-PPS under the German Occupation) (Lond 1976); S. Korboriski, The Polish Underground State (New York, 1978); G. Lerski, land's Secret Envoy 1939-1945 (New York, 1988); WEP, XII, 477; Z. Zaremba, W i Konspiracja (War and Conspiration) (London, 195 WROCLAW (Breslau), largest town of Lower Silesia.* In the era of the Lusatian culture, two fortified settlements existed on the territory of today's Wroclaw. In the ninth century, a stronghold on Ostrow Tumski Island on the Oder* River was raised. In the 990s, Wroclaw passed from Czech power to Polish rule. In 1000, it became the seat of a Bishopric. From the mid-eleventh century, it was one of the main towns of Poland. When Poland was divided into feudal Principalities by the 1138 testament of Boleslaw Krzywousty (the Wrymouth),* Wroclaw became the capital of the Dukedom of Silesia. The town, situated on important commercial crossroads, developed quickly but experienced historic changes. Between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries, Wroclaw was destroyed by the Tatars* but recovered, joined the Hanseatic League,* was seized by the Czechs, and then fell under Habsburg* rule. It flourished in the sixteenth century, then declined during the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648; in 1741, Wroclaw and the entire province were subjugated by Prussia.* The town was almost totally Germanized and developed as a city and important center of the textile, chemical, and electrical industries. In 1900 it had 417,000 inhabitants, and, in 1939, it reached 621,000. In 1945, Wroclaw returned to Poland, as

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decided at the Potsdam* Conference, but was the second most ruined city in Poland after Warsaw, with 60 percent of its industry destroyed. EHGP, II, 499504; M. Orzechowski, "Wroclaw in the Recent History of the Polish State and Nation," Polish Western Affairs XIII/2 (1972), 305-333; W. Roszkowska, A Guide to Wroc (Warsaw, 1970); SHP, 544-545 WR6BLEWSKI, WALERY (1836-1908), revolutionary and General of the Paris Commune. An activist of a radical political group known as the "Reds,"* he participated in the January Uprising* of 1863, first as a leader of a guerrilla unit and then as Commander of a partisan Army Corps. Moving from one skirmish to another, he announced the insurrectionist land reform in the countryside and forced landowners to accede to it. Wounded in a battle, he was transported across the Austrian border and reached France, where he joined the leadership of the United Polish Emigration (Zjednoczenie Emigracji Polskiej) in 1866. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, he took part in the defense of Paris as an officer of the National Guard. In 1871, he joined the Paris Commune, was appointed General, and was in charge of the Left Bank defense. After the fall of the Commune, he was sentenced to death in absentia, but left for London, where he became Secretary to the General Council of the First International and the Polish Delegate to its Congresses. WEP, XII, 51 WROBLEWSKI, ZYGMUNT (1845-1888), physicist. Educated in Kiev, Berlin, Heidelberg, and Munich, he participated in the January Insurrection* of 1863 and was deported to Siberia.* He returned in 1869, resumed his studies in Germany and France, became a member of the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejetnosci [AU])* in 1880 and, from 1882, was a professor at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow.* At first, he researched the phenomena of gas diffusion in liquids and solids. Of special importance was his research in the field of low temperatures. With K. Olszewski,* he liquefied oxygen and nitrogen. He also solidified carbon dioxide and alcohol and discovered a critical formula for stabilizing hydrogen molecules. Biogramy Uczonych Polskich (Biographies of Pol Scholars), vol. Ill (Wroclaw, 1968), 454-458; WEP, XII, 512 WRZESNIA, town in the Poznari (Posen)* region. It received its city rights in the fourteenth century. Substantially destroyed by the Swedish invasion of 1655, it was mainly under Prussian rule during 1793-1919. In the second half of the nineteenth century, Wrzesnia was industrialized with cement and sugar factories. It also became an important railroad junction. In spite of intense Germanization, the Polish population defended its native language, in the most famous instance in the Children's School Strike of 1901-1902, organized as a protest against religious instruction in German. During the 1918-1919 uprising in Great Poland (Wielkopolska),* a Volunteers' Battalion from Wrzesnia distinguished itself in several battles. The Polish population of the town was decimated by the German occupiers during WW II. WEP, XII, 513.

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WUJEK, JAKUB (1541-1597), theologian and Jesuit,* who headed Jesuit* colleges in Poznari (Posen),* Vilna,* and Koloszwar, Hungary. In 1584, as a well-known scholar and an author of numerous polemics directed mainly against the Polish Brethren, he received an assignment to translate the Holy Scriptures into Polish. His elegant translation became famous and served as the foundation of later editions of the Scriptures. He also published a translation of David's Psalms in Renaissance prose style. Both works, aside from their religious importance, contributed substantially to the development of the Polish language. WEP, XII, 527.

WYBICKI, JOZEF (1747-1822), politician, publicist, playwright, and author of the Polish national anthem. Educated in Gdarisk (Danzig)* and Leyda, he was a member of the 1767 Polish Sejm* (Parliament), where he protested the arrogant performance of the Russian Ambassador to Poland, N. W. Repnin.* Wybicki then participated in the conservative-patriotic Bar Confederation.* From 1777, he served on the Commission of National Education.* Engaged in the political fight for systematic reforms in Poland, he authored the Patriotic Letters (Listy patriotyczne), a two-volume work advocating changes in Poland. He also wrote comedies, ridiculing enemies of political reforms, and was active as a publicist during the Great Sejm* (Parliament) of 1788-1792. During the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, Wybicki represented the right wing in the Supreme National Council and, as a publicist, he attacked the Jacobins.* In 1795 he settled in Paris, where he was active among Polish political emigres. He contributed to the formation of the Polish Legions and, in 1797, he wrote Mazurka of Dgbrowski, which became the Polish national anthem, for them. He played an important role in the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw* as a member of its Provisional Ruling Committee. He served as a Senator and a Prefect of the Poznari region of the Duchy. In the Congress Kingdom of Poland,* he switched to a pro-Russian orientation and was appointed the Head of the Supreme Court. J. Lechicka, Jozef Wybicki, Zycie i Tworczosc (Jozef Wybicki, Lif Work) (Toruri, 1962); M. Kallas, "Jdzef Wybicki (1747-1822): Portrait of a National Hero," Polish Review XXXIII/4 (1988), 457-461; WEP, XII, 531; W. Zajewski, Joz Wybicki (Warsaw, 198 WYCECH, CZESLAW (1889- ) peasant leader. From 1919 he was active in the Polish peasant youth movement. He was also an activist of the Polish Peasant Party "Liberation" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Wyzwolenie" [PSL "Wyzwolenie"])* and, from 1931, of the Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL]).* A teacher by profession, he was one of the leaders of the Union of Polish Teachers (Zwiazek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego [ZNP]),* representing its radical wing in opposing the Sanacja* regime of J. Pilsudski.* During WW II, he was active in the anti-German resistance. WEP, XII, 538. WYCZ6LKOWSKI, LEON (1852-1936), painter and sketcher, one of the most outstanding Polish artists of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Edu-

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cated in Warsaw* with W. Gerson, and Munich and Cracow* with J. Matejko,* he traveled in Ukraine. During 1895-1911, he was a professor at the Academy of Fine Arts in Cracow,* where he co-founded the Sztuka (Art) Association. From 1914, he lived alternately in Cracow, Poznari, near Bydgoszcz, and in Warsaw, where he was appointed professor of graphics at the Academy of Fine Arts in 1934. In his early works, he concentrated on historical subjects under the influence of Gerson and Matejko. Later he painted realistic portraits, fashionable high-society scenes, and Ukrainian landscapes and focused on graphics. WEP, XII, 543-54 WYHOWSKI, JAN (Vyhovsky, Ivan) (7-1664), Cossack* Hetman* during 1657-1659 and a close associate of Bohdan Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky).* A nobleman of the Uniate* denomination, he served in a Kiev court and fought in the Polish Army against the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising* in 1648. Taken prisoner by the Tatars* and ransomed by B. Chmielnicki* (who knew him before the uprising), Wyhowski became a Military Chancellor and then a General Chancellor of insurrectionist Ukraine.* After Chmielnicki's death in 1657, Wyhowski helped young Jerzy Chmielnicki (Yurii Khmelnitsky) and was elected Hetman of Ukraine. Seeking rapprochement with Poland, he signed the Hadziacz (Hadiache)* Agreement with the representatives of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth* on September 16, 1658. According to the agreement, Ukraine would be returned to the Commonwealth as its third autonomous segment, called the Grand Duchy of Rus'. The agreement was very unpopular among the majority of Cossacks and peasants, who rebelled against Wyhowski. He was deposed from his Hetman office, escaped to the Polish-controlled territories, and became a Palatine (wojewoda) of Kiev. CHP, I, 525-527; Encycl pedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 665; WEP, XII, 5 WYSLOUCH, BOLESLAW (1855-1937), pioneer of the Polish peasant movement. As a student in St. Petersburg during 1875-1880, he established contacts with the Russian revolutionary movement. In 1880 he returned to Warsaw* and was jailed for his involvement in socialist activities. In 1884 he left for Galicia,* where he edited several periodicals and newspapers. From 1889, Wyslouch published Przyjaciel ludu (People's Friend), which played a great role in the shaping of the Galician peasant movement. Wyslouch became a spiritual guide to many peasant activists, including J. Stapiriski* and J. Dabski.* From 1895, he was a member of the Polish Peasant Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe [PSL])* and authored its 1903 program. Later, he was active in the Polish Peasant Party"Piast" (PSL-"Piast")* and the PSL "Wyzwolenie" (Liberation).* During 1922-1928, he served as a Senator. WEP, XII, 567-56 WYSLOUCH, MARIA (1858-1905), teacher, publicist, and social activist. The wife of B. Wyslouch,* she published Przyjaciel ludu (People's Friend) with him. She organized numerous educational and social associations and played an

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important role in the women's and peasants' movements in Galicia.* P. Brock, "Maria Wyslouchowa and the Polish Peasant Movement in Galicia," Canadian Slavon Papers III (1958), 89-102; WEP, XII, 56 WYSOCKA, STANISLAWA (Wilska) (1877-1941), actress and director in Polish and other theaters. Prominent and well traveled, she also played in eighteen films in the interwar period. SBTP, 818-819. WYSOCKI, PIOTR (1797-1874), officer and activist of the Polish independence movement. In 1818 he volunteered to serve in the Polish Army, and, from 1827, he worked as an Infantry instructor at the Cadet Officers School in Warsaw.* In December 1828, he founded a secret patriotic organization which was planning an armed action to re-build an independent Polish state. On November 29, 1830, Wysocki started the November Insurrection* with an attack on the Belweder Palace,* the residence of Grand Duke Constantine.* During the defense of Warsaw in 1831, he commanded an Infantry Battalion. Wounded and taken prisoner, he was deported to Siberia.* In 1857 he returned to Poland and published his memoirs about the Insurrection. T. Lepkowski, Piotr Wysocki (Wa saw, 1970); WEP, XII, 569. WYSPIANSKI, STANISLAW (1869-1907), playwright and painter. Educated at Cracow* Academy of Fine Arts under the direction of J. Matejko,* he was considered especially talented by his professor. Matejko asked Wyspiariski to assist him in the polychrome renovation of the Marian Church at Cracow, a project which inspired the artist's interest in monumental painting. During 1887— 1890 and 1896-1897, Wyspiariski also studied at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow,* and, in 1890, he went on scholarship to Western Europe. Impressed with theater life in Paris, he especially admired Shakespeare and started to sketch his early dramas. In 1894 he returned to Cracow, where he became a pillar of the artistic "Young Polish"* movement. He planned and partially executed the polychrome painting in the Franciscan Church, including its stained glass. He also established permanent contact with Cracow City Theater, where he showed his plays and worked as a stage designer. His plays Wesele (Wedding) and Wyzwolenie (Liberation) were great successes in the 1901 and 1903 seasons. Simultaneously, Wyspiariski worked as an illustrator of Zycie (Life), an artistic magazine, and became a co-founder of the Sztuka (Art) Association. In 1902, he became professor of the Fine Arts Academy and, in 1905, a City Councilor in Cracow. He painted portraits of prominent persons and of children, mainly in pastels, which he also used in his landscapes and Impressionist paintings. Though he lived only thirty-eight years, he was one of the most talented and versatile Polish artists. His plays in verse became the cornerstone of the modern Polish theater. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 351-3 A. Terlecka, Stanislaw Wyspiariski and Symbolism (Rome, 1985); T. Terlecki, Stanislaw

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Wyspiariski (Boston, 1983); S. Zimmer, Stanislaw Wyspiariski: A Biographical S (Essen, 1959). WYSZEHRAD (VYSEGRAD) MEETINGS (November 1335 and July 1339), meetings of King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great)* of Poland and the Czech ruler John Luxemburg at the castle of Wyszehrad in North Hungary. John Luxemburg resigned from his pretensions to the Polish Crown for a substantial sum paid in Czech currency. Simultaneously, John Luxemburg and King Charles Robert of Hungary mediated in the conflict between Poland and the Teutonic Knights.* As a consequence of the mediation, Poland regained Kujavia* and the Dobrzyri region in exchange for relinquishing the Chelmno* area and Eastern Pomerania* as a permanent grant to the Order. The second Wyszehrad meeting (July 1339) resulted in an agreement between Kazimierz and Charles Robert concerning the succession to the Polish throne. For the support of Hungary against the Teutonic Knights and the recognition of Polish rights to Ruthenia* (Principality of Wlodzimierz* and Halicz*), the Polish throne would pass to the Hungarian Anjou dynasty if Kazimierz were to die without a male heir. The deal was later confirmed by Kazimierz in Buda in 1355. CHP, I, 161-171; P. W Knoll, The Rise of the Polish Monarchy (Chicago, 1972), 75-82; SHP, 566; WEP, 574.

Y

YALTA, CONFERENCE OF, meeting of the three Allied leaders, F. D. Roosevelt,* W. Churchill, and J. Stalin, held between February 4 and 11, 1945, at Yalta on the Crimean Peninsula. The chief participants, their Foreign Ministers, and members of their staffs discussed and decided crucial matters concerning the final defeat of Nazi Germany and the political order of post-war Europe. Stalin agreed that the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan three months after the termination of hostilities in Europe. The structure of the future United Nations organization was designed in Yalta. The Polish question became the most complicated and controversial issue of the conference. The participants agreed that the Curzon Line* would be the eastern border of Poland, which would lose its eastern provinces but would be recompensed by territory at the expense of defeated Germany in the west. However, the Allied leaders were unable to agree on the final version of the Oder Line.* Stalin wanted to push Poland westward to the Oder and Nysa* Luzycka Rivers, while Churchill tried to save a part of German-populated Lower Silesia* for post-war Germany and saw the western Polish border on the Nysa Klodzka River. The Polish "Provisional Government of National Unity" was to be created. It was obvious that it would be dominated by the Communists, but it was to include Polish ' 'democratic" leaders from the West. The government was supposed to organize free elections to the Polish Parliament as soon as possible. It appears that Churchill tried to trade Polish eastern provinces for the independence and sovereignty of Poland. His plan failed: the Soviets broke the Yalta agreement and subjugated Poland totally. The Yalta decisions concerning the future of Poland were vehemently protested by the Polish Government-in-Exile* of T. Arciszewski.* D. S. Clemens, Yalta (New York, 1970); Correspondence between the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the U.S.S.R. and the Presidents of the U.S.A. and the Ministers of Great Britain during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945, 2 vols cow, 1957); J. Karski, The Great Powers and Poland, 1919-1945: From Versaill

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Yalta (Lanham, 1985); K. Kersten, Jatta w polskiej perspektywie (Yalta in the Pol Perspective) (London and Warsaw, 1989); E. R. Stettinius, Roosevelt and the Russia The Yalta Conference (New York, 194 YIDDISH, language of the Ashkenazic Jews* living in Central and Eastern Europe. Written in the Hebrew alphabet, it originated in medieval Germany and, along with Hebrew and Aramaic, became one of the three literary languages in Jewish history. It appeared in Poland together with the great migration of the German Jews in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and blossomed in the nineteenth century. According to the 1931 Polish census, almost 80 percent of the Jews living in Poland declared Yiddish their mother tongue. Encyclopedi Judaica, vol. 16 (Jerusalem, 1971), 788-798 YOUNG, HILTON, British financier, who headed a British mission of financial advisers in Poland during October 1923-February 1924. His suggestions were considered favorable to England and were disapproved by Premier W. Grabski,* who believed that they would make the Polish economy dependent on Great Britain. Z. Landau, "Polityczne aspekty dzialalnosci angielskiej misji doradcow finan sowych Hiltona Younga w Polsce (1923-1924)" (Political Aspects of the English Mission of Financial Advisor Hilton Young in Poland), Zeszyty Naukowe Szkofy Gtow Planowania i Statystyki, no. 9 (195 "YOUNG POLAND" ("Mloda Polska"), trend in Polish literature and art in the years 1890-1918. The "Young Poland" movement was part of a general European tendency known as modernism and took its name from other "Young" literary movements such as "Young Scandinavia," "Young Germany," and "Young Belgium." The "Young Poland" movement, diversified and heterogeneous, reached frequently back to Romanticism* and, therefore, was sometimes called neo-Romanticism. "Young Polish" artists disliked the ideas of Positivism* and realism, despised the bourgeois values and way of life, and moved toward aestheticism, decadentism, intuition, and admiration of the vital forces of nature. They shared the style of Romanticism, but, unlike the Romantics, they were not interested in social and patriotic subjects. The "Young Poland" period also produced a rapid revival of art. Painters and sculptors of "Young Poland" did not have a common program and were close to symbolism, impressionism, and secession. The movement was centered in Cracow,* where its most prominent member was the painter and dramatist S. Wyspiariski.* Other writers included J. Kasprowicz,* L. Staff,* S. Zeromski,* W. Reymont,* S. Brzozowski,* and K. Irzykowski.* History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsa 1968), 586-589; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 322-3 WEP, VI, 377-37

z

ZABLOCKI, FRANCISZEK (1752-1821), poet, who from 1774 served in various positions on the Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej)* and in the Association for Elementary School Textbooks. He participated in King Stanislaw August's* Thursday dinners,* and, during the Great Sejm* (Parliament) of 1788-1792, he actively supported constitutional reform. During the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, he was active in its tenuous civil authority. In 1795 he was ordained a priest and, from 1800, served as a parish priest in his native Koriskowola. He was one of the most prolific writers of his time. He translated Horace and modern philosophers and historians. He published occasional poems, poetic adaptations, and some sixty comedies, including the best known, Fop-Suitor (Fircyk w zalotach). He frequently used French models, but he was able to create very realistic Polish characters and sharply criticized the so-called Sarmatian mentality. C. Milosz, The History of Polish L erature (London, 1969), 170, 189; WEP, XII, 59 ZACH^TA, art organization, publically active in Warsaw* from 1860 until 1939 to popularize the Polish plastic arts and help young artists. Its initiators were the painters W. Gerson, A. Lesser, A. Schouppe, and K. Kaniewski. In 1900 a neo-classicist building was constructed at Malachowski's Square to serve as Warsaw's main gallery for annual salons (from 1904) and special exhibitions. WEP, XII, 608-609.

ZADWORZE, battle site forty kilometers east of Lvov,* where a Polish volunteer Battalion under Major B. Zajaczkowski stopped Budenny's Red Cossack Cavalry offensive during the Polish-Soviet War* in August 1920. Most of the Polish Infantrymen were killed and the place is known in Polish tradition as the Polish Thermopylae.

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ZAGORSKI-OSTOJA, WLODZIMIERZ (1882-1927), General. He served as a Captain in the Austrian Intelligence and, during 1914-1917, in the Polish Legions* as Chief of Staff and Regiment Commander. Together with W. Sikorski*, he opposed J. Pilsudski's* policy toward the Central Powers. After the Polish Auxiliary Corps (Polski Korpus Posilkowy) crossed the front lines to Russia at Rararicza,* protesting against the Brest-Litovsk Treaty,* Zagorski was imprisoned by the Austrians. He joined the Polish Army in November 1918, participated in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, and worked in several military positions. He fought against the rebels during the 1926 Pilsudski coup d'etat.* Temporarily arrested after the coup, he disappeared under mysterious circumstances, probably killed in August 1927 by political opponents. Z. Cieslikowski, Sprawa Generala Zagorskiego (The Case of General Zagdrski) (Wars 1976); T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Gene of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 185. ZAJ^CZEK, JOZEF (1752-1826), General. A member of the Great Sejm* (Parliament) of 1778-1792, he served as a secretary of the Association of Friends of the May Constitution. During the Polish-Russian War of 1792,* he commanded a Division and distinguished himself in the Battle of Zielerice. After King Stanislaw August* joined the Targowica* Confederation, Zajaczek asked for discharge and left for Saxony. Later he became one of the Polish Jacobins* and, during the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794, presided over a military court. He commanded the defense of Warsaw* and was wounded during the battle. After the fall of the uprising, he left for Galicia,* where he was temporarily imprisoned by the Austrians. In 1795 he emigrated to France and joined the Polish Legions* of Gen. H. Dabrowski.* Taken prisoner by the Russians in Napoleon's campaign, he was released in 1815 and became a servile Deputy Regent in the newly created Congress Kingdom of Poland.* Historical Dictiona of Napoleonic France, 1799-1815, ed. by O. Connelly (Westport, Connecticut, 19 519; WEP, XII, 61 ZAKOPANE, resort in the foothills of the Tatra* Mountains. Mentioned as a village for the first time in the sixteenth century, it was discovered to be a resort with a healthful climate by Dr. T. Chalubiriski* in the late nineteenth century. In 1889 Count W. Zamoyski bought a neighboring mountainous area and created there a national foundation, a basis for the future national park. In 1873 the Tatra Association was founded and, in 1889, the Tatra Museum was established. Zakopane, linked by railroad with Cracow* in 1889, developed quickly and became an important center of Polish culture. In 1933 it obtained urban rights, and, in March 1939, it hosted the European ski championship. During WW II, Zakopane was a center of guerrilla activities. The Nazis tried unsuccessfully to organize a separatist "Goralenvolk." Zakopane developed its own architectural style, characteristically a wood structure on a stone foundation with a sloping

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roof and porch, resembling an Alpine chalet. A. Paczkowski Zakopane i okolice (Zakopane and Its Region) (Warsaw, 1968); WEP,XII, 618-619. ZAKRZEWSKA, MARIA (1828-1902), physician. Educated in Berlin, Warsaw,* and Cleveland, she became the first woman physician in New England. WEP,XII, 620. ZAKRZEWSKI, KAZIMIERZ (1900-1941), historian. Active in the Union for Reform of the Republic ("Naprawa") during 1926-1930, he was also a leader of the international trade union movement and a professor of Byzantine studies at Warsaw University. He was executed by the Germans in the Palmiry Forest near Warsaw.* WEP,XII, 620. ZALESKI, AUGUST (1883-1967), diplomat. A reader in Polish literature and history at London University, he represented the Polish independence movement in Great Britain during WW I. Active in European liberal circles, he became one of the leaders of Polish freemasonry. From 1918 he worked for the Polish Foreign Ministry, representing Poland in Switzerland. During 1919-1921 he was a Minister in Greece, during 1922-1926, in Italy; during 1926-1932, he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was forced to resign in favor of Col. J. Beck* as a result of Marshal J. Pilsudski's* suspicion of his Freemason connections. During 1935-1939, Zaleski served as President of the Supreme Council of the Commercial Bank in Warsaw. He was also a Senator during 1935-1938. From the fall of 1939, he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Polish Government-in-Exile.* He resigned in the summer of 1941 in opposition to the MaiskySikorski Agreement* and then became Chief of the Chancellery of W. Raczkiewicz, President of Poland. International Who's Who—1944-45 (London), 945; WEP, XII, 622. ZALESKI, JOZEF BOHDAN (1802-1886), poet. As a student at Warsaw University during 1820-1822, he was active in patriotic conspiracies. He participated in the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831 as an activist of the Patriotic Association, co-editor of the radical periodical Nowa Polska, and member of the insurrectionist Sejm* (Parliament). From 1832, while in French exile, he co-founded the Slavic Association and a religious sect of the United Brothers and was active in the Polish Democratic Association (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP])* and other organizations of the Great Emigration.* Fond of Ukrainian folklore, he wrote idyllic poems on his childhood in Ukraine and on the Cossack* Ukrainian heroic past. One of the founders of the "Ukrainian school" in Polish poetry, he encouraged the development of Ukrainian ethnography. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 804; C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 248-249; WEP, XII, 632.

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ZALESKI, WLADYSLAW (1852-1925), missionary. A scion of an aristocratic family, he became a priest, served in Vatican diplomacy and was sent with a special mission to South Asia in 1886. He organized the administration of the Church on the vast territories between the Indian Ocean and the Himalayas and founded several Christian seminaries in India and Ceylon. Considered the "father of the Indian clergy and episcopate," he was elevated eventually to the 153rd Latin Patriarch of Antioch, the third place in the Church hierarchy. G. Lerski, "Polish Prince of the Church in South Asia," Polish Review XXIX/4 (1984), 57-69; W. Malej, Patriarch Ladislas Zaleski: Apostolic Delegate in South Asia (Bombay, 1964); WEP, XII, 623.

ZALESZCZYKI (Zalishchyky), town on the mid-Dniester River on the border between Ukraine* and Bukovina. First mentioned in a historical document in 1340, it was under Polish rule from the fifteenth century. Developed by S. Poniatowski,* father of the last King of Poland, in the mid-eighteenth century, the city was under Austrian control during 1772-1918. After WW I, it was incorporated into Poland. Because of its mild climate, Zaleszczyki was a center of vineyards and almond orchards in interwar Poland. As a border town with Romania, it served as an escape route for the President of the Polish Republic and his government after the Nazi-Soviet invasion of Poland. Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 805; WEP, XII, 623. ZALIWSKI, JOZEF (1797-1855), officer and activist of the Polish independence movement. In 1817 he joined the Army of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and participated in several secret anti-Russian military organizations. A member of a conspiracy in the Warsaw Cadet School, he was in charge of the seizure of Warsaw's Arsenal, which initiated the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831. During the uprising, he advocated a plan of guerrilla warfare against the Russians. When it was rejected, Zaliwski left for Lithuania* and there organized partisan units, which temporarily held Kowno (Kaunas). Then he participated in the defense of Warsaw, fought in the Cracow* region and, after the fall of the uprising, emigrated to Paris. He prepared an armed expedition to Poland and, in March 1833, crossed the border from Galicia* to the Congress Kingdom. He withdrew after a month of guerrilla operations. In 1834 he planned a new expedition but was imprisoned by the Austrians. Pardoned in 1848, he moved to France and joined the Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]).* WEP, XII, 624. ZALUSKI, JOZEF ANDRZEJ (1702-1774), Bishop of Kiev from 1758, historian, bibliographer, and editor. A bibliophile from his early years, he established the famous Zaluski Library in 1747 with his older brother, Andrzej Zaluski (1695-1758), Bishop of Cracow. It collected prints and manuscripts but also had a scientific program, publishing bibliographic and encyclopedic series. Zaluski took an anti-dissident stand at the 1767 Sejm* (Parliament) and was

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deported by the Russians to Kaluga, from whence he returned in 1773. He participated in the works of his library, co-edited several bibliographies and translated French poets into Polish. He donated his library of 10,000 manuscripts and 300,000 volumes to the Polish government. After the Partitions* of Poland, the library was moved to St. Petersburg. It was returned to Poland after WW I, but, in 1944, it was completely burned down by the Nazis. M. Danilewicz, The Libraries of Poland (St. Andrews, 1943); C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 158. ZAMENHOF, LUDWIK (1859-1917), Polish linguist of Jewish origin. An ophthalmologist practicing in Warsaw,* he created Esperanto, an artificial international language based on various European languages. In 1887 Zamenhof published a textbook with a dictionary entitled International Language (Jezyk miedzynarodowy) under the pseudonym "Dr. Esperanto." Later, he authored many works dealing with the problems of Esperanto, trying to prove its usefulness. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 16 (Jerusalem, 1971), 926; WEP, XII, 631. ZAMOSC, town southeast of Lublin.* It was founded in 1580 by J. Zamoyski* as his residence and a center of his family estate. Planned by B. Morando, Zamosc became the best example of Renaissance* urban architecture in Poland. The town, encircled by a fortification of seven bastions, is pentagonal in shape and has a regular checkerboard of streets, a large market square, and an elegant city hall built during 1591-1600. In 1599 the Zamosc Academy and a printing shop, which made the town an important center of culture and scholarship, were established. It also obtained several economic privileges and developed quickly. Thanks to its strong fortifications, Zamosc withstood Cossack,* Tatar,* and Swedish attacks. After the First Partition* of Poland in 1772, it belonged to Austria; in 1809, it was included in the Duchy of Warsaw;* and, in 1813, it was occupied by the Russians. In 1821 the government of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* bought the town from the Zamoyski family and strengthened its fortifications. Timber and agricultural machinery industries developed in the town, which reached 28,000 inhabitants in 1939. During WW II, the German occupiers planned to make the fertile Zamosc region a center of new German colonization. They exterminated the local Jewish population and started the mass deportation of the Poles. This ignited intense Polish resistance and resulted in further extermination of the civilian population. Encyclopaedia Judaica,ov l. 16 (Jerusalem, 1971), 926-928; WEP,XII, 633-634; S. Herbst, Zamosc (Warsaw, 1955); C. Madajczyk, "Deportations in the ZamoSc* Region in 1942 and 1943 in the Light of German Documents," Acta Poloniae Historica I (1958), 75-106. ZAMOYSKI, Polish magnate family established by Tomasz Laziriski, who bought the Stara Zamosc estate in the early fifteenth century and assumed the name of Zamoyski. The Zamoyskis played important roles in Polish politics and occupied several crucial state positions in Poland. The most important among

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them was Jan Zamoyski,* the Polish Chancellor* and Grand Hetman.* WEP, XII, 634-635. ZAMOYSKI, ANDRZEJ (1800-1874), statesman. Educated in Paris, Geneva and Edinburgh, he became a Director of the Agriculture and Commerce Department in the government of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* in 1823. During the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he was sent by the insurrectionist National Government to Vienna to ask for Austrian assistance against the Russians. After the fall of the uprising, he managed his estate, introduced several agricultural innovations, edited a prestigious periodical devoted to economic matters, and arranged steamship navigation on the Vistula* River. In 1858 he initiated and became the President of the Agricultural Society (Towarzystwo Rolnicze),* which developed into a de facto representation of the main conservative political forces active in Congress Poland. During the anti-Russian manifestations in Warsaw in the early 1860s, Zamoyski became a leader of the "Whites"* and opposed Margrave A. Wielopolski* and his policy. In 1862 Zamoyski was summoned to St. Petersburg and expelled to France. WEP, XII, 634. ZAMOYSKI, JAN (1542-1605), statesman. Educated in Paris, Rome and Padua, he became a secretary to King Zygmunt August* in 1565. At first he was a leader of a middle gentry camp in its struggle with the magnates.* During the first interregnum after Zygmunt August's death and the extinction of the Jagiellonian dynasty, Zamoyski enforced the viritim election, which gave the right to participate in Royal election to every nobleman. Hostile to the Habsburgs,* he supported the election of Stefan Batory* and became his closest political adviser. In 1578 Zamoyski was promoted to the position of Crown Chancellor* and, in 1581, to Grand Crown Hetman* (hetman wielki koronny), and was in fact in charge of Polish domestic and foreign policy. After Batory's death, Zamoyski supported the candidacy of the Swedish Prince, Sigismund Vasa, later King Zygmunt III Waza,* to the Polish throne. Zamoyski organized several Polish military expeditions to Moldavia and Vallachia, made these Principalities Polish vassals, and temporarily stopped the Turkish northward expansion. In 1601 Zamoyski took command of Polish troops in the struggle against the Swedes in Livonia.* Concerned over the King's attempts to establish absolute rule, he decided to head the opposition, which developed later into the Zebrzydowski* Rebellion. Zamoyski also opposed the Polish involvement in the Russian crisis, known as the Time of Troubles. One of the most outstanding Polish statesmen of all times, Zamoyski also managed the affairs of his property. He amassed a tremendous fortune. His land estates, composed of eleven towns and over 200 villages, extended to 6,445 square kilometers. CHP, I, 281-282, 285, passim; P. Jasienica, "The Right Man," The Commonwealth of Both Nations (Miami, 1987); WEP,XII, 634-635.

