Historical Dictionary of Morocco, 2nd Edition (African Historical Dictionaries, No. 95)

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Historical Dictionary of Morocco Second Edition Thomas K. Park Aomar Boum

Historical Dictionaries of Africa, No. 95

The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland • Toronto • Oxford 2005

03-370 (1) Front

3/18/04

12:51 PM

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Contents List of Tables

ix

List of Figures

xi

Editor’s Foreword, Jon Woronoff

xiii

Preface

xv

Acknowledgments

xvii

Note on Transliteration

xix

Acronyms and Abbreviations

xxiii

Maps

xxix

Chronology

lxiii

Introduction

1

THE DICTIONARY

7

Appendix

369

Glossary

431

Bibliography

435

About the Authors

675

vii

viii

Tables

Table 1. Major Dams Constructed in Morocco by Year Table 2. Cereal Production in Morocco, 1956-2000 Table 3. Sketch of Late 18th- to Early 20th-Century Currency Table 4. Population in Morocco in Thousands Table 5. Population of Historical Urban Centers in Morocco Table 6. Indices of Industrial Production by Sector Table 7. Political Parties in Morocco: Election Results (Seats) Table 8. Moroccan Political Parties in 2003 Table 9. Results of 2003 Communal Elections Table 10. Regional Demarcation on 16 June 1971 Table 11. Characteristics of the Regions in 1997 Table 12. Regional Demarcation on 17 August 1997 Table 13. Morocco’s Imports and Exports to Top Ten Partners Table 14. Morocco’s Imports and Exports by Category

ix

18 20 93 98 101 182 292 293 294 303 304 305 340 340

x

Figures

Figure 1. Annual Rainfall

19

Figure 2. Moroccan Life Expectancy at Birth, 1965-2000

99

Figure 3. Moroccan Life Expectancy by Age Bracket

99

Figure 4. Composition of Morocco’s Population

100

Figure 5. Moroccan GDP by Sector

109

Figure 6. Indices of Moroccan Economy, 1965-2000

110

Figure 7. Per Capita GDP and Purchasing Power, 1965-2000

111

Figure 8. Education Rates in Morocco, 1965-2000

112

Figure 9. Exchange Value of Dirham, 1960-2003

118

Figure 10. Parliamentary Seats by Major Party, 1983-2003

290

Figure 11. Communal Elections: Candidates vs. Seats

291

xi

xii

Editor’s Foreword Things do not always turn out as foreseen. In the 1960s and 1970s, when the wave of decolonization reached Africa and socialism and radicalism were expected to sweep the continent, and then again in the 1990s with the resurgence of Islamic fundamentalism, it was frequently prognosticated that Morocco was bound to change quickly. A hereditary kingdom, even one tracing its history back to the Prophet, could hardly be maintained. Nor was there much hope initially for its capitalist system, and more recently, for its limited democracy. Nonetheless, at the beginning of a new century, and under the rule of a new king, Morocco is still holding up much better than its closest neighbors and the majority of African and Middle Eastern countries that it should be compared with. This does not mean that everything has worked out for the best, hardly, but the economy is reasonably strong, the polity is comparatively democratic, and despite any opposition to its claiming of Western Sahara, even its foreign relations are relatively fruitful. This is, therefore, a good time to publish a second edition of the Historical Dictionary of Morocco—a much longer and more complete examination than its predecessor. The chronology has been updated, the introduction has been rounded out, and, above all, the dictionary has been not only updated but significantly expanded to reflect the recent past and also help us imagine possible futures. There are numerous new entries, including brief studies of the royal dynasties, influential politicians, social and cultural leaders, and key institutions of the kingdom. More attention has been paid to significant political, economic, and social aspects as well as religion. Multiple entries dealing with leftist or Islamist movements, maraboutic traditions, political parties, and universities have been consolidated into extended entries under these more general rubrics. Yet, while the focus has clearly shifted more to the contemporary period, there are still essential entries on Morocco’s long and tumultuous history. Despite this, there is only so much a one-volume encyclopedia can contain, so readers should definitely refer to the large and well-organized bibliography, which cites other helpful sources of information. This second edition appears almost a decade after the first, and it has been written by Thomas K. Park, the author of the first edition, and Aomar Boum. Dr. Park is an associate professor of anthropology at the University of Arizona, where he teaches on a variety of topics and encourages graduate students to study various aspects of North and West Africa. His regional specialization includes Morocco and Mauritania, places he has visited, most recently from 1999 to 2002. His primary fields of interest include urbanization, economic history, and political ecology. He has previously published a number of articles, chapters, and books dealing with Morocco as well as Mauritania. Aomar Boum, a Ph.D. candidate (ABD) in cultural anthropology at the University of Arizona, is a native of one of Morocco’s southern oases and has also studied at qâDî ayyâd University in Marrakech and Al-Akhawayn University in Ifrane, Morocco. xiii

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Editor’s Foreword

Park and Boum are also working on a book dealing with Jewish merchants in Safi and Marrakech who engaged in commerce on the eve of the French protectorate. Jon Woronoff Series Editor

Preface The choice of entries reflects both some basic essentials and our own broad set of interests. It being obviously impossible to include everything of significance, it is a given that not all will find their favorite figures or events even mentioned. More importantly, space and time limitations prevent a really satisfactory treatment of most topics, places, or personages. It has been impossible to consult primary material on the majority of topics and so the text relies extensively on the opinions of other scholars, many of whom are far better qualified in their areas of expertise than we could hope to be. The works consulted most intensively are included in the bibliography’s “key reference works” section. Crossreferences are in bold within the text of dictionary entries, but only crossreferences that occur naturally in the text as written receive bold type. Other topics that are clearly relevant have been referenced parenthetically (e.g., See Such and Such) in each essay. Subentries within major entries, such as Islamist groups or political parties, are italicised for purposes of cross-referencing within the main entry parallel to the bolding in normal entries, but they will be found only in the subentry. Although a significant proportion of the works in the bibliography have been consulted, in order to avoid redundancy with this extensive bibliography, the only works directly referenced in the text are those that make distinctly original contributions requiring citation or documents difficult to find sources for key information. In many cases, there are legitimate disagreements about dates and it has been necessary to arbitrarily settle on what seem to be the most reliable dates. This has primarily been done based on an off-the-cuff assessment of the relative reliability of different scholars. In many cases it has not been feasible to try to form an opinion from the original sources. Given this limitation, in some cases the choice of date may turn out to have been wrong, though disagreements among top scholars tend to be very minor. One obvious set of omissions are entries for most of the sultans of Morocco. The bulk of information that would have to be included in these entries is readily available in most histories of Morocco, and inclusion of all sultans would vastly lengthen the work. Instead, the most important sultans have been mentioned in the dynastic entries, as well as in other entries as appropriate, and separate entries have been included only for a few sultans whose key accomplishments are not covered in other entries. All sultans are listed with their reigns and genealogies in the appendix after the main dictionary entries. Considerable efforts have been made, within the obvious constraints, to make this a coherent volume that is maximally useful to scholars, students, diplomats, and anyone beginning a serious interest in Moroccan history. This new edition has several hundred additional entries including most particularly entries within the subject areas of economy (19th century and recent), current political figures, Islamist and leftist movements, and xv

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Preface

governments since the colonial period. Entries for political parties as well as for Islamist and leftist movements have been gathered as subentries under their respective major entries to make it easier to grasp the larger picture. The appendix on governments now includes, in addition to basic dynastic genealogies, a fairly complete list of key ministerial appointments by government (from 1956 to 2004) as well as an alphabetized list of key figures with their government appointments. A few final remarks about alphabetization may be useful. The entries are alphabetized using only those letters (as spelled in this book) that exist in the normal English alphabet. Some Arabic proper names have multiple possible spellings, so where there is a common French version this spelling has been used, but otherwise a proper transliteration is used. In addition, readers should note that some Arabic names are in fact shortpruned ancestral genealogies and in such cases there is no truncation that perfectly suits a Western notion of a last name. In practice, in Islamic literature people are often referenced by a short version that is not necessarily the lowest part of their ancestral tree. Where such short names are available the person has been alphabetized under that name. Unfortunately, there is no simple rule, and the difficulties are compounded by the frequency with which famous men have famous sons.

Acknowledgments We would like to thank all those who provided us the time to complete this book and the many whose scholarship in Moroccan studies has made the field so endlessly interesting. The scholarship is now of such high quality and vast extent that there are literally countless scholars to whom we are indebted, both in Morocco and outside it. In particular we thank Abdellatif Bencherifa, Ahmed Herzenni, Michael Willis, Rachid Slimi, Boum Lahoucine, and Ait Tastift Abdeslam for reviewing parts of the manuscript and for assistance in obtaining difficult-to-find information. We are grateful to Abdessamad Fatmi and Marina Casals for support during research in Morocco and would also like to acknowledge the librarians and archivists whose work has made ours so much easier. We owe special thanks in particular to Dr. Fawzi Abdulrazak, whose work at the Harvard Library and whose personal help and private collection have added innumerable entries to our bibliography. We would also like to acknowledge both the series editor and the press for their assistance with the new edition. We also thank the fine programmers of Mellel, without whose product this book would have been far more painful to produce. Most importantly, we acknowledge our families and companions for having patience with our endless typing.

xvii

Note on Transliteration The transliteration of Arabic using diacritical marks over vowels (macrons) and under consonants (centered dots) exists in two standard versions: that of the Encyclopedia of Islam (EI) and that used by Hans Wehr in his Arabic dictionary, as well as several less popular variants. Neither standard version is perfectly thought out nor is either easily compatible with computer technology. The first serious flaw in the standard systems is that the system used in the EI, and hence by most scholars, insists, apparently for irresistibly seductive orientalist reasons, on capitalizing Arabic according to the rules of the language in which the transliteration is being incorporated. Thus in English ‘abd al-qâdir becomes ‘Abd al-Qâdir (note that neither the A nor the Q are even first letters of a word) or fâs becomes Fâs, and this is done even though the standard in English is not to force the host language rules of capitalization on an inserted text from another European language. Thus when citing a German sentence in an English work it would be, correctly, seen as unacceptable to force English rules of capitalization on the German text. This orientalist discrimination against Arabic is, alas, generally quite unremarked, though it is explicitly avoided in the English edition of Wehr’s dictionary at the editor’s insistence. The second serious flaw in the standard transliteration systems is that their use of diacritics, which do not exist in the standard extended ASCII character set, means that text written according to either of these systems on a computer can be made to tweak a printer so that the output is as desired, but the text itself becomes specific to the program in which it is written and cannot, without great effort specific to each target program, be moved to another word-processing program. This seriously hampers intellectual communication since each text, however well endowed with diacritics in one scholar’s program, must be stripped to plain text, losing important information in the process, before another scholar can import it into their own, if different, program. The same conundrum means that libraries tend to display transcribed Arabic bibliographic entries in their computer systems in an entirely inadequate fashion. While scholars in other fields can scan or download orthographically correct references, Arabists are denied important information. The required Arabic character set is not so vast that a transcription need use anything but the extended ASCII character set available to all computers. If one can refrain from imposing foreign capitalization schemes on Arabic, all the emphatic consonants [‫ ] ص ض ط ظ‬can simply be marked as capital letters (S, D, T, Z) and the remaining needs are as easily met. In addition to emphatic letters, Arabic has a hamza /‫ ء‬and an ‘ayn/‫ ع‬as well as seven other consonants not found in English. Most of these are represented here as in the EI: the hamza (a glottal stop) by an apostrophe, the ‘ayn (a compressed glottal but non-fricative consonant) by a backward xix

xx

Note on Transliteration

apostrophe, and the letters dh/‫( ذ‬the), gh/‫( غ‬a deep guttural “r”), kh/‫خ‬ (chutzpah), sh/‫( ش‬she), th/‫( ث‬thin), and “q.” Arabic has both a k/‫( ك‬kâf) and a more guttural “k” sound represented here as in the EI system by a q/ ‫( ق‬qâf). The seventh letter, an aspirated h/‫ ح‬is represented as a capital (H). The transcription system is thus as follows:

‫ز س ش ص ض‬

‫ر‬

‫ذ‬

‫د‬

‫خ‬

‫ح‬

‫ج‬

‫ب ت ث‬

D

S

sh

s

z

r

dh

d

kh

H

j

th

‫ء‬

‫ي‬

‫و‬

‫ه‬

‫م ن‬

‫ل‬

‫ك‬

‫ق‬

‫ف‬

‫غ‬

‫ط ظ ع‬

’

y

w

h

n

l

k

g/q

f

gh

‘

m

t

Z

b

T

The double consonants in this transcription provide the minor ambiguity that there is no automatic distinction between two consecutive individual letters and the consonantal pairs (e.g., an “s” followed by an “h” versus an “sh”). On the few occasions where this could pose a problem to someone with little knowledge of Arabic, we have inserted a colon (e.g.; is:hâm/‫ ; اﺳ@@@@@@ﻬ@@@@@@ﺎم‬contribution). As in this example, we represent long vowels with a circumflex over the appropriate short vowel: â, î, û, as has long been quite common in France. As is the custom we do not transcribe the letter that serves as the seat of a hamza since well-known rules explain what it will be and the seat does not form part of even Arabic alphabetization systems. This extended ASCII system of transliteration has the merit of simplicity, can be transferred as plain text from one computer program to another or e-mailed without loss of information, and also avoids the orientalist flavor of the system used by the Encyclopedia of Islam and many scholars. It should be noted as well that the colloquial Arabic of Morocco tends to confound some consonants (e.g., often pronouncing a “d” for a “Z” as in nâdir instead of nâZir/‫ )ﻧ@@@@ﺎﻇ@@@@ﺮ‬and also includes the hard “g” sound. Some tribal names are spelled with a “g” even though in Arabic they might have a qâf or a jîm (soft j). These colloquial problems only show up in this work in the occasional personal, place, or tribal name that has achieved a standardized Roman spelling. We try to transcribe Arabic directly as it is written, not as it is pronounced, to avoid confusion. Alphabetization is as in English with a few minor complexities. For simplicity we have ignored the ‘ayn, the hamza, all dashes or punctuation, and the initial definite article (al-) except for names that have become fixed in their Romanized forms (e.g., most city names beginning in al- and some proper names). Since in particular cases it may not be obvious, the reader may have to check in more than one place. In addition, because some historical figures have lengthy names, we have tried to put their

Note on Transliteration

xxi

entries under the simplest and most common form, though we include in the text of the entry their full name. Thus ibn khaldûn is alphabetized under ibnk and ibn al-khaTîb is under ibnalk. If names of Arabic etymology have acquired renown primarily in Romanized versions, or if an author consistently publishes under a Romanized variant of their Arabic name, we have often used the Romanized form for the entries both in the dictionary and the bibliography. There are, however, no simple criteria for the reader to rely upon to decide in advance which we have used since this is usually a judgment call. Although we transcribe names when they appear in an Arabic context, we have used the standard Romanized (French) names for the dictionary entries for cities and regions and have appended a transcription so the nonArabist knows how the original term is spelled. Generally, however, we have made no effort to translate titles, places, or the names of organizations into English. To give entries based on English glosses for political parties, as some books do, would serve no scholarly purpose in a reference work and would lead to ambiguities and confusion as well as inhibit communication. Titles of key works in Arabic mentioned in dictionary entries have been transcribed but only glossed when the title may be of some interest to the non-Arabist. Ministerial portfolios have regularly been glossed in English but generally also provided in French. In a book of this length, despite our best efforts, there may remain mistakes in transliteration or inadvertent deviations from the above guidelines, so we apologize in advance and invite the reader to notify us of any discovered errors so we may correct them in a future edition. All typing of the manuscript in camera-ready copy has, for better or worse, been our own.

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Note on Transliteration

Acronyms and Abbreviations

The following list includes acronyms and abbreviations used in this book or commonly used in Morocco. All are given without periods, though variants with periods occur, for example in the bibliography. ADB ADFAED ADII ADL AFEM AFESD AMDH AMSP ARM ASCII ASF ASM ASMEX BEPI BESM BGAR BGAT BHR BID BMAO BMCE BMCI BNDE BORM BRPM CAFRAD CCDH

African Development Bank Abu Dhabi Fund for Arab Economic Development Administration des Douanes et Impôts Indirects Alliance des Libertés Association des Femmes Chefs d’Entreprises Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development Association Marocaine des Droits de l’Homme Association Marocaine des Sciences Politiques Armée Royale Marocaine American Standard Code for Information Interchange (Code used on most computer operating systems to store numbers and characters) Association Solidarité Féminine Annuaire Statistique du Maroc Association Marocaine des Exportateurs Bureau Economique des Participations Industrielles Bulletin Economique et Social du Maroc (Bulletin Economique du Maroc until WWII) Bibliothèque Générale et Archives in Rabat Bibliothèque Générale et Archives in Tétouan Bibliothèque Hasaniyya in Rabat, formerly Bibliothèque Royale Banque Islamique de Développement Banque Marocaine pour l’Afrique et l’Orient Banque Marocaine de Commerce Extérieur Banque Marocaine pour le Commerce et l’Industrie Banque Nationale pour le Développement Economique Bulletin Officielle du Royaume Marocain Bureau de Recherches et des Participations Minières Centre Africain pour la Recherche sur l’Administration de Développement Conseil Consultative des Droits de l’Homme xxiii

xxiv CDG CDT CE CEDES CGEM CGT CIPEP

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Caisse de Dépôt et de Gestion Confédération Démocratique des Travailleurs Communauté Européenne Centre d’Etudes du Développement Economique et Social Confédération Générale des Entreprises du Maroc Confédération Générale du Travail Comité Interministériel Permanent des Entreprises Publiques CMEJ Centre Marocain des Etudes Juridiques CNCA Centre National de Crédit Agricole CNRS Centre National pour la Recherche Scientifique, Paris COMANAV Compagnie Marocaine de Navigation CPAE Centre de Préparation à l’Administration des Entreprises CRAM Centre de Recherche sur l’Afrique Méditerranéenne CURS Centre Universitaire de la Recherche Scientifique, Rabat DEA Diplôme d’Etudes Approfondies DES Diplôme d’Etudes Supérieur DESS Diplôme des Etudes Supérieures Spécialisées DEUG Diplôme d'étude universitaire générale DGED Direction Générale d’Etudes et de Documentation DGSN Direction Générale de la Sûreté Nationale DST Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire EC European Community ECA Economic Commission for Africa ENA Ecole Nationale d’Administration ENAP Ecole Nationale d’Administration Publique ENS Ecole Nationale Supérieure ENSET Ecole Nationale Supérieure de l’Enseignement Technique FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (of the United Nations) FC Forces Citoyennes FAR Forces Armées Royales (previous name for ARM, supra) FDIC Front pour la Défense des Institutions Constitutionnelles FFD Front des Forces Démocratiques FIDA Fonds Internationl pour le Développement Agricole FN Front National FNM Front National Marocain FMNH La Fondation marocaine pour la Nature et l’Homme GATT General Agreement on Tarrifs and Trade GPBM Groupement Professionnel des Banques du Maroc IAV Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire

Acronyms and Abbreviations

IBRD ICD IDA IFAN IHEM IMF INAU INAV IRCAM ISCAE KFAED LM LMDDH MAP MDS MND MNP MP MPDC MPN OADP OAPEC OAU OCE OCE OCP ODI OFPPT OIC OMDH ONAREP ONCFM ONE ONI ONP ONPP OPEC

xxv

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (BIRD) or World Bank Parti d’Initiatives Citoyennes pour le Développement International Development Association Institut Fondamental de l’Afrique Noire Institut des Hautes Etudes Marocaines International Monetary Fund Institut National d’Aménagement et d’Urbanisme Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat Institut Royal de la Culture Amazighe Institut Supérieur de Commerce et d’Administration des Entreprises Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development Parti Liberal Marocain Ligue Marocaine pour la Défense des Droits de l’Homme Maghreb Arabe Presse Mouvement Démocratique et Social Mouvement National Démocratique Mouvement National Populaire Mouvement Populaire Mouvement Populaire, Democratique et Constitutionnelle Mouvement Populaire National Organisation de l’Action Démocratique Populaire Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries Organization of African Unity Office du Commerce Extérieur Office de Commercialisation et d’Exportation Office Chérifien des Phosphates Office du Développement Industriel Office de la Formation Professionnelle et de la Promotion du Travail Organisation of the Islamic Conference Organisation Marocaine des Droits de l’Homme Office National de Recherches et Exploitations Pétrolières Office National des Chemins de Fer Marocains Office National d’Electricité Office National de l’Irrigation Office National des Pêches (Fisheries) Office National des Produits Pharmaceutiques Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

xxvi

ORMVA PA PAGS PCM PCNI PDC PDI PED PGSU PJD PLP PLS PND PPS PRD PRE PSD PTT PUM RAM RMA RNI RTM SADR SDECE SN SNES SNI SNPM UAA UC UD UGEM UGTM UMA UMT

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Office Régionale de la Mise en Valeur Agricole (Regional development offices usually with an additional letter, e.g., ORMVAT-for the Tafilalt.) Parti de l’Action Parti de l’Avante-Garde Socialiste Parti Communist Marocain Parti du Congrès National Ittihadi Parti Démocratique Constitutionnelle Parti Démocratique de l’Indépendance Parti de l’Environnement et Développement Parti Gauche Socialiste Unifiée Parti Justice et Développement Parti Libéral du Progrès Parti du Libération et Socialisme Parti National Démocrate Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme called Parti de Libération et de Socialisme from 1968 to 1969 Parti de la Réforme et du Développement Parti du Renouveau et de l’Equité Parti Socialiste Démocratique Office of Postes, Télégraphes et Télécommunications Parti de l’Unité Marocain Royal Air Maroc Royale Marocaine d’Assurances Rassemblement National des Indépendants Radiodiffusion-Télévision Marocaine Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Service de Documentation Extérieure et de Contre Espionage Sûreté Nationale Syndicat National des Etudiants Secondaires Société Nationale d’lnvestissements Syndicat National de la Presse Marocaine Union Arabo-Africaine Union Constitutionelle Union Démocratique Union Générale des Etudiants Marocains Union Générale des Travailleurs Marocains Union Marocaine de l’Agriculture Union Marocaine du Travail (National Labor Union)