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679

ZAMOYSKI, MAURYCY (1871-1939), politician. A wealthy landowner, he was a co-founder and leading activist of the Central Agricultural Association. From 1904 he was a member of the National League* and then joined the leadership of the National Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe).* During WW I, he belonged to the Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP])* in Warsaw,* and later, in Paris, he served as its Vice President. During 1919-1924 Zamoyski represented Poland as a Minister in France. In 1922, the political right appointed him as candidate for the Presidency of Poland, but he lost to G. Narutowicz.* In 1924 Zamoyski became Minister of Foreign Affairs, and, during 1925-1927, he presided over the Supreme Council of the Landowners Organization. WEP, XII, 635. ZAMOYSKI, WLADYSLAW (1803-1868), General. He began his military career as an aide-de-camp to Grand Duke Constantine.* During the November Insurrection* of 1830-1831, he tried to mediate between the Grand Duke and the leadership of the uprising. After its fall, he left Poland, became one of the main associates of Prince A. Czartoryski,* and headed the foreign policy program of the Hotel Lambert.* During the 1848 Springtime of Nations, Zamoyski organized the General Staff of the Sardinian Army and tried to prevent the establishment of the Mickiewicz Legion.* During the Crimean War, Zamoyski attempted to organize a Polish Division under British command. In 1861 he was sent to England as a special envoy of the Hotel Lambert to ask for British intervention on behalf of Poland. WEP, XII, 635. ZAN, TOMASZ (1796-1855), poet and a friend of A. Mickiewicz.* As a student of Vilna* University during 1815-1820, he co-founded the secret Philomat Association (Filomaci*) in 1819 and, during 1820-1823, served as President of the Philarates (Filareci*). Arrested by the Russians and sentenced in the famous trial of patriotic youth of Vilna in 1824, he was deported for life to distant Orenburg, where he researched the mineral wealth of the Ural Mountains. Released in 1837, he became a librarian at the Mining Institute in St. Petersburg and, in 1841, returned to Lithuania.* He wrote triolets, ballads, elegies, satirical poems and humorous stories. WEP,XII, 635-636. ZAOLZIE (name of the region beyond the Olza River), part of Cieszyn Silesia.* According to the 1910 census, the Zaolzie area was inhabited by 140,000 Poles, 114,000 Czechs and 32,000 Germans. In November 1918, the Polish National Council and the Czechoslovak Committee divided the region along ethnic lines in a way satisfactory to Poland. Unexpectedly, on January 23, 1919, when Polish troops were busy fighting the Ukrainians in the Lvov* region, the Czechs fell upon the small Polish military units in Zaolzie and incorporated most of the area into their new state. Zaolzie remained in Czechoslovakia until October 1938, when it was occupied by Polish troops under Gen. W. Bortnowski after the Munich agreement. In 1939 this industrial territory of 906 square kil-

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ometers had about 258,000 inhabitants. During 1918-1938, particularly during the Great Depression, the Polish workers were impoverished while under local Czech rule. After the annexation of Zaolzie, the Polish authorities began to remove the Czechs and Germans from their jobs. Attempts were also made to extend Polish legislation to Zaolzie. During WW II, it was incorporated into the Third Reich. CHP,II, 512-514; EHGP, II, 542; R. Woytak, "Polish Military Intervention into Czechoslovakian Teschen and Western Slovakia in September-November 1938," East European Quarterly VI/3 (1972), 376-387. ZAPOLSKA, GABRIELA (1857-1921), playwright and novelist. In the early 1880s, she worked as a reporter for a Cracow* daily and made a debut as an actress in a traveling theater. During 1889-1905, she performed in the boulevard and professional theaters of Paris and then in the main Polish cities. From 1900 she wrote feuilletons for a Lvov* daily, Slowo Polskie (Polish Word), and, from 1902, directed a drama school in Cracow. A "woman in revolt," surrounded by scandalous gossip, she wrote plays and novels characterized by naturalistic brutality, mixed with melodrama and exposing the hypocritical morality of the bourgeoisie. One of her plays, Mrs. Dulska's Morality (Moralnosc pani Dulskiej), unmasks a respectable woman from the bourgeois milieu. Her plays became popular and enduring in Polish repertory, but her controversial views were attacked by conservative critics. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 359-360; WEP, XII, 642. ZAPOROZE (Zaporizhia), name of the military and political organization and locale of the Cossacks* on the lower Dnieper River, beyond its rapids (za porohamy). The Cossacks were settled there in the fifteenth century by the authorities of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth* to defend its southern borders against the Tatars* and to bring this unpopulated area into cultivation. The Cossacks created their autonomous organization, which, in spite of frequent conflicts with the Polish authorities, survived until the Partitions* of Poland. The center of that region, a military camp called Zaporozhian Sich, developed into the town of Zaporoze in the eighteenth century. CHP, I, 505-509; Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 812-814; WEP, XII, 643. ZAREMBA, STANISLAW (1863-1942), mathematician. Educated at St. Petersburg Technological Institute and the Sorbonne, he taught in several higher schools in France and, in 1900, he became a professor of mathematics at the Jagiellonian University* in Cracow.* A member of the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejetnosci [AU]) from 1903 and the Science Academy of the USSR from 1925, he co-founded the Polish Mathematical Association and edited its organ Annales de la Societe Polonaise des Mathematiques, contributed to the reform of mathematical studies in Poland, and authored many noted works. WEP, XII, 646.

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ZAREMBA, ZYGMUNT ("MARCIN") (1895-1967), Socialist leader. He joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS])* in 1912 and, before WW I, was active in one of its splinter groups, the PPS-Opposition. At the beginning of the war, he moved to Russia and lived in Kiev and Kharkiv until 1918; there he attended a law school and developed as an important Socialist leader. From 1918, when he returned to Poland, he was a member of the PPS leadership, edited its organ Robotnik (Worker), was active in the trade unions, and served as a member of the Polish Sejm* (Parliament) during 19221935. He opposed the concept of the "popular front" with the Communists and was considered a dangerous enemy by them. In September 1939, during the defense of Warsaw,* Zaremba organized the Workers' Committee of Social Welfare and the Workers' Battalions. After the fall of Warsaw, he was one of the main organizers and leaders of the Polish underground state, representing the clandestine PPS in its leadership. He opposed the Maisky-Sikorski Agreement* signed in the summer of 1941. He was involved in the organization of the assistance to threatened Jews, and, in the summer of 1944, he participated in the leadership of the Warsaw Uprising.* After the war, he emigrated to France. M. Drozdowski, "Nota Biograficzna o Zygmuncie Zarembie" (Biographical Note of Zygmunt Zaremba), in Z. Zaremba, Powstanie Sierpniowe(August Insurrection) (Warsaw, 1990); Z. Zaremba, Wojna i Konspiracja(War and Conspiracy) (London, 1957). "ZARZEWIE" (Fire Glow), patriotic youth organization founded in Lvov* in 1909 at the initiative of the National Democratic* youth groups related to the Union of Polish Youth "Zet" (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej "Zet").* The main goal of the organization was fighting for Polish independence. "Zarzewie" took its name from its press organ, established the para-military "Polish Army" and Polish Riflemen Squads, and also acted through the Scout movement. During WW I, most members of "Zarzewie" joined the Polish Legions.* The organization was dissolved in February 1920 in reborn Poland. WEP, XII, 651. ZASLAWSKI, WLADYSLAW (1618-1656), political and military leader. A scion of a wealthy Orthodox Princely family from Volhynia,* he served as a Palatine (wojewoda) of Sandomierz* from 1645 and of Cracow* from 1649. He commanded Polish troops fighting against the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising,* but his incompetence caused a major Polish defeat at the Battle of Pilawce* on September 23, 1648. During the 1655 Swedish invasion, he remained loyal to King Jan Kazimierz* and prepared Przemysl* for effective defense. WEP, XII, 654. ZAWADZKI, TADEUSZ ("ZOSKA") (1920-1943), Scout leader and heroic officer of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* during WW II. During 1941— 1942, he was in charge of the resistance movement in the Mokotow Gorny suburb of Warsaw.* Then he commanded the storm groups of the Scout under-

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ground "Grey Ranks" (Szare Szeregi) in Warsaw. He participated in a number of daring encounters with the Germans and was killed in an attack on a German border guard position on August 20, 1943. His pseudonym "Zoska" was used as a name for the AK storm battalion. A. Kamiriski, Stones on the Rampart: The Story of Two Lads in the Polish Underground Movement (London, 1945); WEP, XII, 660. ZAWICHOST, town near Sandomierz* on the Vistula* River. It was a seat of a Castellan* in the eleventh century. In 1205 Prince Leszek Bialy (the White)* defeated there the Halicz* Ruthenian* invasion. In 1241 and again in 1257, the town was destroyed by the Tatars,* but, in the fourteenth century, King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great)* built a new castle in Zakroczym and made the town an administrative center of the region. At the Third Partition* of Poland in 1795, Zakroczym was occupied by the Austrians, during 1809-1813 it was in the Duchy of Warsaw,* and, later, it was incorporated into the Congress Kingdom of Poland.* In mid-September 1939, the "Sandomierz" army group fought the German invaders near Zakroczym for three days. During the German occupation, it became a center of the resistance. On August 26, 1943, the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK])* unit killed a Commander of a German Infantry Division with several staff officers there. In August 1944, the Red Army crossed the Vistula River near the town, which was badly damaged during the war. WEP, XII, 661. ZAWISZA CZARNY (7-1428), famous Polish medieval knight, who distinguished himself in the Battle of Grunwald* in 1410. He became a symbol of knightly virtues, was admired by King Wladyslaw Jagiello,* and was assigned by him to several important diplomatic missions. He was killed by the Turks during a military expedition organized by the Czech and Hungarian King, Sigismund Luxemburg, against the Ottoman Empire. CHP, I, 161, 219; WEP, XII, 664. ZAWISZA OF KUROZW^KI (7-1382), Bishop of Cracow* from 1380. A leader of a magnate group from Little Poland (Malopolska),* he was Royal Chancellor* from 1374 and the main author of the Koszyce privilege. He supported King Ludwik W^gierski (Louis d'Anjou)* and contributed substantially to the succession of his daughter, Jadwiga,* to the Polish throne. In 1381 the King entrusted Zawisza with the rule of the country. CHP, I, 191-193; WEP, XII, 664. ZBARAZ, town near Tarnopol (Tarnopil) in western Ukraine.* First mentioned in 1211 as a local center in the Principality of Halicz* and Volhynia,* it was under Polish rule from the fourteenth century. Destroyed by the Tatars* in 1474 and 1598, it was re-built as a stronghold in the early seventeenth century. In 1649 the Polish Army heroically defended Zbaraz against Hetman* B. Chmiel-

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nicki's* (Khmelnitsky) forces. The six-week-long siege ended with the Zborow* agreement. During 1772-1918, Zbaraz was under Austrian control, after WW I it was regained by Poland, and, in 1939, it was incorporated into the Soviet Ukraine. CHP, I, 512, 574; Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 830-831; WEP,XII, 666. ZB^SZYN, border town in Great Poland (Wielkopolska)* on the Obra River. Originally a Castellan's* stronghold, it received its urban rights in the thirteenth century. In the mid-fifteenth century, it became a center of the Hussite movement in Poland. In 1919, Zbaszyri was the site of a fierce battle during Great Poland's Insurrection against the Germans. In November 1938, the Polish authorities organized an internment camp there for the Jews* with Polish passports who were expelled from Germany by the Nazis. The Polish government refused to accept these Jews, in spite of the fact that they were Polish citizens, and kept some of them in the camp until August 1939. During WW II, about 1,000 inhabitants of Zbaszyri perished in the German camps. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust,ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 4 (London, 1990), 1726-1729; WEP,XII, 666. ZBOROWSKI, SAMUEL (7-1584), famous outlaw. Originally in Royal military service, he was banished to Transylvania for the assassination of J. Wapowski, the Castellan* of Przemysl.* Ignoring this sentence, Zborowski returned home, participated in an expedition against the Russians, and sided frequently against King Stefan Batory* and Chancellor* J. Zamoyski.* Zborowski then became a Habsburg* agent and tried to involve Poland in a war with Turkey by stirring up border raids. He also organized attacks on Zamoyski's estates. Captured on May 12, 1584, he was executed on the King's order two weeks later. His brothers organized protests and magnate opposition to the Royal camp, which led later to growing anarchy. CHP, I, 374, 377, passim; WEP, XII, 670. ZBOROW (Zboriv), town near Tarnopol (Tarnopil) on the Strypa River in western Ukraine.* An indecisive battle was fought there in August 1649 during the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising* by the Polish Army against the Cossacks* and the Tatars.* An agreement was finally signed in Zborow on August 20. B. Chmielnicki* obtained the Hetman* position for the Ukraine and several privileges for the Cossacks. The number of the so-called registered (privileged) Cossacks rose from 6,000 to 40,000. They also received terrain for encampments in Kiev, Bratslav and Chernigov provinces. Simultaneously, the pact restored the dominance of the Polish gentry in Ukraine and, eventually, was rejected by both the Cossack and Polish sides. CHP, I, 513-516; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 244-245. ZBRUCZ, river in western Ukraine* and the left bank tributary of the Dniester. It formed a border between the Russian and Austrian Partitions of Poland during 1772-1918 and, later, between Poland and the USSR during 1921-1939. It was

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crossed by the Red Army on September 17, 1939, as a consequence of the secret protocol of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact.* Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 832; WEP, XII, 672. ZDZIECHOWSKI, JERZY (1880-1975), politician and activist of numerous economic organizations of interwar Poland. During 1922-1927, he represented the Popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy [ZLN])* in the Polish Sejm* (Parliament), where he headed the Budget Commission during 19231924. He also served as Vice President of the Lewiatan* industrial complex and as Minister of Finance in A. Skrzyriski's* cabinet during 1925-1926. EHGP,II, 552; A. Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, 1921-1939 (Oxford, 1972), 123-124, passim. ZDZIECHOWSKI, MARIAN (1861-1938), literary critic. He studied in Dorpat and St. Petersburg, where he came under the influence of L. Tolstoy, W. Solowjow, and N. Bierdiajew. He was a professor at the universities in Cracow* from 1899 and Vilna* during 1919-1932. From 1902, he was a member of the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejetnosci [AU]).* He was particularly interested in comparative psychology of the Slavic nations and contributed substantially to the Polish knowledge of the Slavic world. As a literary critic, he took an ethical-didactic stand and his essays express views related to catastrophism. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 326. ZEBRZYDOWSKI REBELLION (1606-1609), rebellion of Polish nobles against King Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa)* also known as the "Zebrzydowski Rokosz." The rebellion was provoked by the policy of the King, who assumed an ultra-Catholic and intolerant attitude toward religious dissidents* and, in addition, planned to change the Polish political system, replacing the democracy of the gentry with an absolute monarchy. The representatives of the anti-Royal opposition gathered in St^zyca on April 9, 1606, and in Lublin* on June 4-16, 1606. They demanded the dethroning of the King. M. Zebrzydowski and other leaders of the rebellion, J. Herburt, S. Stadnicki, and J. RadziwiH,* proposed False Dymitry I or Gabriel Batory as counter-candidates for the Polish throne and requested confirmation of religious tolerance and annulment of the Union of Brest-Litovsk.* The Royal party was led by the followers of the late Chancellor* J. Zamoyski,* especially the Hetmans* Zolkiewski* and J. K. Chodkiewicz.* On July 6, 1607, an armed confrontation of the two camps took place near Guzdw. The rebels lost the battle. The Sejm* (Parliament) of January-February 1609 later declared an amnesty for the participants of the rebellion, confirmed the inviolability of Royal free elections and religious tolerance, and recommended that Senators assist the King in ruling the country. The Court party ceased its attempts to strengthen Royal power. CHP, I, 410; History of Poland,ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 213-216;WEP,XII, 682.

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ZEGADLOWICZ, EMIL (1888-1941), poet, novelist, and one of the founders of Polish Expressionism. He was active in a group of Expressionists in Poznari (Posen),* where he edited a periodical and was a literary director of the Teatr Polski. In the 1930s, he became involved in leftist politics. Religious, folk, and mystical motifs in his writing were replaced by sharp criticism of provincial morality and contemporary political issues, including the defeat of Poland in 1939. He also translated various German classics. WEP, XII, 683-684. ZELWEROWICZ, ALEKSANDER (1877-1955), actor and stage director. He made his debut as an actor in 1896 in Warsaw,* then played in Lodz* and Cracow,* where he began his directing. From 1913 he was a leading figure in Warsaw's Theatr Polski. Ideologically associated with L. Schiller* and W. Horzyca,* he was among the best teachers of young actors and was the first Director of the State Institute of Theater Art (Paristwowy Instytut Sztuki Teatralnej), during 1932-1936. Altogether he performed almost 800 roles. J. Macierakowski and W. Natanson, Aleksander Zelwerowicz (Warsaw, 1957); W. Horzyca, Aleksander Zelwerowicz (Warsaw, 1935). ZEMSTA LUDU (People's Vengeance), clandestine organization of Polish exiles in France of a Carbonari* character established on December 28, 1832, and politically influenced by J. Lelewel.* It prepared for partisan warfare in Poland under J. Zaliwski's* leadership. Its social program stressed the need for equal political rights, a modern constitution based on the American model, land grants to the peasants, and a federal character of a reborn Poland. SHP, 574. "ZET," code name of the Union of Polish Youth "Zet" (Zwiazek Mlodziezy Polskiej "Zet"), a clandestine organization established in 1887 on the initiative of Z. Milkowski* and Z. Balicki.* Initially "Zet" had a democratic and socialist character, but, in 1888, it accepted the leadership of the National League (Liga Narodowa).* In the 1890s, socialist activists founded their faction within the organization, and, in 1899, they created their Union of Progressive Polish Youth (Zwiazek Postepowej Mlodziezy Polskiej). The "Zet" was active in all parts of partitioned Poland and in Polish student centers abroad. The Warsaw demonstrations organized by the "Zet" in 1891 and 1894 caused reprisals by the Tsarist police which managed to paralyze activities of the organization. In 1898 it was re-built under the control of the National League. However, in 1909, the "Zet" severed its relations with the league because of its reconciliation with Tsarist Russia. A part of "Zet" members established a new organization, Zarzewie (Fire Glow),* while others called a new "Zet" into being in 1911 and continued their fight for Polish independence. S. Kozicki, Historia Ligi Narodowej: Okres 1887-1907 (History of the National League: The Period of 1887-1907) (London, 1964); L. Frances Millard, "The Founding of Zet: A Chapter in the History of Polish Socialism," Polish ReviewXVII/4 (1972), 42-61;WEP, XII, 765.

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ZIELINSKI, TADEUSZ (1859-1944), philologist. A versatile academician educated in Germany during 1876-1883, he traveled in Italy and Greece and served as a professor at universities in St. Petersburg during 1887-1920 and in Warsaw* during 1921-1935. A member of many prestigious scholarly institutions, he authored more than 300 works on Greek and Roman literature, culture, and religions of the ancient world. WEP,XII, 704-705. ZIELONY BALONIK (Little Green Balloon), artistic-literary cabaret operating in Cracow* during 1905-1912 in the candy store of J. Michalik, later called "Jama Michalikowa" (Michalik's Den) on the initiative of J. Kisielewski.* Patronized by famous writers, journalists, and painters, it became a center of the Galician* artistic elite. The cabaret ridiculed the conservative aristocracy and bourgeoisie and the artistic poses and buffoonery of "Young Poland."* J. Gawlik, Powrot do Jamy (Return to the Den) (Cracow, 1961); H. Segel, "Young Poland, Cracow and the Little Green Balloon," Polish Review Nil (1960), 74-97. ZIEMIALKOWSKI, FLORIAN (1817-1900), politician. He taught law at the Lvov University, where he joined a patriotic conspiracy. Imprisoned and sentenced to death by the Austrians in 1845, he was pardoned and released during the Springtime of Nations of 1848. In the same year, he was elected to the Vienna Parliament and participated in the Slavic Congresses* in Prague. After the collapse of the Springtime of Nations,* Ziemialkowski's ideology evolved toward more conservative political positions. From 1867, he served as a member of the Galician Sejm* (Parliament) and the Austrian Parliament, where he presided over the Polish Circle. In 1871 he became Mayor of Lvov,* and, during 1873-1888, he was a Minister for Galicia in the Vienna government. He abandoned demands for Galician autonomy, in exchange for use of the Polish language in schools, courts and the administration, which was accomplished in 1869. WEP,XII, 711. ZIEMI^CKI, BRONISLAW (1885-1944), Socialist leader. During his studies in Moscow, he joined the Polish progressive youth movement. From 1905, he was active in the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]),* and, from 1916, he was a member of its leadership. During WW I, he belonged to the Civic Committee in Warsaw* but, in 1916, was jailed by the Germans. During 1918-1919 and 1925-1926, he served as Minister of Labor and Social Welfare; during 1919-1930, as a Socialist member of the Parliament; during 1928-1934, as Mayor of Lodz;* and, during 1936-1943, as President of the Universal Mutual Insurance Institution. During WW II, he was Director of the Department of Public Works and Reconstruction in the underground Delegacy of the Polish Government-in-Exile.* Arrested by the Gestapo* in February 1944, he was executed in the ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto.* WEP,XII, 712.

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ZIEMOWIT III (Siemowit) (13267-1381), Prince of Czersk from 1341, of Rawa from 1345, of Sochaczew from 1351, of Warsaw* and Ciechanow from 1355, and of Plock* from 1370. A representative of the Mazovian* line of the Piast* dynasty, he recognized the sovereignty of King Kazimierz Wielki (Casimir the Great)* of Poland over Mazovia and became his vassal. However, Ziemowit opposed the new King of Poland, Ludwik W^gierski (Louis the Hungarian),* and established close relations with the anti-Royal opposition in Great Poland (Wielkopolska).* Ziemowit tightened the peasants' serfdom in Mazovia and antagonized the nobility* with his tough fiscal policy. In 1377 he issued the first legal status for Mazovia. CHP, I, 93, 96-97. ZIEMSKI, KAROL ("WACHNOWSKI") (1895-1974), General of the Polish Army. An officer of the Russian Army, he transferred to the First Polish Army Corps in the east in May 1918. In November 1918 he joined the Army of re-born Poland, participated in the Polish-Ukrainian* and the Polish-Soviet Wars* during 1918-1921, and remained in the Army throughout the entire interwar period. After the 1939 September Campaign,* he joined the anti-German resistance, serving until the outbreak of the Warsaw Uprising* (August 1, 1944) at various posts in the underground Supreme Command of the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]).* During the uprising, he was in charge of the fighting units in northern Warsaw* and, then, served as Deputy Commander of the Warsaw AK Corps. After the fall of the uprising, he was taken prisoner by the Germans. After the war, he moved to London. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, ( enerals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 189. Generalowie Polski NiepodleglejG ZINC, bluish white metal, used in making galvanized iron, voltaic cells, and protective covering for roofs. Large-scale exploitation of zinc began in Upper Silesia* in the late eighteenth century. It was also mined from 1815 in the nearby terrain of the Congress Kingdom of Poland* (regions of Dabrowa, Slawkow and Olkusz) and in the vicinity of Cracow* (Trzebinia, Jaworzno). Zinc mining reached its peak in the 1880s with 500,000 tons removed annually, then dropped to about 50,000 tons in the interwar period. After the division of Upper Silesia in 1922, most zinc mines remained on the Polish side, making Poland the third largest world producer of that metal, with some 10 percent of world output and 10,000 miners. EHGP,II, 110. ZIONISM, worldwide Jewish national movement, which aimed at the creation of and support for a Jewish state in Palestine. The idea of Zionism found numerous adherents among Polish Jews.* They established several political parties related to the Zionist movement and their contribution to the World Zionist Organization was exceeded only by that of the Russian Jews. During the interwar period, Zionism was the strongest movement among the Jewish political organizations, and the Zionists took control over the largest Jewish communities in Poland. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 16 (Jerusalem, 1971), 1130-1132; G. Lerski and

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H. Lerski, "Zionism and Revisionism in Poland," Jewish-Polish Coexistence, 17721939: A Topical Bibliography(New York, 1986); E. Mendelsohn,Zionism in Poland: The Formative Years(New Haven, Connecticut, 1981). ZJEDNOCZENIE EMIGRACJI POLSKIEJ. See UNION OF POLISH EMIGRATION. ZLOTY (ZL), basic Polish monetary unit reintroduced after the 1924 currency reform and using the traditional historical name of the late medieval Zloty Polski. It was divided into 100 groszy ("cents") and based on 9/31 parts of a gram of pure gold: 3,444 ZL represented one kilogram of pure gold. One American dollar was then worth 5.18 ZL. At the same time it was necessary to relate the new currency to the hitherto existing currencies such as Polish marks, German marks, rubles and crowns. In fall 1925, the zloty was devalued and once again stabilized on October 13, 1927, to 5,924 ZL to 1 kilogram pure gold or 8.91 ZL = $1 US. This parity was maintained until the outbreak of WW II. EHGP, II, 560. ZMARTWYCHSTANCY (Resurrectionist Fathers), Polish priestly order organized in 1842 by Fathers P. Semenenko* and H. Kajsiewicz* on the initiative of the leaders of the Great Emigration,* A. Mickiewicz* and B. Jariski. It was confirmed in 1888 by Pope Leo XIII. One of its main goals was to prepare and train the Polish clergy in emigre centers and to maintain religious activity among Polish emigrants. The order reached 2,000 members in the late nineteenth century and was especially strong in America. WEP, XII, 732. ZNANIECKI, FLORIAN WITOLD (1882-1958), sociologist. Educated in Cracow,* Geneva, and Paris, he immigrated to the United States in 1914 and worked on his monumental Polish Peasant in Europe and America, which became a classic in world sociology. During 1917-1919, he lectured at the University of Chicago and, during 1920-1939, was a professor of sociology and philosophy of culture at Poznari University, where he created the Institute of Sociology in 1921. In 1930, he founded the main sociological periodical in Poland, Przeglgd Socjologiczny (Sociological Review). He established his own sociological school and educated a large number of young sociologists. In 1939, he returned to America and began teaching sociology at the University of Illinois. J. Gidyriski, "Florian Znaniecki: Original Thinker, Philosopher and Sociologist," Polish Review HI/4 (1958), 77-87; The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, vol. 45 (New York, 1962), 98-99; P. Sztompka, "Florian Znaniecki's Sociology: Humanistic or Scientific?" Masters of Polish Sociology (Wroclaw, 1984). ZWIAZEK LUDOWO-NARODOWY. See POPULAR NATIONAL UNION.

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ZWIAZEK NAUCZYCIELSTWA POLSKIEGO. See UNION OF POLISH TEACHERS. ZWIAZEK NIEZALEZNEJ MLODZIEZY SOCJALISTYCZNEJ. See UNION OF INDEPENDENT SOCIALIST YOUTH. ZWIAZEK NIEZALEZNEJ MLODZIEZY SOCJALISTYCZNEJ "ZYCIE." See UNION OF INDEPENDENT SOCIALIST YOUTH "ZYCIE." ZWI4ZEK PATRIOTOW POLSKICH W ZSSR. See UNION OF POLISH PATRIOTS IN THE USSR. ZWIAZEK WALKI CZYNNEJ. See UNION OF ACTIVE STRUGGLE. ZWIAZEK WALKI ZBROJNEJ. See UNION OF ARMED STRUGGLE. ZWIAZEK ZAGRANICZNY SOCJALISTOW POLSKICH. See UNION OF POLISH SOCIALISTS ABROAD. ZWROTNICA (Switch), literary and artistic magazine, established and edited by T. Peiper in Cracow* during 1922-1923, and 1926-1927. An organ of the first avant-garde group, it published the poems and essays of J. Przybos, J. Brz^kowski, A. Wazyk and J. Kurek. Also among its contributors were painters, mostly Futurists and Formists, such as T. Czyzewski,* L. Chwistek,* S. I. Witkiewicz,* and A. Zamoyski. WEP, XII, 824. ZYGELBOJM, SAMUEL ("ARTUR") (1865-1943), leader of the Jewish Bund* in Poland, who was sent from Warsaw to France in December 1939 to represent his party in the Polish substitute Parliament-in-Exile, the National Council.* When he learned of the extermination of the Jews in German-occupied Poland, he tried to alarm the public of the free world and organize help for his co-religionists. When his attempts failed completely, he committed suicide on May 13, 1943, to shake the conscience of those satisfied with the course of WW II. Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 16 (Jerusalem, 1971), 1251; Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 4 (London, 1990), 1747-1749. ZYGMUNT I STARY (Sigismund I the Old) (1467-1548), King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania* from 1506. The fifth son of King Kazimierz Jagielloriczyk (Casimir Jagiellon),* he was well educated and prepared to rule his country. Despite his peaceful tendencies, he was forced to fight various defensive wars. During the Lithuanian wars with Muscovy in 1507-1508, 15121522, and 1534-1537, he lost Smolensk* in 1514 and faced a dangerous alliance of Moscow and the Habsburgs.* When the Grand Master of the Teutonic

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Knights,* Albrecht Hohenzollern,* refused to pay homage to Poland, Zygmunt undertook war operations in 1519 and, in 1525, forced the Prussians to accept the suzerainty of Poland over Ducal Prussia.* In the 1520s, Zygmunt incorporated Mazovia* into Poland after the death of the two last Mazovian princes and established Polish control over the Pomeranian Principalities of Lembork and Bytow. In 1531 the Polish Army, under the command of J. Tarnowski,* defeated the invading Moldavian forces at Obertyn,* and, in 1535, Sigismund won the war with Muscovy, safeguarding Polish eastern borders. However, he was unable to use the Jagiellonian dynastic rights to the Czech and Hungarian thrones, and, after the 1526 Battle of Mohacz, the Habsburgs* seized both countries. In 1518, Sigismund married the niece of the Holy Roman Emperor, Bona Sforza* of Milan, who had a great influence on the King and worked at strengthening the Polish royal power. She arranged the Royal election of their son, Zygmunt August,* during the reign of his father and built a powerful Royal party. Her policy provoked growing opposition by the middle gentry, who proposed the "execution of law"* program to limit the political position of the magnates.* Hostile to new religious currents, Sigismund issued a series of strict rules against dissidents.* Simultaneously, the King became a patron of Renaissance art and reconstructed and developed Wawel* Castle in Cracow.* During the reign of Sigismund, Poland was elevated to the position of a European power, highly esteemed among other monarchs. CHP, I, 300-322; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 169-181; K. Lewalski, "Sigismund I of Poland: Renaissance King and Patron," Studies in the Renaissance XIV (1966-1967), 49-72; Poczet krolow i ksiazat polskich (The Register of Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 326-335; Z. Wojciechowski, Zygmunt Stary (1506-1548)

(Warsaw, 1946). ZYGMUNT II AUGUST (Sigismund II Augustus) (1520-1572), King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania,* who united both countries into the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth* and was the last representative of the Jagiellonian* dynasty. The only son of Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund the Old)* and Bona Sforza of Milan,* he acceded to power in April 1548 after his father's death. From the beginning of his reign, he faced a vigorous gentry opposition of antimonarchical proportions. It was caused by his secret marriage to Barbara RadziwiH,* a member of the powerful RadziwiH* family. The gentry was afraid that the King might fall under the influence of this magnate clan, already dominating Lithuania. Barbara died childless in 1551, and Zygmunt's last wife, the Austrian Archduchess Catherine, daughter of Emperor Ferdinand I, also was childless. In his domestic policy, Zygmunt tried to introduce the "execution of law."* More than any other Polish monarch, he favored religious tolerance. His main accomplishment was the 1569 union with Lithuania known as the Lublin Union.* The King was also interested in securing Polish access to the Baltic Sea, and he fought for the recognition of Polish rights on the Baltic and control over the port of Gdarisk (Danzig).* He also incorporated Livonia* into Poland

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in 1561 and participated in the extended Livonian War against Muscovy. Zygmunt distinguished himself as a patron of Renaissance* arts. His reign was marked by a flourishing of culture, scholarship, and political revival. CHP, I, 348-369; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 181-205; Poczet krolow i ksigzgt polskich (The Register of Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 335-345. ZYGMUNT III WAZA (Sigismund III Vasa) (1566-1632), King of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth* of the Vasa* dynasty. The son of the Swedish King John and Catherine Jagiellon, a sister of the last Jagiellonian ruler, Zygmunt August II,* he was elected King of Poland in August 1587. At first he contested for the Polish throne with Maximilian Habsburg, but he soon established improved relations with that dynasty. Zygmunt was disliked by the liberal Polish gentry for his ultra-Catholicism and attempts to change the Polish political system from gentry democracy to absolute monarchy. In 1592 Zygmunt's father died, and, in 1594, Zygmunt was crowned King of Sweden. In 1599, the King's uncle, Charles of Suderman, deposed him and the subsequent foreign policy of Zygmunt was aimed at regaining the Swedish throne, which started the extended series of Swedish Wars.* The nobility's reaction to his domestic and foreign policy was the 1606 Zebrzydowski Rebellion.* After its end, Poland was engaged in the political crisis in Muscovy known as the Time of Troubles. The King intervened in Moscow and unsuccessfully tried to secure the throne of the Tsars for himself or for his son, Wladyslaw, later King Wladyslaw IV Waza.* Sigismund's reign resulted in a diminution of Polish strength and international prestige, and it brought religious conflict and intolerance to Poland. CHP, I, 451475; History of Poland, ed. by A. Gieysztor (Warsaw, 1968), 208-229; P. Jasienica, "Servant of the Doctrine," The Commonwealth of Both Nations: The Silver Age (Miami, 1987); Poczet Krolow i ksigzgt polskich (The Register of Polish Kings and Princes), ed. by A. Garlicki (Warsaw, 1978), 362-372.