Acronyms and Abbreviations

UNCTAD UNDP UNEM UNESCO UNFM UNFP UNICEF UPFM USAID USFP WHO WTO

xxvii

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development United Nations Development Program (aka PNUD) Union Nationale des Etudiants Marocains United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Union Nationale des Femmes Marocaines Union Nationale des Forces Populaires United Nations Children’s Fund Union Progressive des Femmes Marocaines United States Agency for International Development Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires World Health Organization (French OMS) World Trade Organization

Maps The maps that follow are arranged in rough chronological order. Most of the maps are modified from a map published elsewhere that is listed as the source but are generally not identical to the source map. We have corrected errors, translated terms and keys, made their appearance more uniform, and, in many cases, added information to the map. Nevertheless, we would like to thank the original cartographers in all cases. Currently the area that was the Spanish Sahara is still disputed territory, though claimed and administered by Morocco. The most recent administrative maps (e.g., map 31) show this region as an integral part of Morocco. The claims of the Sahraoui people to what Morocco sees as the souther third of its country have not progressed significantly in decades. The maps included cover a representative sample of Moroccan history and are intended to complement as well as accompany the text. Map 1. Roman Africa from the Republican Period to the 3rd c. A.D. Map 2. Pre-Islamic Settlements in Northwest Africa Map 3. Maghrib and Andalusia in the 9th c. A.D. Map 4. Greatest Extent of the Almoravid and Almohad Empires Map 5. al-maghrib al-aqSâ, 1450-1550 A.D. Map 6. Political Divisions in al-maghrib al-aqSâ in 1516 A.D. Map 7. Northern Section of al-maghrib al-aqSâ c. 1500-1550 A.D. Map 8. Southern Section of al-maghrib al-aqSâ, 1515-1545 A.D. Map 9. Political Divisions in al-maghrib al-aqSâ in 1536 A.D. Map 10. Ottoman Invasion Routes, 1551-1559 A.D. Map 11. Trade Routes and Sharifan Expansion c. 1600 A.D. Map 12. Trade Routes within the Maghrib, 16th-17th c. A.D. Map 13. City of Fès c. 1700 Map 14. The Maghrib c. 1750 Map 15. Divisions among Princes after the Death of sîdî muHammad b. ‘abdallâh (d.1790) Map 16. The Maghrib c. 1800 Map 17. The Maghrib in the 19th c. A.D. Map 18. The Maghrib at the End of the 19th c. A.D. xxix

xxx

Maps

Map 19. The Sharifan Empire as It Viewed Itself Map 20. The Maghrib, 1908-1912 Map 21. Stages of French Subjugation of the Maghrib Map 22. The Perceived Resources Enjoyed by the Protectorate Map 23. The Spanish Sahara during the Colonial Period Map 24. The Greater Maghrib of ‘allâl al-fâsî Map 25. Jewish Settlements in Morocco Map 26. Tribal Confederations as of 1940 Map 27. Linguistic Map of Arabic- and Berber-Speaking Areas Map 28. Traditional Modes of Production in the Maghrib Map 29. Topographical Map of Morocco with Major Urban Centers Map 30. Administrative Map before Acquisition of the Spanish Sahara (early 1970s) Map 31. Morocco’s Sixteen Regions c. 1997 including the Former Spanish Sahara

xxxi

Map 1. 1. Roman Roman Africa Period to the A.D. 1984:xxviii. Map Africafrom fromthe theRepublican Republican Period to 3rd the c. 3rd C. Source: A.D. S. Raven Source: S. Raven 1984:xxviii.

3rd Century A.D. 9greates extent of Roman Empire

1st and 2nd Centuries A.D.

Under Julius Caesar and Augustus Caesar

Republican Period

Key

Mediterranean

Mediterranean

Atlantic

Map2. 2. Pre-Islamic Pre-Islamic Settlements Africa. Map settlementsininNorthwest north-west Africa. Source:D.D.Jacques-Meunié Jacques-Meunié1982:161. 1982:161. Source:

xxxii

xxxiii

Map Maghriband andAndalusia Andalusia century A.D. Source:1987:44. J.Abun-Nasr 1987:44. Map 3. 3. Maghrib in in thethe 9th9th c. A.D. Source: J. Abun-Nasr

Atlantic

Mediterranean

xxxiv Fès

·

Key Limits of Almohad authority in 1172

Limits of Almoravid authority in 1115

Map extentofofthe theAlmoravid Almoravid and Almohad empires. Source: J.Abun-Nasr 1987:78. Map4. 4. Greatest Greatest Extent and Almohad Empires. Source: J. Abun-Nasr 198:78.

Tarudannt

Marrakech

Tanger

xxxv

Map 5. al-maghrib al-aqSâ, 1450-1550 A.D. Source W.F. Cook1994:25.

Map 5. al-maghrib al-aqSâ, 1450-1550 A.D. Source: Cook 1994:25.

xxxvi Source W.F.Cook 1994:165. Map Political Divisions divisions in in al-maghrib al-maghribal-aqSâ al-aqSâ in 1516 A.D. Map 6. Political in 1516 A.D. Source: W.F. Cook 1994:165.

Key

xxxvii

key Key

Source: W.F.Cook 1994:81.

Map7.7.Northern NorthernSection section al-maghrib al-aqSâ, circa 1500-1550 A.D. Map of of al-maghrib al-aqSâ c. 1500-1550. Source: W.F. Cook 1994:81.

Battle Sites and Dates X

Provincial boundaries (Africanus) .......

Key Provincial Boundaries (Africanus) ......... Battle sites and dates X Hintata lands //////////

Map sectionofofal-maghrib al-maghrib al-aqSâ, 1515-1545 Map 8. 8. Southern Southern Section al-aqSâ, 1515-1545 A.D. A.D. Source: Source:W.F.Cook W.F. Cook1994:135. 1994:135.

xxxviii

xxxix Feitoria

Spain

Sa‘dian (muHammad al-shaykh)

Sa‘dian (aHmad al-a‘raj)

Portuguese and vassals

Wattasids and vassals

Key

Map 9. Political PoliticalDivisions divisionsininal-maghrib al-maghribal-aqSâ al-aqSâ in 1536 Source W.F. Cook 1994:186. Map 9. in 1536 A.D.A.D. Source: W.F. Cook 1994:186.

M

Atlantic Ocean

Mediterranean

xl

Map OttomanInvasion invasionRoutes, routes1551-1559 1551-1559 A.D. Source W.F. Cook 1994:222. Map 10. 10. Ottoman A.D. Source: W.F. Cook 1994:222.

Independent Emirates

Oceanic Route

Overland Route

Key

Mediterranean

Atlantic

Map TradeRoutes routesand andSharifan Sharifan expansion c.1600 Map 11. 11. Trade Expansion c. 1600 A.D.A.D. Source: Source:D.Yahya D. Yahya1981:xvi 1981:xvi.

xli

xlii From elbow of Draa to Tombouctou

Map TradeRoutes routeswithin withinthe theMaghrib, Maghrib16th-17th 16th - 17th C. A.D. Map 12. Trade c. A.D. Source: Source:D. D.Jacques-Meunié Jacques-Meunié1982:400f. 1982:400f.

Atlantic

Mediterranean

xliii

Map c. circa 1700.1700. Source: N. CigarN.Cigar 1981:lxiii. Map13. 13.City CityofofFès Fes Source 1981:lxiii.

xliv

Spain

Map14. 14. The The Maghrib 1750. Source:Source J. Abun-Nasr 1987:152. Map Maghrib c.circa 1750. J. Abun-Nasr1987:152.

Portug al

xlv annt

Rehamna

Chaouia

Gharb Taza ·

mawlây ‘abd al-raHman b. sîdî muHammad

mawlây ‘abd al-malik al-zayzûn

mawlây hishâm

mawlây ‘abd al-malik b. idrîs

mawlây sulaymân

Key

Tafilalt

·Meknès

Fès ·

· Ouazzane

Rif

Map15. 15.Divisions Divisions among among Princes thethe Death of sîdî muHammad b. ‘abdallâh (d. 1790). Map princesafter after death of sidi muHammad b. ‘abdallah Source: M. El Mansour 1990:96. (d.1790). Source: M. El Mansour 1990:96.

Abda

Casablanca

Atlantic

Jbala

Mediterranean

xlvi

1800.1800. Source: M. El mansour 1990:96.1990:96. Map 16. 16.The Themaghrib Maghribc. circa Source: M. El Mansour

Atlantic

Mediterranean

xlvii international port

imperial city

area of influence

makhzan territory

Key

Source: J.Ganiage 1994:63. Map The Maghrib Maghribininthe the19th 19th A.D. Map 17. 17. The c. C. A.D. Source: J. Ganiage 1994:63.

Atlantic Ocean

Mediterranean Sea

Map 18. The Maghrib at the End of the 19th c. A.D. Source J. Ganiage 1994:324.

Map 18. The Maghrib at the end of the 19th C. A.D. Source: J. Ganiage 1994:324.

xlviii

sudân

Saqiya al-Hamrâ’

Sharifan

Empire

ptian

Egy t

er Des

Egyptian Desert

Map19. 19.The The Sharifan Sharifan Empire It Viewed Itself. Map Empireasas it viewed itself. Source: Laroui 1977:63. Source A.A. Laroui 1977:63.

xlix

l Source: A. Laroui 1977:411. Map TheMaghrib, Maghrib 1908-1912. 1908-1912.Source: Map 20. 20. The A. Laroui 1977:411.

leader of jihad

Rogui, agent of Moroccan anarchy

Key French advance Spanish advance

li Key

the front on 1 August 1914

1914!1918

1st August 1914

end December 1907

Source: J. Ganiage 1994:413.

Map 21. 21.Stages Stages French subjugation of Maghrib. the Maghrib. Map of of French Subjugation of the Source: J. Ganiage 1994:413.

Atlantic Ocean

Mediterranean Sea

lii

dam

crude

oils

molybdenum

cobalt

manganese

lead

iron

phosphates

city with > 20,000 inhabitants

city with > 100,000 inhabitants

palmerie

agricultural region

mountainous region

railroad

Key

Map 22. The perceived resources enjoyed by the Protectorate. Source: J. Ganiage 1994:467. Map 22. The Perceived Resources Enjoyed by the Protectorate. Source: J. Ganiage 1994:467.

Atlantic

Mediterranean

Canary Islands

Atlantic Ocean

Tropic of Cancer

pastoral zone for major nomad groups

Map23. 23.The The Spanish Spanish Sahara during thecolonial Colonialperiod. Period. Map Sahara during Source:J.J.Ganiage Ganiage1994:713. 1994:713. Source:

liii

Key Nation boundaries ---Proposed limit of Greater Morocco

Atlantic

Canary Islands

Map 24. 24. The The Greater Map greaterMaghrib maghribofof‘allâl ‘allâlal-fâsî. al-fâsî. Source: Source:J.Ganiage J. Ganiage1994:709. 1994:709.

liv

Atlantic Ocean

1. Agadir 2. Agidz (Agdz) 3. Aghmat 4. Air `Abd Kafra 5. Air `Attab 6. Akhelluf 7. Al-Gherfa 8. Al-Ksar Kebir 9. Al-Ksabi (Gerslewin) 10. A]-Mesri (Al-Mashra`) 11. Amismiz 12. Amzerrou 13. Aqqa (Akka) 14. Arzila (Asila) 15. Asfalo 16. `Ain Sefra 16bis. Asfi (Safi ) 17. Azrou 18. Beni-`Amir 19. Beni-`Ayyad 20. Beni-Mellal 21. Beni-SbiH 22. Beni-Snassen 23. Beni-Snus 24. Beni-WaraÂn 25. Beni-Wunnif(B. Ounif) 26. Bessar (Colomb Bechar) 27. Bou-Dnib

28. bû-iHya (ait yaHya) 29. bû-`nan (Bouanane)) 30. bû-routa 31. Boujad (bû-za`d) 32. bû-zemIa 33. Chichaouen (Shawen) 34. Dadès 35. dar mesh`al 36. Debdou) 37. Demnat 38. Doukkala 39. Draa (dar`a) 40. el-dâr al-bayDâ' -----(Casablanca) 40bis. Erfoud 41. ez-zâwiya (of Dilâ) 42. Ferkla 43. F‹s 44. Gheris (Geris) 45. Gherslewin -----(Gerslewin) 46. Ghiyata 47. Gi-Iglan 48. Glagla 49. Glawa 50. Grama (Gourama) 51. Hayaïna 52. Iddr (Adr, Taddert) 53. Irara 54. Izzaghine

55. Jbel 56. Ktama 57. La`roumiyyat) 58. Mansour 59. Marrakech 60. Meknès 61. Melilia 62. Meshra` al-Ramla -----(Sidi-Slimane) 63. Mezgida (see 64) 64. Mezgita) 64bis. mHamid 65. Mogador (Essaouira) 66. Ouarzazat 66bis. Mzab 67. Oujda (Wajda) 68. Outat al-Hadj 69. QaSba Tadla 70. Qdara 71. qSar al-suq -----(Ksar-el-Souk) 72. Rabat 73. Salé 74. Sefrou 75. Sijilmassa (Tafilalet) 76. Sous 77. Souk-hras 78. Tadla -----(see QaSba di Tadla) 79. Tafilalet (=Sijilmassa ))

80. Tafza (= Efza) 81. TahaIa (Tafraout) 82. Tamegrout 83. Tamengoult 84. Tanger 85. Taourirt (de Ouarzazat) 86. Taroudant 87. Taza 88. Telouet 89. Tétouan 90. Tezwimi-I-Ma`adid 91. Tifnut 92. TiIIit (Tiilit) 93. Ti`laIin 94. Timesla (TesmasIa) 95. Tinghir 96. Tit (Mazagan, El-Jadida) 97. Tit n`Ali 98. Tiznit 99. TIemcen 100. Todgha 101. Toulal 102. Ufran (Oufran, Ifran) 103. ulad Hasin 104. utat d'Ait Zdeg -------(see Outat) 105. Zerhoun 106. Ztat (Zettat) 107. Zrigat

Map 25. Jewish settlements in Morocco. Adapted from: H.Zafrani 1972:viii-ix .

Map 25. Jewish Settlements in Morocco. Adapted From H. Zafrani 1972:viii-ix.

lv

lvi sub-confederation important tribe capital of Region " of Territory " of Cercle " of Circonscription " of Annexe

Confederation

Key

Map Tribal Confederations confederationsasas 1940. Source: D. Jacques-Meunié 1982:688f. Map 26. 26. Tribal of of 1940. Source: D. Jacques-Meunié 1982:688f.

Atlantic

lvii

Map 27. Linguistic Map of Arabic and Berber speaking areas. Source: H.T. Norris 1982:xxv. Map 27. Linguistic Map of Arabic- and Berber-speaking Areas. Source: H.T. Norris 1982:xxv.

Atlantic

Chleuh

Mediterranean

lviii Key

sedentary inhabitants Tunisian village orchardists

mountain semi-nomads mountain village orchardists semi-nomadic pastoral-farmers of forested regions sedentary pastoral-farmers of forested regions s

semi-nomads of the steppes

nomads

Map modesofofProduction productioninin Maghrib. Source: M. 1977:29. Rouissi 1977:29. Map28. 28. Traditional Traditional Modes thethe Maghrib. Source: M. Rouissi

Atlantic

Mediterranean

Map 29. Topographical Map of Morocco with Major Urban Centers. Source: K. Brown 1976:16.

lix

lx Boundary of Cercle

Independent Prefecture boundary

Provincial boundary

Capital of Cercle

Capital of Independent Prefecture

Provincial Capital

Key

Source: 1971:19. Source:Rousset J. Rousset 1971:19.

Map map before beforeAcquisition acquisitionofofthe the Spanish Sahara 1970s). Map30. 30.Administrative Administrative Map Spanish Sahara (early(early 1970s).

Atlantic Ocean

Mediterranean

Atlantic

Key 1.Oued Dhahab 2.Laâyoune 3.Goulimine 4.Sous 5.Gharb 6.Chaouia 7.Marrakech 8.Orientale 9.Grand Casablanca 10.Rabat 11.Dukkala 12.Tadla 13.Meknès 14.Fès 15.Taza 16.Tanger

Map 31. Morocco’s Sixteen Regions c. 1997 including the Former Spanish Sahara. Source: based on map in Annuaire Statistique du maroc (2001).

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Chronology c. 1000 B.C. Phoenician traders establish colonies on the Atlantic coast of Morocco including a station to harvest mollusks producing purple dye on the island off the coast of Mogador/Essaouira. 3rd-2nd century B.C. Roman ally Massinissa expands his kingdom into the Moulouya valley thereby facilitating the westward spread of Roman culture. 25 B.C. Rome establishes Juba II as king of Mauretania Tingitana centered in Tanger and extending south to Volubilis. 40 A.D. The area of Mauretania Tingitana is annexed by Rome. 429 A.D. Tanger falls to the Vandals who control much of Andalusia (alandalîsh or Vandal becomes al-andalus whence the term Andalusia). 621 A.D. Tanger falls to the Visigoths. 705-709 mûsa bn nusayr brings a victorious Muslim army into the western Maghrib and after capturing Tanger leaves Tarîq bn ziyâd as governor. 709-711 Tarîq bn ziyâd crosses the straits of Gibraltar using merchant shipping and conquers the Visigoth kingdoms of southern Spain. 757 Sijilmasa is founded. 786-789 idrîs bn ‘abd allâh escapes massacre of fakhkh and flees to the Maghrib where he is recognized as a sharîf and founds the Idrisid dynasty. 789 idrîs bn ‘abd allâh founds a city on the right bank of the river fâs which together with a settlement on the left bank established by his son (Idris II) in 807 becomes the city of Fès. 828 The Idrisid empire is divided among the seven eldest sons of Idris II. 857 Mosque of al-qarawîyîn is constructed. 917 Fatimids conquer the northern and eastern Idrisid areas and the empire collapses. 1036 ibn yasîn is dispatched to the western Sahara to spread Islam and begins the work that resulted in the Almoravid empire. lxiii

lxiv

Chronology

1053-1069 Almoravids establish control over central Morocco and in 1062 found their new capital of Marrakech. 1102 Almoravids complete conquest of Islamic Spain. c. 1116 ibn tûmart meets ‘abd al-mu’min in mallâla, Algeria and recruits the future Almohad general and founder of the Almohad dynasty. 1130 ibn tûmart dies after failing to conquer Marrakech and leadership passes to ‘abd al-mu’min. 1139-1146 Almohads conquer the central lands of al-maghrib al-aqSâ including Fès (1145) and Marrakech (1146). 1172 At its greatest extent the Almohad empire stretches from the Atlantic to Tripolitania and from Spain to the western Sahel. 1212 Battle of Las Navas de Toloso (al-‘uqâb) in which the Almohads are defeated by Alfonso VII and the remaining Muslim lands in Spain recognize either the Abbasids or the Hafsids. 1245-1269 Marinids conquer the western remnants of the Almohad empire including Fès and Marrakech. 1248 Seville falls to Christians. 1276 Marinids construct fâs al-jadîd to house the sultan’s palaces and administrative offices. 1352-1362 ibn khaldûn resides in and works for the Marinids in Fès. 1415 Ceuta captured by Portuguese who hold it until Spain conquers it in 1580. Ceuta thus passes out of Moroccan control. 1437 Wattasid regent abû zakarîya defeats Portuguese attack against Tanger and takes crown prince Don Fernando hostage. 1471 Portuguese occupy Tanger. 1492 Granada falls to Christians and Muslims flee to North Africa. 1497 Melilla abandoned to the Spanish without a fight. 1505 A wooden fort is constructed by Portuguese at the site of the future Agadir. 1517-1525 The Sa‘dians establish themselves in the south and capture Marrakech.

Chronology

lxv

1525 Battle of wâdî ‘abîd establishes Sa‘dian preeminence as the Wattasid sultan and the king of Granada are killed. 1541 Sa‘dians capture the Agadir fort from the Portuguese and within thirty years make it a major port and an outlet for trans-Saharan trade until it is finally closed in 1765 to funnel trade north to Essaouira/Mogador, where it can be more easily controlled by the ‘Alawite sultan. 1548 Sa‘dians capture Fès. 1576 Ottomans briefly capture Fès but are quickly forced to withdraw. 1578 The Battle of Three Kings (wâdî al-makhâzin) establishes Moroccan military superiority and makes both Europeans and Ottomans relinquish dreams of conquest. 1578-1591 Sa‘dians capture Tombouctou and the northern sections of the Songhay empire. 1630-1641 The dilâ’ zâwiya near Khénifra reaches the height of its influence. It is destroyed by mawlây al-rashîd (18 June 1668). 1659-1669 mawlây al-rashîd conquers the central areas of Morocco including Fès and Marrakech and establishes the ‘Alawite dynasty. 1667 mawlây al-rashîd conquers and destroys Iligh and its maraboutic family becomes itinerant before rebuilding Iligh some fifty years later. 1752-1757 Period of civil unrest following death of mawlây ismâ‘îl in which the ‘abîd al-bukhârî install what amount to puppet sultans and social conditions deteriorate. 1765 Essaouira/Mogador built by sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd allâh to serve as the southern port of the empire. 1769 Mazagan captured from the Portuguese thereby ending the Portuguese territorial possessions on the Atlantic coast. 1786 Exchange of notes between George Washington and sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd allâh leads to a treaty in which Morocco recognizes U.S. sovereignty. 1818 Morocco agrees to stop condoning piracy. 1830 Algiers captured by a French force. 1837 Treaty of Tafna divides Algeria between French and ‘abd al-qâdir.

lxvi

Chronology

1844 Battle of Isly in which the Moroccan army is soundly defeated and Morocco is forced to stop sheltering ‘abd al-qâdir. The French also bombard Mogador (15 August) and Tanger (9 August). The battle sent an unambiguous signal of Morocco’s military weakness and of European imperialistic designs. 1856 British and French negotiate trade agreements that provide for special commercial agents and establish the legal role of consuls in deciding disputes involving foreigners. 1859-1860 Tétouan War in which Spanish take offense at Moroccan refusal to accept territorial encroachment and occupy Tétouan, only relinquishing it (1862) in return for a massive indemnity that takes half of Moroccan port customs until 1884. 1880 19 May-3 July: Conference of Madrid sets the groundwork for the partition of Morocco by establishing a pattern of European intransigence. Originally proposed to procure European agreement to reforms in the protection system, the conference instead confirmed the European powers in the practice of insisting on appointing unlimited numbers of commercial agents who operated outside of Moroccan law. 1892 Hispano-Moroccan war near Melilla results in a Moroccan defeat and a 4 million douro indemnity. 1900 Oases of Tuat and ‘Ayn SâliH are annexed by France. 1901-1903 Rebellion of bû Himâra. 1901 Anglo-French Entente, or the Cambon-Lansdowne agreement, establishes France’s free hand in Morocco in return for a British free hand in Egypt. Moroccans hear of the provisions of this confidential agreement and are outraged on seeing the shape of the future. First foreign loan of 7.5 million francs at 6 percent interest borrowed from the Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas on 31 December. 1904 Second foreign loan of 62.5 million francs at 5 percent, reimbursable in thirty-five years obtained from a French consortium set up by the Quai d’Orsay. 1905 Kaiser Wilhelm II docks in Tanger and provokes French paranoia about other Europeans coveting Morocco. 1906 16 January-7 April: The Conference of Algeciras is called to reaffirm Moroccan sovereignty but is turned by the European delegates into a forum for negotiating who should get what parts of Morocco in return for what compensation to other European nations.

Chronology

lxvii

1907 ‘abd al-‘azîz in desperate straits pawns the crown jewels in Paris for a short-term loan of 1.8 million francs. 1907-1908 Attacks on Europeans in Casablanca and revolts in Casablanca's hinterland, the Chaouia, lead to a dispatch of French troops to restore order. This is the beginning of the end for Moroccan sovereignty as French also occupy Oujda. 1908 Phosphate is discovered in the area of present-day Khouribga. ‘abd al-‘azîz abdicates and mawlây ‘abd al-HâfiZ becomes sultan. 1910 13 May: mawlây ‘abd al-HâfiZ signs a loan for 90 million francs in return for the remaining 40 percent of Morocco’s customs revenues, all gate and market taxes, and all revenues from government monopolies, such as tobacco and kîf. 1911 13 March: al-maqrîzî (for ‘abd al-HâfiZ) signs the agreement for a 30 million franc loan, which is then ratified by the sultan. On 1 July a German destroyer, the Panther, is moored in Agadir harbor to emphasize to the French Germany’s claims to Morocco. 1912 24 March: mawlây ‘abd al-HâfiZ signs the Treaty of Fès establishing a French protectorate in Morocco. On 28 April, General Lyautey becomes governor general of Morocco. On 27 November the French sign an agreement with the Spanish establishing the Spanish protectorate over the northern zone. 1914-1918 During World War II 35,000 Moroccans fight in the French army. 1921-1926 ‘abd al-karîm defeats Spanish forces and declares a republic in the Spanish zone. He makes the mistake of also taking on the French who then ally with the Spanish and defeat him in 1926. 1923 Paris convention establishes an international zone for Tanger that stays in effect until 1956. 1925 General Lyautey ends his term as governor general. 1929 mawlây al-Hasan born the future Hasan II. 1930 ‘allâl al-fâsî establishes the Parti National. 16 May: The Dahir Berbère is pronounced law and immediately causes widespread political agitation against its divide and conquer approach in the name of Islamic solidarity. 1936-1937 Spanish civil war in which many rifan troops fight for General Francisco Franco and gain military experience.

lxviii

Chronology

1937 Riots in Meknès lead to crackdown on proto-nationalist movements and deportation of nationalist leader ‘allâl al-fâsî. 1944 Nationalist leaders inaugurate the istiqlâl party with a manifesto to French, British, Russian, and U.S. governments. 1947 Speech by Mohammed V leaves out all reference to French accomplishments in Morocco, leading the French to lump him with the istiqlâl. 1953 Muhammad V (mawlây muHammad bn yûsuf) is deported with his family to Madagascar. To replace him, mawlây muHammad bn ‘arafa, an elder uncle, is declared sultan by the French but is considered illegitimate by most Moroccans. 1955 Liberation army continues guerilla tactics. Massacre of French at Oued Zem leads to the conference at Aix-les-Bains where French and Moroccan nationalists negotiate the return of mawlây muHammad bn yûsuf (in November) and Moroccan independence. 1956 French zone gets independence on 2 March and Spanish zone on 7 April. The Tanger international zone is abolished and joined to Morocco on 29 October. 1958-1959 Rif rebellion is harshly suppressed and Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP) is formed as a result of a growing split among the former leaders of the nationalist movement. 1961 Muhammad V becomes prime minister but dies during an operation. Hassan II becomes king (3 March). 1962 7 December: The first constitution is approved by referendum. 1963 First legislative elections. 1965 Parliament and constitution are suspended by Hassan II in response to radical stance of opposition. 1970 Second constitution approved by referendum. 1971 10 July: Coup manqué in which an attempt is made to overthrow the throne by attacking the king at the Skhirat palace south of Rabat. 1972 10 March: A third constitution is approved by referendum. 10 August: A second coup attempt involving an attempt on the king’s plane as he returns from Paris. General Muhammad Oufkir is quickly implicated.

Chronology

lxix

1973 Mass trials of UNFP members accompanied by wholesale torture. Morocco extends fishing limits from twelve to seventy miles. October: Moroccan troops participate in Yom Kippur war. 1974 Agreement with Spain reached to allow limited fishing in Moroccan waters. 1975 UN decolonization mission to Spanish Sahara recommends independence for the territory. 6-10 November: Hassan II organizes the Green March in which about 350,000 Moroccans march about ten kilometers into the Spanish Sahara to indicate Morocco’s claims to the territory. 1976 Spanish withdraw forces ending ninety years of occupation. Moroccan troops occupy the former Spanish Sahara. The Frente Polisario is formed to fight for liberation and is recognized as the legitimate government by Algeria and six other African states. Morocco and Mauritania agree to divide the territory along the latitude 24 from Atlantic to its intersection with longitude 13. The Office Cherifien des Phosphates buys 65 percent of the shares in the company that operates the Bu Craa mines. Further trials of three hundred people charged with antigovernment crimes linked to the 1973 trials. mawlây muHammad bn ‘arafa dies at age of 98. Fighting with Polisario continues and puts strain on Moroccan economy. 1977 January: Legislative elections result in big wins for the Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI), Istiqlâl, and Mouvement Populaire (MP). 1978 10 July: Coup in Mauritania installs a military junta, which reaches a truce with the Polisario. Moroccan troops intervene in Katanga province (Zaire) in presumed quid pro quo with United States, getting in return significant amounts of aid for the war with the Polisario. 1979 July: Organization of African Unity (OAU), approves by two-thirds vote a measure calling for a referendum in the former Spanish Sahara. August: New Mauritanian junta, due to its mixed ideological composition and Mauritanian military weakness, refuses to oppose Algerian and Polisario forces and gives up its southern share of the former Spanish Sahara, which is annexed by Morocco (14 August), who declares it the new province of Tiris al-Gharbiya. Sahraoui representatives are given three seats in the Moroccan legislature. November: Moroccan troops defeat major Polisario force near Tan Tan. 1981 June: Riots in Casablanca in part precipitated by long sacrifices due to war with Polisario result in many deaths and a government clampdown on the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP), which is forced to withdraw its delegates from parliament.

lxx

Chronology

1984 OAU seats the Polisario government in exile as a full member. Urban riots triggered by structural adjustment policies imposed on Morocco are less severe than those of 1981. 13 August: Treaty of Oujda signed between Morocco and Libya declaring a union between the two states. Morocco obtains an end to Libyan aid to Polisario and Libya obtains an end to Moroccan military support for French in Chad. This allows the completion by Morocco of its walls of sand in the former Spanish Sahara. 1986 29 August: Morocco unilaterally withdraws from its union with Libya. 1987 Morocco makes an overture to join the European Community. 1988 The first Maghrib summit is held near Algiers and all five Maghrib countries attend (including Mauritania). 1989 17 February: Union du Maghreb Arabe entered into by Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Tunisia, and Libya in Marrakech. 1990 Islamist students riot on the Université de Muhammad Ben Abdellah (Fès) campus. December: A general strike organized by labor unions results in clashes with military that result in many deaths in Fès. 1991 6 September: Cease-fire government begins.

between

Polisario

and

Moroccan

1992 4 September: National referendum on a new constitution approves it by 97.4 percent. Algeria bans the Islamic Salvation Front and suspends the electoral process; Islamic groups throughout North Africa are outraged. Hassan II tours the Middle East, urges realism in regard to Israel, and declares the Arab League “dépassée”—his ideas are not well received. 1993 After several abortive efforts, the government finally issues a revised version of the mudawwana (the code of personal status that regulates, among other things, women’s rights). June: The government opposition wins decisively in the direct elections, but the indirectly elected seats go overwhelmingly to pro-government candidates and a slim overall pro-government majority results. This leads the opposition to claim the election is rigged; many observers agree. 1994 Beginning Ramadan/February: Riots break out on campus of Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdullah university in Fès between leftists and Islamist groups including supporters of ‘adl wa-l-iHsân. At least seven people die. The occasion affirms the growing hegemony of Islamist groups on Morocco’s university campuses. Islamist groups control the Union Nationale des Etudiants Marocains (UNEM), and have influence even

Chronology

lxxi

within the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP) itself. 8 July: Hassan II issues a sweeping pardon/amnesty to most political prisoners and exiles convicted of political crimes. This declaration abrogates a 1935 dahir authorizing arbitrary arrests. This clears the way for the return of a number of important opposition figures (including al-fqîh al-baSrî but not Abraham Serfaty). September: Franco-Maghribi terrorists shoot two tourists in a Marrakech hotel. 30 October-1 November: Hassan II hosts the Middle East and North Africa economic summit in Casablanca. 1995 January: Hassan II opens Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane, Morocco’s first private university with English as its language of instruction. ‘îd al-fitr/3 March: After failing for two years to persuade the parliamentary opposition to cooperate in forming a government, and both in response to poor economic conditions and internal discontent as well as pressure from the international community, Hassan II makes a speech proposing wide-ranging reforms of government including a bicameral parliament with the upper house elected indirectly. 1996 January: Hassan II announces an anticorruption (assainissement) campaign, which proposes cracking down on people involved in contraband and drugs. Long period of drought ends as Morocco’s dams fill to capacity. 1997 Constitutional reform and new legislative elections: a new bicameral parliament is created with a house of representatives and a house of counselors (latter are elected indirectly). 1998 9 February: Hassan II appoints Abderrahmane Youssoufi as prime minister. 14 March: Gouvernemant d’alternance—an alternation of leadership between the major opposition parties—is announced. 1999 23 July: Hassan II dies and Mohammad VI succeeds to the throne of Morocco. 2000 Commission established to examine the question of disappearances and arbitrary detentions under Hassan II. 2001 Treaty of Association between the European Union and Morocco is signed. 13 July: Commission established to investigate fraudulent financial practices of Crédit Immobilier et Hôtelier, which between 1985 and 1987 seem to have made 14 billion dirham disappear. 2001-2002 As the more liberal stance of Mohammed VI becomes established, new political parties proliferate (five new parties in 2001 and another five in 2002). 2002 27 September: Elections carried out with no apparent fraud or complaints of fraud, though some groups boycott the elections. 10 October: Driss Jettou is named prime minister.

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Chronology

2003 8 May: Prince Mawlay Hassan III is born. 16 May: Islamist terrorists strike five targets in Casablanca killing forty-one (including twelve terrorists) and wounding many. 10 October: Mohammed VI introduces into parliament a completely revised version of the mudawwana, now defined according to Islamic principles and newly named mudawwana al-‘usra (or family code), yet also far more progressive than any earlier version. 2004 16 January: The new version of the mudawwana is approved by parliament. 22 July: Mohammed VI launches a 2 billion dollars campaign to eliminate slums in Morocco by 2010. November: The unemployment rate for the preceding twelve months fell to 8.1 percent from 11.4 percent in 2003. 2005 20 April: The Moroccan government unveils a six point anticorruption plan. 23 May: The North African summit is postponed (scheduled for 25-26 May) when Morocco pulls out over Algeria's continued vocal support for the Polisario despite agreements to keep this off the agenda. August: Polisario release 404 Moroccan prisoners. September: Morocco declares its willingness to negotiate regional governance (Hukm al-dhâtî) for the former Spanish Sahara.

Introduction A historical reference work on Morocco must take as its subject al-maghrib al-aqSâ (the far west) as the Arabic scholars have generally referred to the approximate region of present-day Morocco, roughly the north-west corner of Africa, because the modern nation-state is a relatively recent creation owing much to events in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. External influences on Morocco tend to come across the narrow straits of Gibraltar to the north, from the northeast, or up from the Sahara. In each case access is constrained and continued control from outside the region has been difficult to manage over the long term. Although many of the dynasties that came to power in Morocco conquered much broader regions, history and topology have so conspired that there is still more coherence to an historical focus on al-maghrib al-aqSâ than is the case for most modern nation-states.

Land and People Morocco may be divided for brevity’s sake into a number of different regions. The mountainous north borders both the Mediterranean and the Sebou-Innawen valleys, which provide access from the Atlantic to the gap between the Rif mountains and the Middle Atlas (around Taza); the only natural east-west corridor. The north thus is both distinct from the rest of Morocco and is a critical component of the whole for any attempt to build a large, stable polity. The Atlas mountains, which extend south from this gap and then west to the Atlantic, amount to a continuous barrier between the Atlantic plains and the rest of North Africa. There are only a small number of passes through the mountains and all are dependent both on felicitous weather and felicitous social relations. The main passes connect the Azrou-Ifrane-Sefrou area to the Tafilalt, and the Marrakech region to the Draa to the southeast and the Sous to the south. Armies have regularly used the passes in the Marrakech region but just as habitually have gone north to the Taza gap rather than using the northern passes for conquest. The Atlas mountains give rise to major rivers flowing west (Sebou, Oum Rbia, Tensift), northeast (Moulouya), southeast (Ziz-Rhéris), and south-southwest (Sous, DadèsDraa) as well as countless other rivers and streams. The normal situation is for rivers on the Saharan side to have a series of towns (qSûr) with irrigated lands on the upper course and then to turn eventually into dry riverbeds as they extend into the Sahara. On the Atlantic side of the mountains rainfall is more consistent and the rivers generally flow to the sea, though none are significantly navigable and all are extremely variable in flow from season to season. The northeast of Morocco bordering on Algeria is largely steppe and was traditionally the home of nomadic peoples including the zanâta Berbers, perhaps the most dominant berber confederation in the early Islamic period. Only the Moulouya, among Morocco’s major rivers, flows east out of the 1

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Atlas and makes it to the sea (Mediterranean). This region has been both the home of major nomadic powers and the northern end of a key trans-Saharan route, running south to the Tafilalt and then across the Sahara. Thus it has had a critical role in the strength and prosperity of the maghrib al-aqSâ for a multitude of reasons over the centuries. The central area enclosed by the mountains and the Atlantic builds up variably to the mountains; in the middle part of the region low elevations extend far inland while in others (e.g., the northern and southern ends) hillier regions intervene a short distance from the coast. The soils vary from rich black topsoil (tîrs) in the coastal plains to plateau regions, including fertile valleys, and barren rocky areas. The higher regions in the north central region have been the home of major Berber confederations (zayân, Zaer [za‘â’ir], and zemmûr) who in history have regularly imposed their desires on the Moroccan state by cutting off communication between Fès and Marrakech. The Saharan regions to the south and southeast of the Atlas mountains have long had established links with Black Africa and the Sahara. They include two major settlement areas: the Draa and the Tafilalt. The former starts across the Atlas southeast of Marrakech and then bends to the west. The Tafilalt lies due south of Taza on the same latitude as Marrakech, and like the Draa, benefits from the flow of several tributaries. The combination of regular water from a major watershed and the fertile river valley soils plus proximity to large nomadic areas have combined to make these regions both ethnically diverse and more complex in their social stratification than the bulk of Morocco. The area currently claimed by Morocco includes a stretch of the former Western Sahara south to Lagouira (La Gouèra), which is adjacent to Nouadhibou in Mauritania. Much of this area is currently still disputed by the Polisario. The great majority of Morocco’s estimated 30 million inhabitants in 2004 lived west of the Atlas mountains and were increasingly urban: current estimates suggest 58 percent of Moroccans live in urban areas. The conglomerations of Greater Casablanca, Rabat-Salé, and the Fês-Meknes region include the greatest concentrations, though the Tétouan-Tanger region is also rapidly expanding its urban population. Morocco’s population is now 99 percent Muslim; approximately 90 percent are under 50 years of age and less than 5 percent are over 65 years of age. Health is improving and education is increasing while the basic standard of living in other respects has been fairly static for thirty years. The lack of more general economic progress for the majority of the population is at least one cause of social unrest.

Historical Overview Settlement by Homo sapiens (Neanderthal) in the western Maghrib goes back several hundred thousand years (a recent claim suggests 400,000 years; Hublin 1992), but scholars know very little about social organization in the region even during the Roman period only 2,000 years ago, outside of a few centers and their immediate hinterland. Reasonable assumptions would

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include that the period of Saharan desiccation between 20,000 B.C. and 9,000 B.C. was followed by the first beginnings of cultivation in North Africa (documented earliest for the Nile valley). The earliest animal husbandry in the western Maghrib seems to date to between the 7th millennium B.C. and the 5th millennium B.C. These dates would then represent the origin for what might be called the classic pre-Islamic culture in the western Maghrib. Little is known of this period, though it is a safe assumption that Berber and Haratine culture continued to develop and change throughout this pre-Islamic period. Important figures appear in the historical record, but these tend, during the Roman period, to be from the area that is now Tunisia or Algeria. It is primarily during the Islamic conquest that historians begin to have significant details but the concerns of the Muslim conquerors precluded much interest in reconstructing pre-Islamic history. As a consequence, scholars have only archaeology and unsubstantiated legend to go on. The former overwhelmingly has been preoccupied with urban centers while the latter, which has been left to fill in for the bulk of the region, by its nature is unreliable. Legend would have it that in the millennia before the Islamic conquest there were both Berber confederations and several states in southern Morocco on the Atlas-Saharan fringe and that these may have included both Jewish and later Christian states. Even if true, and there is no contemporary or even reliable posterior evidence, the states would have been fairly small and would have had their primary influence south and east of the Atlas. On the urban front, excavations of Phoenician (from 12 c. B.C.), Carthaginian (especially from 5th c. B.C.) and Roman sites along the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts all confirm that the region was of even more interest to merchants than to empire builders. The degree of settlement, including the site of Volubilis, which was inland and west of Fès, suggests that the region provided a steady and reliable supply of trade goods (largely cereals) to the ancient Mediterranean. By the same evidence, not only were such goods not supplied in enormous quantities, but the inhabitants were independent of and potentially dangerous to the “civilized” elements scattered along the edges of the region. Rome at the height of its control in western North Africa (between the destruction of Carthage in 146 B.C., and the Vandal conquests in 429 A.D.) only held a few coastal cities plus Volubilis and needed an army of 10,000 to maintain these few possessions. This was surprisingly little to show for almost six centuries of occupation and was far different than farther east in Tunisia. In the Roman period there were also indigenous African states, based in the cities that dotted the Mediterranean, which alternated between independence and vassal status. These, however, tended primarily to be centered farther east between present-day Algeria and Libya. Records for the western Maghrib mention only Mauretania Tingitana, based in Tanger and extending to Volubilis, as significant. It was briefly given independence as a personal fiefdom to Juba II in 25 B.C., giving rise to an independent African state that lasted only until it was annexed by Rome in 40 A.D. Additional