ZYNDRAM OF MASZKOWICE (7-1414), Polish knight probably of burgher origin. He participated in the wars against the Teutonic Knights,* was appointed a Cracow* sword bearer (miecznik) in 1404, and belonged to the entourage of King Wladyslaw Jagiello.* In the Battle of Grunwald* in 1410, he acted as a Camp Leader and arranged the strategic placement of Polish-Lithuanian troops in a way that allowed the left flank to play a decisive role in the attack. SHP, 592. "ZEGOTA," code name of the clandestine Council for Aid to Jews (Rada Pomocy Zydom) in German-occupied Poland during WW II. The Council was called into being in December 1942 in Warsaw as the only European organization of this character. A section in the Department of Interior of the Delegacy of the Polish Government-in-Exile* in London, it coordinated activities to send information concerning the extermination of the Jews* in Poland abroad and to

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find hideouts for them on the "Aryan side" to save their lives. "Zegota" was founded on the initiative of the novelist Z. Kossak-Szczucka,* who became its Chairperson. The representatives of five Polish and two Jewish political movements were on its board, among them J. Grobelny, F. Arczyriski, W. Bartoszewski, W. Bierikowski, and S. Dobrowolski. W. Bartoszewski and Z. Lewin, The Samaritans: Heroes of the Holocaust (New York, 1970); T. Berenstein and A. Rutkowski, Assistance to the Jews in Poland, 1939-1945 (Warsaw, 1983); Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 4 (New York, London, 1990), 1729-1731; T. Prekerowa, Konspiracyjna Rada Pornocy Zydom w Warszawie, 1942-1945 (The Clandestine Council of Help to the Jews) (Warsaw, 1982). ZELENSKI, TADEUSZ ("BOY") (1874-1941), writer, translator, publicist, and literary critic. The son of the well-known composer Wladyslaw Zeleriski,* he was educated in Cracow,* where he received a diploma in medicine from the Jagiellonian University* and took part in the artistic life of "Young Polish"* Boheme. During 1901-1918, he practiced medicine, but writing was his real passion. He wrote satirical poems for Cracow "literary cabarets" and became a pillar of the most famous of them, the "Little Green Balloon" (Zielony Balonik).* Quotations from his satirical verse and songs, entitled Little Words (Slowka) and published in 1917, became Polish everyday idioms and his frivolous and unpretentious poetry is a landmark in the history of Polish poetry. During WW I, Zeleriski, a military physician stationed in Cracow, started to translate the most outstanding French writers. During his lifetime, he translated over 100 works of Balzac, Moliere, Villon, Rabelais, Montaigne, Voltaire, Proust, and others. From 1919, he wrote theater reviews in Cracow and then Warsaw* periodicals. He also became one of the leading Polish publicists, regarded as the major ally by liberals and anti-clericals. He engaged in "revisionist" campaigns, combating things solemn and pompous. In the 1930s, he crusaded for family planning, "conscious motherhood," and "sexual emancipation" of women. He also authored a lively biography of King John III Sobieski's French wife, Marysierika Sobieska. In 1933, Zeleriski was awarded the Literary Prize of Warsaw and became a member of the Polish Academy of Literature.* From September 1939, he resided in Soviet-occupied Lvov as a professor of French literature at Lvov University. After the occupation of Lvov by the Germans, Zeleriski was arrested with other top Polish scholars and executed. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 361-362; A. Stawar, Tadeusz Zeleriski (Boy) (Warsaw, 1958); WEP, XII, 851-852; B. Winklowa, Tadeusz Zeleriski (Boy): Tworczosc i Zycie (bibliografia) (Tadeusz Zeleriski (Boy): Work andLife [Bibliography]) (Warsaw, 1967). ZELENSKI, WLADYSLAW (1837-1921), composer, pianist, pedagogue, and the father of Tadeusz Zeleriski ("Boy").* From 1872, he was a professor of the Warsaw Institute of Music and later he directed the Warsaw and then Cracow Musical Societies. After S. Moniuszko,* he was the most outstanding Polish com-

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693

poser of operas and songs, which were based on neo-Romantic and folklore themes. WEP, XII, 852. ZELIGOWSKI, LUCJAN (1865-1947), General. He served as an officer in the Russian Army from 1885 and commanded various Infantry Units during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 and WW I. In 1917, he transferred to the First Polish Corps in Russia. In 1918 he became the Commander of the Polish Forces in the East (Naczelny Dowddca Oddzialdw Polskich na Wschodzie) and created a new division in the Kuban territory. He returned with his division to Poland through Odessa and Ukraine* in 1919. During the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921, he commanded an operational group in the Minsk region and then was in charge of the Lithuanian-Belorussian Division, consisting of Polish volunteers from the historic Grand Duchy of Lithuania.* On Marshal J. Pilsudski's* special order he arranged a "rebellion" of his Division and seized the Vilna* region on October 9, 1920, starting the Vilna crisis.* During 19251926, he served as Minister of Defense; during 1926-1927, as an Army Inspector; and during 1927-1939, as a member of the Parliament. After the outbreak of WW II, he moved to France and became a member of the National Council,* a kind of Parliament-in-Exile. He supported the governments of W. Sikorski* and S. Mikolajczyk,* and, during the last years of the war, he accepted the Slavophile views propagated by Soviet propaganda. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 27; WEP, XII, 852. ZEROMSKI, STEFAN (1864-1925), writer. A scion of a petty gentry family, he studied veterinary medicine in Warsaw,* worked as a private tutor, and endured much financial misery while writing his first novels. Later he worked as a librarian in the Polish Museum in Rappers wil,* Switzerland, and at the Zamoyski Library in Warsaw. He spent the last years before WW I in the West; during the war, he served as a secretary of the Zakopane* office of the Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy [NKN]),* and, immediately after the war, he helped to organize the Polish authorities in the Podhale* region. He co-founded the Polish PEN-Club in 1924 and was the organizer and the first President of the Trade Union of Polish Writers (Zwiazek Zawodowy Pisarzy Polskich) in 1920. His first works, written in a realistic style, followed the positivist* trends but were neo-Romantic in spirit. His first novel, Sisiphean Labors (Syzyfowe prace), published in 1898, was an autobiographical story of Polish students in a Russified high school at Kielce* at the time when Tsarist authorities were trying to obliterate the very notion of Polish nationality. The next novel, Homeless People (Ludzi bezdomni), was devoted to the Polish intelligentsia at the turn of the nineteenth century. The Ashes (Popioly) attempted to reappraise the Napoleonic period, Faithful River (Wierna Rzeka) deals with the January Uprising* of 1863, while Before the Spring (Przedwiosnie) discusses the situation of the Polish intelligentsia after the revival of the Polish state in

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1918. Zeromski, who also wrote plays, essays, and short stories, was called "the conscience of Polish literature." He had a great impact on several generations of Polish people and is considered by many the best Polish writer. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 365-369; WEP, XII, 854-85. ZMICHOWSKA, NARCYZA (1819-1876), writer. A private tutor for wealthy aristocrats, including the Zamoyski family,* she traveled with her employers in Western Europe. Upon her return to Poland, she became a leader of a group of intellectuals, including some emancipated women, called "Enthusiasts." Jailed for conspiratorial activities during 1849-1852, she eventually settled in Warsaw as a geography instructor in the Institute for Young Noble Ladies. She wrote poems and essays and initiated the psychological novel trend in Polish literature, but her main concern was the situation of women in modern life. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 259; WEP, XII, 856-1 ZMUDZ (English: Samogitia, Lithuanian: Zemaitija), western part of Lithuania* between Latvia, the Baltic Sea,* the Niemen River, and the Dubysa River. This upland region with a narrow lowland stretching along the Baltic Sea is a cradle of Lithuanian statehood and played a crucial role during the wars with the Teutonic Knights,* who began raiding Lithuania in 1229. After the PolishLithuanian Union, the local gentry became Polonized, and, in the seventeenth century, Polish became the official language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. At the Third Partition* of Poland in 1795, Zmudz was incorporated into Russia together with the rest of Lithuania. In the nineteenth century, the region was a terrain of lively Polish patriotic activities and the local population, including Lithuanian-speaking peasants, participated in the November and January Insurrections* of 1830 and 1863, respectively. In the last decades of the nineteenth century, Zmudz became the center of the Lithuanian national revival, and, after WW I, it became a core of the independent Lithuanian state. Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. 5 (Boston, 1976), 46-50; SHP, 594. ZOLKIEWSKI, STANISLAW (15477-1620), Crown Field Hetman* from 1588, Castellan* of Lvov* from 1590, Grand Crown Hetman from 1613, and Grand Crown Chancellor* from 1618. Extensively educated, he was one of the main supporters of his friend, Chancellor J. Zamoyski,* and a prominent associate of King Stefan Batory.* During the interregnum after the King's death, Zolkiewski supported the candidacy of Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vaza)* to the Polish throne. When Zygmunt was elected, Zolkiewski became one of his most important advisers. However, he did not share the King's Catholic zeal, opposed an alliance with the Habsburgs,* was tolerant vis-a-vis dissidents,* and did not support the Polish intervention in Muscovy during the Time of Troubles. Asked by the King, he commanded Polish troops during this intervention and arranged the election of Prince Wladyslaw, the future King Wladyslaw IV Waza,* as the Tsar of Muscovy. Zolkiewski also fought against the Swedes,

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Tatars,* and Turks; defeated the Cossack* uprising of S. Nalevaiko in 1596; and participated in several Polish expeditions to Vallachia and Moldavia. The last of them was organized in 1620, when Moldavia and, indirectly, Polish southern borders faced the menace of a Turkish invasion. Zolkiewski moved with Polish troops to Moldavia and fought in the Battle of Cecora* on September 18-20, 1620. During the withdrawal of the Polish forces, the Turks dispersed them and killed Zolkiewski. He became a symbol of heroism and devotion to the service to Poland. CHP I, 461; WEP, XII, 861-862; S. Zdlkiewski, Expedition1 Moscow: A Memoir (London, 1959). ZOB, cryptonym of the Jewish Fighting Organization (Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa) founded in the ghetto* of Warsaw* on July 28, 1942, on the initiative of Jewish youth movement organizations as a coalition of a number of resistance groups. The establishment of the ZOB was preceded by long negotiations among various Jewish political groups in Warsaw. The first command consisted of Y. Zuckerman, J. Kaplan, Z. Lubetkin, S. Braslav, and M. Tenenbaum. The ZOB attempted to counteract and slow the transport of the Jews* from Warsaw to the gas chambers. The organization called upon Jews to resist deportation, set fire to German warehouses, collect arms, and prepare armed resistance. It began when the Germans entered the ghetto on April 19, 1943, to deport and exterminate the last Jews remaining in Warsaw: 30,000 to 35,000 Jews, predominantly factory workers, and about 30,000 Jews living "illegally" in the ghetto. The ZOB received about 100 firearms and hand grenades from the Home Army (Armia Krajowa [AK]),* manufactured homemade grenades and bombs in its secret workshops, bought additional arms on Warsaw's black market, and constructed a network of bunkers and subterranean communication chambers to combat the Germans. The organization was divided into twenty-two fighting units, commanded from the ZOB headquarters at 18 Mila Street. Because of all these preparations, the Nazis met with stiff resistance, led by M. Anielewicz,* and were repelled from the ghetto after suffering heavy losses. The Uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto* lasted for several weeks. Over 100 fighters died in the uneven battle, but some fifty ZOB members escaped and continued to fight the Germans in guerrilla units. A ZOB group participated in the Warsaw Uprising* of summer 1944. Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. X (Jerusalem, 1971), 350-354; Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, ed. by I. Gutman, vol. 4 (New York, London, 1990), 1743-1746; C. Lazaroff, The Jewish Military Organization in the Warsaw Ghetto (New York, 1985). ZOLKOWSKI, FORTUNAT (1777-1822), actor. He participated in the Kosciuszko Insurrection* of 1794 and then worked in a Lvov* legal office. In 1797, he moved to Warsaw,* made his debut in 1798, and became the most popular actor of his era. He also translated numerous foreign comedies and wrote seven original comedies, becoming a founder of Polish vaudeville. He co-edited the Theater Dictionary and a humor magazine, Momus. SBTP, 865-866; E. Szwankowski, Alojzy Zolkowski (Warsaw, 1956).

696

Z6LTE WODY, BATTLE OF

ZOLTE WODY, BATTLE OF, encounter of Polish and Cossack* troops in a marshy area at the source of the Zolta River, a tributary of the Dnieper River, on May 15-16, 1648, during the Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising.* After some skirmishes between the Polish and Cossack forces, the Army of B. Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky), supported by the Tatars,* totally defeated much smaller Polish units of soldiers under Hetman* S. Potocki. The Cossack victory gave momentum to the uprising, which had just started. CHP, I, 511; Encyclopedia of Ukraine, ed. by D. Husar Struk, vol. 5 (Toronto, 1993), 851; WEP, XII, 863. ZULAWSKI, JERZY (1874-1915), writer. Educated in Switzerland during 1892-1898, he was associated with the Cracow* magazines Zycie (Life) and Krytyka (Critic). An enthusiastic mountain climber, he settled in Zakopane* in 1910. After the outbreak of WW I, he fought in the Polish Legions* and died of typhus in a military hospital. His poetry was influenced by the views of A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche and Indian mystics. He also wrote patriotic lyrics and historical dramas. Zulawski was the first successful Polish author of science fiction. His main literary achievement, a poetic and tragic moon trilogy, combines scientific fantasy with skeptical reflection dealing with an anti-utopian vision of the development of civilization. C. Milosz, The History of Polish Literature (London, 1969), 342, 359. ZULAWSKI, ZYGMUNT (1880-1949), Socialist leader. An activist of progressive student organizations in Cracow,* he joined the Polish Social Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia (Polska Partia Socjal-Demokratyczna Galicji i Alaska Cieszyriskiego [PPSD])* in 1904. During 1905-1908, he served as a secretary of the Trade Union Commission in Galicia* and edited its organ, Zwigzkowiec (The Unionist). From 1908, he presided over welfare matters (Kasa Chorych) in Cracow. During 1911-1918, he was a member of the Executive Committee of the PPSD. Then he and his party joined the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]),* where Zulawski served as a member of the Supreme Council during 1919-1939 and, during 1921-1939, as a Parliamentary Deputy and member of the Central Executive Committee. Throughout the entire interwar period, he was also the Secretary General of the Central Commission of Trade Unions. During 1924-1939, he was one of the leaders of the International Federation of Trade Unions. He distinguished himself as one of the most active leaders of the underground PPS in German-occupied Poland during WW II. WEP, XII, 867. ZWIRKO, FRANCISZEK (1895-1932), pilot. In 1929, he flew with S. Wigura* through Europe on a Polish-constructed plane and attained the world record for altitude of tourist planes, reaching 4,400 meters. He and Wigura together won several other challenges, and they died in a plane accident in Czechoslovakia. WEP, XII, 870.

ZYRARD6W

697

ZYCHLINSKI, LUDWIK (1837-1891), activist of the Polish independence movement. In 1860, he participated in Garibaldi's expedition in Sicily; in 1862— 1863, in the American Civil War; and in 1863, in the January Insurrection* as a Commander of a partisan unit named after the children of Warsaw.* Taken prisoner by the Russians, he was sentenced to twenty years of hard labor in Siberian* mines. In 1865, he fought in the Polish Insurrection of Lake Baikal. He returned to Poland in 1868 and published his memoirs. WEP, XII, 870. ZYMIERSKI, MICHAL ("ROLA") (1890-1989), General. A member of Polish patriotic para-military organizations in Galicia,* he commanded a Regiment in the Polish Legions* during WW I. After their dissolution, he served in the Polish Auxiliary Corps (Polski Korpus Posilkowy) within the Austrian Army. In February 1918, the Corps forced its way through the front lines to Russia as a protest against the Brest-Litovsk (Brzesc nad Bugiem) Peace.* In Russia Zymierski commanded a Regiment in the Polish Corps in the East, was active in the Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]),* and returned to Poland with Gen. L. Zeligowski* in 1919. Then he fought in the Polish-Soviet War* of 1919-1921 and later studied at the Ecole Superieure de Guerre in Paris during 1921-1923. During 1924-1926, he served as a Deputy Chief of the Military Administration, but, charged and tried for financial embezzlement, he was dismissed and left Poland. During 1932-1938 he lived in France. During WW II, he joined the Communist underground in Germanoccupied Poland and became the Commander-in-Chief of the People's Army (Armia Ludowa [AL])* and a member of Communist Homeland National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa [KRN]),* and the Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego [PKWN]),* the puppet Communist regime of Poland, which appointed him Marshal and Defense Minister. T. Kryska-Karski and S. Zurakowski, Generalowie Polski Niepodleglej (Generals of Independent Poland) (Warsaw, 1991), 191; WEP XII, 878. ZYRARDOW, industrial town west of Warsaw* named after the French industrialist P. Girard, who opened a textile factory in 1833 in Ruda Guzowska, an estate which later developed into the town. In 1859 it had a monopoly of linen production in the Congress Kingdom of Poland* and was one of the largest manufacturers of that type in Europe. During 1861-1885 the number of Zyrardow's workers grew from 575 to 8,200 and the town's population from 5,000 to 20,000. The town also became an important center of the workers' movement. In April 1883, the first Polish general strike took place there, and, in spite of intervention by the Russian Army, it ended with a workers' victory. Local branches of the First Proletariat* Party and the Union of Polish Workers (Zwiazek Robotnikow Polskich) existed there. Zyrarddw's workers participated in the 1905-1907 revolution in Russia. EHGP, II, 583-584; SHP, 595-596.

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INDEX The page numbers set in boldface indicate the location of the main entry. All entries below are arranged in the sequence of the Polish alphabet, as determined by the diacritical markings. "AB-Aktion" (Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion), 418 Abraham, Roman, 3 Abramowicz, Dawid, 448 Abramowski, Edward, 3 Absolutum Dominium, 3-4 Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejetnosci), 39, 365, 513, 555, 585, 684. See also Polish Academy of Learning Act of November 5, 1916, 4, 455, 462, 501, 638 Activists, 4, 35 Ada Sari, 4 Adalbert, Saint (Wojciech), 4-5, 43, 414 Adam, Ernest, 5 Adampol, 5 Adamski, Stanislaw, 5 Adamus Polonus, 6 Adelajda, 6 Adler, Victor, 531 Adwentowicz, Karol, 6 Agrarian Reform, 6 Agrarianism, 6-7 Agricultural Society, 7, 590, 647, 649, 678 Agudat Yisrael, 7

Air Force, 7-8, 24, 211, 347, 425, 498, 626 Ajdukiewicz, Kazimierz, 8 AK, 8, 39, 47, 66, 128; commander of Kedyw, 210, 141, 210, 230, 234, 237, 243, 245; Kedyw (Directorate of Diversion), 251, 337, 345, 366, 371, 376, 394; last Commander-in-Chief, 401, 404, 434, 503, 514, 581; Union of Armed Struggle, 621, 634, 640, 657, 665, 682, 687, 695 Akcyza, 8 AL, 8-9 Albert, 9 Albrecht Hohenzollern, 9, 478, 500, 586, 663 Aleksander Jagielloriczyk, 9-10, 353, 412, 568 Aleksei Mikhailovich, Tsar of Russia, 429-30 Alexander I Romanov, 10, 94, 95, 393, 400, 604, 639 Alexander II Romanov, 10, 203, 449, 650 Alexander III Romanov, 10-11, 440 Alter, Wiktor, 11 Altmark, 11, 575, 579, 613

708 Alvensleben Convention, 11 Amber Route, 11 America, 15, 36, 64, 71, 92, 111, 128; Artur Rodziriski, orchestra conductor, 508, 511, 516, 537, 635, 671, 688; Kosciuszko in America, 271, 281, 312, 335, 340, 343, 358-59, 361, 362, 376, 384, 398, 416-17, 422, 451; PolishAmerican organizations, 452, 454, 456, 463, 471, 489; Polish emigrants to, 128, 136, 138, 155, 161, 187, 188, 189, 190; Polish National Reformed Church in, 198, 201, 203, 204. See also Hoover, Herbert; Roosevelt, Franklin D.; Potsdam Conference; Yalta, Conference of American Polonia. See Polonia Ancona, 11-12, 531 Anczyc, Wladyslaw, 12 Anders, Wladyslaw, 12, 332, 364, 530 Andriolli, Michal, 12 Andruszow, 13 Andrzej Bobola, Saint, 13 Angers, 13 Anglo-Polish Agreement, 13 Anielewicz, Mordechai, 13-14, 639, 695 Anna Jagiellonka, 14, 571 Antemurale, 14, 527, 629 Anti-Semitism, 14, 32, 55, 56, 115-16, 170, 298, 350, 367; National Democracy and, 377-78, 527, 549 ARA (American Relief Administration), 15, 201 Arciszewski, Krzysztof, 15 Arciszewski, Tomasz, 15, 299, 459, 671 Arctowski, Henryk, 15 Arenda, 16 Arians (Polish Brethren), 15, 16, 495, 500 Armed Forces, 11, 13, 16-18, 135; Battle of Grunwald, 181-82, 330-31, 364, 375, 454-55, 460, 535-36, 604. See also Air Force; Navy, Polish; Polish Legions; September Campaign of 1939; World War II Armenians, 18-19, 567, 599-60 Armia Krajowa (Home Army). See AK Arnhem, 19, 560

INDEX

Art/artists, 19, 23, 48, 56; avant garde "Formists," 145, 162, 166, 169, 170, 180; celebrated Jan Matejko, 343, 346, 350-51, 389, 418, 447, 476; Cybis, J., a "Kapist" leader, 92, 98, 102, 115, 123, 136; head of "Young Art" association, 479, 508, 523, 539, 549; Kapist group, 242-43, 268, 272, 335; Stanislawski, J., leading Polish Impressionist, 568, 576, 636, 652, 657, 664; Zecheta, active art organization in Warsaw, 673, 689 Askenazy, Szymon, 19 Asnyk, Adam, 19 Assimilation, 19-20 Association of Lovers of History (Towarzystwo Mitosnikdw Historii), 480 Association of Workers' Universities (Towarzystwo Uniwersytetow Robotniczych [TUR]), 20, 574, 642 Atlantic Charter, 20 August II Mocny (Augustus II the Strong), 20, 339, 390, 402, 431, 468, 490-91, 527, 544, 566-67, 579; and Tarnogrod Confederation, 595, 607, 646 August III, 20-21, 339, 480, 527-28, 567, 646 Auschwitz, 21, 38, 258, 367, 382, 517, 528. See also Final Solution; Nazi concentration camps Austria, 21, 23; and Galicia, 152-53, 186, 389-40, 352; and Partitions, 42042, 427, 428, 440, 448, 453, 455, 460, 462, 465, 469, 481, 497, 501, 502, 525, 543, 551, 555, 562-63, 565, 582, 583, 614, 616; Wienna rescue (1683), 629, 658, 676, 686. See also Cracow; Habsburgs; Partitions of Poland Autonomists, 21-22 Awejde, Oskar, 22 Bacciarelli, Marcello, 23 Badeni, Kazimierz, 23 Bagiriski, Kazimierz, 23-24 Bajan, Jerzy, 24 Balicki, Zygmunt, 24, 377, 467, 480 Baliriski, Stanislaw, 24

INDEX

Balkans, 59, 484, 613 Baltic Sea, 24, 341, 381, 390, 409, 450, 482-83, 578-79, 582 Balzer, Oswald, 24 Balaban, Majer, 24-25 Balucki, Michal, 25 Banach, Stefan, 25, 345, 597 Bandera, Stefan, 25, 406, 625 Bandrowska-Turska, Ewa, 26 Bandurski, Wladyslaw, 26 Bank Emisyjny, 26, 359 Bank Gospodarstwa Krajowego, 26 Bank Handlowy w Warszawie S. A., 26 Bank Polski, 26, 359 Bank Zwiazku Spdlek Zarobkowych, 2627 Baptism of Poland, 27, 104-5, 355 Bar, Confederation of, 27, 48, 221, 331, 339, 399, 415; failed anti-Russian resistance, 420, 484, 494, 502, 519, 565, 578 Barania Gora, 631 Baranowski, Wojciech, 27 Barbara RadziwiH, 27, 46, 491, 494, 596, 690 Barlicki, Norbert, 28 Baron, Henryk, 28 Baroque, 28, 366, 373, 421, 471, 519, 524, 527, 546 "Barricade of Freedom" (Barykada Wolnosci), 409 Barss, Franciszek, 28 Barszczewska, Elzbieta, 28 Bartel, Kazimierz, 29 Baryczko, 29 Batory, 29 Battle of Britain, 4, 29 Battle of Warsaw. See Warsaw, Battle of Baudouin de Courtney, Jan, 29 Bazar, 29-30 Bazyriski, Jan, 30 BBWR (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspdlpracy z Rzadem [Non-Party Bloc for Cooperation with the Government]), 29, 30; Naprawa, reformers attempt counterbalance, 373, 330; replaced by Camp of National Unity, 56, 163, 230, 257,

709 315, 330, 334, 353, 373, 437, 493, 523, 552, 570 Beck, Jdzef, 13, 30-31, 422, 441, 523, 584 Bedzin, 35-36 Begin, Menachem, 31 Belgium, 331, 391, 484, 503, 531, 561 Belina-Prazmowski, Wladyslaw, 31 Belorussia (Belorus), 31, 49, 361, 392, 399, 407; Orthodox Church, 408, 443, 451, 460, 463, 475, 507, 517, 580, 593; Tehran Conference proposal, 599, 621,630,645 Belweder, 31-32, 392, 669 Belzec, 32, 245, 382, 597, 610 Bern, Jozef, 32, 453 Bench Ghetto, 32, 298, 395-98 Benedictines, 32, 615, 649 Bene§, Eduard, 32 Beniaminow, 32-33 Beniowski, Maurycy, 33 Ber of Bolechdw, 33 Berecci, Bartolomeo, 33 Berek, Joselewicz. See Joselewicz, Berek Berent, Waclaw, 33, 418, 451 Beresteczko, 33 Bereza Kartuska, 33, 330 Berezina, 34 Berg, Feodor, 34 Berling, Zygmunt, 34 Berman, Adolf, 34 Berman, Jakub, 34 Bernardines, 34-35 Beseler, Hans von, 35, 462, 501 Besht, 35 Beskid Mountains, 447, 631 Bezdany, 35 Bezprym, 35 Bedzin, 35-36 Biatowieza, 36, 448 Bialystok, 36, 348, 448, 449; part of Lublin Poland (1944), 452, 457, 460, 476, 586, 598, 604 Bibliografia Polska, 451 Biblioteka Narodowa (National Library), 36 Bibliotheque Polonaise (Polish Library), 36

710 Biddle, Anthony Drexel, Jr., 36-37 Biecz, 37 Bielecki, Marian, 37, 458 Bielecki, Tadeusz, 37 Bielinski, Franciszek, 37 Bielowski, August, 37-38, 365 Bielski (Wolski), Marcin, 38, 527 Bielsko-Biala, 38 Bieri, Adam, 38, 366, 648 Biernacki, Kostek W., 38 Biernat of Lublin, 38-39 Bierut, Boleslaw, 39, 201 Bilczewski, Jdzef, 39 Biliriski, Leon, 39 BIP (Bureau of Information and Propaganda), 39 Biskupin, 39-40 Bismarck, Otto von, 188, 203, 283, 340, 349, 472 Black Madonna, 40, 97, 340, 423 Bloch, Jan Gotlieb, 40 Blue Army, 40 Blyskawica, 40-41 Bobrowski, Stefan, 41 Bobrzynski, Michal, 41, 453, 556 Bochnia, 41, 45, 357, 522 Bogumin, 41 Bogurodzica (Mother of God), 42 Boguslawski, Wojciech, 42 Bohemia, 4-5, 57, 146, 181, 186, 206; Jagiellonian Dynasty and, 215, 216, 218, 317, 318, 339, 355, 385, 395; source of Nysa (Neisse) River, 396, 405, 419, 627 Bohemian Brethren, 42 Bohomolec, Franciszek, 42, 364 Bohun, Ivan, 42 Bohusz-Szyszko, Zygmunt, 43 Bojko, Jakub, 43, 425 Bojkowie, 43 Boleslaw (Bolko) 3widnicki, 43 Boleslaw 1 Chrobry (the Brave), 43-44, 355, 385, 414, 583, 602, 644 Boleslaw II Smialy (the Bold), 44, 354 Boleslaw 111 Krzywousty (the Wrymouth), 44, 138-39, 344, 355, 436; Polish territorial divisions facilitate Germanization, 464, 472, 482, 534,