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polities, such as tribal confederations and small urban centers, certainly existed, but they probably did not qualify as urban-based states complete with a significant bureaucracy and other types of specialization. Initially the Arab conquest led to few converts, but the establishment of the Idrisid dynasty in Fès at the end of the 8th and the beginning of the ninth century brought Islam in a definitive way to al-maghrib al-aqSâ. Within two centuries of this event, Islam could be said to have been established throughout the western Maghrib. Each succeeding dynasty, external incursion, Muslim immigrant, and returning pilgrim enriched the Islamic culture of the region until, with the arrival of sharifan dynasties in the 16th and 17th centuries and the concomitant blossoming of a variety of sufi orders in the western Maghrib, the region began to take on the religious complexity found today. The political configuration of the region generally included a centralized state with, over time, a variable control of all but the most central areas. To most European scholars or visitors this lack of definitive boundaries on the state was terribly confusing. In the classical Islamic state, the central state held a moral power over the community of believers, and hence a geographical frontier drawn on the ground made little or no sense. While it might be reasonable to delimit the major urban areas recognizing the authority of a sultan, it made little sense to draw a line on the ground and pretend it could accurately represent the acknowledgment of authority by the community of believers. To focus on the line in the sand would be to demote the voluntary acknowledgment of religious authority to a consequence of crossing the line, and this would make the act of acknowledgment both morally meaningless and an individual rather than a community matter. Islam’s focus on the community of believers pretty much precluded such an idea, particularly since much of the rural area was occupied by nomadic groups. In consequence, Moroccan history is rife with areas going in and out of explicit obedience to the central authority. This meant less that the state was incompetent than that it was explicitly seen as representative of the people and therefore not the people’s state whenever they concurred that it was failing their needs. Obviously, to the extent that a state commands the fanatical allegiance of the many it is in some sense strong just as the disaffection of many weakens it. Nevertheless, disaffection can occur for a variety of reasons, each of which has rather different implications. Disaffection due to administrative corruption or perceived heresy is clearly a failure of some sort, while disaffection due to the need to make necessary but unpopular decisions may reflect positively on the state in the present and even contribute to greater popular support in the future. Alternately, disaffection due to losses suffered from external aggression may, even when not viewed as a positive outcome, represent the best that a vigorous and well-thought-out state can do: being the strongest state in the region is possible for only one state at a time. The classic Islamic state thus imposed less hegemonic notions of nationalism on its population than did the modern European nation-states. No doubt premodern Europe was similar, but Islamic North Africa was less

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quick to adopt the new model, and Europeans with little sense of their own history and even less knowledge of Islam were both puzzled and disdainful. Sedition or fitna, the challenging of legitimacy, was thus a regular phenomenon in Moroccan history, but regular as well was the expansion of central authority or its replacement by a new dynasty with a new source of legitimacy. The dynamics of legitimacy and authority both made it something that had to be continuously maintained or reinvented and something that could be easily expanded. When authority is based on territory rather than God’s will and people’s consent it is much harder to argue logically that an expanded territory is legitimate. The regular contraction of the area under Moroccan central control has to be seen as the other side of the regular expansion of empires begun in al-maghrib al-aqSâ and then spread over a much wider area. Pastoralism and the broad extent of Islamic civilization with its encouragement and facilitation of pilgrimage, trade, and travel undoubtedly also helped delay the development of a modern European attitude toward territorial boundaries. Moroccan technical and military power fell behind that of the Spanish and the French in the 18th century, but this gap was neither obvious nor overwhelming until the mid-19th century. After the Battle of Three Kings (at wâdî al-makhâzin) in 1578 in which King Sebastian of Portugal and both a current and former sultan died but Morocco won a resounding victory, Morocco’s military prowess was largely untested by Europeans until the Battle of Isly (1844) where Morocco was soundly defeated. The second half of the 19th century thus was seized by France and Spain as an opportunity to bully and take advantage of Morocco. Despite, in retrospect, completely unscrupulous and self-aggrandizing behavior by both of these European powers, Morocco managed to implement significant industrial, military, and financial reforms in the latter part of the 19th century. These reforms did not prevent the French and Spanish conquests but they did keep Morocco independent until mawlây ‘abd al-HafiZ signed the treaty establishing a protectorate on 30 March 1912 (Algeria was progressively taken over in the 1830s, and the Tunisian bey was persuaded to sign the papers of the almarsa convention establishing a protectorate on 8 June 1883). In the independence period (after 2 March 1956), Morocco quickly established a governmental system, which it called a constitutional monarchy, in which an elected parliament was delegated a rather modest role in decision making. From the outset, those elements of the opposition to the regime, which have advocated violence, have been systematically repressed. A series of constitutions have responded to discontent by reducing the parliament’s role and powers. On 10 July 1971 and again on 10 August 1972, abortive coup attempts were mounted against Hasan II. Although each attempt failed, they called into question Hasan II’s legitimacy and suggested the depths of disaffection that prevailed. Hasan II’s response was classic. A 1972 constitution reworked the institutional guarantees of the king’s legitimacy and foreign policy initiatives reaffirmed the king’s role as legitimate leader. From 6-10 November 1975, Hasan II organized the Green March in which Moroccans walked about ten kilometers into the Spanish Sahara and formally claimed the territory for Morocco. This led to a long

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desert war between Morocco and Sahraoui troops supported by Algeria and Libya as well as to a sizable enlargement of Moroccan territory. The war is, at the time of writing, only tentatively resolved by promises of a referendum because there is disagreement over who will get to vote. Moroccan citizens have been virtually unanimous in supporting this expansion of territory, and the king’s prestige and perceived legitimacy rose astronomically after the annexation. This unanimity in favor of Moroccan imperialistic expansion has rarely been seen as problematic despite Moroccan rejection of European or American imperialistic actions. Although the Moroccan proverb that suggests that a Tunisian is a woman, an Algerian is a man, and a Moroccan is a lion is intentionally chauvinistic and objectionable on multiple counts, it does metaphorically capture an element of history. This is that while numerous Moroccan dynasties have managed to conquer the greater part of the Maghrib (from the Atlantic to Libya), the entire maghrib al-aqSâ has never been even briefly ruled by a dynasty centered outside of the current boundaries of Morocco. Although many dynasties were founded by relative strangers, they had to relocate to and center themselves in Morocco to accomplish much. The Umayyads held pieces of Northern Morocco for a while and the Fatimids similarly captured bits of eastern and Northern Morocco but there they foundered. Even the Ottomans were forced to be content with swallowing North Africa only as far as Algeria. Why, until the French protectorate, the best that outside states generally managed was to conquer small bits of Morocco is unclear. The Umayyads, with their base in Andalusia, briefly managed to control through proxies a substantial portion, usually in the north and east, but for brief periods parts of the south as well. Topography has something to do with it, but it cannot entirely explain this extraordinary resistance to external rule nor this long record of successful military conquest. There are other regions as regionally dominant as Morocco (Andalusia, Iraq, Ethiopia, and Turkey come to mind), yet the Maghrib’s extraordinary range of cultures and environmental adaptations plus its long imbrication in the affairs of Europe, Africa, and the Middle East lend it a special interest. In the 20th century, Morocco, like most of the world, fell prey to the industrial juggernaut and was turned at least in part into an appendage of France. Today a part of its culture is French, but this part is diminishing even as its economic dependency on Europe is increasing. Despite promising signs, whether one day France’s economic hold on Morocco will significantly diminish and whether Morocco will develop in a way more likely to stimulate its own cultural and intellectual development are both still open questions. The current monarch, Mohammed VI, has begun an ambitious modernization program that blends elements from tradition and the globalization paradigm. Thus, while following some structural adjustment recommendations, Morocco is also modernizing and has rewritten the code of personal status, turning it into a code of family law based on Islamic principles but largely conforming to international standards for women’s rights.

The Dictionary -AAbabou, Lt.Col. Muhammad. The commandant of the Ahermoumou NCO school who led its cadets to Skhirat in an abortive coup attempt (see coup manqué) and one of the two leaders of the coup, with Gen. Muhammad Madbouh. Ababou (1936-1971) was reputedly killed at his own request by his second in command, ‘aqqa, when the coup’s failure appeared irreversible. His command of the cadets was absolute and they seem to have defected to the king only when left alone in Skhirat after Ababou went to secure the central command (état-major) in Rabat. Abarkash, Haddou. Elected president of the Mouvement Populaire at its fifth congress in November 1966, Abarkash had published one of the first tracts announcing the formation of the party in October 1957 under the pseudonym “Haddou Riffi.” Originally from Al-Hoceima, Abarkash also played a major role in the party’s reorganization in 1959. Abaroudi, Khalid. Born 26 December 1964 in Casablanca, Abaroudi received a baccalauréat (Philosophy-Letters) from Lycée Lyautey in Casablanca in 1982, master’s in Law (Droit Public) from Université Hassan II, Casablanca (1989), diploma for advanced studies in International Law (Public et Privé) at the Institut du Droit de la Paix et du Développement at the Université de Nice Sophia-Antipolis in 1992. Abaroudi worked in the development office of the Office de la Formation Professionnelle et de la Promotion du Travail (OFPPT) between November 1994 and December 1995. From January 1996 to June 1998, Abaroudi was in charge of international relations for Confédération Générale des Entreprises du Maroc (CGEM). He received a diploma from the Ecole Nationale d’Administration (ENA) in Paris (1998-2000), and a master’s in Public Administration from the ENA in 2000. Abaroudi became secrétaire général of the CGEM in July 2000. Abbadi, Hassan. Born 4 December 1943 in Temara, Abbadi is a former minister, member of parliament, deputy-mayor of Temara, and Ingénieur d’Etat en chef at the Ministère de l’agriculture. He studied at Lycée Agricole CIDERA in Temara, Ecole Nationale d’Agriculture (ENA) in Meknès, Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Agronomie, Ecole Nationale Supérieur (ENS) de Montpellier (France), Faculté de Pharmacie de Montpellier, and Institut Supérieur de Commerce et 7

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d’Administration des Entreprises (ISCAE) in Casablanca. Abbadi earned a Diplôme d’ingénieur agronome, Certificat d’études supérieures ès-Economie et Développement Rural, Diplôme d’Oenologue (viniculture), and Cycle Supérieur de Gestion. Abbadi served as deputy president of the Conseil Prefectoral (1977-1992) and minister responsible for employment (1985-1992). In 1987, he became the deputy-mayor of Temara. Abbadi has been a member of the political bureau of Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI) since 1977 and a member of its bureau executif. Abbadi’s political experience includes: president of the parliamentary commission on agriculure, member of parliamentary commissions on agriculture and finance, member of the Groupe Parlementaire des Indépendants (1977, 1984, 1993, 2002), president of the commune of Temara (1977-1998), president of the Conseil Préfectorale Skhirat-Temara (1985-1998), vice president of the commune of Temara (1993-1998), and deputy of the commune of Temara (1997-2002). Abbadi also served as the president of the Conseil Municipal of El-Jadida. abbas, yudah ibn. Referred to also as abû naSr and even Samual ben Azariah. Born in Fès in the 12th century, Abbas travelled in Iraq, Syria, Azerbaijan, and Kohistan to study and had two visions in the city of Maragha (recorded as occuring on 8 November 1163) in which Muhammad appeared to him. This led to his conversion from Judaism to Islam and to his adoption of the name samû‘al yaHya al-maghribî. He wrote a treatise, ifhâm al-yahûd (Understanding the Jews), also called kitâb al-naqd wa-l-ibrâm (The Book of Refutation of Abraham), in which he tried to show that both Jesus and Muhammad were referred to in Genesis (49:10 and 17:2 respectively) using a numerical equivalence for the word Muhammad for the latter claim. This book, though it had little influence in Judaism at the time, echoed down the ages when a popular anti-Semitic tract, the Epistola Samuelis Maroccani, was plagiarized in the 15th century from Abbas’s work. It was said to be a translation from Arabic by the putative Alfonsus Bonihominis and was translated into countless languages (under such titles as “The Blessed Jew of Morocco; or the black Moor made white”—(but with a conversion to Christianity as the epiphany). ‘abd al-‘azîz bn al-Hasan, mawlây. Born between 1878 and 1881, mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz was in his teens when his father died on 9 June 1894, and although his tutor, aHmad bn mûsa bn aHmad al-bukhârî (bâ Hmâd), had him declared the sultan it was aHmad bn mûsa who ruled as grand vizier until he died on 17 May 1900. At the regent’s death, ‘abd al-‘azîz took over the duties of sultan at the tender age of 19 (or 22) and quickly fell under the influence of a handful of foreigners. He soon became enamored of foreign inventions and began to neglect both affairs of state and the Islamic decorum expected of him as a religious and secular leader. His neglect and his habit of fraternizing with foreigners, who quite arguably meant Morocco only harm, disaffected

‘abd al-karîm, sîdî muHammad bn

9

the population. The major financial concessions exacted within the first six years of the 20th century included massive loans (see FrancoMoroccan Accords) and acceptance of the Act of Algeciras enacted at the Conference of Algeciras. Even a mature and brilliant sultan would have had difficulty in keeping Morocco independent in this period, against the designs of most of the states in Western Europe, and ‘abd al-‘azîz was simply not up to the task. As discontent grew, his brother mawlây ‘abd al-HâfiZ rebelled and had himself declared sultan in Marrakech on 16 August 1907. Although ‘abd al-HâfiZ quickly defeated the forces of ‘abd al-‘azîz, who abdicated on 21 August 1908, he then had to confront the unenviable choice of himself colluding with the French or saving his own honor. He chose first one then the other. After abdicating, ‘abd al-‘azîz retired to Tanger and lived quietly there until his death on 10 June 1943. The abdication of ‘abd al-HâfiZ in 1912 left mawlây yûsuf, a third brother, as sultan. See also al-Glawi, Hâjj Thami and bû Hmâra. ‘abd al-karîm, sîdî muHammad bn. Born around 1881/2 in Ajdir, in the Ait Waryaghar area of the Rif, sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd al-karîm came to be Morocco’s greatest figure of resistance to colonialism. The son of a qadi and scion of a family literate for at least four generations, he was encouraged in 1903, after studies locally and in Tétouan, to study in Fès at the qarawîyîn mosque. In 1906, he returned to Ajdir and began work as an interpreter on the Spanish occupied island of al-Hoceima. He went on from there the same year to Melilla where he stayed until 1919. In Melilla, ‘abd al-karîm began by editing the Arabic supplement of the local paper, El Telegrama del Rif. Soon he was offered a position as Arabic secretary of the Central Office of Native Affairs where he came to know a number of important Spanish military and civilian officials. In 1912, he was promoted to assessor in the same office, and in 1913 he was made qadi at the shari‘a court in Melilla. The next year he became qâDî quDât or chief qadi for the Melilla region, which encompassed the eastern Rif. By 1915, ‘abd al-karîm was making anticolonial statements in the Telegrama del Rif and was imprisoned but was reinstated in 1917 even after an abortive escape attempt in which he broke a leg and was left lame for life. Returning to the Ait Waryaghar area in 1919, ‘abd alkarîm began to assume a leadership role and soon had an opportunity (in May 1921) to claim a first military victory when some Ait Waryaghar attacked and destroyed a Spanish force led by General Sylvestre that was intent on extending Spanish control into the Ait Waryaghar area. On 21 July, ‘abd al-karîm’s forces took the Spanish post of Ighriben. That summer around half of the Spanish forces at Melilla (numbering about 30,000) were killed or captured in various skirmishes and battles. Between 1922 and 1923, ‘abd al-karîm established a state (dawla jumhuriya rîfiya, referred to as the Republic of Confederated Tribes of the Rif), which had support throughout most of the mountainous areas

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of the Spanish protectorate. The structure of the state was in large part patterned after the traditional Moroccan makhzan complete with a commander in chief, ministers, qadis, caids, tax collectors, and chief of protocol. Its new head of state, ‘abd al-karîm, however, distinguished himself also in wanting a modern reformist state inspired by movements such as the salafîya in the Middle East or the Turkish reform movements. He had no faith in religious zealotry despite the popular view that his revolution took the form of a jihâd against nonMuslim forces. A number of major accomplishments can be credited to ‘abd alkarîm. These include firmly establishing the rule of shari‘a in an area where it had only had minor significance while arguing eloquently for the values of modernity and reform. He outlawed the blood feud and undermined many of the traditional systems of alliances that went with it, made it mandatory to pray five times a day, and caused qadis to be trained and established in large numbers throughout the Rif. His key desires were full and complete independence for the Rif and a national union of Rifan peoples within which a representative republic would gradually take shape. Reaching the zenith of his powers in early 1925, ‘abd al-karîm made the fatal mistake of successfully attacking a series of French outposts in the French protectorate thus threatening to take Fès and stimulating the French to increase their forces to 325,000 regular troops plus an additional 400,000 supplementary troops. These added to the 100,000 Spanish troops were far more than ‘abd alkarîm’s forces could possibly handle. On 27 May 1926, ‘abd al-karîm surrendered to a Franco-Moroccan force led by Colonel Corap and so adroitly escaped punishment by the Spanish. He and his extended family were exiled to Reunion Island until he was granted the right to board a ship to take up residence in France. Then, en route through the Suez Canal, he availed himself of an offer from King Faruk and jumped ship (on 31 May 1947) to spend the rest of his days as a guest of the Egyptian government. He met in Cairo with, and served as a mentor to, many of the next generation of independence-oriented Moroccans but refused to return to Morocco, despite official invitations, until all foreign troops left Morocco, and this did not occur in time. After a vigorous and full life, ‘abd al-karîm died in Cairo on 5 February 1963 in his sleep at the age of eighty-one. He remains Morocco’s most admired resistance leader and theoretician of independence. ‘abd al-mu’min. ‘abd al-mu’min bn ‘alî bn ‘alwî bn ya‘lâ al-kûmî abû muHammad succeeded ibn tûmart as leader of the Almohad (almuwaHHidûn) movement at the latter’s death in 1133 and quickly proved to be a brilliant military and political leader by conquering the Almoravid territories in North Africa and Spain. Marrakech fell in April 1147 and Tlemcen in 1145 followed by parts of Spain. By 1162 the Almohads had conquered the lands between Tripoli, Granada, and the southernmost reaches of Morocco. Tradition has it that ‘abd al-

‘abd al-salâm bn mashîsh

11

mu’min met ibn tûmart in mallâla (Algeria) around 1117 where ibn tûmart, on his way back from the Hajj, persuaded him to join the Almohad movement. From this point on he became involved in all the important decisions, and most sources agree that ibn tûmart made him his heir apparent before dying. The mu’minid dynasty ‘abd al-mu’min established was the first in Morocco to take the title amîr al-mu’minîn, which had been left by the Almoravids, who used only the title amîr almuslimîn, for the ‘abbâsid caliph. ‘abd al-qâdir bn muhyî al-dîn, amîr. See Isly, Battle of. ‘abd al-raHmân bn hishâm, mawlây. Born in 1789/90 (1204H), ‘abd alraHmân was proclaimed sultan in Fès on 30 November 1822 (15 rabî‘ I 1238H) and died in Meknès on 28 August 1859 (29 muHarram 1276). He was an excellent administrator and pious Muslim but ruled during a difficult time. He subdued revolts by the zammûr (1824-1825, 1843, 1852, and 1857-1858), a revolt by the banû zarwâl (1825), a revolt in Chiadma (1827-1828), a revolt by the shrârda (1828), the revolt of the ‘amîr and za‘â’ir (1849), and a revolt by the banû mûsâ in 1853. The most serious revolt was that of the jaysh al-wadâya (1831-1832), who had to be besieged in Fès and then, once subdued, scattered around the country to Marrakech, Rabat, and Larache. In addition, ‘abd alraHmân was beset by imperialistic pressures and had to deal with a blockade of Tanger by the British (1828), the bombardment of Larache, Asilah, and Tétouan by the Austrians (1829), French conquests in Algeria (1830s on), the military loss to the French at the Battle of Isly (1844), and the bombardments of Tanger and Mogador (Essaouira) the same year as the French began to make the point that they could beat up on Morocco whenever and wherever they chose. When the Algerian resistance hero ‘abd al-qâdir sought refuge in Morocco, ‘abd al-raHmân initially provided considerable assistance to him, but, after the Battle of Isly, the sultan was quickly forced to reverse his policies and refuse ‘abd al-qâdir continued refuge and aid. Despite this gamut of troubles, ‘abd al-raHmân constructed many mosques and fortifications and enjoyed a good reputation as a sultan. ‘abd al-salâm bn mashîsh. ‘abd al-salâm bn mashîsh al-Hasanî (d. 625H/ 1227/8) studied with abû madyan in Bougie (bijâya) and acquired a reputation of ascetic holiness in his hermitage on jabal al-‘alam southeast of Tétouan. Legend has it that he was assassinated (1228) by muHammad bn abî tawâjîn al-kutâmî, a rebel pretender against the Almohads, who found the saint’s prestige an obstacle to his goals. The reputation of ‘abd al-salâm bn mashîsh began to grow when the teachings of al-shâdhilî, who may have been his student, became popular in Morocco in the 15th century. In retrospect, and possibly in his own day as well, ‘abd al-salâm bn mashîsh came to be considered the “pole” (quTb, or religious authority) of the West. What little is known of his teachings, recommending asceticism, faith, religious

12

‘abd al-wâdid dynasty in Tlemcen

observances, and above all the love of God, stands the test of time fairly well. ‘abd al-wâdid dynasty in Tlemcen. The ‘abd al-wâdid (or zayyânid) dynasty reigned, with two brief interregnums by the Marinids (May 1337-1348 and 1352-1359), in Tlemcen from 1236 to 1550, falling finally to the Ottomans. In the 16th century they were first dominated by the Spanish, who had conquered Oran (1509), and then by the Sa‘dians before the Ottoman conquest. Despite military weakness, the dynasty was characterized by a well developed bureaucracy from the time of its first ruler, abû yaHyâ yaghmurâsan bn zayyân. This care for qualifications extended to the vizier, who was chosen for his financial and legal expertise rather than, as tended to be the case in Morocco, for political astuteness combined with humble origins (lack of a legitimate claim to the throne). al-‘abdarî. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn muHammad bn ‘alî bn aHmad bn mas‘ûd al-‘abdarî al-HîHî lived in the HâHâ region near Essaouira during the late 13th century and left on the Hajj on 11 December 1289. The only work that has survived is his travel account, al-riHla almaghribîya, which is noteworthy for a number of reasons. As a scholar, al-‘abdarî distinguished himself as a critic of the intellectuals of his time from the Orient to the Maghrib and aroused indignation and even anger while demonstrating his own intellectual positions. His riHla includes information on geography, urban structures, social traditions, and customs as well as, and most in evidence, discussions of the intellectuals and ideas in vogue in each place he visited. In general, he found much to criticize in each place as well as corrections to be noted to earlier accounts penned by others. ‘abîd al-bukhârî. The Moroccan term ‘abîd al-bukhârî derives from a 17th-century requirement that on induction into the army the soldiers had to swear an oath of allegiance to the sultan on the SaHîH (a compilation of Hadîth renowned for its scrupulous accuracy) of muHammad bn ismâ‘îl abû ‘abd allâh al-ju‘fî al-bukhârî (810-870). Once begun, the army was maintained by a core population raised in a settlement at Sidi Slimane (near Meknès) who were separated by gender at maturity and sent to the army or as servants to the royal household. The army of black soldiers built by sultan mawlây ismâ‘îl (1672-1727) was drawn from black residents of Morocco and in part from new slaves imported from the Sahel. The majority of the 50,000-150,000 thousand ‘abîd probably were indigenous to Morocco and many were drawn from the populations that had worked in the sugar cane fields until these progressively were abandoned due to competition from the Caribbean. During mawlây ismâ‘îl’s reign half were stationed at the capital, Meknès, and the other half were

Abubacer

13

distributed in the other major urban centers. Technically, the ‘abîd albukhârî held jaysh status, but in practice few had significant landed resources or other wealth to back up their military salaries. The ‘abîd al-bukhârî took over the government at the death of mawlây ismâ‘îl (1727) and ruled through various puppet sultans until the advent of mawlây muHammad bn ‘abd allâh in 1757 who reduced the size of the ‘abîd al-bukhârî contingents to around 15,000 (Meyers 1974). By the time of mawlây sulaymân (1792-1822) the ‘abîd albukhârî were regularly outnumbered in battles by the regular troops (nâ’iba) levied for particular campaigns from tribes allied with the sultan. Toward the end of his reign, they split into factions supporting the sultan and his dynastic rivals in the south. The ‘abîd al-bukhârî were finally disbanded in the reign of mawlây ‘abd al-raHmân (1822-1859). Abouyoub, Hassan. Born in 1952, Abouyoub studied in Lyon (France), then took a position with the ministry of commerce and industry to become the director of international trade in 1980. He has been instrumental in developing and implementing trade policy reforms in Morocco. Abouyoub represented Morocco to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) as well as to the European Union and took part in the Uruguay Round negotiations. He was also instrumental in setting up the Marrakech Ministerial Conference. From 1990 to 1993, he served as minister of foreign trade and then added responsibilities for foreign investment and tourism. In 1993, he was elected to parliament but was appointed ambassador to Saudi Arabia in 1994. From 1995 to 1997, Abouyoub served as minister of agriculture and implemented Morocco’s WTO commitments on agriculture as well as negotiated a fishing agreement with the European Union. He also participated in concluding the Euro-Mediterranean agreement establishing a free-trade zone with Morocco. In 1998, Abouyoub became ambassador in charge of trade negotiations and then was named Moroccan ambassador to France abû al-Hasan al-Sughayyir. abû al-Hasan ‘alî bn muHammad bn ‘abd alHaqq al-zarwîlî al-Sughayyir (d. 1319) studied in Fès and excelled in particular in fiqh. He became so learned in this field that his contemporaries referred to him as shaykh, HâfiZ, or even imâm. He wrote a number of theoretical works but it is his more empirical compendium of legal responses (ajwiba) later compiled, classified, and titled (by his disciple ibrâhîm bn hilâl) al-durr al-nuTayyir fî ajwibat abî al-Hasan al-Sughayyir that is of greatest historical value. The cases examined provide a rich set of information on social history and local customs up to the early 14th century. Abubacer. See ibn Tufayl.

14

abû maHallî

abû maHallî. aHmad ibn abû maHallî’s origins are as obscure today as they apparently were to abû maHallî. His ancestors so regularly fulfilled the post of qadi in the Tafilalt region that they were referred to both as the ûlad maHallî and the ayt al-qâDî, that they had a zâwiya referred to as the zâwiya of the ûlad maHallî in the Tafilalt, and that there is still a zâwiya referred to as the zâwiya al-qâDî about three kilometers south-southeast of Rissani (Jacques-Meunié 1982:599), but whether this is the same zâwiya is as much conjecture as the rest of abû maHallî’s ancestry. To qualify as a pretender in Moroccan history it helps for one to have both somewhat obscure origins, substantial local renown, a source of financing (the Tafilalt was beginning again to prosper in the early 17th century), and to meet an ignominious death. On all counts, abû maHallî qualified. Born around 1560, abû maHallî studied in Fès from 1573-1578, studied with an illiterate mystic named sîdî muHammad bn mbarak until 1593, and then was sent by the mystic to sijilmâsa. Shortly later abû maHallî made a pilgrimage, and on his return he and his relatives left sijilmâsa to set up in al-Saoura, perhaps to escape the scrutiny of aHmad al-manSûr who may have been concerned by the family’s prominence in sijilmâsa. In al-Saoura, abû maHallî established a reputation as a saint and participated actively in religious debates of his time by writing missives to most of his peers. He then went on, in the name of the true religion, to take affront at the successes of the Spanish (who were given Larache on 20 November 1610) and to declare a holy war. Laying claim to the status of the mahdi, a common aberration from the sunni point of view and referred to in Arabic as almahdawîya, was one of the key ways to seek power. In the spring of 1611, abû maHallî and his supporters took sijilmâsa, the Draa a year later, and the High Atlas the following spring (1612). Finally, on 20 May 1612, abû maHallî captured Marrakech. He had gold coins minted in his name until sîdî yaHya liberated Marrakech for mawlây zidân and killed abû maHallî in the process (30 November 1613). As was the practice for rebels, abû maHallî’s head was cut off and displayed on the ramparts of the capital. Abraham, David ben [al-fâsî]. Born in Fès in the 10th century, Abraham wrote in Arabic a major lexicon of biblical Hebrew words and phrases titled, Agron or kitâb jami‘ al-alfâZ. The book contains general rules of Hebrew grammar and classes words into twenty-two sections according to the initial letter of their roots. His work is clearly influenced by that of his co-fâsî Hayyuj as well as by other works of grammar available at the time such as the works of Ibn Tamîm of Qayrawân (Tunisia). Achaâri, Mohamed [ash‘arî muHammad]. Born in 1951 in Boumandra (Moulay Driss Zerhoun), Achaâri received his secondary education in

al-‘adl wa-l-iHsân student demonstrations

15

Meknès before going to the Université Mohamed V in Rabat. In 1975, he became a member of the Union des Ecrivains du Maroc and from 1979 to 1984, was the first secretary-general of the Syndicat national de l’agriculture (CDT). From 1983 to 1998 Achaâri served as director of the bureau of the Arab newspaper Al Ittihad Al Ichtiraki and from 1989 to 1996 was president of the Union des Ecrivains du Maroc and member of the general secretariat of the Asian and African writers union. In 1997, he became a deputy in Rabat and on 14 March 1998, Achaâri, who is a member of the political bureau of the USFP, became minister of cultural affairs. On 6 September 2000, Achaâri was appointed minister of culture and communication. In 2002, Achaâri became a deputy for Meknès and is currently minister of culture. Achaâri is also a member of the editorial board of Al Machroue [al mashru’] Revue, of the Syndicat National de la Presse and of the Fondation Mohammed V pour la Solidarité. Achaâri writes for Al Alam and Al Moharrir and is responsible for the editing of Al Balagh Al Maghribi and the daily Al Ittihad Al Ichtiraki. He has published many works of poetry in Baghdad, Beirut, and Casablanca. ‘addî u bîhî zadgî. In 1956, ‘addî u bîhî zadgî (Ait Izday of the Ait Yaflman confederation) was appointed the first governor of the Tafilalt. In early 1957, the political situation in Morocco seemed to be turning in favor of the istiqlâl party and u bîhî began to fear for his sources of patronage as new appointees in his province began to significantly reduce his sources of revenue. On 17 January, when the king was on a Mediterranean cruise, he closed down all istiqlâl offices and threw their occupants in jail. His revolt was quickly suppressed by a force led by mawlây Hassan II, the crown prince, and u bîhî, who claimed in his defense that he was only trying to preserve resources for the king from the schemes of the istiqlâl, was sentenced to death for treason. He was executed in January 1961. The revolt represented a widespread discontent with the perceived fâsî colonization of the country by the istiqlâl party. In death u bîhî was praised as a hero by some nationalists, such as Mahjoubi Ahardane. al-‘adl wa-l-iHsân student demonstrations. The “Justice and Charity” movement is a loosely organized group of people led by ‘abd al-salâm yasîn (Yassine) who call for a complete restructuring of the political system along the lines of a state based on strict Islamic principles. In 1974, ‘abd al-salâm yasîn began the movement with an open letter to the king, which resulted in his forced commitment to a psychiatric facility for three years. A magazine he began in 1979, al-jam‘a, was regularly censored and then banned outright in 1983, but it won him many supporters. In the 1980s, ‘abd al-salâm yasîn was imprisoned several times and, in 1989, he was placed under house-arrest. In January 1990, six leaders of the Justice and Charity movement were arrested, and their trial the following May, as part of the government’s repression of Islamist groups, led to demonstrations and violence on

16

Afilal, Abderrazak

university campuses. In Rabat, some 2,000 protestors congested the city for three hours before being dispersed. In the 1990s, the Justice and Charity movement and other Islamist groups gained the ideological upper hand on most university campuses and largely displaced the leftist groups that had almost monopolized student ideologies. Although yasîn has since refrained from directly addressing the king or implicating the royal family or royal person in his critiques of the system and its claimed deviation from Islamic principles, his influence has not ebbed. He was released from house arrest in May 2000. Afilal, Abderrazak. General secretary of the Union Générale des Travailleurs Marocains (UGTM) since 1963, Afilal started his career as an instituteur in 1948 and then a teacher. He directed many educational institutions in El-Jadida, Kenitra, Meknès, and Rabat (1959-1963). In 1955 he became a member of the Union Marocaine du Travail (UMT) and left it to participate in the foundation of the UGTM. Afilal participated in the delegations of workers that represented Morocco at international workers conferences as a technical consultant. Afilal has also served as the vice president of the Union Syndicale Africaine (1973-1980). He has been affiliated with the istiqlâl party and has been a member of its executive committee since 1974. In 1977, he was elected to parliament and presided over the commissions dealing with education and training, agriculture, agrarian reform, information, culture, and Islamic affairs. Afilal was also the former president of the urban commune of Aîn Sabaâ-Hay Mohammadi. African Union (AU). Morocco’s participation in the Organization of African Unity (OAU) ended in November 1984 when Morocco withdrew its membership in protest over the admision of SADR, which claimed to represent the Western Sahara territory that Morocco claimed as its southern provinces. The African Union was officially created in Durban, South Africa on 9 July 2002 to take over from the ineffectual OAU. The AU included all African states except for Morocco because Algeria managed to get enough support (including powerful Nigeria and South Africa) to include a seat for the Polisario as a state government without a state. Morocco’s allies in Africa, such as Senegal and Ethiopia, are strongly in favor of including Morocco, but this is not likely to happen as long as the AU recognizes the Polisario. Thus for the moment Morocco has no relationship to the AU and AU initiatives must be implemented without Moroccan help. As Morocco is one of the strongest economies in Africa and has one of the highest levels of economic and environmental expertise, this is a major loss for the AU. Agadir. (lat. 30º 26' N., long. 9º 38' W.) Agadir (agâdîr) is located on a bay eight kilometers north of Oued Sous and twenty-nine kilometers southeast of Cap Ghir. Settlement characterized by significant

Agricultural development

17

architecture dates to the construction of a wooden fort in 1505 by a Portuguese nobleman, perhaps in connection with fishing interests, which was then purchased by the king of Portugal on 25 January 1513. The Sous area had already had a port for some time. In the 9th century, al-ya‘qubî noted an active port referred to as mâssa (presumably located at the mouth of the Massa river midway between Tiznit and Agadir) and both al-bakrî (11th century) and al-idrîsî (12th century) mention the port as well. The Sa‘dians conquered the Agadir fort in 1541, and Agadir, within thirty years, became a significant Moroccan port until, with the construction of Mogador (Essaouira) in 1765, Agadir was closed to trade. It remained closed as a port until 1930. On 29 February 1960, a major earthquake destroyed much of Agadir and killed approximately 15,000 people, but it has since been rebuilt into one of Morocco’s major urban centers. Agadir, Crisis of (1911). Agadir made world headlines when on 1 July 1911, on the eve of the French protectorate and as WWI was in the air, Germany sent a naval destroyer, the Panther, to Agadir to symbolically make its case for a fair share of the spoils from the Partition of Africa. Germany maintained the Panther there until November of that year. The intent was to stress Germany’s claims, based on commercial ties, to Morocco and to pressure the French into making territorial concessions elsewhere. French honor was felt to be at stake and the action almost precipitated war, but in the short term cooler, if imperialistic, heads prevailed. The stationing of the Panther became a cause célèbre and was used by the French to justify an imminent need to set up a protectorate. In fact, Germany had no serious territorial ambitions in Morocco and in the months that followed actually rebuffed an offer by the “southern caids,” led by Caid Madani Glawi, to set up a German protectorate for southern Morocco. The bluff, however, forced the French to negotiate. The subsequent FrancoGerman Treaty of 4 November 1911 concluded negotiations begun in August and provided for German abandonment of claims in Morocco in return for concessions in Moyen Congo. Agricultural development. Moroccan agriculture seemed to have great promise and was quickly oriented toward modern intensive techniques (irrigation) as a massive hydroelectric effort was developed beginning in the colonial period. As of 2003, this totalled forty-one projects with an estimated cultivable area of 881,750 hectares. At the end of the protectorate, the irrigated area totalled only 35,800 hectares (Swearingen 1987a:141, 167). Although the expense of harnessing most of Morocco’s hydroelectric resources has been stupendous, the returns have been disappointing. Exports of citrus fruits, though potentially of the same order of magnitude (in tons) as those of cereals, have been disappointing and unfortunately dependent on the unpredictable fluctuations of Morocco’s relationship with Europe, the partner for more than 50 percent of Morocco’s overall trade.

18

Agricultural Development

Morocco’s access has declined as the southern European states have joined the European Union. Table 1. Major Dams Constructed in Morocco by Year (capacity >= 30 million m3). Name Year Location or river Function Capacity million Constructed m3 Ali Thilat 1934 Lao I; E 30.0 El Kansera 1935 Beht I; E; DW; IW 265.8 Lalla Takerkoust 1935 N’Fis I; E 68.8 Bin El Ouidane 1953 El Abid I; E 1,300.3 Mohammed El 1967 Moulouya I; E; DW; IW; IN 410.9 Khamis Moulay Youssef 1969 Tassaout I, E 175.2 Hassan Eddakhil 1971 Ziz I; IN 346.8 Mansour Eddahbi 1972 Drâa I; E; IN 528.9 Youssed Ibn 1972 Massa I; IN; DW; IW 303.8 Tachefine Idriss 1 1973 Inaouen I; E; IN 1,185.8 Sidi M. Ben Abdellah 1974 Bou Regreg DW; IW 486.0 Ibn Battouta 1979 Mharhar I; DW; ID 35.0 Oued El Makhazine 1979 Loukkous I; E; DW; IW; IN 772.7 El Massira 1979 Oum Rbia I; E; DW; IW 2,759.8 M. Ben Abdelkrim El 1981 Nekor I; DW; IW 33.5 Khattabi Abdelmoumen 1981 Issen I; DW; IW; IN 214.6 Hassan I 1987 Lakhdar I; E; DW; IW 262.6 Allal Al Fassi 1990 Sebou I; E; DW; IW 85.1 Aoulouz 1991 Souss AR 108.2 Smir 1991 Smir DW; IW 43.0 Garde de Sebou 1991 Sebou I 40.1 Sahla 1994 Sahla I; DW; IW 62.0 Saguia El Hamra 1995 Saguia El Hamra IN; AR 110.0 9 avril 1947 1995 O.Hachef I; DW; IW 300.9 Sidi Echahed 1996 Mikkes IW 170.0 Al Wahda 1997 Sebou I; DW; IW; E 3,730.5 Ahmed El Hansali Prince Moulay Abdellah Mokhtar Susi

2001 2002

near Beni Mellal E; I near Agadir DW; IW

740 110

2002

near Taroudant

50

I

Key: E: Energy; I: Irrigation; IN: Inundation; DW: Drinkable Water; IW: Industrial Water; AR: Aquifer Replenishment. Source: Ministère de l’equipement.

Agricultural Development

19

Cereal production, as table 1 suggests, has stagnated since the 1960s at a yield per hectare that is substantially below world averages and only a fraction of the levels obtained in Europe or the United States. These levels of production show how insignificant the irrigated developments have been for Morocco’s production of its most critical resource.

Rainfall in Morocco arranged geographically

Nador Tanger Rabat Meknes Ifrane Casablanca Essaouira Marrakech Ouarzazate Agadir 0 200 400 600 800 10001200140016001800

in millimeters 1995-6

1996-7

1998-9

1999-2000

1997-8

Figure 1. Annual Rainfall. Source: Annuaire Statistique du Maroc (2001:60).

Indeed, since 1960 Morocco has been a net importer of cereals beginning with about 2.9 million quintals in the early 1960s and averaging more than 20 million quintals since the 1980s

20

Agricultural Development

(approximately one third of national needs). Nevertheless, there is some obvious merit in having local production to mitigate dependency since the fluctuations of world market prices make sole reliance on importation foolish. Table 2. Cereal Production in Morocco, 1956-2000. Year 1956/1957 1958/1959 1960/1961 1962/1963 1964/1965 1966/1967 1968/1969 1970/1971 1972/1973 1974/1975 1976/1977 1978/1979 1980/1981 1982/1983 1984/1985 1986/1987 1988/1989 1990/1991 1992/1993 1994/1995 1996/1997 1998/1999 2000

Area in Ha (000s) 3,908/3,463 4,484/4,193 4,717/4,255 3,794/4,798 4,363/4,473 4,613/4,799 4,671/4,598 4,458/4,608 4,537/4,605 4,461/4,168 4,685/4,832 4,705/4,385 4,275.4/4,236.6 4,132.4/4,561.3 4,365.4/4,677.1 5,073/4,971 5,301.6/5,513.1 5,593.3/5,490.8 5,012.5/5,020 6,073.6/5,981.1 4,905.7/5,896.9 5,163.8/5,435.8 5,138.4

Quintaux (000s) 30,482/16,334 34,050/25,797 37,900/17,272 41,056/43,048 37,846/39,806 21,696/35,092 63,246/46,398 42,358/53,203 51,131/31,381 47,694/37,163 56,492/28,811 46,546/40,735 43,533.8/20,208 47,640.3/34,562.9 36,580.7/52,205.6 76,787.1/42,107 79,393.3/74,088.9 62,662.4/86,572.4 29,420.5/28,100.2 96,282.3/100,932.2 40,864/66,195 38,339.2/19,863 45,930.0

Yield: q/ha 7.8/4.7 7.6/6.2 8.0/4.0 10.8/9.0 8.7/8.9 4.7/7.3 13.5/8.8 9.5/11.5 11.3/6.8 10.7/8.9 12.0/5.9 9.9/9.3 10.2/4.8 11.5/7.6 8.4/11.2 15.1/8.5 11.2/15.8 5.9/5.6 15.9/5.6 15.9/16.9 8.3/11.2 7.4/3.7 8.94

Note: Cereal refers to hard and soft wheat, barley, maize, rice, sorghum, and oats. Source: Annuaire Statistique du Maroc (1989, 1995, 2001) and Park 1996.