INDEX 544, 659, 660, 665. See also Feudal Disintegration Boleslaw Kedzierzawy (the Curly), 4445, 139, 344, 355 Boleslaw Pobozny (the Pious), 45, 464 Boleslaw Rogatka, 45 Boleslaw the Chaste (Wstydliwy), 45 "Bolshevik War." See Polish-Soviet War (1919-1921) Bolsheviks, 49, 336, 338, 410, 431, 460, 557, 561 Bona Sforza, 45-46, 382, 502, 586, 618, 690 Boner, Jan, 46 Boner, Seweryn, 46 Borelowski, Marcin, 46 Borowy, Waclaw, 46 Bortonowski, Wladyslaw, 679 Boruta-Spiechowicz, Mieczyslaw, 46 Boryslaw, 47, 432 Boym, Jerzy, 47 Boznariska, Olga, 47 Boze cos Polske (Lord Who Protects Poland), 47 Bdr-Komorowski, Tadeusz, 8, 47, 401, 640 Brandt, Jozef, 48 Branicki, Franciszek Ksawery, 48, 564, 594 Branicki, Jan, 48, 493 Branka, 48 Breda, 48 Breslau. See Wroclaw Brest-Litovsk (Brzesc nad Bugiem), 49, 61, 446, 448, 466, 594, 656, 684 Brest-Litovsk, Union of. See Union of Brest-Litovsk Brest-Litovsk Peace, 49, 543, 585, 674, 697 Brest-Litovsk Trial, 49, 61 Britain, 29, 30, 49, 71, 131; Enigma and British Intelligence, 131, 501, 504, 531; and the "phony war," 535, 556, 560, 561, 649, 672, 675, 679; Polish Government-in-Exile, 171-72, 221, 298-99, 330, 331, 332, 356, 385, 397, 398, 419, 425, 473, 489 British Guarantee to Poland, 49-50

INDEX

Brody, 50, 358 Brodzifiski, Kazimierz, 50 Broniewski, Wladyslaw, 50 Bronikowski, Ksawery, 50 Brozek (Broscius), Jan, 50 Bruckner, Aleksander, 51 Bruhl, Heinrich von, 51 Brzesc nad Bugiem. See Union of BrestLitovsk Brzozowski, Stanislaw, 51, 433, 551, 672 Brzdska, Stanislaw, 51, 224 Buczacz Peace, 51 Budny, Szymon, 51-52 Budziszyn (Bautzen), 52 Bug, 52, 344, 404, 448, 450, 555, 632 Bujak, Franciszek, 52 Bujwid, Kazimiera, 52 Bukovina, 497, 509, 676 Bulhak, Jan, 52 Bund (Algemeiner Yiddisher Arbeterbund im Lite, Poilen un Russland), 52-53, 689 Burza. See Operation Tempest Burza ORP, 53 Butrymowicz, Mateusz, 53 Buzek, Jdzef, 53 Byczyna, 53 Bydgoszcz, 53-54, 340, 540, 631, 662 Bystrori, Jan, 54 Bytom, 54, 580, 627 Bzura, Battle of, 54, 535 Calvinists, 55, 143, 169, 301, 363, 446, 492, 494, 495; and Reformation of Poland, 500, 613 Camp for a Greater Poland, 55-56, 116, 161, 367, 378, 379,435,512 Camp of National Unity, 56; Adam Koc, dedicated organizer of, 257, 353, 373, 380, 519, 523, 551 Canada, 185, 208, 451, 560, 583 Canaletto, (Belotto) Bernardo, 56 Car, Stanislaw, 56-57 Carbonari, 57, 397 Carpathian Brigade, 57 Carpathians (mountains), 57, 330, 341, 450, 484, 588, 618, 631 Cartels, 57

711 Casimir. See Kazimierz Castellan (kasztelan), 58, 72, 169, 329; Potockis as Castellans, 469, 470, 492, 534, 563, 596, 616, 682, 694 "Castle Group," 368 Catherine II, 48, 589 213, 420, 470, 490, 565, 594, 615 Catholic Action, 58, 197 Catholic Church and Poland, 4-5, 14, 18, 26, 58-59; anti-Turkish crusades and Papal plans, 240, 256, 261, 268, 275, 293-94, 322, 327, 571, 628, 629, 661; baptism of Poland (966), 27, 43, 55, 58-59, 94; concordates between the Vatican and Poland, 76, 78, 84, 88-89, 99; dissidents, non-Catholic Christians, 113-14, 117, 122-23; Jesuits in Poland, 228, 229, 231, 236, 244, 248; office of Primate and Poland, 474, 49091, 500, 533, 557, 563, 567; Olesnicki, B., Bishop and noted politician, 401, 413, 423, 434, 436, 465, 468; a promoter of union between Catholic and Orthodox Churches, 329, 341, 356, 363, 369, 376, 396; pro-Sanacja Primate, 197, 209-10, 217; Synods, 580, 606, 618; Union of Brest-Litovsk, 621, 628, 676, 688; various leaders of the Polish Counter-Reformation, 124, 138, 145, 155, 157, 165, 178, 203, 244, 306, 329, 547. See also Antemurale; Gniezno; Interrex; Jews; Lutherans; Nuncio; Orthodox Church in Poland; Peter's Pence; Reformation Catholic University of Lublin. See KUL Catholicism, 4-5, 13, 14, 26, 27, 32; Bishop Zawisz, Royal Chancellor, 682, 691; Black Madonna and Czestochowa, 40, 42, 47, 58, 67, 70, 73, 97, 266, 340, 423; Messianism and Polish religio-patriotic ideology, 348-49, 362, 385, 408, 471; Puzyna, Jan, controversial Bishop of Cracow, 485, 495, 524, 525, 526, 527; religious studies revived in Cracow, 123, 193, 197, 198, 210; Skarga, Piotr, preacher and zealot, 547-48, 566, 570, 607, 615, 661, 676; special position in 1921 Polish Consti-

712 tution, 81, 89, 94, 97, 104-5, 108, 113; Saint Jadwiga, 215, 220, 232, 236, 258, 293-94, 340. See also Antemurale; Bar Confederation; Boze cog Polske; Counter-Reformation; Christian Democracy; Dissidents; Marian Cult; Sarmatism Cecora (Tutora), 59-60, 363, 470, 613, 695 Cegielski, Hipolit, 60 Celichowski, Zygmunt, 60 Central Industrial Region. See COP Central Lithuanian Republic (Litwa Srodkowa), 60-61, 309, 479, 630, 631 Central Polish Agency, 536 Central Powers, 4, 49, 440, 455, 456, 462 Centralizacja Lwowska, 61 Centrolew, 23, 49, 61-62, 73, 120, 303; active ideologue, 380, 384, 459, 466, 473, 485, 497, 603, 656. See also Brest-Litovsk Trial Cerekwica, 386 Ceynowa, Florian, 62 Chalubiriski, Tytus, 62, 674 Chancellor (kanclerz), 62, 69, 99, 369; RadziwiH family members as, 491, 493, 495, 526, 586, 606, 622, 678, 682, 683, 694 Charles Gustavus, 62-63, 579 Charles of Suderman, 578, 628, 691 Chciuk, Tadeusz ("Marek Celt"), 63 Chelm, 63, 408, 621 Chelmno-on-Ner (Kulmhof), 63-64, 331, 382, 429, 514, 517, 607, 637, 670 Chicago, 64, 361, 362, 456 Chimera, 64, 482 Chjeno-Piast, 64-65, 70, 288, 439, 656 Chlapowski, Dezydery, 65 Chledowski, Kazimierz ("Ignotus"), 65 Chlopicki, Jozef, 65-66, 360, 386, 392, 473, 644 Chlostra, 66 Chmielewski, Ignacy, 66 Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky), Bohdan, 33, 66-67, 87, 267; Pereieslav Treaty with Muscovy, 429-30, 619, 661, 681, 696 Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky) Uprising, 33, 66-67, 267, 349, 429-30, 438, 491,

INDEX 492; Trilogy of H. Sienkiewicz and, 541, 579, 613, 619, 654, 683, 696 Chmielowski, Adam (Brother Albert), 67 Chmielowski, Piotr, 67, 429, 585 Chocim (Khotyn), 67, 68, 363, 570, 61314 Chodkiewicz, Jan Karol, 68, 254, 570, 635, 684 Chodzko, Leonard, 68 Chomsowa, Laryssa, 68 Chopin, Fryderyk, 68-69, 144, 336, 345, 453, 516 Chorzow, 69, 349, 367 Choynowicz, Piotr, 69 Chreptowicz, Joachim, 69 Christian Democracy ("Chadecja"), 61, 64, 70, 333, 380, 466 Chronica Polonorum, 329 Chrusciel, Antoni ("Monter"), 70 Chrzanowski, Ignacy, 59, 70, 437 Chrzanowski, Wojciech, 70-71, 360 Churchill, Winston, 20, 245, 471, 511, 599, 671 Chwistek, Leon, 71, 689 Cichociemni (Unseen and silent), 71 Ciechanowski, Jan, 71 Ciechocinek, 71-72, 357, 522 Cieszkowski, August, 72, 390 Cieszyn, 30, 72, 323, 351, 366, 455, 544, 561, 627, 629 Ciolkosz, Adam, 73, 531 Cistercians, 32, 73, 193, 402, 429, 525, 548, 569 Coal, 101, 309, 327, 357, 436, 544, 560, 625. See also Silesia Coats of Arms (Herby), 73 Coetquidan, 73, 330 Collegium Nobilium, 73-74, 261, 373, 434, 470, 483, 601 Colonels' Regimes, 30, 74, 368, 592 Commendone, Giovanni, 74, 396 Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), 69, 74-75, 259, 261, 342; Piramowicz, G., pedagogue and secretary, 429, 443, 446, 465, 469, 565, 588, 667 Commonwealth of Both Nations (Rzeczpospolita Obojga Naroddw), 31, 53,

INDEX 75,85, 110, 191,215,216,219,228; decline of, 528, 544, 565, 579, 594, 607, 613-14, 621, 622, 654, 668, 690, 691; partitions and, 420-21, 464, 469, 490, 491, 492, 493; Reformation and, 500, 506, 517; Union of Krewo, 277, 291, 308, 339, 345, 353, 380, 399, 404, 411, 412, 415. See also Jagiellonian Dynasty; Lithuania; Radom Confederation; Union of Lublin Communist Party of Poland, 39, 75-76, 143, 168, 270, 273, 288, 300, 394, 397, 458, 461, 485, 557, 635, 640 Concordat, 76, 236, 396 Confederation, 27, 76-77, 125-26, 328, 434, 460, 490, 493-94, 502, 565, 566, 578, 594, 595, 617. See also Bar Confederation; Radom Confederation; Targowica Confederation Congress Kingdom of Poland, 4, 10, 7778, 79, 82; intelligentsia in, 208, 223, 346, 358, 360, 372, 385, 386; Polish student opposition in, 529, 533, 540, 547, 549, 555, 557, 561, 581, 585, 590; Russian rule and repression, 22324, 391-93, 406, 418, 424, 426, 428, 458, 470, 473, 476, 499-500, 504, 517; Triple Loyalty Political orientation, 612, 638, 647-48, 649, 667, 674, 678. See also January Insurrection; November Insurrection; Russification Congress of Vienna (1815), 77, 78-79, 502, 562 Conrad, Joseph (Jdzef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski), 79 Constantine, 79-80, 360, 371, 392, 548, 669, 679 Constitution of 1815, 77, 385, 393 Constitution of April 23, 1935, 80, 334, 368, 459, 523, 532, 553 Constitution of February 20, 1919, 80-81 Constitution of March 17, 1921, 81, 330, 377, 497, 532 Constitution of May 3, 1791, 28, 82, 260, 331, 336; determined opponent, 342, 373, 384, 388, 389, 421; organized magnate opposition, 471, 494, 528, 532-33, 565, 594; supportive Patriots

713 group, 423, 428, 436, 463, 469. See also Kollataj, Hugo; Targowica Confederation Constitution of the Congress Kingdom of Poland, 82-83 Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw, 83 Constitutional Commission, 334 Constitutional Sejm (Sejm Ustawodawczy), 80, 83-84, 467, 532 Convocation Sejm, 84 Cooperative Movement (Spdldzielczosc), 3, 84, 562, 645 COP, Central Industrial Region, 84-85, 133, 286 Copernicus, Nicolaus (Mikolaj Kopernik), 85, 216, 217, 403, 433, 502, 607 Cordon Sanitaire, 85 Corona Regni Poloniae, 85 Corrazzi, Antonio, 85-86 Corridor, 86 Corvde (Pariszczyzna), 86, 427-28, 476 Cossacks, 13, 42, 66-67, 86-87, 93, 96, 259, 261; oppose Brest-Litovsk, Union of, 622, 661, 668, 675, 680, 683, 696; Podhajce strife, 447, 491, 571, 613, 619; Polish units of, 307, 325, 344, 408, 411, 430, 438. See also Chmielnicki (Khmelnitsky), Bohdan; Pereiaslav Treaty; Ukraine; Zaporoze Council of National Unity, 87-88 Council of State (Rada Stanu), 440, 501 Council of the Four Lands, 88 Counter-Reformation, 16, 74, 88-89, 155, 158, 203, 228, 244, 306; and Polish Lutherans, 313, 317, 321, 329, 396, 475, 500, 527, 547-48, 580, 641. See also Antemurale; Hozjusz, Stanislaw; Nuncio; Skarga, Piotr; Synods Courland, 89, 402 Cracow (Krakow), 9, 19, 26, 41, 89-90; Boleslaw the Chaste, 45, 46, 61, 74, 84; Council of the Four Lands, 88, 90, 100, 104, 108, 112, 114; Cracow newspapers circulated nationally, 330, 331, 333, 335, 336; Dominicans, 117, 123, 133, 136; Feldman, W., activist of assimilation, 138, 143, 152-53, 157, 164; Jagiellonian University, 217, 232,

714

237, 249, 272; Kozmian, S., political publicist, 274, 295, 300, 309; patriotic painter, 343, 350, 355, 365, 369, 372; playwright pillar of "Young Poland" movement, 669, 672, 680, 686, 689, 690, 692, 696; Polish Legions, 445, 456, 464-66, 468-70; printing, 475, 480, 482, 485, 489; relocation of the capital, 637, 643, 651, 659, 666; Republic of Cracow, 502, 512, 521, 528, 531; satirist of Cracow's establishment, 393, 401, 416, 432, 437; Seniorate, 534, 546, 554, 556, 562, 567; Stariczyks, politically conservative, 568, 576, 578, 579, 586, 585, 596; University reformer, 588, 596, 603, 612, 616, 625; Walezy, Henryk, Kingship of, 194, 207, 210, 211, 215. See also Galicia; Jagiellonian University; Lvov; Wawel Castle; Zielony Balonik Cracow Uprising of 1846, 49, 90-91, 108, 347, 427, 616 Crimean War, 352, 679 Curie-Sklodowska, Marie, 91, 645 Curzon Line, 91-92, 190, 398-99, 452, 471, 561, 671 Cybis, Jan, 92 Cyrulik Warszawski, 92 Czacki, Tadeusz, 92 Czajkowski, Michal, 92-93 Czapiriski, Kazimierz, 93 Czapski, Jozef, 93 Czarniecki, Stefan, 93 Czarnowski, Stefan, 93-94 Czartoryska, Izabella, 94 Czartoryski, 94, 95, 96; the Familia, 13637, 389, 399, 466, 469, 484; Radom Confederation opposes reforms, 490, 539, 565, 611, 617, 652. See also Familia Czartoryski, Adam Jerzy, 93, 94-95, 108, 184, 202-3, 385, 392, 436, 453, 484, 502, 679. See also Hotel Lambert; November Insurrection Czartoryski, Adam Kazimierz, 95, 13637, 364, 373; his aide-de-camp, 384, 389, 399, 484, 603 Czartoryski, Wladyslaw, 96, 203

INDEX

Czech, Bronislaw, 96 Czechoslovakia, 17, 32, 49, 72, 85, 96, 137, 285, 311; Partition and, 326, 351, 472, 544, 628, 656, 679. See also Cieszyn; Czechs Czechowicz, Jdzef, 96 Czechowicz, Szymon, 96-97 Czechs, 17, 72, 104, 260, 285; Leszno, Czech Brethren Reformation Center, 301, 348, 355, 357, 419, 472, 500, 522, 544, 551, 558, 665, 679. See also Bohemia; Cieszyn Czekanowski, Jan, 97 Czerniakow, Adam, 97 Czernichdw (Chernigov), 450, 683 Czerwieri Castles, 179, 499 Czestochowa, 40, 97, 107, 412, 423, 476, 484, 579, 642 Czorsztyn, 97-98 Czuma, Walerian, 98 Czyriski, Jan, 98, 422 Czyzewski, Tytus, 98, 689 Dagome Iudex (Judge Dagome), 99 Dalbor, Edmund, 99 Dances, 69, 99-100, 282, 345, 462 Dantyszek, Jan, 100 Danzig. See Gdansk Daszyriski, Ignacy, 100-101, 331, 459, 462, 518 Dabrowa Basin, 101-2, 403, 476, 560, 625 Dabrowska, Maria, 102 Dabrowski Brigade, 102 Dabrowski, Jan Henryk, 102-3, 104, 345 Dabrowski, Jaroslaw, 103, 499 Dabrowski Legions, 104, 109, 524 Dabrowski, Marian, 104 Dabrowski Mazurka, 103, 104 Dabrowka (Dobrawa, Dubrawka), 104-5, 355 Dabski, Jan, 105, 426, 507, 668 Defense of Lvov, 105-6, 460 Deflation, 106 Dekert, Jan, 106 Delegatura Rzadu na Kraj, 106-7, 265, 521 Deluge, 62, 93, 107, 219, 427, 472, 478,

INDEX

492, 579, 607, 637, 662. See also Swedish Wars Dembe Wielkie, Battle of, 107-8, 108, 392 Dembiriski, Henryk, 108, 392, 413, 453, 550 Dembiriski, Walenty, 108 Dembowski, Edward, 91, 108-9 Dembowski, Jan, 109 Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Demokratyczne), 109, 350, 520 Demokrata Polski (Polish Democrat), 109 Denmark, 341, 389, 578, 629 Deportations, 109-10 Deulino Truce, 110, 450, 526 Deutscher, Isaac, 110-11 Devil of Lancut, 564 Dewey, Charles S., I l l Debski, Aleksander, 111 Diamand, Herman, 111-12, 531 Dickstein, Szymon ("Jan Mlot"), 112, 480 Didur, Adam, 112 Diebitsch, Ivan, 179, 392, 413, 549, 572, 645 Dietl, Jdzef, 112-13, 217 Diocese, 113 Diplomacy, 30, 49, 78, 110, 146, 311, 326, 332, 347, 389; Paris Peace Conference, 419-20, 429, 450; Potsdam Conference, 471-72, 496, 506, 561, 599, 604, 622; Yalta Conference, 671, 678 Dissidents, 42, 108, 113-14, 132, 317, 322, 408, 490 Dlugosz, Jan, 114, 329, 546 Dluski, Kazimierz, 114-15 Dmochowski, Franciszek Ksawery, 115 Dmowski, Roman, 14, 24, 115-16, 119; economic boycott of Polish Jews, 127, 273, 281, 303, 359, 377-78, 419, 420; opposition to Pilsudski, 116, 378, 441, 466, 480, 510, 512, 536, 606 Dnieper River, 399, 420, 451, 552, 680 Dniester River, 448, 449, 499, 613, 683 Dobrzariski, Henryk (Hubal), 116 Dobrzyri, 116-17 Domeyko, Ignacy, 117

715 Dominicans, 117 Dowbor-Musnicki, Jdzef, 117-18, 343 Drabik, Wincenty, 118 Drang nach Osten, 118 Dreszer-Orlicz, Gustaw, 118 Drohobycz, 432, 438, 529 Druzyna, 118-19 Drzewiecki, Stefan, 119 Drzymala, Michal, 119 Dubanowicz, Edward, 119 Dubienka, 120 Dubois, Stanislaw, 120, 622 Ducal Prussia (Prusy Ksiazece), 120-21, 478, 500, 514, 579, 604, 690 Duch, Bronislaw, 121, 530 Duchy of Poznan, 384 Duchy of Warsaw (Ksiestwo Warszawskie), 83, 121-22, 336, 361, 372, 415, 465; Potocki, S. K., official figure, 470, 472, 473, 497, 528, 534, 604 Duleba, Maria, 122 Duma, 122, 378, 432, 590 Dunajec, 122, 395 Dunajewski, Albin, 122-23 Dunikowski, Xavery, 123 Dunin, Piotr, 123 Dunkirk, 381 Dwernicki, Jdzef, 123, 483, 572 Dyboski, Roman, 123-24 Dybowski, Benedykt, 124, 538 Dygas, Ignacy, 124 Dygasiriski, Adolf, 124, 429 Dzieduszycki, Wojciech, 124, 448 Dziennik Narodowy (National Daily), 444 Dzierzgowski, Mikolaj, 124-25 Dzierzyriski, Feliks, 125, 457, 556 Dzikdw Confederation, 125-26, 460 East-Central Europe, 127 Eastern Legion, 455 Eastern Slavs, 517, 552, 618 Economic boycott, 127 Economic emigration, 127-28 Edelman, Marek, 128 Eichlerdwna, Irena, 128 Elbe River, 355, 444, 552, 602, 648 Elblag (Elbing), 128-29, 334, 341, 602

716 Elections, royal, 84, 129-30, 209, 416, 678 Elijah Ben Salomon Zalman. See Vilna Gaon Elimelech of Lezajsk, 130 Elizabeth of Hungary (Elzbieta Lokietkowna), 130 Emancipation of peasants, 86, 130-31, 260, 428 Emigration, 127-28, 155, 176-77, 218, 252, 393, 418, 462-63; seasonal emigration, 530, 557, 623. See also Deportations; Great Emigration; Panna Maria Encyklopedia Powszechna (Universal Encyclopedia), 407 Endecja. See National Democracy Endeks. See National Democracy England. See Britain Enigma, 131, 501 Enlightenment, 131-32, 256, 259-60, 275, 364, 373, 385; improvement of the peasantry and, 428, 433, 467, 470, 487, 509, 637 Epsteins (family), 132 Erastianism, 132 Erlich, Henryk, 132 Erlich, Ludwik, 132-33 Ermland. See Warmia Esperanto, 677 Estonia, 374, 390, 402, 409, 578 Estreicher, Karol, 133 Estreicher, Stanislaw, 133 Etatism, 133 "Execution-of-the-Law," 133-34, 505, 540, 609 Expressionism, 145, 361, 672, 685 Ezofowicz, Michel, 134 Falaise, Battle of, 18, 135, 331 Falanga, 56, 135, 434 Falcons (Sokolstwo), 135-36, 337, 377, 550 False Dimitry, 360, 684 Falter, Alfred, 136 Falat, Julian, 136 Familia, 136-37, 490, 502, 617 Federalism, 32, 137, 441 Federalists, 137

INDEX

Feldman, Jozef, 137-38 Feldman, Wilhelm, 138 Felician Sisters, 138 Feliriski, Zygmunt, 138 Feudal Disintegration, 138-40 Feudalism, 140 Fiedler, Arkady, 140 Fieldorf, ("Nil") August Emil, 140-41 Fifth Column, 141 Fighting Organization of the Polish Socialist Party (Organizacja Bojowa PPS), 358, 400, 440, 461, 479, 546, 552 Filareci (Philareths), 141, 272, 352, 393, 679 Filipowicz, Tytus, 141 Filomaci, 141-42, 352, 393, 679 Final Solution (Endlosung), 21, 32, 142, 332, 382, 555, 576, 609, 610. See also Nazi concentration camps Finder, Pawel, 142-43, 395, 461 Finland, 338, 375, 506, 604 Firlej, Jan, 143 Firlej, Mikolaj, 143 First Brigade, 143, 168, 455, 459, 552, 560, 570 First Polish Corps in Russia, 343, 485, 575 Flemming, Jakub Henryk, 144 Foch, Ferdinand, 144, 646 Folkierski, Wladyslaw, 144 Fontana, Julian, 144 "For Your Freedom and Ours" (Za Wasza i Nasza Wolnosc!), 144-45 Formists, 71, 98, 145, 476, 636, 655, 689 Four Year Sejm, 82, 145, 179; Kollataj Hugo, and, 259, 336, 342, 373, 384; pro-reform Patriots, 423, 430, 436, 469, 470, 494; Stanislaw II August's reforms and, 565, 594, 604, 667, 673. See also Targowica Confederation France, 36, 40; Chopin in, 68-69, 85, 95, 116, 125, 131, 146-47; French-Polish alliance, 150-51, 176-77, 220, 295, 311, 316, 326, 330, 339, 354, 361, 366, 372, 389, 397, 399; Paris Peace Conference, 116, 417, 419-20, 434, 444, 452, 460, 463, 465; Pilsudski's

INDEX

preventive war proposal, 441, 473-74, 479, 491, 497, 501, 504, 524, 525, 527, 533, 535; Sikorski and, 543, 558, 560, 562, 565, 567, 604, 609, 628, 635, 646, 666, 674, 679, 693. See also Great Emigration; Hotel Lambert; Mickiewicz, Adam; Napoleon Franciscans, 145-46, 340, 361 Franco-Polish Alliance, 146-47 Frank, Hans, 147, 158, 160, 644 Frank, Jacob, 147 Frankists. See Frank, Jacob Frederick August, 147-48 Frederick Augustus III, 460 Frederick II Hohenzollern, 148 Fredro, Aleksander, 148-49 Fredro, Andrzej Maksymilian, 149 Free City of Gdarisk (Danzig), 86, 14950, 156, 330, 420, 628. See also Gdarisk; Versailles, Peace of Freemasonry, 150, 327, 470, 574, 664, 675 French Campaign, 150-51 Frenkiel, Mieczyslaw, 151 Front Morges, 151, 189, 266, 287, 380; Paderewski and, 417, 466, 498, 536, 543, 574, 590, 610 Frycz-Modrzewski, Andrzej. See Modrzewski, Andrzej Frycz Gabszewicz, Aleksander, 152 Gacki, Stefan, 152 Gadon, Lubomir, 152 Galicia, 19, 21, 25, 41, 47, 50, 84, 90, 152-54; the Curzon Line and, 92, 124, 148, 152, 153, 164, 166; Hapsburg policies, 186, 255, 260, 274, 288, 310, 319, 339, 354; Pacification of Ukrainians, 415, 420, 427, 432, 440; Polish Historical Society, Polish Legions, 454, 460, 469, 502, 522, 551; salt and oil mining, 357, 377, 393, 406; "Sokol" (Falcon association), 558, 568, 583, 585, 597; Triple Loyalty and, 612, 616, 620, 624, 625; West Ukraine (Eastern Galicia), 646, 668, 686, 696. See also Cracow; Jagiellonian Univer-

717 sity; Lvov; Petroleum; Polish Socialist Party; Stanczyks Gallus Anonymous, 154, 354, 435, 482 Galczyriski, Konstanty Idelfons, 154 Gamrat, Piotr, 154-55 Gaudenty, 155 Gazeta Polska (Polish Gazette), 353, 551 Gazeta Warszawska, 155, 161, 435 Gazeta Wileriska (Vilna Gazette), 446 Gasiorowski, Waclaw, 155 Gdarisk (Danzig), 45, 85, 129, 148, 156; Free City of, 149, 156, 158, 180, 330, 341, 381, 402, 420, 421, 423, 464, 500, 514, 535; Spa Conference and, 561, 575, 567, 577; Swedish wars, 579, 604, 607; Versailles Treaty, 628, 646, 690 Gdynia, 133, 156-57, 286, 341, 381, 409, 535 Gdynia-Ameryka Line, 157, 556 Gebethner and Wolff, 157 Gembicki, Piotr, 157 Gembicki, Wawrzyniec, 157-58 General Government (Generalgouvernement), 26, 147, 158, 160, 359, 610, 611, 632, 644. See also Frank, Hans General Inspector of the Armed Forces. See GISZ Genocide, 158 German Colonization Commission, 159. See also Prussian Colonization Commission Germanization, 49, 54, 119, 159, 175; Bismarck's "Kulturkampf," 283, 346, 349, 368, 384, 405, 429; Germanization issue at Slavic Congresses, 551, 660, 665, 666; Hakata as policy and pressure, 187-88, 193, 217, 246, 263; Pomerania and German colonization, 464, 472,478, 513,544 Germany, 7, 8, 21, 26, 49, 54; corridor as issue and protest, 85, 115, 127, 156, 158, 159, 164, 170-71, 198; destruction and theft of Jagiellonian University and Library, 217, 247, 292, 297, 298; Locarno Pact, 311, 324, 358, 375; Nazi Concentration Camps, 382, 389, 398-99, 420, 440-41, 444-45, 455;

718 "Polnische Wehrmacht," 462, 471-72, 473-74, 496, 501, 503; RibbentropMolotov Pact, 506, 535-36, 557, 561, 582; Two-Enemies Doctrine, 615, 619, 624, 628, 632, 638, 639; Warsaw Uprising, 640-41, 642, 683, 695. See also British Guarantee to Poland; General Government; Resistance; Underground State Gero, 159, 648 Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei), 159, 341, 367, 384, 437, 438, 497, 507, 686 Geyer, Ludwik, 159 Ghetto, 159-60 Gibalski, Edward, 160 Gibraltar, Catastrophe of, 160-61, 407, 543 Gibson, Hugh, 161 Giedymin (Gediminas), 161 Gierat, Stanislaw, 161 Giertych, Jedrzej, 161-62 Gierymski, Aleksander, 162, 418 Gierymski, Maksymilian, 162 Giller, Agaton, 162, 456 Gisewius, Gustaw, 163 GISZ, 163, 367, 650 Gliwic, Hipolit, 163 Gliwice, 163-64, 625 Globocnik, Odillo, 164 Gloger, Zygmunt, 164, 585 Gluziriski, Tadeusz (Henryk Rolicki), 164 Glabiriski, Stanislaw, 164-65, 467 Glogdw, 165 Glowacki (Bartosz), Wojciech, 165, 418 Gniezno, 27, 43, 76, 99; Gniezno Archidiocese, 113, 140, 155, 165-66, 217, 324, 329, 354, 356, 414; office of Primate, 474, 481, 548, 563, 618, 662 Godebski, Cyprian, 166, 497 Gojawiczyriska, Pola, 166 Golden Freedom, 4, 113, 130, 166; Jesuits and, 228, 245, 302, 383, 388, 408; statesman critic, 411, 502, 519, 527, 544, 594. See also Liberum Veto; Nobility; Radom Confederation Goluchowski, Agenor (1812-1875), 16667,448 Goluchowski, Agenor (1849-1921), 167