Table 1 provides a list of all the major irrigated projects constructed by Morocco and complements figure 1, which illustrates rainfall in Morocco. The wide fluctuations in rainfall over time and space make a good case for irrigation if only to even out the supply of water for agriculture. When this is added to the hydroelectric capacity there are arguable benefits to be had. Nevertheless, few serious studies of environmental costs have been made and the economic rationale in terms of standard cost-benefit analysis is generally unconvincing. It should be said that comparative cost-benefit analysis generally assumes a ready and low-priced supply of alternatives through the international market that is itself unsupported by history. The strongest arguments in support of Morocco’s hydraulic policies have been to mitigate against climatic fluctuations and to enhance autonomy. The main sources of

Ahizoune, Abdessalam

21

financing for these dams, such as the Fonds Koweitien de Développement Arabe (FKDEA), the Banque Islamique de Développement (BID), the Banque Africaine de Développement (BAD), and the Italian, Spanish, French, and Russian governments, have provided financing at between 3.5 and 4.5 percent. Nevertheless, the role of private profit in all major construction projects may be as important, and as unstudied, a cause of their popularity as either ideological principles or simple economic calculations. Table 2 details Morocco’s cereal production over the years. A number of points should be noted: a) despite the growth in irrigated hectarage (table 1) over the years, the yields per hectare have not significantly improved since the 1950s; b) excellent years in terms of climate can yield double those of poor years; and c) overall, the hectarage has increased about 33 percent since the 1950s. Agricultural production in Morocco serves to stabilize the economy and lessen dependence, but its economic significance as a share of the Moroccan economy has declined over the years. It is particularly obvious that the production of grain has a social, ecological, and political significance even if the returns per hectare are seriously below world averages. The wide fluctuations due to climate suggest that no changes in inputs could bring the average returns to levels common in more temperate climes. Ahardane, Mahjoubi. A member of the Ait ‘Ammar (Ait Sgougou) and a graduate of the Collège in Azrou, intended as a linchpin of French Berber Policy, as well as of the Military Academy in Meknès, Ahardane (b. 1922) served with the French army in World War II and as caid of Oulmès from 1949 to 1953. As caid at the time of the king’s exile, he had refused to sign Hajj Thami Glawi’s petition of deposition. He was dismissed by the French for nationalist activity and became a commander of one of the units of the Moroccan Liberation Army. One of the founders of the Mouvement Populaire (1956-1957) and its secretary-general (1962-1963), Ahardane served as governor of Rabat Province from 1956 to 1958 and as minister of defense (1961-1964 and 1966-1967). From August 1964 to February 1966 he was minister of agriculture and agrarian reform. From 1967 to 1977, he remained in opposition to the government but in 1977 he served first as minister and then as secretary-general for posts and telecommunications. Ahizoune, Abdessalam. Born 1955 in Tiflet, Ahizoune is the director general of Maroc Telecom and a former minister. He pursued his primary and secondary education in Tiflet, Khémisset, and Kénitra and his higher education at the Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Télécommunications de Paris. He received a baccalauréat in Sciences Mathématiques in 1972 and a diplôme d’Ingénieur in 1977. Ahizoune started his professional life as an ingénieur des postes et télécommunications and served different positions in the office national des postes et des télécommunications. In 1983, he became the directeur

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akansûs, ‘abd allâh bn muHammad

des télécommunications in the ministry of postes et télécommunications. He was also put in charge of the development and implementation of the program of investments in telecommunications. In 1992, he was appointed minister of postes et des télécommunications in the government headed by Karim Lamrani. From 1993 to 1994, Ahizoune served as director general of the Office national des postes et des télécommunications. Ahizoune was also appointed as ministre des télécommunication from 1997 to 1998. Between 1997 and 2000, he served as président directeur général d’Ittisalat al-maghrib (Maroc Telecom). In February 2001, he became the president of Maroc Telecom. akansûs, ‘abd allâh bn muHammad. abû ‘abd allâh bn muHammad akansûs was born in the Sous in the ida u kensous tribe in 1211H (1796/7). At age 18 he went to Fès to complete his studies. He did brilliantly in lexicography, history, poetry, and literature and developed a knowledge of the occult sciences, which greatly enhanced his reputation. He remained a fervent adept of the tîjânîya order his whole life. Under mawlây sulaymân he served as secretary and minister, but he fell into disgrace and was even imprisoned when mawlây ‘abd alraHmân came to power in 1823. His major work of history, al-jaysh al-‘aramram al-khumâsî fidawlat awlâd mawlânâ ‘alî al-sijilmâsî (The uncountable five-part army in the nation of the descendants of mawlây ‘alî al-sijilmâsî), deals with the history of the ‘Alawite dynasty from its foundation to 1865. The history takes the nominal form of the description of an army (Muslim history) with an advance guard (sources of authority in Islam), a right wing (the eastern Islamic dynasties beginning with the Prophet), a left wing (the other western dynasties), the main army (the ‘Alawite dynasty), and a rear guard (a treatise on politics, the attributions of the monarch, and the high court functionaries). The focus being on the ‘Alawite dynasty, each sultan’s reign is briefly summarized under the form of a military standard in which the colors symbolize the general qualities of the reign: white for virtue, black for pride and despotism, red for courage and firm authority, yellow for preoccupation with pleasures, green for justice, and blue for injustice. This artificial structure does not intrude much beyond the level of introductory titles and remarks. The entire first half of the work is a scarcely referenced copy of al-ifrânî and al-zayyânî (though plagiarism in one form or another is normal in premodern Islamic history), but the second part, for which akansûs had no written sources, is thought to be his own composition. This latter half includes an annual chronicle of political events and the movement of sultans in the manner of al-zayyânî as well as observations about important people, events, and even the construction of public buildings. The period he lived through is also larded with his own poems and serves in part as a framework for contextualizing his poetry. When the work was released it caused considerable negative

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reaction in part because, in order to flatter the ‘Alawites, akansûs had relegated the Idrisids, among others, to minor significance and in part because it included demonstrable errors of detail, such as in the names of works by other scholars. akansûs was by all accounts a superlative poet, though the bulk takes the form of elegy, and he stands out in retrospect as an extraordinarily cultured and learned scholar as well as a good historian. al-‘alamî, ‘abd al-salâm. ‘abd al-salâm bn muHammad bn aHmad alHasanî al-‘alamî al-fâsî was born around 1834 and died in 1895 in Fès where he was born. He was a physician, astronomer, and mathematician whose works will be of interest to those concerned with the history of science in 19th-century Morocco. Of his many works, two at least should be mentioned: the first, dustûr abda‘ al-yawâqît ‘alâ taHrîr al-mawâqît (The most amazing rules for calculation of dates) discusses mathematics, algebra, geometry, natural sciences, geography, astronomy, and instrument design in addition to the calculation of dates. His medical learning is displayed in al-tabSira fî suhûlat al-intifâ‘ bi-mugharrabât al-tadhkira (The information for facilitating the use of the tadhkira [of al-anTâkî] by people of the Maghrib), which basically reorganizes the diseases listed by al-anTâkî by type of disease (rather than alphabetical order) to facilitate the use of the compendium. al-Alami, Driss Ben Omar (General). A graduate of the military academy in Meknès, al-Alami served in the French army in World War II and then in Indochina. He served as governor of Meknès Province (1956-1958), commandant of the Ahermoumou NCO School (1958-1960), chief of National Police (1960) and major general of the army in 1967. At the time of the coup manqué in 1971, he held the position of minister of posts and telecommunications and was instrumental in bringing loyal forces to the aid of Hassan II. al-‘alamî, muHammad bn al-Tayyib. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn alTayyib bn aHmad bn yûsuf bn aHmad al-‘alamî was born (probably) in Fès around 1688 and died in Cairo in 1721/2. His short life was by all accounts alternately hedonistic and ascetic and his poetry describes the pleasures of wine, gardens, and young boys. An author primarily of poetry, muHammad bn al-Tayyib al-‘alamî is of interest to historians primarily for his anthology of Maghribi writers, anîs al-muTrib fî man laqiyahu mu’allifûn min udabâ’ al-maghrib (The delightful companion for those who encounter cultured Maghribi writers). This work is very carefully researched and focuses on twelve contemporary writers giving extensive biographical information and numerous details on literary life toward the beginning of the 18th century. Alami, Mohamed Saad. Born in April 1948 in Chefchaouen, Alami received a Licence in Droit Public from the Faculté de Droit de Rabat,

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in 1967 and a Diplôme des Etudes Supérieures en journalisme from the National Institute of Journalism in Cairo in 1969. Following these degrees, he received a Certificat des Etudes Supérieures en sciences politiques from the Faculté de Droit in Rabat (1976) and a Certificat des Etudes Supérieures en relations internationales from the same faculty in 1978. Alami also occupied positions in youth organizations such as La Jeunesse scolaire and La Jeunesse istiqlalienne and the Union Générale des Etudiants du Maroc. In 1967, he was elected a member of the Conseil National of the istiqlâl, a member of its Comité Central and its Comité Exécutif in 1970, and was reelected in the congresses of 1982, 1989, and 1998. Alami was the personal secretary of ‘allâl al-fâsî from 1969 until his death in 1974. He founded al-hadaf revue in 1970 and was responsible for the page ‘Monde Islamique’ in Al Alam from 1969 to 1977. Alami was a founding member of the Ligue Marocaine de la Défense des Droits de l’Homme (1972), its secrétaire général adjoint (1972-1980) and its secrétaire général (1980-1986). A founding member of the Association Marocaine des juristes (1973) and member of its central bureau, Alami participated in the Marche Verte (1975) (see Green March). He was elected member of the Chamber of Representatives for Chefchaouen (3 June 1977) and reelected in 1977, 1983-1984, 1992-1993, and 1997 (serving as vice-president of the Chamber of Representatives from 1982 to 1997). He was elected president of the Commission des Affaires Sociales à la Chamber of Representatives (October 1977) and reelected to the same position (1977-1982). Alami served as vice president of the Conseil de l’Union Parlementaire Arabe (1984-1992) and of the Organisme Fédéral de l’Union Arabo-Africaine during the Union between the Kingdom of Morocco and Libya. Alami was elected in 1997 as member of the Chambre des Conseillers and reelected in September 2000. Alami has also been active in local municipal and regional government for the Chefchaouen region and Northern Morocco in general. In 2002, Mohamed Saad Alami became Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement. Alaoui, Ismaïl. Born in Salé in 1940, Alaoui did his secondary studies in Rabat and Kénitra before studying literature at Lycée Lyautey in Casablanca and Sciences Humaines at the Université Mohammed V in Rabat. He then went on to the Institut de Géographie at the Sorbonne. In 1965, Alaoui began teaching in the Faculté des lettres et des sciences humaines of Université Mohammed V, becoming professor in 1969. In 1962, Alaoui joined the Moroccan communist party (PCM) and was elected a member of its central committee in 1966. In 1979, he became a member of the political bureau of the Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme (PPS). Between 1984 and 1992, Alaoui was a deputy representing Beni Ahssen, and from 1993 to 1997 he was a deputy representing salaried workers and also headed the PPS parliamentary group called “Renouveau et progrès.” In 1997, Alaoui became a representative in the Chambre des représentants. When Ali Ya‘ta died

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(13 August 1997) the PPS needed a new leader and in September 1997 Alaoui was elected secrétaire général of the PPS. The emergence in July 1997 of a splinter group of the PPS, the Front des forces démocratiques (FFD), and Ali Ya‘ta’s death have put some strains on the PPS. Alaoui soon became ministre de l’éducation nationale (March 1998 to September 2000) and ministre de l’agriculture et du développement rural (September 2000 to November 2002). Alaoui, Moulay Ahmed [mûlây aHmad al-‘alawî]. Born in 1919 in Fès, Ahmed Alaoui studied at Moulay Idriss College in Fès, studied medicine in France, and was a key figure in student liberation movements during the colonial period. He went on to direct Mohammed V’s cabinet from Independence to the king’s death. He was a founding member of the Front pour la Défense des Institutions Constitutionnelles (FDIC). In 1963, he ran unsuccessfully for parliament from Fès Jdid but lost to a Parti istiqlâl (PI) candidate. A strong royalist, he was with Hassan II during the 1971/72 coup attempts. In the June 1977 elections, in which the parties close to the palace won a majority, Ahmed Alaoui won election as a deputy from Fès. He was also at various times, as a member of the Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI), appointed minister of information, minister of artisanat et des beaux-arts, minister of tourism, minister of industry and mines, and minister of promotion nationale. Ahmed Alaoui also held the position of minister of state without portfolio several times. He was the founding president of the Groupe Maroc Soir and in the early 1970s founded Le Matin, Le Soir, and then Le Matin du Sahara (the official daily of the government). Moulay Ahmed Alaoui died on 7 December 2002. Alaoui M’daghri, Abdelkebir. Born in 1942 in Meknès, Alaoui M’daghri is a former Ministre des Habous et des Affaires Islamiques. He studied at the Faculté de Droit, Faculté Chariâa, Faculté des Lettres, and Institut Dar al Hadith al Hassania. He obtained three B.A.s in Droit, Chariâa, and Lettres and a Doctorat d’état where he verified the work of abû bakr ibnu al-‘arabî, L’Abrogeant et l’Abrogé dans le Coran Sacré. Alaoui M’daghri taught at the Collège Impérial in Rabat and served as an enseignant-chercheur of the enseignement supérieur at the Faculté d’Achariâa in Fès. On 23 February 1984, Alaoui M’daghri was appointed by Hassan II as minister of Habous et des Affaires Islamiques. He also served as a member of the Conseil Consultatif des Droits de l’Homme and the Conseil des Oulémas de Fès et Régions. ‘Alawite (filâlî) dynasty. The sharifan descent of the ‘Alawite dynasty is traced back to al-Hasan, son of ‘alî and fâTima, through a brother (qâsim) of the ancestor claimed by the Sa‘dians (aHmad, whose son zaydân gives the Sa‘dians the rubric zaydânîs) whose descendents established the Sa‘dian dynasty. Both brothers are said to have entered Morocco toward the end of the 13th century. Tradition suggests that

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Alawite (filâlî) dynasty

qâsim arrived in the Tafilalt (hence the term filâlî for the dynasty) around the time that the ma‘qilian Arabs were beginning to conquer the west Saharan oases, and it is possible that both sharîfs came with the ma‘qilian migrations. In the 13th century the ‘Alawite sharîfs arrived in sijilmâsa, yet it was not until sijilmâsa came to be disputed between the dilâ’iya marabouts and abû al-Hasan al-samlâlî between 1631 and 1646 that ‘Alawite sharîfs came to the fore as political figures. mawlây al-sharîf stepped up to assert local interests. He was soon taken prisoner by abû al-Hasûn al-samlâlî (see sîdî ‘alî) during an attempted reprisal in 1636. As a sharîf, he was treated well and even given a black concubine, who gave birth to the future mawlây ismâ‘îl. In mawlây al-sharîf’s absence his sons assumed his position of leadership. maHammad al-sharîf drove the troops of abû al-Hasûn al-samlâlî out of sijilmâsa only to have the city soon reconquered by the dilâ’iya armies (1646). maHammad al-sharîf managed little beyond getting himself declared sultan in sijilmâsa and subduing a small amount of territory around the Tafilalt. His brother mawlây al-rashîd, following the father’s death in 1659, first conquered eastern Morocco as far west as Taza and then captured Fès (1666). After defeating the dilâ’ zâwiya he went on to capture Marrakech (1669) as well as the Sous including Iligh. He died in Marrakech (1672) having firmly established the dynasty that still leads Morocco. mawlây ismâ‘îl (1672-1727) carried out the work of consolidating the dynasty’s power. One expedient he had recourse to was to bring in ma‘qilian Arabs from the south and establish some groups as jaysh, including the jaysh al-udâya who were to play an important role in later years as well. A second expedient of sociological import was his establishment of a black army, the ‘abîd al-bukhârî, who took over control and caused a thirty-year period of anarchy on his death. mawlây ismâ‘îl was renowned for the harshness and cruelty of his punishments of criminals, and although in the short run this provided security throughout the realm, it is perhaps no coincidence that upon his death there was not an orderly transition. mawlây muHammad bn ‘abd allâh (1757-1790) brought the polity back under the more-thannominal control of the ‘Alawite dynasty, reorganized the army, again brought relative peace and prosperity, and established treaties with Spain, allowing it to keep Ceuta and Melilla. mawlay sulaymân (1792-1822), mawlây ‘abd al-raHmân bn Hishâm (1822-1859), mawlây muHammad bn ‘abd al-raHmân (1859-1873), and mawlây al-Hasan (1873-1894) brought Morocco to the eve of the French conquest in relatively good shape, with the latter instituting a major tax reform. The following period through the early protectorate (the reigns of mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz, mawlây HâfiZ, and mawlây yûsuf bn al-Hasan) brought little glory to the dynasty. mawlây muHammad bn yûsuf/Mohammed V (1927-1961) became a hero of the independence movement, largely through his inspirational role as sultan in exile, and his son mawlây al-Hasan al-thânî/Hassan II

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(1961-1999) had the dubious honor of reigning as king in a world that by and large no longer subscribed to the idea of hereditary heads of state. His heir, Mohammed VI (1999-present), has set energetically about reforming and modernizing the state. Algeciras, Conference of. The Conference of Algeciras (16 January-7 April 1906) was attended by representatives of the same countries as the Madrid Conference on Morocco with the single addition of Russia, which had signed the Madrid Convention in 1881. The explicit intent of the conference was to discuss the “Morocco Question,” which entailed slightly different things for each country. Superficially, the final outcome of the conference was the Act of Algeciras, which recognized the sovereignty of the sultan and the integrity of Moroccan territory. The real import of the conference was quite different. Since 1901, Great Britain seemed to have concluded that a French conquest of Morocco was virtually inevitable and by 1903 was seriously engaged in negotiations with France to assure future respect of existing trade treaties. After a couple of years of discussions, France and Great Britain issued a Declaration of 8 April 1904, generally referred to as the Entente Cordiale (or Cambon-Lansdowne agreement), in which France agreed to respect past commercial treaties with Morocco for thirty years and agreed to negotiate with Spain over the issue of the area to be reserved for Spain, in return for giving Great Britain a free hand in Egypt. On 3 October 1904 Spain and France reached agreement over their respective zones of influence. News that Great Britain was adopting a hands-off position reached Morocco early in 1904 and gave rise to great concern and a request on 30 May 1905, repeated on 26 November, for a conference to discuss Morocco’s sovereignty. The news was particularly distressing because it meant that the makhzan could no longer play one power off against another and the implications were clear to all (Burke 1976:72). Internally, Morocco had serious financial difficulties tied to its need, given the international pressures it confronted, to modernize its military. This had significant implications in terms of needs for new sources of revenue in the form of taxes or loans from foreign powers and consequent problems with the government’s legitimacy at home. The resulting conference in Algeciras, although nominally affirming Morocco’s sovereignty, provided the basis for the future colonization and partition of Morocco. The conference culminated with the Acte Général signed on 7 April 1906, which focused primarily on safeguarding French rights in North Africa. From the French perspective, France as the government of Algeria had the right to see that any Moroccan government posed no threat to its control of Algeria (Parsons 1976:533). Article 60 granted foreigners the right to own land in Morocco. Virtually all Moroccan suggestions at the conference were ignored. Some provisions were included to help the makhzan control arms smuggling, but control was put under the joint control of Spain and Morocco or France and Morocco, in each respective zone of

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influence. This effectively tied the makhzan’s control of rebels to cooperation with the European powers (Laroui 1992:76). The conference also agreed on the need to increase makhzan resources, and to this end it allowed customs duties on imports to be raised to 12.5 percent ad valorem, acknowledged the right of the makhzan to benefit from a monopoly on tobacco, and provided for the imposition of a tartîb, in this case a direct tax, on exports by foreigners to be implemented by the consuls as soon as the tartîb was imposed regularly by the makhzan on Moroccan subjects. The conference also decided to create a Banque d’Etat du Maroc (Moroccan State Bank) to be funded initially at the level of 15,400,000 francs to be contributed by the twelve European signatories of the Act of Algeciras, though France was to have two shares in the bank to the other signatories’ single shares. The first task of the bank would be to fund a police force for the port cities. This measure had to be carefully negotiated because although it might be clear who would organize the police on the Algerian-Moroccan border, it was less clear in the port cities. Although Morocco’s delegate Mhammed Torres refused to sign it, the sultan was pressured into accepting the Acte Général on 18 June 1906. Although it would be six years before a protectorate was established, the conference in Algeciras clearly constituted an agreement based on the assumption of an imminent protectorate wherein most powers were merely holding out for last minute concessions they hoped to wring from the French while the French and Spanish hoped to minimize the concessions they would soon be forced to make. See also Tétouan War of 1859-1860, Tangier Convention, and Protection/Himâya. Algeria. Since 1956, Morocco’s relations with Algeria have been complex. The frontier between the two states has officially remained undefined because Morocco has held the view that much of Algeria was carved out of Morocco by the French in the 19th century when they held Algeria but Morocco remained independent. Similar claims with regard to Spain justify Morocco’s current claims to the former Western Sahara. During the Algerian resistance to French occupation in the mid 19th century, ‘abd al-qâdir sought refuge in Morocco where he was viewed as a hero, but eventually he was turned over to the French. Later during the Algerian revolution, French influence in Morocco prevented any major help to Algeria. Algeria’s support for the Polisario has been viewed, by cynics, to be primarily based on the desire to not allow Morocco a major monopoly over traded phosphates because this would give them a similar bargaining position vis-à-vis the European Union to that its natural gas reserves give Algeria. It is possible that residual resentments have contributed to the Algerian position. Morocco has traditionally viewed Algeria with some disdain because it was conquered by the Ottomans while Morocco was not, because it fell to the French in 1844, and because until its own

‘alî, sîdî, of Tazerwalt

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independence it facilitated the French conquest of Morocco. Algeria’s leftist revolution against France was much admired by leftists in Morocco and for a time Algeria even sustained leftist revolutionaries plotting the overthrow of the Moroccan monarchy. In the end, the Algerian government assisted the Moroccan government in capturing the major members of the leftist movements for geopolitical reasons rather than ideological ones. Major strains in the relationship developed after Francisco Franco’s death as Morocco developed its claims to the Spanish/Western Sahara (see Green March) and Algeria supported the Polisario. Algeria’s own new revolutionaries have been Islamist ones opposed to the socialist government, and as they have pursued their cause with increasing violence they have both elicited sympathy among elements in Morocco and cooperated with Islamist elements in Morocco and Europe to foment radical change. This activity has particularly heightened tensions in North Africa but has led to some rapprochement between the two states, which now to some extent see themselves as facing a common opponent. Algeria along with Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania make up the Arab Maghrib Union. ‘alî, sîdî, of Tazerwalt. sîdî ‘alî u muHammad u muHammad u Hamad aljazûlî al-samlâlî (often referred to as abû al-Hassûn or abû dumay‘a or al-murâbiT by Arab historians or as the Saint of Massa, the Marabout of Iligh, and the Saint of Sainte-Croix (Agadir) by Europeans of the time), the great grandson of sîdî aHmad u mûsâ, became the head of the zâwiya in the Tazerwalt in 1613 and died in 1659. This period was one of considerable weakness for the Sa’dian sultans and this gave sîdî ‘alî the opportunity to take advantage of that weakness to greatly expand the zâwiya’s role in the south until at one point he controlled from sijilmâsa to the Atlantic and had both access to the sea, to buy European arms, and complete control of the Western Saharan trade routes. With the death of sîdî yaHya u ‘abd allâh in Taroudannt (4 March 1626), sîdî ‘alî had no rival in the south and occupied Taroudannt thus controlling the entire Sous with the exception of Agadir. sîdî ‘alî agreed to leave Agadir in mawlây zidân’s hands in exchange for a sum of money, which was in part paid when Agadir was turned over, but the sultan’s refusal to pay the remainder turned sîdî ‘alî into an enemy. With the death of sîdî yaHya, the Draa and the areas west of Tafilalt (his traditional areas of control) became available and sîdî ‘alî wasted little time taking over both areas, even establishing his residence in sijilmâsa from 1626 to 1629 and establishing full control of the Western Saharan trade by 1631. By 1640 sîdî ‘alî, however, had so many troubles in the Sous that he was forced to abandon the Tafilalt and the Draa. Around 1625, sîdî ‘alî had the town of Iligh constructed as his capital. sîdî ‘alî entered into relations with foreign powers, most notably the Dutch and British, and in many respects ruled as a