INDEX

Gombrowicz, Witold, 167 Gomdlka, Mikolaj, 167 Gomulka, Wladyslaw ("Wieslaw"), 16768, 200, 461 Gdra Kalwaria, 168, 172 "Goralenvolk," 172, 674 Gorzechowski, Jan ("Jur"), 168-69 Goslar, Julian, 169 Gospodarka Narodowa, 169 Gostomski, Anzelm, 169 Goszczyriski, Seweryn, 169-70, 510, 619 Goslicki, Wawrzyniec, 170 Gottlieb, Leopold, 170 Gottlieb, Maurycy, 170 Government-in-Exile, 15, 88; Delegatura of, 106, 152, 170-72, 223, 299; Maisky-Sikorski Agreement, 332, 356, 366, 378, 383, 394, 404; role of Paderewski, 417, 426, 436, 452, 459, 466, 489, 498; and the Two-Enemies Doctrine, 615, 619, 640, 671, 675, 686, 691; and the Underground, 8, 106-7, 503, 504, 511, 512, 543, 574, 599, 619-20 Gorale, 172 Gornicki, Lukasz, 172, 501 Grabowski, Stanislaw, 172-73 Grabski, Stanislaw, 173, 377, 467 Grabski, Wladyslaw, 173-74, 359, 461, 561, 672 Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 308, 388, 517 Grand Duchy of Poznari (Posen), 174-76, 406, 472, 562 Grazyriski, Michal, 176, 373 Great Britain. See Britain Great Emigration, 176-77, 180, 192, 195, 202, 204, 236, 296; Mickiewicz, Adam, and, 352, 353, 361, 371, 393, 444; Polish Democratic Party established, 453, 463, 510, 554, 591, 608, 623, 640. See also Hotel Lambert; Lelewel, Joachim Great Poland (Wielkopolska), 139, 165, 177-78, 251, 309; early location of Polonia tribe, 450, 472, 480, 500, 532, 537, 566, 571; local levee en masse, 579, 594, 642, 659, 666, 687; Magdeburg Law, 331, 354, 386, 404, 420,

INDEX

421, 443. See also Grand Duchy of Poznari; Little Poland; Poznari (city) Great Poland (Wielkopolska) Uprising of 1918, 118, 178, 356, 378, 397, 472, 666, 683 Great Sejm. See Four Year Sejm Gregory of Sanok (Grzegorz z Sanoka), 178, 501 Grey Ranks. See Szare Szeregi Grochow, Battle of, 179, 371, 392 Grodno, 179, 379, 409, 430, 532, 566, 594 Grody Czerwieriskie, 179 Grodzicki, Krzysztof, 179-80 Grottger, Arthur, 180 Grubiriski, Waclaw, 180 Grudziadz, 180, 347 Grudziaz Commune, 180-81, 664 Grudziriska, Joanna, 79, 181, 324 Grudziriski, Jan, 181, 409 Grunwald, Battle of, 42, 181-82, 216, 233, 308; Grand Duke Witold, 655, 659, 682, 691; subsequent Peace of Melno, 347, 401, 485, 513, 607 Grunbaum, Yizhak, 182 Grydzewski, Mieczyslaw, 182, 394, 546, 648 Grzybowski Square, 182-83 Grzymultowski Treaty (Eternal Peace), 183 Guardians of the Law (Straz Praw), 183, 469 Guilds (Cechy), 183-84 Gumplowicz, Ludwik, 184 Gurowski, Adam, 184 Gustavus II Adolphus, 62, 579, 613, 628 Gypsies (Cyganie), 185, 382 Gzowski, Kazimierz, 185 Habsburgs, 152, 186, 194, 251, 311, 339, 369, 405, 428; Podolacy, Habsburg loyalists, 448, 455, 544, 586, 614; various Vienna treaties, 629, 641, 678, 683, 690, 694. See also Austria; Partitions of Poland Hadziacz (Hadiache), Treaty of, 186-87 Haecker, Emil, 187 Haiman, Mieczyslaw, 187

719 Hakata, 187-88, 612 Halecki, Oscar, 127, 188, 454 Halicz (Halych), 188, 408, 447, 449, 499, 619, 662 Haller (de Hallenburg), Jozef, 40, 18889, 287, 452, 497 Haller (de Hallenburg), Stanislaw, 189 Hamtramck, 189 Handelsman, Marceli, 189-90, 337 Hanseatic League, 190, 341, 582, 607, 665 Hanska, Ewelina (b. Rzewuska), 190 Harriman, W. Averell, 190 Hasidism, 190-91, 631 Haskalah, 347, 553, 631 Hauke, Jdzef ("Bosak"), 191 Haynt, 191-92 Hel, 192, 535, 624 Heltman, Wiktor, 192, 453 Hemar (Hescheles), Marian, 192, 487, 547 Hempel, Jan, 192-93 Henrician Articles (Articuli Henrici), 193, 416 Henrician Book, 193 Henryk I Brodaty (the Bearded), 193-94 Henryk II Pobozny (the Pious), 194 Henryk Walezy (Henri de Valois), 14, 193, 194-95,416,502,571,639 Henrykowski, Gustaw, 195 "Hens War" (Wojna Kokosza), 509 Heraldry, 195 Hercen (Herzen), Alexander, 195 Hermann von Balk, 195 Hermann von Salza, 195-96 Hetman, 17, 196, 430, 622 Heweliusz (Hevelius), Jan, 196 Hirszfeld, Ludwik, 196-97 Historiography, 19, 24, 37; Cracow School of, 41, 68, 99, 111, 114, 133, 137, 152; first Polish chronicle, 154, 188, 189, 195, 235, 252; initiation of Polish Biographical Dictionary, 263, 267, 276, 278, 281, 295-96, 306, 336, 337, 354, 410; Przeglad Historyczny, prestigious periodical, 480, 483, 518, 528, 537, 555, 556, 577, 585; Thietmar, early chronicler, 602, 605, 663,

720 675; study of modern Polish history, 237, 424, 585, 438, 454 Hlond, August, 197, 474, 557 Hlasko, Jozef, 197 Hodo, 197 Hodur, Franciszek, 198 Hoene-Wroriski, Jdzef, 198 Hoffmanowa, Klementyna, 198 Hohenzollern, 198-99, 478 Hollender, Tadeusz, 199 Holocaust (1941-1945). See Final Solution Holy Alliance, 199, 391 Holy Cross Sermons (Kazania Swietokrzyskie), 199 Holy Roman Empire, 199-200, 414, 491, 525 Holowko, Tadeusz, 200 Home Army. See AK Homeland National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa [KRN]), 39, 173, 200201, 410, 452, 459, 461 Hoover, Herbert, 201 Hoover Institution en War, Revolution and Peace, 201 Horbaczewski, Eugeniusz, 201 Horodlo, Union of, 201-2, 353, 622 Horzyca, Wilam, 202, 685 Hotel Lambert, 95, 96, 177, 202-3, 353, 568, 596, 623 House, Edward, 203, 417 Hozjusz (Hosius), Stanislaw, 203, 637 Hryniewiecki, Ignacy, 203-4 Hubal, Henryk. See Dobrzariski, Henryk Huberman, Bronislaw, 204 Humari Commune (Gromada Humari), 204 Hungary, 215, 311, 316, 395, 401, 449; Polish Legions and, 454, 558, 660, 670 Hurko, Iosif, 204, 476 Hussaria, 204-5, 254, 629 Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, 206 Iganie, Battle of, 206, 392, 473 IKC (Ilustrowany Kurier Codzienny), 207 Illakowicz, Kazimiera, 207, 547 Immunities, 207 Incompatibilia, 207

INDEX

"Independence and Freedom" Movement (Niepodleglosc i Demokracja). See NiD Infeld, Leopold, 207-8 Inflanty. See Livonia Ingarden, Roman, 208 Inowroclaw, 208, 522 Intelligentsia, 208-9, 328, 372, 467, 693 Interrex, 84, 129, 209-10, 244, 474, 618 Iranek-Osmecki, Kazimierz, 210 Irzykowski, Karol, 210, 451, 672 Isaac Ben Abraham of Troki, 210 Isaiah (Boner) of Cracow, 210-11 Isserles, Moses Ben Israel, 211 Italy, 45, 57, 104, 352; Battle of Monte Cassino, 364, 369, 381, 383, 408, 419, 460, 496, 516, 530 Ivan IV (The Terrible), 211, 468, 482 Iwaszkiewicz, Jaroslaw, 211, 547 Izycki, Mateusz, 211-12 Jabtonna, 213 Jacek, Saint (Hyacinth), 213 Jachowicz, Stanislaw, 213 Jacobins, 213-14, 424, 577, 581, 667, 674 Jacwingowie (Jatvingians, Sudavians), 214 Jadwiga (Hedwig) D'Anjou, 75, 214-15, 308, 655, 659, 682 Jadwiga, Saint (Saint Hedwig), 215 Jagiellonian Dynasty, 215-16, 218, 416, 555, 639; Wladyslaw II Jagiello, 65869; 678, 689, 690, 691 Jagiellonian Library (Biblioteka Jagielloriska), 133, 216-17 Jagiellonian University, 41, 217, 221, 259, 329, 350; historian and Stanczyk leader, 585, 588, 596, 666, 680; professors and nobility status, 388, 403, 437, 512, 521, 556 Jakub Strepa (Strzemie), 217 Jakub Swinka, 217-18, 369, 481 Jakub z Paradyza (de Paradiso), 218 Jam Zapolski, 218 Jamestown, Virginia, 218 Jan 1 Olbracht (John I Albert), 218-19, 353, 387, 613 Jan II Kazimierz (John II Vasa), 219-20,

INDEX

339, 340, 366; and Oliwa Peace Treaty, 402, 411, 469, 491, 509, 579, 617, 628 Jan III Sobieski, 220, 339, 349, 415, 447, 469, 556, 614; Vienna Rescue, 628-29, 652, 692 Jan Kanty, Saint, 220-21 Jan of Dukla, 221 Jan of Stobnica, 221 Jandolowicz, Marek, 221 Janicki, Klemens (Janicius), 221 Janiewicz (Yaniewicz), Feliks, 221 Janiszewski, Zygmunt, 222 Janko z Czarnkowa, 222 Jankowski, Jan S. ("Klonowski," "Sobbol," "Doktor"), 222-23, 366, 381, 383 Janowski, Jan Nepomucen, 223, 453 January Insurrection (1863), 44; aftermath of, 223, 406, 409, 417, 433, 499, 517, 525, 541, 596, 612; Branka issue, 48, 96; Deportations, 109-10, 131; Great Emigration, 176-77, 191, 180, 202, 223-25, 229, 238, 253, 290; Lysa Gora, 327, 347, 354, 369; leadership and, 224, 609, 640, 647, 649-50, 666, 694, 697 Janusz I, 225, 637 Janusz III, 225 Janusz Suchywilk, 225 Januszajtis, Marian, 225, 462 Japan, 225, 419, 422, 440, 504. See also Tokyo Episode "Japanese" children, 225-26 Jaracz, Stefan, 226 Jaroslaw, 226, 523 Jasieriski (Zyskind), Bruno, 226 Jasiriski, Jakub, 226-27 Jasna Gora, 97, 266, 340, 423. See also Czestochowa Jasnorzewska-Pawlikowska, Maria, 227, 547 Jastrow, Marcus Mordecai, 227 Jatvingians. See Jacwingowie Jaworowski, Rajmund, 227 Jaworski, Wladyslaw L., 227-28, 568 Jesuits, 13, 42, 69, 74; noted Jesuit pedagogue, 443, 446, 468, 483, 495; Piotr

721

Skarga, religious zealot, 547, 566, 571, 573, 621, 637, 667; and the Polish Counter-Reformation, 89, 143, 228, 294, 373, 434 Jewish Fighting Organization. See ZOB Jews, 7, 11, 14, 16,21,24, 32,35; Ghetto, 159, 168, 182, 184, 210, 211, 213, 228-29, 639; Hasidism, 35, 45, 50, 52-53, 55, 56, 130, 190-91; Jewish self-government in Poland, 88, 130, 132, 142; Judenrat, 232-33, 243, 265, 269, 276; Litwaks, 310, 316, 333, 346, 348, 375, 376, 377, 379; Nazi Concentration Camps, 382, 391, 395, 409, 442, 445; Pogroms, 449, 468, 507, 512, 516, 528, 530; Shtetl, 537-38, 549, 553, 555, 558, 572; Thon, O., Zionist leader, 603, 609, 610, 612, 614, 631; Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, 639, 642, 644, 672, 683, 687, 689, 691-92; ZOB, 695. See also Anti-Semitism; Auschwitz; Bund; Final Solution; Treblinka; "Zegota"; Zionism Jezierski, Franciszek Salezy, 229 Jeziorariski, Antoni, 229 Jez, Teodor Tomasz (Zygmunt Milkowski), 229-30 Jedrusie, 230 Jedrzejewicz, Janusz, 30, 230, 523 Jedrzejewicz, Waclaw, 30, 230-31, 452, 523 Jedrzejowski, Boleslaw Antoni ("B.A.J."), 231 Jodko-Narkiewicz, Witold ("Jowisz"), 231,460,480,531 Jordan, 231-32 Jordan, Henryk, 232 Josaphat, Saint (Jan Kuncewicz), 232 Joselewicz, Berek, 232 Journalism, 69, 92, 104, 132, 138; exponent of National Democracy, 466, 477, 479, 480, 512, 520; Gazeta Warszawska, oldest Warsaw daily, 155, 192, 235, 266, 284, 287, 307; noted organ of conservatism, 330, 343, 384, 418, 435, 438; Pilsudski publicist, 573, 615, 643, 648 Jdzefski, Henryk ("Olgierd"), 232

722 Judenrat, 232-33, 516 Jungingen, Ulrich von, 233 Junosza-Stepowski, Kazimierz, 233 Junosza-Szaniawski, Klemens, 233 Jurydyka, 234, 340 Kaden-Bandrowski, Juliusz, 235, 451 Kadlubek, Wincenty, 235-36, 482, 567 Kajka, Michal, 236 Kajsiewicz, Hieronim, 236 Kakowski, Aleksander, 236, 501 Kalecki, Michal, 236-37 Kalenkiewicz, Maciej ("Kotwicz"), 237 Kalinka, Walerian, 237, 424, 568 Kalinowski, Jozef, 237-38 Kalinowski, Wincenty Konstanty ("Kastus"), 238, 499 Kalisz, 238-39, 385, 583, 606 Kalisz Peace Treaty, 239 Kaliszanie, 239, 385 Kalkstein-Stoliriski, Ludwik, 239 Kallenbach, Jdzef, 239-40 Kallimach or Callimachus (Filippo Buonaccorsi), 240 Kalussowski, Henryk, 240 Kamieniec Podolski (KamianetsPodilskyj), 240, 584 Kamieriski, Henryk, 241 Kamiriska, Ester Rachel, 241 Kamiriska, Ida, 241 Kamiriski, Aleksander ("Hubert"), 241 Kamiriski, Franciszek, 241-42 Kampinos, 242, 417 Kanidw (Kaniv), 242 Kapele, 242 Kapists, 93, 242-43, 636 Karaites, 210, 243, 612 Karasidwna, Janina, 243 Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski, Michal. See Tokarzewski-Karaszewicz, Michal Karlowitz (Carlowitz) Treaty, 243-44, 614 Karlowicz, Mieczyslaw, 244 Karnkowski, Stanislaw, 244 Karpiriski, Franciszek, 245 Karski (Kozielewski), Jan, 32, 245 Karwicki, Stanislaw, 245 Kasprowicz, Jan, 245-46, 672

INDEX Kasprzak, Marcin, 246 Kasprzycki, Tadeusz, 246 Kaszubi (Kashubians), 246-47, 368 Katarzyna Jagiellonka (Catherine Jagiellon), 578, 691 Katowice (Kattowitz), 247, 445, 560, 625 Katyri, 172, 247-48, 273, 332, 356, 411, 554, 569 Katzenellenbogen, Oskar ("Ostap Ortwin"), 248 Kaunas (Kowno), 352, 541 Kaunitz, Wenzel Anton, 248 Kazimierz (Casimir), Saint, 248 Kazimierz Dolny, 248-49 Kazimierz I Odnowiciel or Mnich (Casimir I the Restorer or Monk), 249, 342, 355, 658 Kazimierz II Sprawiedliwy (Casimir II the Just), 249, 653 Kazimierz HI Wielki (Casimir HI the Great), 225, 239, 249-50, 318, 328, 403, 408; and Hungary, 670; and peasantry, 427, 436, 442, 481, 499, 632; Wawel growth, 644, 649, 654 Kazimierz IV, "Kazko" (Casimir of Slupsk), 250 Kazimierz Jagielloriczyk (Casimir Jagiellon), 250-51, 353, 386, 401, 576, 607, 689 Kedyw, 251 Kelles-Krauz, Kazimierz, 252, 433 Kettler, Gotthard, 252 Ketrzyn, 252 Ketrzyriski, Stanislaw, 252 Ketrzyriski, Wojciech, 252, 365 Kielbassa, Piotr, 252-53 Kielce, 253, 443, 452, 495, 522, 562, 653 Kiepura, Jan, 253 Kietlicz, Henryk, 253, 659 Kievian Rus, 385, 448, 517, 618, 632 Kiliriski, Jan, 253 Kinga or Cunegund, Blessed (12241292), 253-54 Kircholm (Salaspils), 254, 578 Kisiel (Kysil), Adam, 254 Kisielewski, Jan August, 254, 686 Kitowicz, Jedrzej, 254 Klaczko, Julian, 254-55

INDEX Kleeberg, Franciszek, 255, 535 Kleiner, Juliusz, 255, 451 Klonowic, Sebastian, 255 Kmita, Piotr, 255-56 Kniaziewicz, Karol, 256, 453 Kniaznin, Franciszek, 256 Knights of the Cross. See Teutonic Knights Knights School (Szkola Rycerska, or Korpus Kadetdw), 256-57, 565, 601, 639 Knoll, Roman, 257 Koc, Adam, 257, 523 Kochanowski, Jan, 257-58, 501, 613 Kochariski, Adam, 258 Kochowski, Wespazjan Hieronim, 258, 527 Kolankowski, Ludwik, 258 Kolbe, Saint Maksymilian Maria, 258-59 Kolberg, Henryk Oskar, 259 Koliszczyzna (Koliivshchyna) Rebellion, 259 Kollataj, Hugo, 73-74, 75, 106; noted member of "Kollataj's Forge," 109, 115, 145, 214, 259-60; Patriots, reform movement, 423, 429, 433, 469, 565, 588 Komenski (Comenius), Jan Amos, 260 Komitet Narodowy Polski. See Polish National Committee Kon, Feliks, 261, 457, 458 Konarski, Stanislaw, 261, 429, 434 Konarski, Szymon, 261 Konaszewicz-Sahajdaczny, Piotr (Konashevych-Sahaidachny, Petro), 261-62 Konic (Konitz), Henryk, 262 Koniecpolski, Stanislaw, 262, 447, 613 Konopacka, Halina, 262 Konopczyriski, Wladyslaw, 262-63 Konopnicka, Maria, 263, 513 Konovalets, Evhen, 263-64, 347, 406, 624 Konrad, 264 Konrad, Mazowiecki, 264, 478 Koriskie, 264 KOP, 264 Kopariski, Stanislaw, 265, 604

723 Korboriski, Stefan ("Zieliriski," "Nowak"), 265, 591 Korczak, Janusz, 265-66 Korczyn, Confederation of, 563 Kordecki, Kiemens ("Augustyn"), 266 Korfanty, Wojciech, 266, 287 Korolewicz-Waydowa, Janina, 267 Korsuri, Battle of, 267 Korzeniowski, Apollo, 267 Korzeniowski, Jdzef, 267 Korzon, Tadeusz, 267-68 Korzybski, Alfred, 268 Kossak, Juliusz, 268, 615 Kossak, Wojciech, 268, 418 Kossakowski, Jdzef, 268 Kossakowski, Szymon, 268-69, 594 Kossak-Szczucka, Zofia, 269, 692 Kostiuchndwka, 269 Kostka-Napierski, Aleksander Leon, 269, 349, 447 Kostrzewski, Franciszek, 269, 615 Kostrzewski, J6zef, 269 Koszalin (Koslin), 270, 464 Koszutska, Marianna (Kostrzewa, Wera), 270, 343 Koszyce, Privilege of, 316, 388, 475 Koscialkowski, Marian ("Zyndram"), 270, 373, 523 Kosaelski, Jdzef, 270-71 Kosciuszko, Tadeusz, 120, 271-72, 329, 331, 394, 424; Polaniec Manifesto issued, 463, 631, 644 Kosciuszko Insurrection, 17, 65, 94, 102; aftermath of, 104, 115, 120, 155; Battle of Raclawice, 488, 502, 566, 578, 582, 629, 637, 667, 674; Partitions and 421, 424, 463, 469; peasant hero of, 165, 214, 226, 253, 271, 302, 329, 331, 384, 400, 418 Kot, Stanislaw, 272 Kotarbiriski, Tadeusz (1886-1981), 272 Kotsis, Aleksander (1836-1877), 272 Kowalewski, Jdzef, 272-73 Kozicki, Stanislaw, 273, 370, 467 Kozielsk, 273, 411,569 Kozietulski, Jan, 273, 559 Kozlowski, Leon, 273-74 Kozmian, Kajetan, 274

724 Kozmian, Stanislaw, 274, 568 KPP. See Communist Party of Poland Kraj (Country, St. Petersburg), 275, 438, 561 Kraj (Country, Cracow), 275 Krakow. See Cracow Krasicki, Ignacy, 275, 364 Krasicki, Jan, 275 Krasiriski, Wincenty, 275-76, 349 Krasiriski, Zygmunt, 276, 390, 433, 453, 510, 553 Kraszewski, Jdzef, 276, 329, 546, 615 Kraushar, Aleksander, 276-77 Krewo (Kriavas), Union of, 215, 277, 353, 622, 659 Krepowiecki, Tadeusz, 277,422,453,623 Kridl, Manfred, 277-78 Kromer, Marcin, 278 Kronenberg, Leopold, 278, 647 Krosno, 278 Kruczkowski, Leon, 278-79 Krukowiecki, Jan Stefan, 279, 393, 422 Kruszwica, 279 Krzemieniec (Kremianets or Kremenets), 279-80, 632 Krzywicki, Ludwik, 280, 433 Krzyzanowski, Adam, 280 Krzyzanowski, Aleksander ("Wilk"), 280-81 Krzyzanowski, Julian, 281 Krzyzanowski, Wlodzimierz, 281 Kubala, Ludwik, 281 Kucharzewski, Jan, 281-82, 454, 501 Kujavia (Kujawy), 45, 282, 344, 445, 450, 522, 660, 662 Kukiel, Marian, 171, 282 KUL (Polish acronym for Catholic University of Lublin), 283, 313 Kulczycki, Ludwik, 283, 458, 476 Kulturkampf, 283, 349, 472 Kuna, Henryk, 283 Kuncewicz, Jan. See Josaphat, Saint Kuncewicz, Maria, 284 Kunicki, Stanislaw, 284 Kurier Warszawski (Warsaw Courier), 284, 477 Kurpie, 284, 413 Kurpiiiski, Karol, 284

INDEX

Kurylowicz, Jerzy, 284-85 Kusociriski, Janusz, 285 Kutrzeba, Stanislaw, 285 Kutrzeba, Tadeusz, 285 Kuznia Mtodych (Youth's Forge), 28586,551 Kuznica Kollatajowska (Kollataj's Forge). See Kollataj, Hugo Kwapiriski, Jan, 286, 306 Kwartalnik Historyczny (Historical Quarterly), 454 Kwiatkowski, Eugeniusz, 286 Labor Party (Stronnictwo Pracy [SP]), 70, 266, 287, 377, 380, 466, 498 Lalewicz, Marian, 287 Lam, Jan, 287 Lampe, Alfred, 288 Lanckorona Pact, 288 Land Reform, 5, 203, 288-89, 330, 422, 452. See also Martwa Reka ("Dead Hand"); Nobility; Peasantry Landau, Ludwik, 289 Landowska, Wanda, 289 Lange, Oscar, 289-90 Langiewicz, Marian, 290 Laski, 290, 342 Latifundia, 290, 469, 471, 654. See also Magnates; Nobility Latin, 290-91, 331, 526, 569 Latvia, 89, 291, 310, 506, 561 Law, Polish, 24, 133-34, 207, 262, 285, 291-92, 302-3; "Laski Statutes," 321, 324, 331, 333, 334; Napoleonic Code, 372, 383, 386; Nihil Novi, 387, 394, 416, 432, 475, 633, 654. See also Constitutions of May 3, 1791, of the Congress Kingdom of Poland, of March 17, 1921, and of April 23, 1935 League for the Reform of the Republic (Zwiazek Naprawy Rzeczpospolitej). See Naprawa League of Nations, 292, 358, 389, 416, 419, 489; and Silesian Uprising, 545, 561, 628, 630 Lebensraum, 292 Lechori, Jan (Leszek Serafinowicz), 29293, 547

INDEX Lednicki, Aleksander, 293 Leddchowska, Blessed Maria Teresa, 293 Ledochowski, Mieczyslaw Halka, 293-94 Leddchowski, Wlodzimierz Halka, 294 Legia Naddunajska. See Dabrowski Legions Legia Nadwislariska. See Dabrowski Legions Legion of Youth (Legion Mlodych), 294 Legion Pulawski. See Pulawy Legion Legion Wschodni. See Polish Legions Legion Zachodni. See Polish Legions Legiony. See Polish Legions Legnica, 295 Legnica, Battle of, 295, 598 Lehr-Splawiriski, Tadeusz, 295 Lelewel, Joachim, 144, 176, 177, 295-96, 373, 418, 422; continuing influence, 296, 556, 571, 623, 664, 685 Lemkos, 296-97 Lenartowicz, Teofil, 297 Lenin, Vladimir I, 319, 490, 557 Lenino, Battle of, 297 Lenno, 297-98 Leo, Juliusz, 298 Lerski, Jerzy (George—"Jur"), 298-99, 383 Leszczyriska, Maria Karolina (MarieCatharine), 299 Leszczynski, Jerzy, 299 Leszczynski ("Leriski"), Julian, 299-300 Leszczyriski, Stanislaw. See Stanislaw I Leszczyriski Leszek, 300, 354, 435 Leszek Bialy (the White), 300, 590, 682 Leszek Czarny (the Black), 300-301, 660 Leszno (Lissa), 301, 404, 475, 500 Lesmian, Boleslaw, 301, 451, 580 Lesniewski, Stanislaw, 301 Levee en Masse (pospolite ruszenie), 16, 301-2,407, 531,602 Lewiatan, 302, 651, 684 Libelt, Karol, 302 Liberum Veto, 82, 136, 166, 261, 302-3, 388, 527, 532; first use of, 539, 543, 565, 567. See also Golden Freedom; Nobility Lieberman, Herman, 303, 531

725 Liga Narodowa (National League), 24, 303-4; absorbs "Zet," 685; Marian Seyda, national politician, 536, 537, 550, 651, 679; Popular National Union, 467, 480, 504, 512, 513, 529; Roman Dmowski, nationalist leader, 115, 273, 303, 304, 377, 424, 466. See also National Democracy Liga Polska (Polish League), 24, 115, 281,304,466 Lilpop, Stanislaw, 304-5 Limanowski, Boleslaw, 305, 328, 623 Linde, Samuel Bogumil, 305, 410, 418 Lipiriski, Edward, 305 Lippomano, Luigi, 306, 396 Lipski, Jdzef, 306 Liske, Ksawery, 306, 454 Lis-Kula, Leopold, 306-7 Lisowski, Aleksander, 307 Litauer, Stefan, 307 Literature, 19, 24, 38, 42, 50, 64, 65, 69, 70; and classical motifs, 366, 372, 384, 393; the "conscience," Stefan Zeromski, 693, 694, 696; "father of Polish literature," Mikolaj Rey (Rej), 505, 508, 509, 518; Kochanowski, Jan, the most outstanding Polish poet, 257-58, 259-60, 263, 267, 269, 274; Krasicki, Ignacy, bishop and poet, 275, 276, 278, 284, 292-93, 297, 301, 314, 323, 334, 347; Nobel Prize laureates, Wladislaw Reymont, Henryk Sienkiewicz, 505, 540, 569, 574, 579, 584; novelist Joseph Conrad, 79, 92, 96, 102, 115, 148, 149, 154, 155, 166; and peasant life, 407, 409, 410, 419, 421, 435, 477, 482; pioneer of children's literature, 593, 636, 642, 647, 655, 669; political novel, 235, 236, 240, 245-46, 254, 255; surrealistic forms, 167, 169, 172, 180, 199,207,210,211,213,222, 226, 227, 229, 233; "Young Poland" movement, 672, 680, 689, 692. See also Poetry, Polish; Theater Lithuania, 9, 17, 27, 31, 60, 69, 75, 161, 307-9; Grunwald, Battle of, 181, 196, 201, 214; Jagiellonian dynasty, 215, 218, 224, 251, 271; Oginsk family,

726 399, 402, 407, 413, 415, 420-21; Plater family, 444, 451, 478, 479, 490; RadziwiH family, 491, 502, 517, 524; Sapieha family, 525, 561, 589, 594, 598, 612, 616, 617, 619; Union of Krewo (Kriavas), 277, 307-9, 310, 312, 331, 342, 347, 353, 356, 369, 391; Union of Lublin, 622, 629, 630, 637, 655, 656; Wladyslaw II Jagiello, 658-59, 660, 676, 679, 689, 690, 691, 693, 694. See also Central Lithuanian Republic; Jadwiga (Hedwig) d'Anjou; Teutonic Knights; Vilna Little (Lesser) Poland (Malopolska), 139, 177, 249, 300, 309-10, 331, 355, 356, 357; partitions, 421-23, 436, 450, 481, 500, 505, 519, 539, 595, 631, 654, 682. See also Crakow; Galicia Litwaks, 310 Livonia, 310-11, 390, 402, 420, 450; Siege of Pskov, 482, 494, 571, 578, 678, 690 Locarno, Pact of, 311, 389, 439, 441, 550 Lodomeria, 311, 339 Lompa, Jdzef, 311 Londzin, Jdzef, 311-12 Lord, Robert, 312 "Lot" Airlines, 334 Lubart Dymitr (Liubartas), 312 Lubecki-Drucki, Franciszek, 312 Lubieniecki, Stanislaw, 313 Lublin, 15, 23, 31, 32, 34, 313; city of "Little Poland," 309, 325, 332, 358, 452, 464, 484; Daszyriski's "People's Government" proclaimed, 101, 108, 123, 142, 143, 157; general Government district, 158, 160, 164, 192, 196, 200, 201, 215, 229; Juridyka in, 234, 241, 255, 283, 288, 307; Lublin region guerrilla commander, 46, 62, 63, 75, 84, 96, 100; Sobibor concentration camp, 555, 587, 640, 653, 674, 684 Lublin Regime. See Polish Committee of National Liberation Lublin, Union of. See Union of Lublin Lubomirski, Jerzy Sebastian, 314, 339, 421, 469, 509 Lubomirski, Stanislaw Herakliusz, 314