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competitor to the Sa‘dian sultans of his time. The other main figures at this time, other than the Sa‘dian sultans, were the dilâ’ zâwiya and mawlây ‘alî al-sharîf, the founder of the future ‘Alawite dynasty, the former briefly contesting for power in sijilmâsa and the latter founding an empire beginning with sijilmâsa, where he was first formally recognized as in charge in 1630. sîdî ‘alî captured mawlây ‘alî al-sharîf (1634) in riposte for the capture of Tabu‘samt, a qSar (walled citadel) captured by the latter’s son maHammad bn al-sharîf (from the dilâ’ites), and only liberated mawlây ‘alî al-sharîf in 1639 in return for a hefty ransom. This action both left maHammad bn al-sharîf in charge of the filâlî future and led to the permanent rupture between the rising ‘Alawite power in the Tafilalt and sîdî ‘alî. sîdî ‘alî’s power was at its height from 1641 to 1651 in terms of economic power, but by 1651 the saints of dilâ’ and the filâlî dynasty began to eclipse the prestige of sîdî ‘alî, and the latter’s death in 1659 followed eight years of significantly declining influence. Unlike his ancestor sîdî aHmad u mûsâ, the reputation of sîdî ‘alî seems to have been almost entirely based on worldly success. The accounts of his personality seem to concur that he was ambitious to the point of being unwilling to compromise, revengeful, and even exceptionally cruel compared to his peers at the time (Jacques-Meunié 1982:650-656, 666ff). Recent heads of the zâwiya in Tazerwalt claim to be both qâdirî and darqâwî in their outlook, in addition to having linkages to aljazûlî. Alioua, Khalid. Born in 1949 in Rabat, Alioua received diplomas in sociologie politique, études politiques and études comptables supérieures from Paris as well as a licence in English. Alioua joined the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP) in 1968 and became responsible for UNFP for Western Europe in 1972. From 1975, Alioua had a key role in shaping the policies of the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP) and was put in charge of international relations at the sixth congress of the party. He helped produce the USFP newspaper, Al Ittihad Al Ichtiraki. Alioua served as director of the cabinet of Abderrahim Bouabid in the transitional government (1983-1984). Between 1992 and 1997, Alioua served as president of the Conseil Préfectoral de Rabat and deputy in parliament from 1992 to 1997. From March 1998 to September 1999, Alioua was minister of Développement Social, de la Solidarité, de l’Emploi et de la Formation Professionnelle and Porte-parole for the government. Appointed minister of higher education and scientific research in 2003, Alioua has been a member of the research network affiliated with Centre National pour la Recherche Scientifique (Paris) and has lectured in many American universities. Alliance Israelite Universelle. This organization was founded in Paris in 1860 with the intent of improving the status of Jews around the world. Beginning with the founding of a school for boys in Tanger in 1862 it

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began to invest in improving the condition of Jews in Morocco. Schools were established in the main port cities that gave instruction in French and Hebrew for a range of traditional and modern subjects. The AIU began to have influence in Moroccan Jewish communities by 1880 as these communities adopted the more liberal agenda pushed by the AIU. The AIU’s library and archives in Paris provide ample documentation of these benevolent activities (Laskier 1983a). Almohad dynasty [al-muwaHHidûn]. After the death of ibn tûmart in August 1130, ‘abd al-mu’min led the Almohads, centered at Tinmal, to conquer the mountains, first the Atlas and then the Rif, before attempting to challenge the Almoravids on the central plains where their cavalry had its greatest advantage. With each conquest the Almohads gained in support so that they confronted the Almoravid sultan tashfîn bn ‘alî, who was assisted by Christian troops, with superior force near Tlemcen, and the sultan’s fortuitous death (1145), falling on horse from a precipice, meant the subsequent conquest of the central towns of Morocco would be relatively unproblematic. Fès fell in 1146 and Marrakech, which became the Almohad capital, in 1147. The Almohads organized their supporters into twenty-one tribes, each divided into two factions with a head (mizwâr, an Arabized form of Berber amswaru). The two faction leaders for each tribe represented those subgroups who had joined early and those who had joined late. Before completing his consolidation of the Maghrib, ‘abd almu’min had to rescue Cordova from the attack of the Castilian king Alfonso VII and in the process took over the part of western Andalusia which had declared its independence from the Almoravids. At its greatest extent around 1172, the Almohad empire reached from the Atlantic to Tripolitania and from Islamic Spain to the western Sahel. ‘abd al-mu’min assumed the title of amîr al-mu’minîn and was able to assure the succession of his descendants before his death in 1163. This was by no means easy since his own tribe, the kumya, were not part of the initial maSmûda supporters of ibn tûmart, and the core supporters were distinguished as Almohads, given the honorary title of sayyid, and given preferential treatment in terms of appointments and taxation. The Almohad government maintained the ruling council set up by ibn tûmart until its end but did not consistently promote ibn tûmart’s doctrines. Under abû ya‘qûb the Andalusians abû bakr ibn tufayl (Abubacer) and ibn rushd (Averroes) resided in Marrakech as the sultan’s advisors and physicians and disseminated a much less narrow mix of science and philosophy. The Almohads also financed the construction of splendid architecture such as the Kutubîya mosque in Marrakech and various structures still visible in Rabat and Sous. Toward the end of the Almohad era, the Almohads were discredited as the true heirs of ibn tûmart when the sultan al-ma‘mûn both repudiated Almohad doctrine (1229) and relied on Christian allies in Andalusia to assume power in Marrakech.

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Almoravid dynasty

The Hafsids in Tunisia, whose leader abû hafs ‘umar had given ibn tûmart shelter from the Almoravids and whose family had consequently maintained high standing in the Almohad empire, quickly assumed the mantle of heirs to ibn tûmart under abû hafs ‘umar’s descendants; his son ‘abd al-wâHid had been appointed governor for Ifriqiya in 1207 and ruled until 1221. Thereupon the Hafsid heirs gradually gained autonomy from the Almohad state until abû zakarîya yaHyâ took over in 1228 and soon found a justification for refusing to obey directives from Marrakech. Although the Almohad dynasty lasted in Marrakech until 1269, it was in control of a smaller and smaller fraction of its empire following the Almohad defeat in Spain at the battle of Las Navas de Toloso (1212), the independence of the Hafsids after 1229, and the success of the Marinids in northern Morocco in 1245. The Almohad state was the last to control anything approaching the entire Maghrib; later Muslim states in the Maghrib were all distinctly less successful in their territorial ambitions. Almoravid dynasty [al-murâbiTûn]. By the 11th century, the Western Sahara had begun to gain importance, first because several centuries of conflict between the various Umayyad and Fatimid supported principalities had begun to weaken the sijilmâsa-Tlemcen trade axis and strengthen the western route near the Atlantic as well as the eastern route into Ifriqiya/Libya, and second because the same centuries of conflict had spread Islam both into the northern pre-Sahara belt and from there into the Sahara. The same period had been rife with sectarian disputes and population movements crowned by the development of the Idrisid, barghawâTa, and maghrâwa dynasties in the western Maghrib. Although a sophisticated sunni Islam was yet to develop in the Maghrib, a jurist named jawhar bn sakkum of the western confederation of the SanHâja/znâga (which included among others the gudâla and the lamTûna), after a pilgrimage east, stopped in qayrawân (Tunisia) where he met a certain abû ‘imrân al-ghafjûmî and enquired about the possibility of having someone sent to the Western Sahara to help improve the level of Islamic practice there (a version of the story has yaHyâ bn ibrâhîm al-gudâlî as the primary figure returning from pilgrimage). Although abû ‘imrân al-ghafjûmî had no one to send he suggested that jawhar bn sakkum should stop at the dâr al-murâbiTîn of wajâj bn zalwî al-lamTî, which was located in the Sous. There jawhar bn sakkum repeated his request and was given ‘abd allâh ibn yâsîn al-jazûlî, a sûsî Berber to accompany him. They soon arrived at the locales of jawhar bn sakkum’s confederation headed by yaHyâ bn ibrâhîm al-gudâlî. Fairly soon, ‘abd allâh bn yâsîn fell out with the gudâla and took up with the lamTûna. The geographical location of ‘abd allâh ibn yâsîn’s subsequent inspirational work is confused by legend (variously said to be near the mouth of the Senegal, on the coast near Nouakchott, or simply in a low lying forested area), but what is consistently reported is that ‘abd allâh bn yâsîn taught a

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strict form of almost puritanical mâlikism and that he inspired a group of followers who ended up not only studying Islam but also planning strategy for the implementation of a renewed Islamic society. The new society was to be renewed both in the sense that Islam would be renewed and in the sense that the political movement would emulate the form of the early years of Islam, since this was understood to be the (only) way to renew Islam (Laroui 1977:161 n. 6). The term almurâbiTûn most likely comes from the dâr al-murâbiTîn where ‘abd allâh bn yâsîn was taught, even though that center of learning was devoted only to study, not conquest. Soon ‘abd allâh bn yâsîn’s al-murâbiTûn reestablished ties between the members of the lamTûna confederation (consisting of the western SanHâja groups lamTûna, gudâla, and lamTa plus segments of the jazûla and maSmûda groups) and they began taking control of the Western Saharan trade routes. sijilmâsa was captured from the maghrâwa in 1053 and then recaptured in 1056 after a revolt. Awdaghost fell to the Almoravids in 1054. Then the army led by abû bakr bn ‘umar, with yûsuf bn tâshafîn second in command, conquered Taroudannt, Massa, and Tadla. In aghmât, abû bakr bn ‘umar married zaynab al-nafzâwîya, a woman renowned for her beauty and power who was considered variously an extraordinary soothsayer and a powerful witch. Although initial attempts to conquer the barghawâTa kingdom were unsuccessful, it did succumb in 1059. Fès fell in 1069 and over the next ten years so did Taza, Guercif, Oujda, Tlemcen, and Oran. By the beginning of the 12th century a vast area from the Western Sahara to the Mediterranean, including Islamic Spain centered around Seville, and including the kingdom of barghawâTa, was under Almoravid control. This control was however divided into three fairly distinct parts: the Western Sahara controlled by heirs to abû bakr bn ‘umar, the western Maghrib where yûsuf bn tâshafîn had firmly established power with the aid of zaynab who had been divorced by abû bakr bn ‘umar when he returned to the Sahara, and Islamic Spain where, by 1110, Almoravid viceroys ruled in Seville and Granada. The Spanish part, with its concomitant need for military resources spent fruitlessly in a holding pattern against Christian Spain and Portugal, put continual pressure on Almoravid resources necessitating the very noncanonical taxes the Almoravids had promised to eliminate when coming to power and so, ironically, jeopardizing the dynasty’s religious reputation. After his conquest of Islamic Spain, and a decision by jurists in the west ratified by jurists in the east, yûsuf bn tâshafîn assumed the title amîr al-muslimîn, created for the occasion since that of amîr almu’minîn had been discredited by several centuries of disputes between kharijite and shi‘ite factions. The Almoravid dynasty maintained its hold on most of North Africa for about a century until it finally succumbed to the Almohads around 1145-1146. Almoravid succession struggles placed preeminence on uterine kinship, as had

34

Amalou, Abderrahman

been the case among the SanHâja, and viewed agnatic ties to the reigning sovereign as less important. This obvious cause for attempted coups d’état was diminished through an assiduous policy of rotating and regularly dismissing governors so that potential disputants found it difficult to establish a strong support base. This feature itself may have contributed to the early demise of the dynasty at the hands of the Almohads. Although the Almoravid state in the Maghrib ended around 1146, a small branch of the Almoravids, the ghânîya, held out first in the Balearic Islands and then as rebels travelling through Algeria, Tunisia, and even Libya, succumbing completely only in 1237 when the last scion, yaHyâ bn ghâniya, died. The descendents of the Almoravids in the Western Sahara, the îdaw ‘îsh, achieved a degree of independence in the Mauritanian Adrar in the 19th century but have since given up the znâga Berber they used to speak and adopted the Arabic of the banû Hasan. Amalou, Abderrahman. Born on 6 April 1938 in Marrakech, Amalou, a former minister and a member of parliament, is also a university professor. He pursued his primary and secondary education at the lycées of Marrakech and his higher education at the University of Mohammed V in Rabat at the Faculté de Droit. Amalou has a baccalauréat in philosophy, licence ès-Droit, diplôme d’Etudes Supérieures ès-Sciences Politiques, and a Doctorat d’Etat ès-Droit Public. Amalou is a founding member of the Union Constitutionnelle (UC) (1983). He was elected for the circonscription of El Méchouar in Casablanca. During his political career, Amalou served as a member of Conseil Constitutionnel (1994), minister of justice (1995), minister for human rights (1996), and member of the Chamber of Representatives (1997-2002). As an educator, Amalou served as an assistant at the Faculté de Droit (1965), maître de conférences (1968) and professeur titulaire (1994). Amalou was also the secrétaire général (sud) of the Union Nationale des Etudiants Marocains (UNEM), secrétaire général of SNE-SUP in Casablanca, member of the Association Française des Constitutionnalistes since 1982, and a member of the Union Marocaine du Travail (UMT) since the 1950s. Amalou has published many articles on constitutional law, nationalism, and the parliamentary movement in Morocco. He also published the Manuel de droit constitutionnel (1973, 1975, 1977, 1996, 1997). Amar, Ali. Born on 2 April 1967 in Rabat, Amar studied at the Lycée Descartes in Rabat and Université Mohammed V in Rabat. He received a BA in Sciences Economiques with a focus on international economic relations. Amar served as a journalist at Vie Economique between 1996 and 1997. In 1997, he joined Le Journal as editor in chief. After the newspaper was banned by the Moroccan government and emerged as Le Journal hebdomadaire, Amar continued as directeur général of the

Amine, Abdelhamid

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newspaper. Amar has also been the directeur général of the Média Trust since 1998. Amar worked for WafaBank between 1990 and 1995. Ameskane, Essaid. Born in 1943 in the region of Ouarzazate, Ameskane pursued his primary studies in Ouarzazate and his secondary education in Marrakech. Ameskane is a topographer by training. He started his own bureau d’études. In 1976, he was named chef de service de la topographie à la conservation foncière in Marrakech. He was elected deputy to the Chambre des représentants in 1977. In 1984, he directed the Groupe de l’authenticité et de la justice sociale. Since 1984, he headed the Conseil régional de Ouarzazate. In 1995, Ameskane was named Ministre des transports by Hassan II. As a member of the political party Mouvement Populaire and its president within the parliament, he participated in different regional and international meetings (1997-2002). Amharache, General Mustafa. One of the rebel commanders who participated in the coup manqué, at the time Amharache (1923-1971) was director of Moroccan military training schools and had served in numerous military posts with distinction. Of Beni Mtir origin, he was executed on 13 July 1971. Amine, Abdelhamid. Born in Tissa, Taounate in 1944, Amine was trained as an agricultural engineer (Institut national d’agriculture de Paris in 1969) and then went on to get a diploma in Génie rural (1970) before returning to Morocco. He was appointed to direct the Service de l’équipement of the regional development office for the Gharb. In less than two years he was arrested and when released he took a job in the central administration of the Ministry of Agriculture. Amine had belonged to Union Nationale des Etudiants Marocains (UNEM) and began to work for Union Marocaine du Travail (UMT). Amine was arrested in May 1972 along with many leftists (for, among other things, membership in a secret organization named ilâ al-amâm) and was condemned to fifteen years in prison, but he was freed from the Kénitra prison in August 1984. In the late 1980s, Amine became secrétaire général de la Fédération nationale de l’agriculture, an affiliate of the UMT, and then was soon elected as honorary president. ilâ al-amâm in some sense could be said to have later morphed into al-nahj al-dimuqrâTî (the democratic path). Amine began in the early 1990s to revive the Association marocaine des droits de l’homme (AMDH) and by 1994 was elected vice president. On 9 December 2000, Amine and other leaders of AMDH (including Benameur) were arrested for public protestation without permission. Amine has now replaced Abderrahmane Benameur as president of the AMDH.

36

al-‘amrawî, idrîs bn muHammad

al-‘amrawî, idrîs bn muHammad. idrîs bn muHammad al-‘amrawî, the son of the splendid poet muHammad ibn idrîs al-‘amrawî (1794-1847), was also a vizier (serving as minister for foreign affairs and at times as interior minister as well under mawlây ‘abd al-raHmân) but unlike his father he made a pilgrimage and served as ambassador first to Paris and then to Spain. He died of plague on 5 June 1879. His account of his trip to Paris (in 1859), tuHfat al-malik al-‘azîz bi-mamalakat bârîz, includes careful notes on customs, social and political institutions, and even the countryside. In his official letters as vizier, idrîs bn muHammad al-‘amrawî also displays a real awareness of the world in which he lives, including a concern for the corruption of his time. His primary reputation, however, still rests on his poetry, which is considered as brilliant as that of his father. The latter wrote a commentary on a poem about the Fès rebellion by al-zayânî that is of some historical importance: nafHat al-araj wa-muqaddima al-faraj fî sharH al-Hâl wa-l-shakwâ. Andalusia. The Arabic term for the Muslim areas of the Iberian peninsula, al-andalus, derives its name from the name given to the Vandals (alandalîsh) who controlled much of the region in the early 5th century A.D. The conquest of Andalusia formally began in April or May of 711 when Târiq bn ziyâd landed in Gibraltar (the name derives from the Arabic, jabal Târiq or Mount Târiq). The ruling Visigoth kings were quickly defeated and most of the major cities had fallen by 713. At its greatest extent, al-andalus covered approximately two thirds of the Iberian peninsula. Even when the Muslims were reduced to holding only the naSrid kingdom of Granada (1248-1492), this remaining Muslim area was still referred to as al-andalus. The first recorded use of the term dates from a bilingual (Latin/Arabic) dinâr of 716 (98H), which on the Latin side translates al-andalus as “Spania.” By the era of the Almoravids, Muslim Spain had become a series of disputing monarchs. yûsuf bn tâshafîn lost patience with their request for aid against the Christians and deposed most of them and annexed their territory to the Almoravid empire. By 1248, after the Almohads had declined, Andalusia was reduced to the state of Granada as the Reconquista took hold in Spain. Granada finally fell to the monarchs of Aragon and Castille on 3 January 1492. The Reconquista motivated an emigration of sizable proportions from the 13th century to the late 15th century when it swelled to a true diaspora of Muslims and Jews who largely settled in North Africa (Ferdinand of Aragon began the Inquisition in 1479 and the Jews were expelled in 1492). Anglo-Moroccan Commercial Treaty. This commercial treaty (9 December 1856) became the model for subsequent bilateral treaties reached by other countries. The thirty-eight-article treaty (ratified on 7 April 1857 but signed 9 December 1856) was the result of efforts by the British minister in Tanger, Sir John Drummond Hay, to support

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British trade and protect British subjects in Morocco. The driving motivation was the war in Crimea, in which England and France were allies against Russia, and the consequent European need for imports of grains and wool. The treaty obtained obliged the Moroccan government to provide or construct premises for foreign merchants; in the former case the merchants would pay the going rent and in the latter the payments would amount to 6 percent of construction costs per annum. At the same time, British subjects and their agents escaped in large measure from the legal jurisdiction of the makhzan. The treaty also abolished monopolies on imports with the exception of tobacco, opium, firearms, and a few speciality items. The treaty established duties at 10 percent ad valorem, roughly the de facto rate at the time, though rates on exports, which were quite varied, but may have averaged close to 10 percent on total value of exports, remained unchanged. The sultan was also allowed to prohibit the export of products at his discretion so long as British nationals who had already accumulated stores of the items could export their current stock. All additional taxes, such as gate or market taxes, were to be waived for British merchants. This final provision led to serious abuses during the rest of the century because it provided an enormous incentive for traders to either acquire British (or later any foreign) citizenship or agent status and failing this to slip goods through city gates or markets under the guise of foreign ownership. In short, the treaty opened Morocco to foreign trade and the influence of foreign interests perhaps more completely than might have been desired in retrospect (Parliamentary Papers, 1857, XVIII:43-64; bin manSûr 1976 vol.II:157-192). Anonymous of Fès. This is an anonymous text (1653-1730) used by alifrânî as one of his principal sources in his discussions of events in Fès. It is largely a diatribe against the Sa‘dian dynasty. LeviProvençal (1922:131-140) assigns to the text a date after 1653-1654 and before 1729-1730, the probable date for al-ifrânî’s nuzhat al-Hâdî, which cites the manuscript. This makes it the earliest historical account available for the Sa‘dian dynasty. The account begins with mawlây muHammad al-shaykh and ends with mawlây muHammad al-shaykh al-saghîr (1544-1655). The text is more important as a history of Fès than as a history of the Sa‘dian dynasty, and the last four sultans covered are done so quite summarily. The author clearly is very familiar with Fès and gives details about personages and the toponymy of Fès that are quite rare for historical accounts. The text is also unusual in not being an elegy but rather a critical, even disdainful, account of the Sa‘dian dynasty. Levi-Provençal notes that even after recounting the successful conquest of the Sudan by almanSûr the author concludes “the ulamâ’ and caids congratulated the sultan for having caused the murder of innumerable Muslims” (1922:138). It is worth remarking that the probable period of authorship would make it possible the author was sympathetic to the