INDEX Lubomirski, Zdzislaw, 314-15, 501 Lubomirski family, 410, 484, 652 Lubrariski Academy, 315, 404 Lud Polski (Polish People), 315 Ludwik I Wegierski (Louis d'Anjou), 316, 596, 682, 687 LunSville Treaty, 316, 524 Luria, Salomon Ben Jehiel, 316-17 Lusatia, 317, 396 Lusatian culture, 317, 552 Lutherans, 317, 494, 500, 514, 515, 607 Lutoslawski, Wincenty, 318 Lutoslawski, Witold, 318 Luxembourg, House of, 318 Luxemburg, Rosa (Rozalia), 318-19, 531, 556, 557, 616 Lvov (Lwow), 3, 8, 319-20; Armenians, center of, 18, 19, 25; Defense of Lvov, 105, 113, 119, 124, 135; Director of Ossolineum Library, 37-38, 41, 52, 61, 84, 88; Formists group, 145, 152, 158, 173, 187, 222; Kasprowicz, J., noted professor and poet, 245-46, 252, 265, 287, 304, 319; Library, 410, 418, 424, 449, 450, 453; Lvov-Warsaw School, 320, 329, 337, 345, 346, 350; Modernist painter, 539, 562, 572, 580, 582, 584; Polish Historical Society, 454, 460, 480, 507, 525; respected Armenian leader, 599, 618, 620, 621, 645; West Ukraine divisions, 646, 673, 680, 686, 692. See also Cracow; Galicia; Polish-Ukrainian War Lvov-Warsaw School, 8, 71, 320-21, 325,411, 542 Laricucki, Stanislaw, 321 Laricut, 321, 617 Laski, Jan (Primate), 321-22, 331, 362, 606 Laski, Jan (Joannes a Lasco), 322, 362 Lazienki, 322, 637 Leczyca, 322-23, 344 Lobodowski, Jdzef, 323 Lomza, 323 Lowicz, 181, 323-24, 350 Lddz, 54, 64, 151, 324; last Jewish ghetto liquidated, 160, 178, 324, 358,

INDEX 380, 440, 476; June 1905 workers' strike, 504, 505, 516, 528, 550, 642, 686 Lubieriski, Feliks, 324-25, 372 Lubieriski, Henryk, 325 Lubny (Lubni), 654 Luck (Lutske), 325, 329, 358, 373, 621 Lukasiewicz, Jan, 325 Lukasiewicz, Ignacy, 326, 432 Lukasiewicz, Juliusz, 326 Lukasiriski, Walerian, 326-27 Luskina, Stefan, 327 Lysa Gdra, 327, 522 Machajski, Jan Waclaw, 328 Maciej Borkowic, 328 Maciej z Miechowa, 32&-29 Maciejowice, Battle of, 271, 329, 384 Maciejowski, Bernard, 329 Macierz Szkolna (School Union), 329-30 Mackiewicz-Cat, Stanislaw, 330 Maczek, Stanislaw, 33G-31 Madaliriski, Antoni, 331 Madeira, 331 Magdeburg Law, 188, 324, 331, 442, 481, 539, 629 Magnates, 46, 47, 94, 207, 332; jurydyki and, 234, 314, 323, 332, 341, 360, 388; powerful Potocki family, 468-69, 471, 491-93, 525, 539, 540, 563; Targowica Confederation and, 594-95, 658, 661, 678, 690. See also Golden Freedom; Nobility Main School. See Szkola Glowna Maisky-Sikorski Agreement, 37, 171, 326, 332; National Democracy opposes, 378, 401, 489, 504, 516, 530, 543; Two-Enemies Doctrine and, 615, 665, 675, 681 Majdanek, 332-33, 350, 382 Majer, Jdzef, 333 Makarewicz, Juliusz, 333 Makowski, Tadeusz, 333 Makowski, Waclaw (1898-1986), 333-34 Makowski, Waclaw (1880-1942), 334 Makuszyriski, Kornel, 334, 451 Malbork (Marienburg), 334-35, 514, 602 Malczewski, Jacek, 335

727 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 335, 411, 454 Malinowski (Pobdg), Wladyslaw, 335-36 Matachowski, Stanislaw, 336, 423 Malcuzyriski, Witold, 336 Malkowski, Andrzej, 337 Malopolska. See Little Poland Manifesto of Grand Duke Nicholas Nicholayevich, 337 Manteuffel-Szoege, Tadeusz, 337 Marchlewski, Julian, 338, 457-58, 55657 Marcinkowski, Jan Karol, 338, 406 Maria Jdzefa (Marie Josephine), 339 Maria Kazimiera (Marie Casimire), 339, 692 Maria Ludwika (Marie Louise), 339, 404 Maria Theresa, 339-40 Marian Cult, 40, 340, 412 Marian Fathers, 340 Mariavites, 340 Mariensztat, 340 Maritime Commerce, 341 Martwa Reka, 341 Marusarz, Helena, 341, 342 Marusarz, Stanislaw, 341, 342 Marxism, 101, 252, 280, 289; Polish Socialist Party variants, 458-60, 531, 556-57, 608-9, 616; Rosa Luxemburg, 318-19,433-34,446 Marylski, Antoni, 342 Maslaw, 342, 344-45 Massalski, Ignacy, 342 Maszyriski, Mariusz, 342 Matejko, Jan, 335, 343, 346, 576, 669 Matuszewski, Ignacy (1891-1946), 343, 452, 523-24 Mauersberger, Jan, 343-44 Mazepa, Ivan, 344 Mazovia, 44, 104, 331, 342, 344-45; locale of Warsaw, 637, 660, 687, 690; Mazurka, Polish Folk dance, 345, 346, 355, 413, 435, 442-43, 445; settlement of Podlasie, 448, 450, 465-66, 514, 607 Mazur, Stanislaw, 345 Mazurka (Mazur), 104, 345 Mazurkiewicz, Jan ("Radoslaw"), 345 Mazury, 346, 368, 419-20, 444-45, 628

728 Maczyriski, Czeslaw, 346 Mehoffer, Jdzef, 334, 346 Meisels, Dov Berush, 346-47 Meissner, Janusz, 347 Melno, Peace of, 347 Melnyk, Andrii, 347-48, 406 Memel (Klaipeda), 399 Mendelson, Stanislaw, 348, 458-59, 480, 623 Merchant marine. See Maritime commerce Merseburg meetings, 348 Messal, Lucyna ("Messalka"), 348 Messianism, 348-49, 352, 433, 554, 608, 664. See also Romanticism Miarka, Karol, 349 Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki, 349, 469, 490-91 Michalski, Konstanty, 350 Michalowicz, Mieczyslaw, 350, 366 Michalowicz of Urzeddw, Jan, 350 Michalowski, Kazimierz, 350 Michalowski, Piotr, 350-51 Michejda, Jan, 351 Miciriski, Boleslaw, 351 Miciriski, Tadeusz, 351 Mickiewicz, Adam, 348-49, 351-52, 371, 390, 410; founder of Tribune des Peuples, 611-12, 618, 688; Messianism and, 433, 453-54, 510, 553, 608 Mickiewicz, Wladyslaw, 351-52, 352-53 Miedziriski, Boguslaw, 353 Mielnik Union, 353 Mieroslawski, Ludwik, 353-54, 453 Mierzwa, Stanislaw, 354 Mieszko, 354 Mieszko I, 27, 105, 196, 354, 354-55, 414, 431; Piast dynasty and, 435, 46364, 648. See also Baptism of Poland Mieszko I Platonogi (Stumblefoot), 354 Mieszko I of Racibdrz (Ratibor), 354 Mieszko II Lambert, 342, 348, 354, 355 Mieszko II Otyly (the Fat), 354 Mieszko III Stary (the Old), 355-56, 472, 659 Mikolaj Traba, 356, 474 Mikolajczyk, Stanislaw, 172, 326, 35657, 377; Peasant Party leader, 426,

INDEX 428, 489, 511, 597. See also Government in Exile Mining, 357, 432, 522 Minorities, 357-58. See also Jews; Ukraine Minorities Treaties, 358 Mirecki, Jdzef ("Montwill"), 358 Mizwa (Mierzwa), Stefan, 358-59 Mloda Polska. See "Young Poland" Mlynarski, Emil, 359 Mlynarski, Feliks, 359 Mniszech, Jerzy, 360 Mniszkdwna, Helena, 360 Mochnacki, Maurycy, 360-61, 422-23, 433, 510 Moczygemba, Leopold, 361, 418 Modernism, 64, 361, 539 Modjeski, Ralph (Modrzejewski, Rudolf), 361 Modlin, 361-62, 473, 535-36 Modrzejewska (Modjeska), Helena, 361, 362 Modrzewski, Andrzej Frycz, 362-63, 428, 433, 501, 513 Mohyla (Movila), Jeremiasz, 363 Mohyla, Piotr (Movila, Petro or Petru), 363 Moldavia, 344, 363, 397, 449, 493, 556, 596; factor in Turkish Wars, 613-14, 659, 678, 690, 695 Molojec, Boleslaw, 394, 461 Mond, Bernard Stanislaw, 363-64 Monitor, 364 Moniuszko, Stanislaw, 345,359,364,692 Monte Cassino, Battle of, 364-65, 516, 530-31, 636 Monumenta Poloniae Historica, 365, 451 Monumenta Poloniae Paleographica, 451 Moraczewski, Jedrzej, 365, 459, 526, 656 Morcinek, Gustaw, 366 Morstin (Morsztyn), Ludwik Hieronim, 366, 418 Morsztyn, Jan Andrzej, 366 Moscow Trial, 38, 366, 401, 485, 577 Mosdorf, Jan, 367, 379-80 Mosxice, 367 Moscicki, Ignacy, 367-68, 439-41, 489, 535, 597, 650

INDEX Mrongowiusz (Mrongovius), Krzysztof Celestyn, 368 Mudryj, Vasyl, 368 Muraviev, Michail, 369 Muskata, Jan, 369, 372 Miinchengraz (Mnichovo Chradis'tS), 369 Myszkowski Gonzaga, Zygmunt, 369 Myszkowski, Piotr, 369-70 " N , " 371 Nabielak, Ludwik, 371 Nalkowska, Zofia, 372, 451 Nanker, Oksza, 372 Napoleon, 17, 83, 96; Duchy of Warsaw, 121, 156, 273, 336, 372, 384; Polish cavalry charge at Somo Sierra, 559, 561, 577, 604, 635, 638, 674; support sought after 1794/Polish collapse, 400, 465, 470, 518, 549, 558 Napoleonic Code, 83, 121, 291, 372-73 Naprawa (Reform), 373 Narodnaya Volya (People's Will), 449 Naruszewicz, Adam, 373, 435 Narutowicz, Gabriel, 374, 378, 386-87, 441,497, 663 Narva, Treaty of, 374 Narvik, Battle of, 374-75, 442, 479 Natansons (family), 375 National Armed Forces (Narodowe Sily Zbrojne [NSZ]), 375-76, 379, 503, 581 National Catholic Church, 376 National Colors, 376-77 National Confederation (Konfederacja Narodu), 380 National Council (Rada Narodowa), 330, 356, 377, 394, 416-17, 472-73 National Democratic Party, 78, 377 National Democratic Society, 377-78 National Democracy (Narodowa Demokracja [ND] or "Endecja"), 24, 55, 56, 78, 115-16, 173, 273; forerunner Liga Narodowa, 303-4, 336, 337, 376, 37779, 380-81; Polish Riflemen Squads and, 575, 576, 590, 610, 643, 679, 681; the School Strike and, 529, 536, 537, 558; vigorous ND publicist, 393, 419, 435, 455, 467, 480, 512. See also

729 Camp for a Greater Poland; Dmowski, Roman; National Radical Camp National League. See Liga Narodowa National Military Organization (Narodowa Organizacja Wojskowa), 376, 378-79, 577 National Peasant Party (Narodowy Zwiazek Chlopski [NZCh]), 379 National Radical Camp (Oboz NarodowoRadykalny [ONR]), 367, 376, 378, 379-80,434-35,512, 581 National Right Party (Stronnictwo Prawicy Narodowej), 568 National Sovereignty Party (Stronnictwo NiezawisloSci Narodowej), 542 National Workers' Party (Narodowa Partia Robotnicza [NPR]), 380, 466 National Workers' Union (Narodowy Zwiazek Robotniczy [NZR]), 377-79, 380-81, 496 Navy, Polish, 40, 53, 381-82, 407, 409, 442, 558,591,624 Nazi Concentration Camps, 366, 382. See also Auschwitz; Belzec; Sobibor; Stutthof; Treblinka Nazi-Soviet Pact and Secret Protocol. See Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact Neapolitan Sums, 382-83 Negri, Pola (Chalupiec, Apolonia), 383 Neisse. See Nysa Neminem captivabimus nisi iure victum, 383 Neo-Slavism, 419 Nicholas I, Tsar of Russia, 360, 391-93, 407, 422 Nicholas II, Tsar of Russia, 377, 529 NiD (NiepolegloSc i Demokracja, Independence and Freedom), 152, 299, 383, 442 Niecko, Jozef, 426, 542 Niedzialkowski, Mieczyslaw, 383-84, 531 Niegolewski, Andrzej, 384 Niemcewicz, Julian Ursyn, 384-85, 45354 Niemcza, Battle of, 385, 506-7 Niemen River, Battle of, 385 Niemojowski, Bonawentura, 385-86, 393

730 Niemojowski, Wincenty, 385, 386 Nieszawa Privileges, 386, 532 Nieswiez, 495 Niewiadomski, Eligiusz, 374, 386-87 Nihil novi, 387, 490 NKN. See Supreme National Committee NKVD, 401, 406, 554, 569 Noakowski, Stanislaw, 387 Nobel Prize for Literature, 505, 540-41 Nobility, 27, 129, 166, 207; liberum veto and, 302-3, 332, 338, 388-89, 427; privileges of, 475, 490, 532-33, 537, 594. See also Golden Freedom; Immunities; Radom Confederation; Targowica Confederation Non-Aggression Pacts, 306, 389, 473-74, 506 Non-Party Bloc of Cooperation with Government (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspolpracy z Rzadem). See BBWR Norblin de la Gourdaine, Jean-Pierre, 389, 407 Northern War, 20, 62; the "Deluge," 107, 310-11, 389-90, 344, 374, 428, 465-66, 472; Stanislaw I Leszczyriski, 566-67, 578-79, 607, 637, 644. See also Swedish Wars Norwid, Cyprain Kamil, 390, 453-54, 476, 481-82 Norwid-Neugebauer, Mieczyslaw, 391 Nossig, Alfred, 391 November Insurrection (1830-1831), 11, 31, 57, 77, 94, 107; aftermath and Messianism, 348-49, 351, 354, 360, 369, 371, 386, 391-93, 393; Battle of Iganie, 206, 239, 240, 256, 261, 276, 279; Battle of Ostroleka, 413, 422, 444, 451, 472, 473, 483, 503; Battle of Stoczek, 572, 630, 640, 644, 649; Dembiriski, Henryk, distinguished military figure, 108, 109-10; "For Your Freedom and Ours," 144, 175, 176, 179, 180, 184, 202; Lelewel, Joachim, revolutionary idol, 295-96, 308, 315, 327, 338, 347; Polish struggle and Romanticism, 509-10, 517, 518, 549-51, 561; start of the insurrection, 669, 675,

INDEX 676, 679, 694. See also Hotel Lambert; Russification Novosiltsev, Nikolai, 393 Nowaczyriski, Adolf, 393-94 Nowak, Jan (Jeziorariski, Zdzislaw), 394 Nowakowski, Zygmunt, 394 Nowodworski, Leon, 394 Nowotko, Marceli, 394-95, 461 Nowy Sacz, 395, 437 Nowy Targ, 395, 447 NSZ. See National Armed Forces Numerus clausus (Closed number), 39596 Nuncio, 396, 468, 474, 498 Nysa (Neisse), 396, 398. See also OderNeisse Line Nystad, Treaty of, 390, 579 Obertyn, Battle of, 397, 595-96 Oborski, Ludwik, 397 Ochab, Edward, 397 Oczapowski, Michal, 398 Oczko, Wojciech, 398 Oder (Odra) River, 354-55, 396, 398; Opole as principality, 405, 414, 463, 544, 582; Thietmar's chronicle, 602, 641, 665, 671 Oder-Neisse (Odra-Nysa) Line, 396, 39899,471,536,671 Ogiriski Canal, 399 Ogiriski, Michal Kazimierz, 399-400 Ogiriski, Michal Kleofas, 400 Oil. See Petroleum Okori, Eugeniusz, 400, 595 Okrzeja, Stefan, 400 Okulicki, Leopold, 366, 401 Olesnicki, Zbigniew, 401-2, 563, 660 Olgierd (Algirdas), 402, 524, 589, 655, 658 Oliwa, 402 Oliwa, Battle of, 402 Oliwa, Treaty of, 62, 366, 402, 415, 57879 Olkienniki, Battle of, 402-3 Olkusz, 403 Olszewski, Karol, 403, 666 Olsztyn (Allenstein), 403, 636 Olympic Medalists, 403

INDEX

ONR. See National Radical Camp ONR-ABC, 379, 512 ONR-Falanga, 379, 434-35 Opaliriski, Andrzej, 403-4 Opaliriski, Krzysztof, 404 Opaliriski, Lukasz, 404 Operation Tempest (Burza), 404, 640 Opole, 361,398, 405, 596, 627 Oppman, Artur ("Or-Ot"), 405 Ordondwna, Hanka (PietruszyriskaTyszkiewicz, Maria A.), 405 Organic Statute, 393 "Organic Work," 406, 467-68, 472, 499, 509-10, 525, 526 Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), 347, 406, 437, 584, 624, 625 Orgelbrand, Samuel, 407 Orkan (Hurricane), 407 Orkan, Wladyslaw, 407 Orlowski, Aleksander, 407 Orsza, Battle of, 407-8, 412 Orthodox Church in Poland, 31, 49, 87; Treaty of Hadziacz, 186-87, 308, 329, 363, 408, 412, 431, 446, 468; Uniate Church, 620, 621-22. See also Union of Brest-Litovsk Orzechowski, Stanislaw, 408-9, 501-2, 613 Orzel (Eagle), 409, 558 Orzeszkowa, Eliza, 409, 467-68, 615 Osobka-Morawski, Edward, 409-10, 452 Ossendowski, Antoni Ferdynand, 410 Ossolineum, 37, 252, 410, 580 Ossoliriski, Jerzy, 410-11 Ossowski, Stanislaw, 411, 432-34 Ostaszkdw, 411 Osterwa, Juliusz, 411 "Ostflucht" (flight from the East), 47879 Ostra Brama (Pointed Gate), 412 Ostrogski (Ostrozky) family, 412, 564 Ostrogski, Konstanty, 408, 412 Ostrogski, Konstanty Wasyl, 412-13 Ostroleka, 360-61, 371, 391-93, 413 Ostroleka, Battle of, 413, 518 Ostror6g, Jan, 413, 432-34, 501-2 Oswiecim. See Auschwitz Otto III, 414

731 OUN. See Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists OZN. See Camp of National Unity "Ozon." See Camp of National Unity Pac family, 402, 415 Pac, Michal Kazimierz, 415 Pacification, 415-16, 437 Pacta Conventa, 416 Paderewski, Ignacy Jan, 203, 336, 345, 377, 416-17, 420, 602, 653 Padlewski, Zygmunt, 417 Pale of Settlement, 449 Palmiry, 383-84, 417-18, 435, 497 Pamietnik Warszawski (Warsaw Diary), 418 Pankiewicz, Jdzef, 418 Panna Maria, 418 Panorama Raclawicka (Panorama of Raclawice), 268, 418-19, 488 Pan-Slavism, 419, 551-52 Pariszczyzna. See Corvee Parandowski, Jan, 419 Papacy. See Catholic Church and Poland Paris Peace Conference, 116, 203, 37779, 416-17, 419-20, 444, 510, 602 Parliament. See Sejm Parliament-in-Exile. See National Council (Rada Narodowa) Partitions of Poland, 27, 53, 58, 104; First Partition Sejm, 466, 472, 478, 490, 499, 506, 514; Galicia divided, 152, 177, 248, 282, 329; King Stanislaw II August, 565-66, 578, 594, 604, 607, 619; Nazi-Soviet partition (1939), 332, 339-40, 345, 408, 42021, 442, 448-49, 464; Volhynia divided, 632, 637, 638, 646, 677; Zbrucz river boundary, 683, 694. See also Radom Confederation; Targowica Confederation Pasek, Jan Chryzostom, 421, 527 Paskevich, Ivan, 391-93, 422, 518 Patek, Stanislaw, 422 Patriotic Party, 336, 456 Patriotic Society, 295, 392, 422-23, 483 Patriots, 423 Pauline Order, 423

732 Pawiak, 350, 423, 436 Pawiriski, Adolf, 424 Pawlikowski, Jan Gwalbert, 424 Pawlikowski, Jdzef, 424 Pawlikowski, Stefan, 424-25 Pawlikowski, Tadeusz, 425 Peasant Battalions (Bataliony Chlopskie), 426 Peasant movement, 153, 400, 467, 573, 656-57; pioneer of, 668 Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL]) (est. 1895), 356, 377, 425 Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Ludowe [SL]) (est. 1931), 425-26, 437, 497, 519, 573, 656 Peasant Party (Stronnictwo Chlopskie), 425, 426, 498 Peasant Party "Roch" (Stronnictwo Ludowe "Roch"), 425, 426 Peasant strikes, 426 Peasant uprising in Galicia in 1846, 427 Peasantry, 43, 130, 161, 218, 427-28, 443, 448, 453; Populism and, 467, 468, 503-4, 530, 583; Witos, W., most outstanding leader, 656-57, 667, 668 Pedagogy, 428-29 Pelplin, 429 Pelczyriski, Tadeusz ("Grzegorz"), 429 People's Army (Armia Ludowa [AL]), 89 People's National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo Narodowy [ZLN]). See Popular National Union Pereieslav Treaty of 1654, 344, 429-30, 618-19 Perl, Feliks, 430, 460, 507-8, 623 Permanent Council, 336, 342, 430, 466, 469-70, 564-66 Pestkowski, Stanislaw, 430-31 Peter I the Great, 344, 389-90, 431, 517, 595 Peter's Pence (Swietopietrze), 427, 431, 563 Petlura (Petliura), Symon, 347-48, 43132 Petrazycki, Leon, 432 Petroleum (Nafta), 47, 326, 432, 438, 582 Philosophy, Polish, 3, 8, 71, 72, 108,

INDEX

208, 318; Lvov-Warsaw school, 32021, 432-34, 511-12, 598, 611; Twardowski, K., outstanding philosopher, 614, 664-65 Physiocratism, 434 Piarists, 385, 434, 475, 483-84, 564-66 Piasecki, Boleslaw, 379-80, 434-35 Piasecki, Sergiusz, 435 Piasecki, Stanislaw, 435 "Piast." See Polish Peasant Party, "Piast" Piast, 354-55, 435, 435 Piasts dynasty, 44, 138-39, 435-36; Kazimierz HI Wielki (the Great), 249-50, 264, 332, 354-55, 405, 435; Poznan, a Piast major center, 472, 478, 480-81, 534, 539, 544; Smolka, S., specialist on Piast history, 555, 583, 590, 595, 602, 654, 659, 661 Piattoli, Scipione, 436, 469 Piekalkiewicz, Jan, 426, 436, 497-98 Piekary Slaskie, 436 Piekosiriski, Franciszek Ksawery, 436-37 Pierikowski, Stefan, 437 Pieracki, Bronislaw Wilhelm, 406, 437, 523-24 Pigori, Stanislaw, 437-38 Pilat, Stanislaw, 438 Piltz, Erazm, 438, 612 Pilawce (Pyliavtsi), Battle of, 438 Pilsudski, Bronislaw, 439, 538 Pilsudski coup d'6tat, 12, 23, 64, 439; Polish Socialist Party joins opposition, 459, 466, 473, 515, 523; post-coup Army dismissal, 282, 303, 305, 365, 367, 378, 439, 441; Sanacja-tailored 1935 Constitution, 80, 146, 174, 189, 231, 257, 263; Sikorski W., deemed an opponent, 543, 573, 574, 591, 599; trigger for the coup, 656, 663, 674 Pilsudski, Jdzef Klemens, 17, 26, 43942; BBWR, pro-Pilsudski party bloc, 30, 61, 70; Centrolew opposition ideologue, 384, 389, 430, 439, 439-42; Colonels Regimes, loyalist elite, 74, 100, 111-12; Dmowski, R., rightist opponent, 116, 143, 150; faithful follower and publicist, 353, 365, 368, 373, 378,

INDEX

380; Front Morges, centrist opposition coalition, 151, 161, 163, 165, 176, 202; IKC, pro-Pilsudski newspaper, 207, 225, 227, 230, 231; KadenBandrowski, J., aide-de-camp and chronicler, 235, 257, 270, 272, 285; Legion of Youth, 294, 305, 306, 315, 330, 331, 336; Pilsudski camp theoretician, 550-51, 552-53, 563, 573; Polish Legions, 454-55, 456, 460, 473, 478; Prystor, A., most trusted associate, 479, 507, 515, 518, 520; Sanacja, 52324, 525, 543, 549; two strong Pilsudski opponents, 574, 583, 585, 591, 606, 609; Union of Armed Struggle, 621, 630, 656, 663, 674, 693. See also BBWR; Pilsudski coup d'etat; Preventive War; Riflemen; Sanacja Pilsudski, Rowmund, 383, 442 Pirisk, 357, 373, 442, 621-22 Piorun (Thunder), 442 Piotrkdw Constitution, 443 Piotrkow Statute, 443 Piotr Wlostowic, 442 Piotrkdw Trybunalski, 353, 442-43, 47576, 477, 531-32 Piramowicz, Grzegorz, 428-29, 443 Pitass, Jan, 443 Pius XI, 396, 498 Piwnik, Jan ("Ponury"), 443 PKWN. See Polish Committee of National Liberation Plater family, 444 Plater (Broel-Plater), Emilia, 444 Plater (Broel-Plater), Wladyslaw Ewaryst, 444, 496 Plebiscites, 419, 444-45 Plock, 344-45, 417, 445, 485, 687 Plowce, Battle of, 445 Pniewski, Bohdan, 445 Po'alei Zion, 445-46, 528-29 Pociej (Potij), Adam, 446 Poczbut-Odlanicki, Marcin, 446-47 Podhajce (Pidhaitsi), 447 Podhale, 349, 395, 407, 427, 447, 549, 598-99, 600 Podhorce (Pidhirtsi), 447 Podkowiriski, Wladyslaw, 447-48

733 Podlasie, 448, 451, 525, 539, 611, 62223 Podolacy (Podolians), 448 Podolia (Podole or Podilia), 420-21, 438, 447, 448-49, 470, 589, 611, 614 Poetry, Polish, 19, 24, 50, 96, 98; famous Skamander group of poets, 546-47, 553-54, 564, 580, 587, 600, 611, 613, 614, 618; Krasinski, Z., prophetic Romantic poet, 276, 293, 297, 301, 323, 351; Mickiewicz, Adam, outstanding national poet, 351-52, 373; most outstanding pre-Partition era poet, 257-58, 263, 267, 274, 275; Norwid, influential poet, posthumously discovered, 390, 405, 471, 481-82, 526, 537; "Ukrainian School" of Polish poetry, 619, 651, 657, 673, 679, 685; an unusual giant of Polish poetry, 154, 182, 211, 227, 240, 256 Pogroms, 449 Pokucie (Pokutia), 397, 449, 595-96 Pol (Pohl), Wincenty, 450 Polanie, 450, 472 Polanowo (Polianovka) Peace Treaty, 450, 661 Polenlieder, 450 Polesie (Polisia), 442, 450-51 Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci [PAU]), 41, 46, 60, 70, 451; Estreicher, K., bibliographer and PAU co-founder, 133, 306, 333, 345, 437, 451, 483; noted physicist and PAU member, 516, 540, 546, 596, 598 Polish Academy of Literature (Polska Akademia Literatury [PAL]), 235, 255, 451; PAL President (1933-1939), 542, 564, 580-81, 600, 692; PAL Youth Award winner, 323, 334, 451, 481, 513, 520, 529, 540 Polish Air Force. See Air Force Polish-American Army, 451-52 Polish American Congress (PAC), 452 Polish Army. See Armed Forces Polish Auxiliary Corps (Polski Korpus Posilkowy), 454, 497, 542-43

734 Polish Biographical Dictionary (Polski Slownik Biograficzny), 437-38, 451 Polish Brethren, 432-34, 495, 540 Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego [PKWN]), 63, 313, 409, 452-53, 461, 520, 623, 643, 697 Polish Democratic Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Demokratyczne [PSD]), 453 Polish Democratic Society (Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie [TDP]), 35354, 371, 397, 453, 483-84, 533, 591, 623 Polish Flag. See National Colors Polish Highland Brigade (Brygada Strzelcdw Karpackich), 604 Polish Historical and Literary Society (Polskie Towarzystwo HistorycznoLiterackie), 453-54 Polish Historical Society (Polskie Towarzystwo Historyczne [PTH]), 454 Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America (Polski Instytut Naukowy w Ameryce), 454 Polish Land Purchase Bank, 479 Polish League. See Liga Polska Polish Legions, 17, 32, 34, 43, 46, 45455; active member and poet, 50, 74, 94, 98, 102; Battle of Rokitna, 509, 518, 523, 524, 543, 551, 558; celebrated First Brigade, 143, 160, 166, 187, 188, 222; Chief of Staff, First Brigade, 560, 563, 574, 577, 584, 605, 650; Dabrowski Legions, 104, 118, 121, 140; Lis-Kula, L., brave officer, 306, 316, 345, 359, 384, 391, 407, 429; Pilsudski's Polish Legions, aidede-camp and chronicler, 235, 246, 270, 271, 298; Polish Legion veterans back Pilsudski coup d'&at, 439, 440, 45455, 456, 459, 465, 473; Pulawy Legion, 484, 497, 509; Wybicki, Jdzef, legionnaire and author of Dabrowski Mazurka, 667. See also Pilsudski, Jdzef; Polish Military Organization Polish Library in Paris, 352-53, 453-54 Polish "Liquidation" Committee (Polska

INDEX Komisja Likwidacyjna), 365, 455, 509, 565 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. See Commonwealth of Both Nations Polish Military Force (Polska Sila Zbrojna). See "Polnische Wehrmacht" Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa [POW]), 3, 17, 23, 40, 455-56; conservative writer and POW member, 330, 346, 353, 365, 384, 401; faithful Pilsudski aide-decamp, 650, 697; former POW members as Sanacja regime core, 523, 545, 549, 552, 563, 573, 603, 643; labor delegate to POW, 222, 227, 230-31, 232, 246, 247, 257, 265, 270; POW commander in Lvov region, 437, 439, 455-56, 473, 479, 509, 519; POW organizer in Ukraine, 46, 93, 105, 168, 176, 200, 210; Soviet POW camp, 273, 278, 285, 306, 321, 326 Polish National Alliance (Zwiazek Narodowy Polski [ZNP]), 456 Polish National Catholic Church. See National Catholic Church Polish National Committee (Komitet Narodowy Polski [KNP]), 116, 324, 37779, 416-17, 422, 438, 456-57; PolishArmy and, 451-52, 456-57, 484-85, 510-11,536,573-74,603 Polish Peasant Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe), 24, 43, 63, 88; in underground Delegatura, 107, 109, 151, 171, 265, 272, 425, 426, 568-69 Polish Peasant Party "Liberation* (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Wyzwolenie"), 23, 29, 61, 105, 270, 353, 374, 457; result of party merger (1915), 379, 425, 426, 457, 465, 497, 523-24, 573, 603 Polish Peasant Party "Piast" (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Piast"), 61, 64, 105, 457; member of Lanckorona Pact, 288, 353, 356, 416-17, 425, 436, 455, 457, 467, 550 Polish Provisional Revolutionary Committee (Tymczasowy Komitet Rewolu-

INDEX cyjny Polski [TKRP]), 338, 394, 45758, 460 Polish Riflemen Brigade, 342, 484-85. See also Riflemen Association; "Strzelec" Polish-Russian War of 1792, 564-66, 577, 594-95 Polish Social-Democratic Party of Galicia and Cieszyn (Teschen) Silesia (Polska Partia Social-Demokratyczna Galicji i Alaska Cieszyriskiego [PPSD]), 365, 458, 477, 507-8, 568-69, 696 Polish Social-Democratic Youth (Polska Mlodziez Spoleczno-Demokratyczna), 458 Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna [PPS]), 3, 15; activist in PPS Fighting Organization, 400, 409, 430, 439; Centrolew, electoral coalition member, 61, 73, 88, 93, 100-101, 109, 111; Diamond, Herman, noted leader, 112, 120, 160, 168; the Governmentin-Exile and, 171, 173, 182-83, 187, 192, 200; Jaworowski, Rajmund, socialist and Pilsudskiite, 227, 230, 231, 246, 252, 270, 282; Kulczycki, Ludwik, PPS leader and publicist, 283, 286, 289, 303, 305, 318, 321; Pilsudski establishes PPS, Revolutionary Fraction, 440, 460, 458-59, 476, 480, 488, 504; reaction to Maisky-Sikorski Agreement, 332, 348, 358, 365, 377, 383; Robotnik (Worker), several Polish socialist organs, 507, 529, 552, 574, 585, 605; Union of Polish Socialists Abroad, 623, 635, 643, 663, 665 Polish Socialist Party-Left (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna-Lewica), 458, 459-60, 472-73, 507-8, 556, 608-9 Polish Socialist Party of Prussian Poland (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna Zaboru Pruskiego), 458 Polish Socialist Party-Revolutionary Fraction (PPS Frakcja Rewolucyjna), 4, 430, 439-42, 458-59, 460, 480, 48586, 507-8, 577, 585, 588 Polish-Soviet Agreement of July 1941. See Maisky-Sikorski Agreement

735 Polish-Soviet War (1919-1921), 3, 17, 31, 36, 461; Battle of Niemen River, 385, 424, 432, 435, 437; Curzon Line, 91-92, 105, 116, 125, 146, 173, 213, 231; KOP, border defense corps, 264, 282, 285, 299, 330, 363; Pilsudski as Polish Marshal, 441, 452, 461, 479, 498; Riga Peace Treaty, 506-7, 515, 518, 543, 550, 560; Spa international conference, 561, 638, 656, 673, 687, 693 Polish Succession, War of the (17331738), 460 Polish-Swedish Wars. See Swedish Wars Polish Teachers Union (Zwiazek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego), 477, 533-34 Polish-Ukrainian War, 330-31, 346, 363, 401, 460-61; Pieracki, B., Ukrainian nationalist target, 437, 460, 498, 515, 516, 605, 618-19 Polish Victory Service (Sluzba Zwyciestwu Polski [SZP]). See Service for the Victory of Poland Polish Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza [PPR]), 458-59, 461-62, 503, 589-90 "Polnische Wehrmacht," 455, 462, 515 Polonaise (Polonez), 400, 462 Polonia, 64, 110, 443, 452, 456, 462-63, 511,558,589,605 Polonia Restituta (Order of the Revival of Poland), 463 Poltava, Batde of, 344, 389-90, 465-66 Polaniec Manifesto, 463 Polock (Polock), 463, 482-83, 526-27, 547-48, 571, 621-22 Pomerania, 24, 30, 44, 45, 53, 463-64; alliances of King Przemysl II, 481, 514, 539, 571, 582, 590; the "Corridor" and Eastern Pomerania, 86, 110, 139-40, 144, 148, 156, 181, 187, 195; German minorities and, 357-58, 380, 419-20, 429, 442, 463; Prussian aquisitions and, 198-99, 239, 246, 249, 250, 287, 297, 300, 317, 341, 355; Thirteen Years' War, 602, 607, 660, 670 Poniatowski family, 464 Poniatowski, Franciszek, 464

736 Poniatowski, Jdzef Antoni, 464-65, 497 Poniatowski, Juliusz, 465, 546 Poniatowski, Michal, 465 Poniatowski, Stanislaw, 465-66, 676 Poniriski, Adam, 329, 466, 506 Popiel, Karol, 466 Poplawski, Jan, 466-67, 480 Poprawki historyczne (Historical Corrections), 331 Popular National Union (Zwiazek Ludowo-Narodowy [ZLN]), 116, 165, 173, 273, 304, 378, 467; Piasecki, S., leading National Democratic journalist, 435, 467, 536, 550, 610, 684 Populism, 361, 467 Positivism, 124, 409, 432-34, 467-68, 477-78, 585, 590-91, 672. See also Romanticism Possevino, Antonio, 468, 482-83 Potocki (family), 443, 447, 468-69, 652 Potocki, Andrzej, 469, 568 Potocki, Feliks, 447, 469 Potocki, Ignacy, 469-70, 564-66 Potocki, Jan, 470 Potocki, Mikolaj, 470 Potocki, Stanislaw Kostka, 470 Potocki, Stanislaw Rewera, 469, 471, 567 Potocki, Stanislaw Szczesny, 471, 594 Potocki, Waclaw, 471 Potsdam Conference, 398-99, 471-72, 520, 696 POW. See Polish Military Organization Powisle, 444 Poznari (Posen), 16, 24, 29, 42, 472; coorganizer of Poznari University, 269, 271, 285, 288, 293-94, 295, 315; famous anti-German peasant resistor, 119, 138, 157, 162, 165, 170, 174; founder of "Bazar" share holding association, 338, 354, 362, 404; Grand Duchy of, 174-75, 177, 183, 187, 197, 221, 226; independent Bishopric established, 43, 60, 65, 76, 84, 88, 97, 99, 102, 113; policy of "Organic Work" initiated, 406, 413, 456, 472, 480, 498, 537; Poznari insurrection and the Springtime of Nations, 562, 563, 571— 72, 606, 659, 662, 666, 685

INDEX

Poznan University, 394, 472, 518 PPS. See Polish Socialist Party Pragier, Adam, 472-73 Prague, 5, 419, 551-52, 624 Prazmowski (Belina), Wlaydslaw. See Belina-Prazmowski, Wladyslaw Pradzyriski, Ignacy, 413, 473 President of Poland, 80, 81, 170-72, 367-68; assassination of President G. Narutowicz, 374, 378, 386-87, 439-42, 488-89, 518 Preventive war, 473-74 "Prewislianskii Krai" (Land of the Vistula River), 517 Primate, 209, 356, 362-63, 464, 465, 474, 490-91. See also Gniezno; Interrex Principal School. See Szkola Glowna Principal School of Agricultural Economy (Szkola Glowna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego [SGGW]), 474, 663 Principal School of Commerce (Szkola Glowna Handlowa), 474 Principal Welfare Council (Rada Glowna Opiekuricza), 474-75, 511, 525-26, 651 Printing, 475 Pripet, 381,451,475,631 Pripet Marshes, 442, 475 Privileges of nobility, 166, 332, 388, 4A75-76 Program of Polish Socialists, 348 Proletariat, First (Great Proletariat), 476, 480, 642, 697 Proletariat, Second (Small Proletariat), 246, 338, 348, 374, 430, 458, 476, 556, 575 Prometheism, 476 Pronaszko, Andrzej, 476 Protestants, 475, 547-48. See also Calvinists; Lutherans Provisional Government of National Unity, 357 Provisional Government of the People's Republic, 410 Provisional Government of the Polish Republic, 365, 542

737

INDEX

Provisional State Council (Tymczasowa Rada Stanu), 334, 501, 651 Prdchnik, Adam, 477 Prugar-Ketling, Bronislaw, 477 Prus, Boleslaw, 467-68, 477-78, 585, 615 Prussia, 11, 30, 53, 54, 69, 478; city of Torun, 607, 625, 637, 638, 645, 665, 666; Constitution of May 3rd as a threat, 82, 103, 116, 119; Ducal Prussia, 120, 130, 148, 156; famous Malbork fortress, 334, 345, 368, 403, 420; German Colonization Commission, 159, 164; Grand Duchy of Poznari, 174-75, 187, 198, 219, 239; Kaszubi and Germanization, 246, 263, 266, 282, 288, 321, 331; Partitions of Poland and, 420-21, 428, 464, 469, 472, 478; Prussian Colonization Commission, 478-79, 483, 514, 522, 544, 558; Stablewski, F., fighter for Polish language rights, 563, 565, 580, 582, 596, 602. See also Royal Prussia; Teutonic Knights Prussian Colonization Commission, 47879 Pruszkowski, Tadeusz, 479 Pruszyriski, Ksawery, 479 Prystor, Aleksander, 479-80, 523-24 Przedswit (The Dawn), 348, 480, 643, 663 Przeglgd Historyczny (Historical Review), 480 Przeglgd Wszechpolski (All-Polish Review), 467, 480 Przemysl I, 480, 481 Przemysl II, 480-81 Przemysl (Peremyshl), 408, 481, 483, 499, 523, 542-43, 606, 618, 683 Przesmycki, Zenon ("Miriam"), 390, 451, 481-82, 579-80 Przybyszewski, Stanislaw, 482 Psie Pole (Dogs' Field), 482 Pskov, Siege of, 468, 482-83, 495 Ptas'nik, Jan, 483 Puck, 381, 483, 578-79 Pulaski, Aleksander, 483-84 Pulaski, Kazimierz, 484

Pulawy, 94, 96, 484, 631 Pulawy Legion, 484-85 Pultusk, 485 Puzyna, Jan, 485 Puzak, Kazimierz, 377, 459, 485-86 Quakers, 487 Quarter Troops (Kwarciane Wojsko), 487 Qui Pro Quo, 487 Raabe, Leszek, 488, 622 Raclawice, Panorama of. See Panorama Raclawicka Raclawice, Battle of, 331, 418, 488 Raczkiewicz, Wladyslaw, 170, 330, 36768, 377, 488-89, 542-43, 589, 675 Raczyriski, Edward, 489 Radek, Karol (Sobelsohn, Karl), 489-90 Radom, 353, 360, 387, 475-76, 490 Radom Confederation, 490, 493-94, 502 Radziejowski, Augustyn Michal Stefan, 490-91 Radziejowski, Hieronim, 490, 491 RadziwiH (Radvilas), 402, 491-92, 494, 506, 690 RadziwiH, Boguslaw, 492 RadziwiH, Janusz (1579-1620), 492 RadziwiH, Janusz (1612-1655), 492-93, 539, 578-79, 684 RadziwiH, Janusz (1880-1967), 493 RadziwiH, Karol, 493 RadziwiH, Karol Stanislaw, 490, 493-94 RadziwiH, Michael, 392 RadziwiH, Mikolaj ("Czarny") (the Black), 446, 494, 495 RadziwiH, Mikolaj ("Rudy") (the Redhead), 494-95 RadziwiH, Mikolaj Krzysztof ("Sierotka") (Little Orphan), 495 Rakdw, 475, 495, 500 Ramorino, Antonio, 495-96 Rapacki, Marian, 496 Rapacki, Wincenty, 496 Rapallo Treaty, 496 Rapperswil, 444, 496, 693 Rararicza, Battle of, 497, 509, 674 Rares, Peter, 397, 595-96 Raszyn, Battle of, 464-65, 497

738 Rataj, Maciej, 426, 427-28, 497 Ratajski, Cyryl, 394, 436, 497-98 Ratti, Achille, 396, 498 Rayski, Ludomil, 498-99 Red Cross, 534 Red Ruthenia (Rus* Czerwona), 442, 499, 517 Red Scouting, 488 "Reds," 499-500, 586, 609, 649-50, 666 Reformation, 38, 113, 125, 313, 317, 500; Modrzewski, Andrzej Frycz, eminent political and religious writer, 36263, 433, 468, 475, 494-95, 500, 505, 540, 613. See also Counter-Reformation Regency Council, 282, 315, 334, 391, 462, 488-89, 493, 500-501, 515, 590 Reich, Leon, 603 Rej, Mikolaj. See Rey, Mikolaj Rejewski, Marian, 501 Renaissance, 178, 278, 350, 428, 433, 447, 501-2, 519; politically astute Polish wit, 568, 606, 634, 644, 677, 690, 691 Repnin, Nikolaj, 420-21, 466, 490, 49394, 502, 519, 667 Republic of Cracow (Rzeczpospolita Krakowska), 90-91, 108, 502-3 Resistance, 8, 18, 71, 106, 171, 245, 503-4; early anti-German resistance, 536, 537, 581-82, 667, 681, 682; Polish anti-Nazi sabotage operations, 251, 265, 334, 345, 503, 512, 513-14, 516, 519, 535 Retinger, Jdzef Hieronim, 504 Revolutionary London Community (Gromada Rewolucyjna Londyn), 397 Revolution of 1905-1906, 51, 115, 122, 125, 504-5; "Bloody Wednesday in Grzybowski Square," 183, 270, 38081, 428, 439-42, 485, 489, 504-5; Polish school strike, 529, 538, 539, 540, 542; SDKPiL, a main political actor, 556, 590, 608, 616, 635, 640 Rey (Rej), Mikolaj, 500, 501-2, 505, 613 Reymont, Wladyslaw, 505, 528 Reytan (Rejtan), Tadeusz, 506

INDEX RGO. See Principal Welfare Council (Rada Glowna Opiekuricza) Rippentrop-Molotov Pact, 31, 49, 506, 535, 538, 599, 615, 620, 645, 646 Riflemen Association (Zwiazek Strzelecki), 43, 121, 143, 153; activist member in para-military groups, 168, 225, 227, 246, 257, 263, 282, 306; Miedziriski, B., full participant and Pilsudskiite, 353, 373, 437, 439-42, 518-19, 541-42, 574-75, 605, 621, 681. See also Polish Military Organization "Strzelec"; Union of Active Struggle Riga Peace Treaty, 330, 343, 451, 46162, 506-7 Ringelblum, Emanuel, 507 Robotnik (The Worker), 383-84, 430, 439-42, 507-8, 681 Rodakowski, Henryk, 453-54, 508 Rodziewiczdwna, Maria, 508 Rodziriski, Artur, 508 Rogalski, Stanislaw, 508 Rogoziriski (Szolc-Rogoziriski), Karol, 508-9 Roja, Boleslaw Jerzy, 509 Rokitna, Battle of, 509 Rokosz, 509 Roman law, 291,432 Romania, 31, 368, 438, 445-46, 488-89, 503, 518-19, 558, 563-64, 676 Romanticism, 170, 276, 350-51, 509-10; Mickiewicz, Adam, opens the Polish era of Romanticism, 351-52, 359, 360-61, 432-34, 437-38, 450; Positivism as a reaction and correction, 46768, 509-10, 546-47, 551-52, 553-54; Young Poland movement, 672 Romer, Eugeniusz, 510, 511 Romer, Tadeusz, 510-11 Ronikier, Adam Feliks, 511 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 20, 37, 511, 599, 671 Rosen, Jan, 511 Rosen, Jan Henryk, 511 Rosienkiewicz, Marcin, 511-12 Roskosz, Stanislaw ("Franek"), 512 Rosmaryn (Rosmarin), Henryk, 512

INDEX Rossman, Henryk, 379-80, 512 Rostafiriski, Jdzef, 512-13 Rostworowski, Karol Hubert, 451, 513 Rota, 513 Rowecki, Stefan ("Grot," "Rakori"), 513-14, 521 Royal Castle (Zamek Krdlewski), 514 Royal election, 84, 209, 332, 474. See also Convocation Sejm Royal Prussia, 463-64, 478, 420-21, 483, 514, 578-79, 607 Rozwadowski, Tadeusz, 462, 515 Rdmmel, Juliusz, 515 Rdzycki, Ludomir, 515-16 Rubinowicz, Wojciech, 516 Rubinstein, Artur, 516 Rudnicki, Klemens, 516 Rumkowski, Chaim, 516-17 Russia (pre-1917), 7, 10, 11, 13, 20; anti-Russian BAR, Confederation, 27, 31, 36, 49; Battle of Dembe Wielkie, 107, 109-10, 113-14, 115, 121; Battle of Grochdw, 179, 191, 195, 202, 206; Catherine II, infamous Partitionist, 58, 63, 66; Congress Kingdom of Poland, 77-78, 79, 82; Curzon Line, 91-92, 95, 102, 103; the Four Year Sejm and, 145, 160, 165, 173-74; Ivan IV (the Terrible), 211, 218, 223-24, 236, 238, 241; King Stanislaw II August Poniatowski, 564-66, 578, 594, 604, 615, 629, 632; Liga Narodowa and, 303, 308, 310, 312, 320, 329; National Democracy's pro-Russia orientation, 37778, 384, 390, 392-93, 419; November Insurrection military strategist, 473, 483, 484, 490, 493, 502; the Partitions and, 420-21, 422, 428, 430, 431, 438; Pilsudski and Tsarist Russia, 440, 448, 449, 450, 454, 456; "Polish Club" in the Duma, 122, 125, 136, 142; proRussian prelate and anti-reformist, 342, 352, 360, 362, 374; Revolution of 1905-1906, 504, 517, 528, 529, 538, 541; the "Silent Sejm" and, 543-44, 551, 554, 556, 561; Treaty of Karlowitz, 243, 259, 271, 279, 293; the War of Polish Succession and, 460, 466,

739 468, 469, 471; Warsaw in the Russian Empire, 638, 640, 649-50, 661, 676, 694. See also Congress Kingdom of Poland; January Insurrection; November Insurrection; Russification Russian-Japanese war, 439-42, 515, 606 Russian Revolution of 1905. See Revolution of 1905-1906 Russification, 63, 78, 204, 224, 308, 517; celebrated Polish students' boycott, 529, 630, 693; Polonized Vilna and, 310, 393, 422, 517, 630 Ruthenia, 18, 41, 43-44, 45, 87, 89, 517; Czarniecki, S., Governor of Ruthenia and exemplory patriot, 93, 113, 139, 179, 216, 249, 250; Lemkos, ethnic group, 296, 300-301, 307-8, 319, 325, 331, 388; Ogiriski family of Ruthenian boyar origins, 399, 408, 412, 420, 442, 451, 471; policy of Russification, 517, 596, 616, 619; Uniate Church, 620, 622, 654, 655, 659, 670. See also Lithuania; Ukraine Rutkowski, Jan, 518 Rybarski, Roman, 518 Rybiriski, Maciej, 391-93, 518 Rydel, Lucjan, 518 Rydz-Smigfy, Edward, 171, 367-68, 45556, 518-19, 535-36, 542-43, 549, 563-64 Rzepecki, Jan ("Prezes"), 371, 519 Rzeszdw, 425-26, 452-53, 464, 519 Rzewuski, Seweryn, 519-20, 594-95 Rzymowski, Wincenty, 451, 520 "Sabala," 521 Sacha, Stefan, 521 Sachsenhausen, 217, 437, 509, 514, 521 Sahajdaczny, Piotr. See KonaszewiczSahajdaczny, Piotr Saint Cross Homilies, 522 Salomea, 522 Salt (Mining), 41, 72, 309, 357, 522, 649 Samogitia. See Zmudi Samosierra. See Somo Sierra Samostrzelnik, Stanislaw, 523 San, 481, 499, 523, 631, 646 Sanacja, 29, 33, 523-24; active publicist

740 of, 353, 356, 365, 380, 384, 416, 426, 437; Brest-Litovsk Trial of democratic opposition, 49, 53; Centrolew opposition, 61, 80, 101, 105, 109, 116; Etatism, Sanacja economic policy, 133, 151, 169; Government-in-Exile and, 170, 197, 207; peasant youth split, 542, 574; Pilsudski coup d'etat, 439, 451, 459, 466, 473, 485, 497, 498, 520, 523, 526; power elite, 592, 648, 656, 667; purging of university professors, 230, 257, 263, 294, 305, 330, 343, 350. See also Front Morges; Pilsudski, Jdzef K. Sandomierz, 360, 463, 505, 524, 631, 653, 661, 682 Sanguszko family, 524 Santo Domingo, 524-25 Sapieha (family), 402, 415, 525, 526 Sapieha, Adam, 525, 648 Sapieha, Adam Stefan, 525 Sapieha, Eustachy Kajetan, 525-26 Sapieha, Leon, 406, 526 Sapieha, Lew, 526 Sarbiewski (Sarbievius), Maciej, 526-27 Sarmatism, 527, 673 Saxon Times, 20, 21, 51, 144, 431, 52728, 567, 595, 646 Saxony, 21, 144, 147, 389, 460, 527; seasonal emigration, 530, 567, 579, 595, 604, 646 Scheibler, Karol, 528 Schiller, Leon, 528, 685 Schipper, Izaak, 528-29 School Strike, 529, 534 Schulz, Bruno, 529-30 Schwarzbart, Isaac Ignacy, 530 Sciences, 115, 25, 50; botanical studies, 513, 516, 555, 588, 591; Copernicus, 85; Madame Curie-Sktodowska, 91, 124, 131, 196, 207, 222; petroleum refining, 326, 328, 367, 398, 403, 424, 437, 438, 446, 510 Scout movement, 337, 343, 581, 681. See also Szare Szeregi SDKPiL. See Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania

INDEX Seasonal Emigration, 530. See also Economic emigration Secession (art term), 361, 539 Second Army Corps, 530-31, 577 Second Brigade, 509, 543 Second International, 112, 231, 318, 531, 635 Sejm, 6, 20-21, 58, 83, 82, 531-32; bicameral Parliament and, 387, 411, 469, 491, 495, 497, 502; Convocation Sejm, 84, 100-101, 110, 129, 133-34; Four Year Sejm, 145; Golden Freedom, thwarted by, 166, 176-77; Guardians of the Law and, 183, 259, 288, 349, 353, 363, 367, 368, 376; interwar Parliamentary Club, 656, 675, 681; Partitions and, 421, 506, 529, 532, 533, 536, 539, 540; "Silent Sejm," 543, 552, 573, 592, 593, 603, 638, 651. See also Constitutions of Poland, 17931935; Four Year (Great) Sejm; liberum veto Sejmik, 532-33 "Selective" infantry, 533 Semenenko, Piotr, 533, 688 Semkowicz, Wladyslaw, 533 Sempolowska, Stefania, 533-34 Senate, 334, 336, 367, 387; election of the President, 532, 534, 536, 664; participation in, 430, 479, 489, 503 Seniorate, 44, 139, 534-35, 661 September Campaign of 1939, 7, 17-18, 47, 54, 152, 161, 170, 535-36; creation of a Polish secret state, 619, 646, 648, 676, 681, 682; development of active underground resistance, 503, 513, 515, 519, 535, 546, 560, 563; heroic Polish defense of Hel peninsula, 192, 212, 237, 245, 247; heroic Warsaw civil defense, 570, 577, 597, 607; last campaign battle, October 2-6, 1939, 255, 264, 273, 298, 330, 356, 362; Polish Navy, 381, 384, 411, 425, 429, 485, 624. See also Government-inExile; Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact Serfdom. See Corvee Service for the Victory of Poland (Sluzba

INDEX

Zwyciestwu Polski [SZP]), 171, 265, 401, 503, 536, 605, 621 Seyda, Marian, 171, 332, 378, 467, 536 Seyda, Wladyslaw, 537 Sep-Szarzyriski, Mikolaj, 537 SGGW. See Principal School of Agricultural Economy SGH. See Principal School of Commerce Shatzky (Szacki), Jakub, 537 Sheptytsky, Andrei. See Szeptycki, Andrzej Shtetl, 537-38 Siberia, 328, 358, 369, 393, 431, 538; deportation of, 440, 466, 485, 538, 541, 575, 586, 587, 666, 669, 697 Sichulski, Kazimierz, 539 Siciriski, Wladyslaw, 539 Sieciech, 539, 658 Siedlce, 449, 477, 539, 645 Siedlecki Grzymala, Adam, 540 Siemaszkowa, Wanda, 540 Siemomysl, 354 Siemowit, 354, 435 Sienicki, Mikolaj, 540 Sienkiewicz, Henryk, 329, 453, 540-41, 585, 615 Sieradz, 344, 469, 563 Sierakowski, Zygmunt, 417, 541 Sieroszewski, Waclaw, 451, 538, 541-42 Sierpiriski, Waclaw, 542 "Siew" ("Sowing," Central Union of Peasant Youth), 542 Sikorski, Wladyslaw, 160, 170-71, 326, 330, 542-43; "Eminence Grise" and, 504, 536, 542, 574, 605, 621, 657, 674, 693; Maisky-Sikorski Agreement, 332, 356, 377, 378, 407, 417, 446, 489, 498 "Silent Sejm," 390, 543-44, 595 Silesia, 5, 17, 30, 45, 54, 69, 544-45; Cieszyn issue, 72, 83, 101, 110, 112; concentration of Dominicans, 117, 139, 148, 160, 163, 176, 187; Germanization and, 349, 355, 357, 358, 380, 396; Korfanty, W., fosters national awakening in Silesia, 266, 292, 295, 311, 317, 339; Oder-Neisse border, 398, 405, 420, 435, 436, 442, 444, 456, 478,

741 498, 530, 537, 544, 573, 580, 596, 600; progress under Henryk I Brodaty (the Bearded), 193, 194, 198-99, 215, 247, 249, 250, 264, 265; Upper Silesia, 625,627,660,661,665,671 Silesian Uprisings, 73, 176, 265, 435, 445, 545-46; role of the Polish Military Organization, 456, 544, 545, 573, 596, 626 Skalski, Stanislaw, 546 Skalka, 546 Skalkowski, Adam, 546 Skalon, Georgii, 546 Skamander, 24, 182, 235, 546-47, 553; Leopold Staff, acclaimed poetic guru, 564, 614, 651, 657 Skarbek, Fryderyk, 547 Skarga, Piotr, 495, 547-48, 570 Skarzyriski, Stanislaw, 548 Skarzysko-Kamienna, 548 Skierniewice, 548 Skladkowski (Slawoj), Felicjan, 343, 535, 549 Sklodowska-Curie, Maria. See CurieSklodowska, Maria Skoczylas, Wladyslaw, 549 Skrzynecki, Jan, 392, 413, 473, 549-50, 645 Skzyriski, Aleksander, 550, 684 Skulski, Leopold, 550 Skwarczyriski, Adam, 523, 550-51 Skwarczyriski, Stanislaw, 551 Slavic Congresses, 419, 551-52, 686 Slavophilism, 419 Slavs, 341, 419, 527, 552, 569, 648 Slawek, Walery ("Gustaw"), 367, 458, 460, 479, 523, 552-53 Slawoj-Skladkowski, Felicjan. See Skladkowski (Slawoj), Felicjan Slonimski, Antoni, 487, 547, 553 Slonimski, Chaim Zelig, 553 Slovakia, 503, 535, 598 Slovaks, 447, 552 Siowacki, Juliusz, 343, 349, 351, 433, 453, 485, 510, 553-54 Slowo Polskie (Polish Word), 334 Smolensk, 373, 399; Battle of Orsza, 407, 450, 470, 475, 554

742 Smoleriski, Wladyslaw, 554-55 Smolka, Franciszek, 555 Smolka, Stanislaw, 555, 568 Smoluchowski, Marian, 555 Sobibdr, 382, 555-56, 610 Sobieski, 556 Sobieski, Jakub Ludwik, 556 Sobieski, Jan. See Jan III Sobieski Sobieski, Waclaw, 556 Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (Socjal-Demokracja Krolestwa Polskiego i Litwy, SDKPiL), 39, 125, 270, 299; co-founder of the SDKPiL, 318, 338, 394, 430, 458, 459, 476, 489; support of the School Strike, 529, 556-57, 635, 640. See also Polish Socialist Party Social Insurances, 557 Society of Christ, 557 Socinians, 433 Sokolnicki, Michal (1880-1967), 460, 558 Sokolnicki, Michal (1760-1816), 558 Sokdl (Falcon Association), 55S Sokol (Falcon), 558, 562 Sokolow, Nachum, 558-59 Solarz, Ignacy, 542, 648 Solski (Sosnowski), Ludwik, 559 Soltys, 559, 600 Somo Sierra (Samosierra), 384, 559 Sosabowski, Stanislaw, 560 Sosnkowski, Kazimierz, 332, 394, 560, 621 Sosnowiec, 560 Soviet camps, 332 Soviet occupation, 16-17, 23, 47; Chciuk, Tadeusz, underground courier, 63, 109-10, 143, 200, 225, 247-48; detention camp, 569, 584, 605, 619, 665, 692; Kozielsk POW camp, 273, 28081, 366, 401, 411, 480, 486, 493, 504, 513. See also Moscow Trial Soviet Russia. See Soviet Union Soviet Union, 8, 9, 12, 16-17, 23, 25; Beck, Jdzef, statesman, 30-31; Cordon Sanitaire and, 85, 93, 105, 107, 10910, 119; Dzierzynski, Feliks, 125, 146, 152, 153, 168; Government-in-Exile,

INDEX 170-72, 173, 190, 200; Katyn executions, 247-48, 273, 280-81, 297; Lenino, Battle of, 297, 309, 313, 320, 332, 333, 397, 419, 432, 441, 452, 459; Polish-Soviet War, 460, 461, 471, 481, 506, 535, 538, 569, 589; Stalin annihilates Polish Communist leaders, 76; Tehran Conference, 599, 615, 630, 635; Warsaw Uprising, 640-41, 671. See also Potsdam Conference; Yalta Conference Sowiriski, Jdzef, 561 Spa, 460, 561 Spain, 382, 480, 559, 589 Spartakus-Bund, 338 Spasowicz, Wlodzimierz, 561, 612 Spasowski, Wladyslaw, 562 Spolem (Union of Consumer Cooperatives), 562 Sport, 262, 341, 342, 403, 562, 635 Springtime of Nations, 347, 352, 410, 450, 453; Romanticism and, 510, 551, 554, 555, 562-63, 611, 679, 686 Spychalski, Marian, 410 Stablewski, Florian, 563 Stachiewicz, Julian, 563 Stachiewicz, Waclaw, 535, 563-64 Stackelberg, Otto Magnus, 430, 564, 565 Stadnicki, Stanislaw, 564 Staff, Leopold, 451, 547, 564, 580, 672 Stalin, Jozef, 76, 354, 357; frontiers and territories discussed at Tehran Conference, 599, 623, 640, 671; Moscow Trial, 366, 378, 452, 471, 490, 510, 511 Stanislaw II August Poniatowski, 27, 564-66; drafts Constitution of May 3rd, 1791, 82, 95, 179, 221; initiates periodical Monitor, 364, 373, 400; Partitions, 421, 423, 436, 465, 469; Radom Confederation opposition, 490, 493, 502, 519, 528, 564; "Thursday dinners," 603, 611, 647, 673, 674. See also Kollataj, Hugo; Patriots; Targowica Confederation Stanislaw Kostka, 566 Stanislaw I Leszczyriski, 344, 390, 399,

INDEX 431; War of Polish Succession, 460, 464,466,491,527,566-67 Stanislaw, Saint, 44, 546, 567 Stanislaw6w (Stanislaviv or IvanoFrankivske), 357, 432, 567-68, 584, 646 Stanislawski, Jan, 568 Stariczyk, 568 Stariczyks, 274, 555, 568, 585, 596, 612 Stanislawdw (Stanislaviv), 357, 432, 646 Stapiriski, Jan, 425, 568-69, 668 Starachowice, 569 Starobielsk, 411,569 Starosta, 328, 569 Starowolski, Szymon, 569-70 Starzyriski, Stefan, 570 Staszic, Stanislaw, 418, 429, 433, 434, 570-71 Statistics, 571 Stefan I Batory, 329, 370, 468; closest political advisor, 678, 683, 694; siege of Pskov, 482, 526, 533, 540, 571, 613, 621 Stefariski, Walenty Maciej, 571-72 Stefczyk, Franciszek, 572 Steiger Trial, 572 Stepowski-Junosza, Kazimierz. See Junosza-Stepowski, Kazimierz Stoczek, Battle of, 572 Stojatowski, Stanislaw, 573 Stolarski, Blazej, 573 Stoss, Veit. See Stwosz, Wit Stpiczyriski, Wojciech, 573 Stroriski, Stanislaw, 573-74 Strug, Andrzej, 451, 528, 574 Strozecki, Jan, 458, 507 Stryjeriska, Zofia, 574 "Strzelec" or "Zwiazek Strzelecki" (Riflemen Association), 574-75. See also Riflemen Association Strzelecki, Pawel Edmund, 575 Studnicki-Gizbert, Wladyslaw, 575 Stumsdorf, Truce of, 575-76, 579, 661 Stutthof, 382, 576 Stwosz, Wit, 576 Styka, Jan, 418, 576 Stypulkowski, Zbigniew, 576-77 Sucharski, Henryk, 577, 646

743 Sulimirski, Tadeusz, 577 Sulkiewicz, Aleksander, 577 Sulkowski, Jdzef, 577 Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy, NKN), 365, 453, 454, 543, 578, 605, 656 Suvorov, Aleksander, 578 Sweden, 11, 62, 107, 374, 389, 402, 404, 466, 491, 492, 527; Stanislaw I Leszczynski and, 566, 575, 628, 661, 691 Swedish Wars, 62, 97, 578-79; the "Deluge," 107, 310, 335, 340, 361, 389, 402, 445, 471; Hieronim Radziejowski and, 491, 492, 514, 575, 578-79, 582, 617. See also Oliwa Peace Treaty Switzerland, 151, 338, 367, 374, 417, 438, 494; Polish museum in Rapperswil, 496, 540 Sygnafy (Signals), 579 Symbolism, 361,579-80 Synod, 580 Syrokomla, Wladyslaw, 580 Szafranek, Jdzef, 580 Szajnocha, Karol, 580 Szaniawski, Jerzy, 433, 580-81 Szaniawski, Jdzef Kalasanty, 581 "Szaniec" (Entrenchment), 581 Szare Szeregi (The Grey Ranks), 241, 344, 581-82, 682 Szczecin (Stettin), 341, 398, 582 Szczekociny, Battle of, 331, 582 Szczepanowski, Stanislaw Prus, 582-83 Szczerbiec (Jagged Sword), 583 Szczpiorno, 583 Szela, Jakub, 427, 583-84 Szelburg-Zarembina, Ewa, 584 Szembek, Jan, 584 Szeptycki, Andrzej, 584 Szeptycki, Stanislaw, 584-85 Szkola Glowna (Principal School), 424, 585, 588, 590, 640, 649 Szlachta. See Nobility Szturm de Sztrem, Tadeusz, 585 Szujski, Jdzef, 424, 568, 585-86 Szwarce, Bronislaw, 586 Szydlowiecki, Krzysztof, 523, 586 Szyfman, Arnold, 586 Szymanowski, Karol, 586-87

744 Szymonowic, Szymon (Simon Simonides), 587 Szyszko-Bohusz, Zygmunt, 375 Sciegienny, Piotr, 587 Slask. See Silesia Sliwiriski, Artur, 588 Smigly-Rydz, Edward. See Rydz-Smigly, Edward Sniadecki, Jan, 433, 588 Sniadecki, Jedrzej, 588-89 Swiatpol (World Organization of Poles Abroad), 589 Swidrygiello (Svitrigaila), 589 Swierczewski, Karol ("Walter"), 589-90 Swiezyriski, Jdzef, 501, 590, 651 Swietopeik I Wielki (the Great), 590 Swietochowski, Aleksander, 406, 585, 590-91 Swietoslawski, Wojciech, 591 Swietoslawski, Zenon, 591 Swiety Krzyz (Holy Cross), 591 Swirika, Jakub. See Jakub Swinka Swirski, Jerzy, 381, 591 "Swit" (Dawn), 591 Switalski, Kazimierz, 373, 591-92 Tannenberg. See Grunwald, Battle of Tariska Hoffmanowa, Klementyna, 593 Tarasiewicz, Michal, 593 Taraszkiewicz, Bronislaw, 593-94 Targowica Confederation, 48, 95, 269, 342, 373, 421, 594-95; opponents of 336, 443, 465, 469, 519, 566, 577, 594, 631 Tarnobrzeg, 400, 595 Tarnogrdd Confederation, 544, 595 Tarnopol (Tarnopil), 357, 447, 646, 682 Tarnowski (family), 595, 597 Tarnowski, Jan, 397, 595-96, 690 Tarnowski, Stanislaw, 568, 596 Tarnowskie Gdry, 596-97 Tarndw, 367, 427, 597, 616 Tarski, Alfred, 597 Tatar, Stanislaw ("Tabor"), 597 Tatarkiewicz, Wladyslaw, 434, 598 Tatars, 59, 412, 430, 438, 447, 598; Quarter Troops, 487, 524, 598, 615,

INDEX 654, 665; southern border defense, 680, 683, 696 Tatra Mountains, 172, 334, 598-99; pioneer ecology, 424, 447, 513; "Sabala" bard, 521, 598-99, 600, 674. See Zakopane Te Deum Laudamus (We Praise You Lord), 599 Tehran Conference, 383, 452, 511, 599 Temporary Commission of Confederated Independence Parties (KTSSN), 379, 381, 542 Temporary Government of the Polish Republic (Rzad Tymczasowy Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej), 452-53 Teodorowicz, Jdzef, 599-600 Territorial Self-Government, 88, 600 Teschen. See Cieszyn Tetmajer-Przerwa, Kazimierz, 600 Teutonic Knights, 181, 601; founder of, 195, 198, 239, 252, 264, 334; Melno, Peace of, 347, 356, 403, 429, 445, 478, 514; Thirteen Years' War, 602, 606; Toruri Peace Treaties, 607, 655, 659, 690, 694. See also Battle of Grunwald; Lithuania; Prussia; Wladyslaw II Jagiello Theater, 6, 25, 26, 28, 601-2; celebrated actress Helena Modrzejewska, 362, 394, 405, 411; co-founder of cabaret Little Green Balloon, 254, 267, 284, 300, 342; noted director, 425, 540, 559, 586, 593, 601, 647; pioneer entrepreneur, 42, 118, 122, 128, 148, 151, 180; playwright and satirist, 192, 202, 226, 233, 241; versatile playwright, 669, 685, 695 Thietmar, 602 Thirteen Years' War, 386, 464, 602, 607 Thirteenth Point, 602-3, 653 Thon, Osias, 603 Thugutt, Stanislaw, 374, 603-4 Thursday dinners, 373, 603, 611, 673 Tilsit, Treaty of, 448, 465, 604 Tithe (dziesiecina). See Peter's Pence Tobruk, Battle of, 604-5 Tochman, Kacper, 605 Tokarz, Waclaw, 605

INDEX Tokarzewski-Karaszewicz, Michal, 513, 515, 605-6 Tokyo Episode, 440, 511, 606 Tolwiriski, Tadeusz, 606 Tomicki, Piotr, 523, 606-7 Toruri (Thorn), 381, 421; Reformation, 500, 514, 594, 602, 607, 631, 637 Toruri Confederation, 608 Toruri Peace Treaties, 335, 464, 514, 602, 607-8, 662 Toruri Uproar (Thorner Blutbat), 607 Towarzystwo Rolnicze. See Agricultural Society Towiariski, Andrzej, 349, 352, 371, 533, 608 Traba, Mikolaj. See Mikolaj Traba Trade Unions (Zwiazki Zawodowe), 365, 608-9, 624 Transylvania, 492, 540, 571, 683 Traugutt, Romuald, 609-10 Trawniki, 610 Trapczyriski, Wojciech, 610 Treblinka, 382, 539, 610-11, 639 Trembecki, Stanislaw, 611 Trent, Council of, 74, 329, 396 Trentowski, Bronislaw Ferdynand, 611 Treuhandler, 611-12 Tribune des Peuples, 352, 612 Triple Loyalty, 612 Troki (Trakai), 412, 495, 612-13 Trzciana, Battle of, 613 Trzecieski, Andrzej ("Trecesius"), 613 TUR. See Association of Workers' Universities Turkey, 51, 243, 396, 401; Pilsudski's venture, 484, 498, 549, 558; Stefan Batory's planned Crusade, 571, 586, 595, 613, 628, 683 Turkish Wars, 59, 613-14; Chocim, Battle of, 67, 220, 243, 349, 401, 423; Podolia recovered, 244, 448, A469, 49 541, 596, 598, 613, 627; siege of Vienna, 628, 661, 695 Tuwim, Julian, 487, 547, 614-15 Twardowski, Kazimierz, 434, 615 Two-Enemies Doctrine, 615 Tygodnik Ilustrowany (Illustrated Weekly), 343, 405, 615-16

745 Tyniec, 616, 649, 653 Tyssowski, Jan Jozef, 616 Tyszka, Jan (Leon Jogiches), 556, 616 Tyszkiewicz (family), 616 Tyszkiewicz, Eustachy, 617 Tyszowce Confederation, 617 Tyzenhauz, Antoni, 617

Uchariski, Jakub, 350, 618 Ujejski, Kornel, 618 Ukraine, 25, 66, 87, 153, 168, 618-19; Archbishop Andrzej Szeptycki, Ukrainian national leader, 584, 618, 624, 632, 643, 646, 654; Konovalets, Evhen, nationalist politician, 263, 320, 331, 344, 346; Melnyk, Andrii, 347, 363, 368; Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, 406, 430, 431, 437, 449, 460, 469, 481; scope of Ruthenia, 499, 517, 561, 572; Treaty of Hadziacz, 186, 200; Ukrainian Cossack statesman, 668, 675, 682, 683. See also Bandera, Stefan; Orthodox Church in Poland; Pacification; Petlura, Symon; UNDO Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), 406, 584, 624 Ukrainian Military Organization (UVO), 347, 406 Ukrainian National Army, 347 Ukrainian School of Poetry, 619 Underground state, 619-20, 503 UNDO (Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance), 368, 620 Unemployment, 620 Uniate Church, 408, 412, 431, 446, 618, 620-21, 668. See also Orthodox Church in Poland Union of Active Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Czynnej [ZWC]), 153, 343, 353, 621; Pilsudski, created by, 440, 542, 560, 577, 591, 605, 621 Union of Armed Struggle (Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej [ZWZ]), 8, 171, 371, 401, 621; Polish and, 503, 513, 516; Sikorski, shaped by, 171, 543, 597, 605, 621, 634 Union of Brest-Litovsk, 49, 329, 400,

746 412, 621-22; leading Ukrainian advocate, 446, 448, 547, 580, 620, 621-22 Union of Independent Socialist Youth, 488, 622 Union of Independent Socialist Youth "Zycie" (Life), 622 Union of Lublin, 202, 216, 308, 412, 446, 448, 622-23; impact on Ukraine, 619, 622, 632, 662, 691; Polesie divided, 451, 494 Union of Polish Emigration, 295, 354, 623, 666 Union of Polish Patriots in the USSR (ZPP), 398, 452, 623, 643, 656 Union of Polish Socialists Abroad, 231, 348, 480, 623-24 Union of Polish Teachers, 624, 667 Union of Polish Workers, 338, 556, 697 Union of Polish Writers, 542, 624, 693 Union of Polish Youth. See "Zet" Unitarians (Anti-trinitarians). See Arians United Kingdom. See Britain United States. See America Unrug, Jdzef, 381, 624 UOW (Ukrainian Military Organization), 25, 347, 624 UPA (Ukrainian Insurgent Army), 25, 406, 624-25 Upper Silesia, 349, 625-26, 628, 687 Urbanowicz, Witold, 626 Ursus, 626 USSR. See Soviet Union Vaclav II (Venceslas), 369, 395, 569, 627 Vaclav III, 627 Vallachians (Wallachians), 477, 595, 678, 695 Varna, Battle of, 401, 613, 627-28, 661 Vasa, 628, 661, 678, 691 Versailles, Peace of, 311, 417, 420, 473, 496, 545, 628 Vienna Rescue (1683), 14, 220, 464, 628-29 Vienna Treaties, 629 Vilna (Wilno), 60, 141, 226, 238, 342, 629-30; Mielnik, Union of, 353, 399, 404, 412, 415, 446; RadziwiH Family, 491-95; 507, 526, 531, 547; Vilna

INDEX University, 141, 393, 571, 616, 62930, 631, 640, 659, 679, 693. See also Central Lithuanian Republic; Lithuania Vilna Crisis, 60, 309, 630-31, 693 Vilna Gaon (Elijah Ben Solomon Zalman), 631 Virgin Mary. See Marian Cult Virtuti Militari, 631 Vistula (River), 122, 180, 309, 631; capital of Warsaw, 637, 643, 652, 658, 662, 678; Maciejowice, Battle of, 329, 344, 361, 381, 402, 445; Pomerania, 463, 484, 514, 523, 604, 606, 631 Volhynia, 279, 325, 357, 406, 632; massacres in, 625, 632, 640, 646, 682; Orthodox Church faithful, 408, 412, 421, 475, 493, 621, 622 Volksdeutsche, 371, 632-33 Volumina Legum, 261, 633 "Wachlarz" (The Fan), 634 Waclaw II (Venceslas). See Vaclav II Waclaw from Szamotury, 634-35 Walasiewicz, Stanislawa (Stella Walsh), 635, 636 Waiecki, Henryk, 458, 531, 635 Walewska, Maria (nee Laczyriska), 63536 Walewski, Alexandre Florian Colonna, 635, 636 Waliszewski, Zygmunt, 636 Wallenrodism, 636 Warikowicz, Melchior, 636 Warmia (German: Ermland), 368, 420, 421, 636-37; 1920 plebiscites, 444, 514, 607, 636-37 Warsaw, 4, 6, 7, 10, 23, 26, 29, 31, 34, 35, 41 637-38; Deportations, after Warsaw Uprising, 110, 121, 128, 138, 145; Gazeta Warszawska, 155, 159, 191, 204, 206, 210; Italian painter of Warsaw scenes, 56, 68, 77, 88, 102-3, 103; January Insurrection (1863), and Warsaw, 223-24, 236, 245, 256, 268; Kosciuszko Insurrection, 271, 279, 295, 298, 320, 322; Maciejowice, Battle of, 329, 336, 339, 340, 342; literary critic and publicist, 343, 348, 350, 360,

INDEX 361; Monitor, major periodical, 364, 373, 375, 384, 386, 389; November Insurrection, 392-93, 396, 400, 401, 405, 407; Osterwa, J., noted theater director, 411, 413, 417, 418; partitions, 420-21, 423, 435, 436; Pilsudski coup, 439, 441, 452, 461, 465, 470, 474; prestigious Przeglgd Historyczny (Historical Review), 480, 485, 487, 490, 497; "Reds" political movement, 499, 504, 513, 514, 518, 521, 528; September Campaign, 535, 542-43; "Silent Sejm," 543, 546, 553, 561; Spolem, consumer cooperatives, 562, 564, 570, 577, 581; Szkola Gldwna (Principal School), 585, 586, 588, 598, 609, 615; WW II Underground state, 8, 619, 621, 624, 626, 637-38, 639, 640, 644; Wielopolski, A., controversial statesman, 649-50, 657, 673, 681, 685, 695. See also Grzybowski Square; Lazienki Park; Royal Castle Warsaw, Battle of, 400, 385, 461, 476, 515, 543, 638, 646 Warsaw Confederation, 113, 329, 540, 566, 638-39 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, 128, 446, 488, 512, 638, 639, 695 Warsaw University, 320, 328, 638-39; celebrated mathematician, 542, 547, 585, 597, 605, 639-40, 649, 686; clandestine wartime unit, 337, 350, 393, 411, 424, 432, 437. See also Szkola Gldwna Warsaw Uprising, 70, 128, 342, 345, 640-41; impact on Mikolajczyk, 356, 376, 394, 401, 404; legendary Boy Scout partisans, 581, 640-41, 681, 687, 695; prisoners exterminated, 423, 435, 574, 519, 521, 528 Warski-Warszawski, Adolf, 556, 641 Warszewicki (Varsevicius), Krzysztof, 641 Warta (Warthe) River, 450, 472, 641-42 Warthegau (Wartheland), 472, 642 Waryriski, Ludwik, 476, 541, 642 Wasilewska, Wanda, 623, 642-43 Wasilewski, Leon, 460, 480, 642, 643

747 Wasilewski, Zygmunt, 643 Wawel (Castle), 352, 372, 418, 643-44; burial of J. Pilsudski, 441, 465, 485, 525, 554, 567; famous jagged sword, 583, 643-44, 690 Wawelberg, Hipolit, 644 Wawer, 392, 518, 644-45 Wawrzyniak, Piotr, 645 Weigl, Rudolf, 645 Weiss, Wojciech, 645 Wertenstein, Ludwik, 645 West Belorussia, 599, 645 West Ukraine, 460, 599, 619, 624, 646 Western Legion, 455 Western Slavs, 385, 414, 450, 464, 544; Slavic Congresses, 551, 552, 577 Western Ukrainian People's Republic, 460, 619 Westerplatte, 535, 577, 646 Wettins (dynasty), 20, 339, 527, 646 Weygand de Nimal, Maxime, 462, 64647 Weyssenhof, Jdzef, 647 Wegierski, Tomasz, 647 Wegrzyn, Jdzef, 647 "Whites" ("Biali"), 500, 525, 609, 64748 Wiadomosci Literackie (Literary News), 182, 648 Wiadomosci Polskie (Polish News), 337, 394 Wicher (Gale), 648 Wichman, 648 "Wici," 542, 648 Widukind, 648-49 Wiech (Wiechecki), Stefan, 649 Wieliczka, 357, 522, 649, 651 Wielopolski, Aleksander, 48, 78, 224, 417, 500, 561, 649-50; Warsaw University re-opened as Szkola Gldwna, 585, 612, 647, 649-50, 678 Wieniawa-Dlugoszowski, Boleslaw, 368, 650 Wieniawski, Henryk, 650 Wieniawski, Jdzef, 650 Wierzbicki, Andrzej, 651 Wierzynek, Mikolaj, 651

748 Wierzyriski, Kazimierz, 403, 451, 547, 651-52 Wigura, Stanislaw, 652, 696 Wilandw Palace, 652 Wilk (Wolf), 652 Wilno. See Vilna Wilson, Woodrow, 417, 602, 652-53 Winawer, Bruno, 653 Wisla. See Vistula Wisla "Miracle." See Warsaw, Battle of Wiszowaty, Andrzej, 653 Wislanie (Vistulians), 643, 653 Wislica, 653-54 Wisniowiecki (Vyshnevetsky) family, 654 Wisniowiecki, Jeremi, 349, 654 Wisniowiecki, Michal Korybut. See Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki Wit Stwosz. See Stwosz, Wit Witkiewicz, Stanislaw Ignacy (Witkacy), 351, 654-55 Witold (Vytautas), Duke of Lithuania, 401, 589, 607, 612, 655-56 Witos, Andrzej, 656 Witos, Wincenty, 65, 288, 354, 378, 656-57; Peasant Party leadership, 426, 428, 455, 460, 536, 656-57 Wittek, Maria ("Mira"), 657 Wittig, Edward, 657 Wittlin, Jdzef, 547, 657 Wkra, Battle of, 657-58 Wladyslaw (English: Vladislas), 658 Wladyslaw I Herman, 539, 658 Wladyslaw II Jagiello (Jogaila), 181, 308, 356, 383, 401, 658-59; Podolia, deliniates, 448, 559, 563, 589; Toruri Peace Treaty, 607, 629, 655, 658-69, 662, 682, 691 Wladyslaw III Laskonogi (SpindleLegged), 658, 659-60 Wladyslaw I Lokietek (The Short or the Elbow-High), 369, 372, 431, 660; Plowce, Battle of, 445, 472, 583, 660 Wladyslaw III Warnericzyk (Vladislas III of Varna), 401, 613,660-61 Wladyslaw IV Waza (Vladislas IV Vasa), 219, 339, 661; begins Polish Navy, 381, 483, 661, 404, 411, 434; claim renounced to Swedish Crown, 575, 613,

INDEX

658, 661, 694; Polanowo, Peace Treaty of, 450, 491, 492, 526 Wladyslaw II Wygnaniec (Vladislas II the Exile), 661-62 Wloclawek, 562, 662 Wlodkowic, Pawel, 662 Wlodzimierz Wolyriski (VolodymyrVolynskyj), 408, 446, 535, 621, 66263 Wojciech of Brudzew, 502, 663 Wojciechowski, Stanislaw, 458, 507, 562, 623, 663 Wojciechowski, Tadeusz, 663-64 Wojewoda, 328, 336, 664 Wojtkiewicz, Witold, 664 Wolyfi. See Volhynia Worcell, Stanislaw, 180, 453, 623, 664 Workers' Cooperatives, 562 Workers Party of Polish Socialists (Robotnicza Partia Polskich Socialistow), 409 World Union ("Organization") of Poles Abroad. See Swiatpol World War I, 4, 17, 26, 32; Blue Army, Polish troops in France, 40, 49, 94, 98, 101, 105; Chief of Staff, Polish Legions, 674, 675, 693, 697; Dmowski, R., co-founds Polish National Committee, 116, 137, 143, 144, 188-89, 210; member of the Polish "Wehrmacht," 282, 304, 306, 313, 320, 337; minorities treaties, 358, 365, 378, 400, 417; Paris Peace Conference, 419-20, 440, 444-45, 448, 451-52; Polish Legions, 454-55, 501, 515, 518, 538, 543; Silesian Uprisings, 545, 558, 602, 620, 628, 630, 638, 643. See also Manifesto of Grand Duke Nicholas; Polish Military Organization; Thirteenth Point; Versailles, Peace of World War II, 6, 7, 8, 12; Anglo-Polish Agreement, 13, 17, 21, 24, 25, 26; Battle of Britain and Polish fighter squadrons, 29, 39, 47, 57, 66, 71; Cichociemni, Polish paratroopers dropped into Nazi -occupied Poland, 71, 86, 88, 131, 135; Franco-Polish Alliance, 146, 156, 158, 160, 164; Gov-

INDEX

ernment-in-Exile, 170-72, 192, 212, 239, 241, 242; J. Karski, underground courier, 245, 247, 251, 253, 257, 264, 280-81; J. Lerski, Special Emissary, 298, 324, 332, 337, 341, 350, 359; Battle of Monte Cassino, 364, 366, 378, 381, 382, 384; J. Nowak, resistance activist and courier, 394, 395, 398, 404, 410; I. Paderewski, statesman, 417, 418, 423, 434, 435; J. Piwnik, famed anti-Nazi guerrilla leader, 443, 459, 471, 479, 485-86, 489; Resistance, the Polish underground movement, 503, 507, 511, 51314, 517, 520, 521, 530; September Campaign, 535-36; 538, 539, 542-43, 546; Starobielsk, Soviet detention camp for Polish officers and elite, 569, 576, 581, 589, 599, 604, 605; Treblinka, Nazi extermination center, 610, 611, 619-20, 621, 623, 624; Volksdeutsche, 632-33; 634, 638, 640-41, 645, 648, Yalta Conference, 671, 677, 681, 69 693, 697. See also AK (Home Army); Katyri; Kedyw; Operation Tempest (Burza); Potsdam Conference Woroniecki, Jacek, 434, 664-65 WRN, 459, 665. See also Polish Socialist Party Wroclaw (Breslau), 331, 372, 655-56; Oder-Neisse Line, 399, 410, 418, 442, 483, 500, 665-66 Wrdblewski, Walery, 666 Wrdblewski, Zygmunt, 666 Wrzesnia, 666 Wujek, Jakub, 667 Wybicki, Jdzef, 104, 667 Wycech, Czeslaw, 667 Wyczdlkowski, Leon, 667-68 Wyhowski, Jan (Vyhovsky, Ivan), 668 Wyslouch, Boleslaw, 425, 668 Wyslouch, Maria, 668-69 Wysocka, Stanislawa, 669 Wysocki, Piotr, 392, 669 Wyspiariski, Stanislaw, 476, 539, 546, 568, 669-70, 672 Wyszehrad (Vysegrad) Meetings, 670

749 Xavier Wettin, 339 Yalta, Conference of, 15, 172, 299, 356, 383, 671-72; and Oder-Neisse line, 398-99, 511, 671. See also Potsdam Conference; Tehran Conference Yam Zapolski, 483 Yiddish, 537-38, 672 YIVO (Yiddish Scientific Institute), 537 Young, Hilton, 672 "Young Poland," 246, 301, 335, 351, 672; variant of Modernism, 361, 407, 437, 515, 518, 529; Skamander group, 547, 564, 579, 596, 655, 669, 672 Zablocki, Franciszek, 673 Zacheta (Gallery), 374, 387, 673 Zadwdrze, 673 Zagdrski-Ostoja, Wlodzimierz, 674 Zajaczek, Jdzef, 674 Zakopane, 114, 334, 351, 674-75; J. G. Pawlikowski, noted Tatra ecologist, 424, 549, 599, 655, 674, 693 Zakrzewska, Maria, 675 Zakrzewski, Kazimierz, 675 Zaleski, August, 332, 675 Zaleski, Jdzef Bohdan, 675 Zaleski, Wladyslaw, 676 Zaleszczyki (Zalishchyky), 676 Zaliwski, Jdzef, 676, 685 Zaluski, Jdzef Andrzej, 676-77 Zamenhof, Ludwik, 677 ZamoSd, 164, 333, 438, 497, 587, 677 Zamoyski (family), 570, 595, 677-78 Zamoyski, Andrzej, 406, 678 Zamoyski, Jan, 339, 360, 468; influence on Stefan Batory, 571, 587, 678, 683, 684, 694 Zamoyski, Maurycy, 679 Zamoyski, Wladyslaw, 679 Zan, Tomasz, 510, 679 Zaolzie (region beyond the Olza River), 679-80 Zapolska, Gabriela, 680 Zaporoze (Zaporozhia), 87, 430, 680 Zaremba, Stanislaw, 680 Zaremba, Zygmunt ("Marcin"), 459, 460, 665, 681

750 "Zarzewie" (Fire Glow), 573, 681, 685 Zaslawski, Wladyslaw, 681 Zawadzki, Tadeusz ("ZoSka"), 681-82 Zawichost, 682 Zawisza Czarny, 682 Zawisza of Kurozweki, 682 Zbaraz, 682-83 Zbaszyri, 683 Zborowski, Samuel, 683 Zbordw (Zboriv), 683 Zbrucz (River), 449, 507, 646, 683-84 Zdziechowski, Jerzy, 467, 684 Zdziechowski, Marian, 492, 684 Zebrzydowski Rebellion, 68, 329, 492, 509, 564, 678, 684, 691 Zegadlowicz, Emil, 685 Zelwerowicz, Aleksander, 685 Zemsta Ludu, 685 "Zet," 24, 328, 685; arm of the National Democracy, 377, 391, 496, 536, 573, 685 Zieliriski, Tadeusz, 686 Zielony Balonik (Little Green Balloon), 528, 686, 692 Ziemialkowski, Florian, 686 Ziemiecki, Bronislaw, 686 Ziemowit III (Siemowit), 687 Ziemski, Karol ("Wachnowski"), 687 Zinc, 101, 357, 625, 687 Zionism, 182, 229, 445, 449, 512, 516, 687-88; represented in the Polish Sejm, 528, 530, 558, 603, 687 Zjednoczenie Emigracji Polskiej. See Union of Polish Emigration Zloty (ZL), 688 Zmartwychstaricy (Resurrectionist Fathers), 688 Znaniecki, Florian Witold, 688 Zwiazek Walki Czynnej. See Union of Active Struggle Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej. See Union of Armed Struggle Zwrotnica (Switch), 689 Zyclone B gas, 382. See also Auschwitz Zygelbojm, Samuel ("Artur"), 689

INDEX Zygmunt I Stary (Sigismund I the Old), 9, 45, 120, 397, 689-90; Battle of Orsza, 407, 412, 500, 502, 505, 509; sharp Royal jester, 568, 586, 596, 629, 644, 689-90 Zygmunt II August (Sigismund II Augustus), 27, 310, 362, 369, 690-91; Neapolitan Sums, 382, 487, 494, 514, 568, 571, 596; accomplishes Union of Lublin, 622, 639, 678, 690-91. See also Barbara RadziwiH; "Execution-of-theLaw" Zygmunt III Waza (Sigismund III Vasa), 53, 254, 363, 369, 381, 691; Treaty of Oliwa, 402, 411, 492, 526, 548, 564; Swedish Wars, 578, 587, 661, 678, 684, 691. See also Chodkiewicz, Jan Karol; Skarga, Piotr; Zebrzydowski Rebellion Zyndram of Maszkowice, 691 Zarnowiec, Battle of, 602 Zegluga Polska (Polish Sea Sailing), 341 "Zegota," 269, 691-92 Zeleriski, Tadeusz ("Boy"), 692 Zeleriski, Wladyslaw, 692-93 Zeligowski, Lucjan, 630, 693, 697 Zenczykowski, Tadeusz ("Kania"), 371 Zeromski, Stefan, 328, 343, 693-94; Polish Academy of Literature, conceives, 451, 528, 624, 672, 693-94 Zmichowska, Narcyza, 694 Zmudz (Samogitia), 347, 526, 541, 607, 694 Zdlkiewski, Stanislaw, 59, 661, 684, 694-95 ZOB, 128, 639, 695 Zdlkowski, Fortunat, 695 Zdlte Wody, Battle of, 696 Zulawski, Jerzy, 696 Zutawski, Zygmunt, 696 Zwirko, Franciszek, 652, 696 Zychliriski, Ludwik, 697 Zycie (Life), 482 Zymierski, Michal ("Rola"), 697 2yrarddw, 476, 697

About the Author DR. GEORGE J. LERSKI was Professor Emeritus of Modern European History at the University of San Francisco. He was a specialist on East-Central Europe. His earlier works include Poland's Secret Envoy, 1939-1945; Jewish-Polish Coexistence: A Topical Bibliography; Herbert Hoover and Poland; Origin of Trotskyism in Ceylon; A Polish Chapter in Jacksonian America; and The Economy of Poland. (See also Lerski, Jerzy, this Historical Dictionary of Poland.)