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Aouad, Abdelhamid

dilâ’ zâwiya, which had contested Sa‘dian power from 1651 to 1668, and whose scholars were moved to Fès after the destruction of the zâwiya but who, though they could be expected to be critical, might have been reluctant to put their names on a critique of the Sa‘dian dynasty or include an account of the zâwiya’s destruction. Aouad, Abdelhamid. Born on 27 February 1938 in Khemisset, Aouad, who served as minister of economic forecasting and planning (la prévision économique et du plan), received his primary education in Khemisset and secondary education in Rabat. He received a licence ès-Sciences économiques (1961), DEA ès Economie du Développement, DES ès-Sciences politiques (option: organization politique, administrative et sociale) and Doctorat d’Etat ès-Sciences Economiques from the Université de Paris (France) in 1978. From 1961 to 1967, Aouad served as chargé d’études at the Ministère de l’économie et des finances and at the Haut Commissariat à la promotion nationale et au plan. He became chef-adjoint at the service des études économiques et du plan in 1966. From 1967 to 1974, he was called by ‘allâl al-fâsî (see al-fâsˆs, muHammad ‘allâl), to help him as director of the company Arrisala and editor for the daily newspapers Al-Alam and Opinion. From 1970 to 1984, he became director of l’Opinion. From 1979 to 1998, he taught economics at the Université Mohammed V in Rabat. Aouad was elected a member of the conseil national of the istiqlâl party in 1961 and a member of the executive committee of the istiqlâl (1974, 1982, 1989, and 1998). Aouad has been vice president of the association des économistes marocains, a member of the Jury du prix du Maroc for ten years, and a member of the scientific board of the Fondation ‘allâl al-fâsî. Aourid, Hassan. Born on 24 December 1962 in Errachidia, Aourid studied at the Collège Royal in Rabat where he received his baccaluaréat and continued his higher education at the Université Mohammed V where he received a licence in Droit public, diplôme des études supérieures, and a Doctorat d’état en Sciences politiques. A Berber and a son of a teacher, Aourid specializes in Berberism and Islamism. Aourid was appointed as spokesman for the royal palace in August 1999. He is the creator of the Centre Tarik ibn Zyad in Rabat, which works mainly on the theme of tradition and modernity. Aourid also served for a number of years as a Moroccan diplomat in the United States where he held the portfolio of Conseiller politique in the Moroccan Embassy (1992-1995). He also served as chargé d’études in the ministry of foreign affairs (1988-1992). Aourid taught at Ecole Nationale d’Administration (ENA) and the Faculté des Sciences juridiques de Rabat-Souissi from 1995 to 1999. Aourid became governor of Meknès and wali of Meknès-Tafilalet region in 2005. aqqa (also akka). A major oasis south of the Anti-Atlas, the name aqqa, which means the pit of a fruit such as a date, refers to the valley of

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palm groves that opens at the mouth of ouad aqqa, one of the tributaries of the Draa river. aqqa is an aggregate of ten multiethnic qSûr (i.e., tagâdirt, tawrirt, raHHala, zâwia, al-qaSba, agâdîr uzrû, alkbaba, ait-jallâl, ait bu fdayl, and ait ‘anTar). Traditionally, it was under the control of the ait mrâbaT, the largest tribe in the oasis (de Foucauld 1888). Today, it is one of the main communes of the province of Tata with a population of around 14,000 people. It borders the communes of issafan (to the north); fum laHsan (to the west); TaTa (to the east) and the Draa (to the south). Jewish narratives talk about Jewish settlements from the sixth century B.C. and of the city of Vaqqa near the Draa (Jacques-Meunié 1982) but no firm evidence of such an ancient city exists. Some historians maintain that the oasis was populated in the 12th century A.D. and that it became important after the break-up of the Idrisid city of Tamdult in the 14th century (al-sûsî 1966; Rosenberger 1970). aqqa is the home of one of the oldest zâwiya in the Anti-Atlas, which was founded by a disciple of al-jazûlî (de Foucauld 1888). muHammad bn mbark al-aqqâwî (died 1518/924) founded the zawiya in aqqa (Meunié 1982). His son ‘abd allah bn mbark al-aqqâwî (died 1563/971) retreated to the foot of the mountain and his home became the village of agadir uzru. al-Hasan al-wazzânî describes these villages and the feuds between their populations during the 16th century before ‘abd allah restored peace between the different fractions. ‘abd allah bn mbark al-aqqâwî was one of the main supporters of the Sa‘dian dynasty (see al-tamanartî’s al-fâwâ’id al-jamma). The rise of the Sa‘dians to power was greatly facilitated by an alliance with the zâwiya of aqqa to fight the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Wattasids (1399-1554). Until the 19th century, aqqa remained one of the main caravan ports linking sub-Saharan Africa and Northern Morocco (Schroeter 1989). After the collapse of the Sa‘dian dynasty aqqa, came under the control of Hassûn al-samlâlî who controlled Tafilalt and the Sudan until he was defeated by al-rashîd bn al-sharîf al-‘alawî. The Jewish and Muslim merchants of aqqa negotiated extensive commercial networks between Iligh, Ifrane, Essaouira, and other rural and urban centers (Ennaji and Pascon 1988). The French were not able to control the region until 1934 when they established the current commune. Arab League. In 1942, the British began to promote an organization to bring unity to the Arab world, and in September-October 1944 representatives from seven countries (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, North Yeman, Saudi Arabia, Transjordan, and Palestine) met in Alexandria and agreed to form the League of Arab States. On 22 March 1945, at a meeting in Cairo, the agreement was ratified, and in the years that followed many additonal states joined the Arab League. Libya joined the Arab League in 1953, Morocco joined in 1958 along with Tunisia, Algeria joined in 1962, and Mauritania joined in 1973. There are currently twenty-one member states including in addition Sudan,

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Arab Maghrib Union

Djibouti, Somalia, Comoros, Jordan (replacing Transjordan), Syria, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yeman (after North and South Yeman were unified). The Arab League charter clearly specifies that all member states are represented on the council and each have one vote and that the decisions of the counil are binding only on those states that vote in favor of them. The Arab League is headed by a secretary general and also serves as the headquarters of seventeen trade unions. The headquarters are in Cairo. Arab Maghrib Union (AMU/Union Maghreb Arabe, UMA). The AMU was founded in Marrakech in 1989 primarily as an organization for cultural and economic cooperation between Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania. The Union fell into abeyance around 1995. An attempt was made to revive it in 1999 but met with resistance from Algeria. The AMU was finally resuscitated at a meeting in Alger (14 May 2001) and has met regularly since then. The AMU has received funds from the International Development Bank to fight desertification and has worked since to develop a center for the fight against drought. Morocco ratified the creation of a Banque Maghrebine d’Investissement et du Commerce Extérieur (26 April 2002); one of the key efforts of the AMU has been to coordinate fiscal policies within the five countries and to promote investments in the AMU countries. Although the primary current activities of the union are economic, article 15 of the charter commits the members not to support any organization in their territory that threatens the security, territorial integrity, or political system of another member state. From the Moroccan perspective, this article may be relevant should hostilities with the Polisario break out again. Archane, Mahmoud. Born in 1939 in Tiflet, Province of Khemisset, Archane earned his primary education at Lycée Moulay Youssef. In 1957 he joined the Sureté Nationale (at the age of 18) where he remained until 1982. Before he left the Sureté Nationale, he passed his baccalauréat as mutarashiH Hur (by studying on his own). He then studied international relations in Casablanca where he received a B.A. in international law. During his political career, Archane became a membre-fondateur of the right parliamentary group Mouvement Démocratique et Social (MDS) and served as its secretary-general beginning in 1996. He has also been the president of the urban commune of Tiflet since 1982 and a member of the Chamber of Representatives since 1984. Archane has faced allegations from members of the Association Marocaine des Droits de l’Homme for his alleged role in torture undergone by political prisoners. Architecture. Morocco has architectural elements that reflect its varied cultural roots including the Iberian peninsula, the Middle East, the Sahara, and rural Berber traditions as well as syntheses that are clearly North African. Fès has often been designated as a quintessential

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Islamic city both because it is, relatively speaking, well preserved, and because the traditional sectors of the city have the key “Islamic” elements: quarters limited to about 4,000-5,000 residents with some collective identity, mosques, a main center to which the quarters are related, the separation of residential and commercial districts, and residences characterized by entrances on the smaller streets, high frequency of internal courtyards and overall a love of symmetry within the residence along with acceptance of asymmetry on the exterior. In general the marking of public and private space is repeated in layers from the city level down into the quarter, and the street such that access to public buildings such as mosques or madrasas is ideally much more direct than into private residences. This separation is maintained by gates, enclosures, street size, and shape. The whole looks unplanned because at one level it is: instead it reflects what modern social scientists would call an agent-based model of growth following basic rules of Islamic propriety including that public spaces should not look onto private ones, commerce benefits both from distribution and consolidation, and private aesthetics should be kept private, though public monuments can be aesthetic both on the exterior as well as the interior. Within a residence itself there is often a public space, such as a courtyard, as well as private spaces that nonfamily members would rarely or never visit. Although a separation of public and private spaces is traditional in Islamic architecture this is combined paradoxically with an explicit integration of the two; perhaps it would be better to say that government and religious institutions are traditionally supposed to be accessible and not isolated from the public while the converse is true for private spaces. At the level of architectural ornamentation, historic Moroccan buildings exhibit a mixture of floral, geometric, and textual (Arabic phrases usually from the qur’ân) designs. The floral motifs (al-tawrîq) comprise stem and leaf designs extended as a vegetal arabesque to dominate extended areas of wall space. This type of motif was developed in Cordoba (e.g., in the Great Mosque c. 756-929) under the Umayyad and reflected a combination of Islamic and Roman/Visigoth influences. During the Cordovan Caliphal period (929-1031) this floral motif was elaborated into a form that could more densely cover surfaces, and this reached its apex in the Almoravid period during the reign of ‘alî bn yûsuf (1106-1143) when it reached the point of entirely obscuring the wall behind. The most prominent example in Morocco of this was the qubba al-bârûdiyîn in Marrakech (1120-1130). During the subsequent Almohad period, an attempt was made to purify what were seen as self-indulgent decorative elements in pursuit of a simpler, more classic style. This led to a reduction of the floral motifs both in density and in style—a preference for single or paired leaves, outline stems, plus a limited number of additional elements took hold throughout the Almohad region for the six or seven decades that it was at the height of its power. The new style seems to have been developed during the reign of abû ya‘qub yûsuf I (1163-1184) and may have

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Architecture

started when he moved his capital from Marrakech to Seville. It was again replaced by the denser forms by the reign of abû yûsuf ya‘qub b, manSûr (1184-1199). Major efforts have been made in the last century to preserve and restore the Islamic character of many places in Morocco, but Fès above all has received major international attention and funding, beginning in 1972 with United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)-backed preservation and planning efforts. The major problem that has arisen in debates between architects and urban planners involves the recognition that people are changing their lifestyles and needs while preservation efforts, at least as far as residential housing is concerned, may not well address those changing needs. The same issues have troubled the modern architectural firms, which have to balance potential new materials and designs against more traditional ones. Moroccan architecture is thus, as it should be, a work in progress. Traditional architectural glories include the palaces, sûqs and madrasas, agdal and ryâd, mosques and zawiya of the traditional three capitals—Meknès (e.g., the Great Mosque and madrasa of Meknès (1358) and the Mausoleum of mawlay isma‘îl), Fès (e.g., madrasa al‘aTTarîn, bab bû jalûd, sûq al-najjarîn), and Marrakech (e.g., Koutoubia mosque, qubba bârûdiyîn). The great mosque in Chefchaouen and the qarawiyîn mosque in Fès have two of the few historical hexagonal minarets in Morocco, though a few newer mosques have chosen hexagonal minarets in contrast to the typical North African square minaret exemplified by the Koutoubia mosque in Marrakech or the zâwiya of Moulay Idris II in Fès. To the east, in the Islamic world most influenced by Iran, spiral minarets are common, while elsewhere, circular or polygonal minarets are the norm. Iberia and North Africa have traditionally preferred the square minaret. Other architectural components of mosques, the existence of a prayer niche (mihrab) oriented toward Mecca and a courtyard equipped with a fountain for ritual ablutions, are standard both in mosques and zâwiya with or without minarets. In addition to the minaret many religious structures also have domes whose precise shape also reflect cultural traditions. For example, Ottoman domes tend to be easily distinguished from Moroccan or Persian/Mughal domes. In the south, especially the Ziz and Draa river valleys, walled dwellings/palaces (qaSbas) and walled towns (qSûr) illustrate in miniature many of the same elements of traditional Fès such as separation of private and public space, accessibility of public institutions, internal segmentation of space by means of gates, etc. These Berber forms of architecture, though in a superficial sense different, are clearly based on Islamic principles of architecture and in their current disarray reflect some of the same problems Fès is experiencing as many former residents take advantage of peace to leave the defensive confines and build individual houses outside the walls (Boum and Mjahed 2003).

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The need to reconstruct Agadir in 1960 after its earthquake provided major amounts of work for Morocco’s architects, but the focus was on modern techniques and designs, in part motivated by the need to make structures more earthquake resistant. In the last twenty years, a new interest in traditional forms and materials has grown. Now not only has there been a large increase in urbanization, and hence work for architects, Morocco has made serious efforts to rehabilitate many areas by upgrading urban infrastructure and in some cases, such as Asilah and Essaouira, controlling urban sprawl and enhancing the aesthetic qualities of urban spaces. Currently, Morocco is an enormously rich country, architecturally, but one in which a great variety of new styles, both Western and from other parts of the Islamic world, compete with traditional forms. There is a wealth of contemporary architecture, including the monumental Hassan II mosque in Casablanca, that incorporates traditional elements and relies on traditional artisanal skills, for example in tile (zallîj) or plaster work, and this new “traditionality” may provide added prosperity to a number of traditional artisanal crafts. Arifi, Abdelaziz. Born 1943 in Oued Zem, Arifi has been the director of the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA) since 12 April 1993. Arifi is a graduate of the Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Agronomie de Grignon (France) where he obtained a diplôme d’ingénieur agronome in 1968. On 1 July 1968, he joined the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique. From 11 September 1977 to 18 February 1980, Arifi was the interim director of the Direction de la recherche agronomique. Between 19 February 1980 and 11 April 1993, he served as the director monitoring infractions: La protection des végétaux, des contrôles techniques et de la repression des fraudes. Arsalane El Jadidi, Mohamed. Born in 1926 in El-Jadida, Arsalane pursued his secondary education to become a teacher between 1945 and 1950 and then joined the Office Chérifien de Phosphates (OCP). He was noticed for his union activities and became secrétaire général des mineurs phosphatiers in 1960. Until 1970, he was the most prominent union activist in the sector. From August 1971 to 25 April 1974, he served as Ministre de la jeunesse, des sports, du travail, et des affaires sociales in the government of Karim Lamrani. In 1974, he was nominated as Haut commissaire à la promotion nationale, a position he kept until 10 October 1977. In 1977, he was elected a deputy to parliament and in March 1977 he held the post of the Ministre du travail et de la formation professionnelle in the government headed by Maati Bouabid. In November 1981, he was nominated Ministre de l’emploi et de la promotion nationale. Arsalane was behind the fissure within the Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI) which led him to found the Parti National Démocrate (PND) in 1981. He became its secretary general from that date. In November 1983, he held the post of Ministre d’état. He was elected to parliament in 1984

44

Arts

and although he kept the post of secretary general his leadership in the party was reduced because of health problems and a general preference for new leadership. Arts. Although many arts are highly developed in Morocco this entry focuses on textiles, woodwork, bronze, and painting (see also Music and Architecture). Of these, the first three have a long and rich tradition in Morocco while the last, painting in the Western sense, dates back only to the second half of the 20th century. French colonial administrators thought the epitome of a Middle Eastern textile was a pile carpet along the lines of classical Iranian or Afghani carpets and so tried to encourage the production of pile carpets in Morocco by setting up centers (state-supported workshops or ateliers) in various places. Moroccan pile carpet production has always been derivative of production elsewhere in the Islamic world and has never achieved the recognition of the carpets of Iran or Afghanistan. The most distinct of Moroccan textiles have been the flat weaves using a technique, skip plain weave (SaHa: correctness or rectitude), in which the weft threads are carried along (float) on the back when not needed, thus allowing for many colors to appear in what seems from the front to be a single weft thread. This makes for a warmer and thicker flat weave. This technique, coincidentally also used among the Inca and in Guatemala as well as for some Afghani bags, has been a mainstay of North African female weavers with many ethnic groups in rural Morocco having their own variants and women passing down patterns to their daughters. Weaving is done from the back using complex memorized patterns. Young girls traditionally begin with simpler and smaller pieces as they learn the more difficult patterns. Flat weaves or Hanbal have been produced in quantity and sold in rural markets for centuries, but the production of pile rugs in quantity (urban elites have used them in small quantities for centuries) is quite recent. Rural Berber groups of the Atlas and Middle Atlas areas emphasize repetitive geometric patterns implemented within rows (e.g., Beni Ouarain or Zenmour Hanbal). Some groups’ pile carpets (e.g., Oulad Bou Sebaa and Ouaouazguite) include significant areas of plain color in which decorative elements appear-in recent times taxis, teapots, and other modern elements have often been included. Pile rugs produced in the south (e.g., Ouaouazguite) as well as the Tensift (e.g., Ouled Bou Sebaa) often mix flat weave and pile in a felicitous way to produce a uniquely North African textile with great freedom of artistic expression—free from the classic Middle Eastern obsession with a central medallion surrounded by a sequence of rectangular frames and motifs. Simpler and elegant styles of flat weaves can also be found in which the weave is particularly fine and the patterning sparse or even consisting primarily of plain weave colored stripes (e.g., respectively, Beni Mguild or Ait Hadidou shawls-taHddun). Rural Arab groups in the Tensift region are known both for pile rugs and slit tapestry technique flat weaves also called Hanbal but often with sawtooth black

Arts

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goat hair selvedges (e.g., Oulad Bou Sebaa, Chiadma). These and other rural Arab groups from the Tensift (e.g., Ahmar and Rehamna) also produced pile rugs with common symbolic motifs (wasm) found as well in Berber flat weaves. Exports of Hanbal from coastal towns were common as early as Sa‘dian times (16th century), but they were undoubtedly traded through inland markets long before. In pastoral societies, a vast array of household requirements were met with local textile production, and the Moroccan tradition thus includes a great array of objects from pillows (tattayt or tasunna or l-usada), shawls (Handira/taHndirt or taHddun), saddle blankets (ta‘tayt/ta‘mmust), blankets (Hanbal, also iHrbl), rugs (tazrbit, tanakra, ishDîf), and tent components (variously tarfaft, talfaft). The current trade in Moroccan textiles has motivated vast amounts of chicanery involving the more popular items including artificial aging (merchants claim a sun-faded textile made with modern dyes dates back hundreds of years), embroidery of new elements (to spice up a piece) by urban folks hoping to attract naive tourists, and deliberate lies about the materials used in the textiles and the ethnic groups from which workshop pieces are said to originate. Elaborate woodworking dates back to the same time as monumental architecture in Morocco, as many of the famous mosques and palaces exhibit detailed work in a multitude of woods including ebony and cedar. The local variant of cedar is the thuya (‘ar‘ar), which has a hard and densely patterned root that has long been much in demand by artisans. Traditional wood objects that have been the focus of artisanal creativity include such architectural elements as doors, ballestrades, grilles to separate some spaces from others, the minbar of mosques (e.g., the 12th century grand mosque of al-qarawiyîn), and pulpits, as well as a variety of household items. These days, artisans in wood still make many architectural elements for the wealthy and for mosques but also produce a great variety of objects for sale in the markets out of the traditional woods using modern hand tools for a significant part of the production process. These objects range from chess sets to inlaid tables, chests, and chairs. The markets in Fès and Essaouira are particularly well known for their woodwork. When the grande mosque of al-qarawiyîn was enlarged by the Almoravid (1134-1144 A.D.), its three main doors (bâb Sbitriyîn, bâb ganayiz, and bâb al-ward) were faced in elaborately hammered bronze (including Kufic script, geometrical, and floral designs), in the process becoming the most monumental medieval bronze work in the Muslim west. During the Marinid period new advances in technique were developed to allow bronze work involving interlaced patterns. These techniques were fully implemented in the madrasa al-sharaTîn in Fès constructed by the Alawite beginning in 1670. By the 19th century elaborate bronze work had spread beyond royal constructions to the dwellings of the wealthy and included grilles, tables, elaborate lighting fixtures, and other architectural elements. While Morocco had served as a muse to European painters such as

46

Asilah

Eugène Delacroix and Paul Klee, it was only in the 1950s and 1960s that painting by Moroccans began to develop seriously and even more recently that significant numbers of artists have become known outside Morocco. The majority of Moroccan painters work with somewhat impressionistic renditions of Moroccan landscape and street scenes. These paintings regularly portray the themes that appeal to the tourist trade: Moroccan costume, the Oudayas, horses in fantasias, and desert qsars or qasbas. Exemplars of this tradition include Brahim Aamiri, M’hamdi, and Mohamed Tahiri. Brahim Bouhamadi stands out in particular for his sophisticated use of light. A few artist stand-outs in the impressionistic style are Balili and Saïd Qodaid; others exemplify a more abstract style such as Majid Benamri, Mohamed Ghailan, El Hayan, and Mohamed Toumi. Karmane is an example of a painter who does quite realistic still lifes. Among the female artists there are abstract explorations of the feminine physique (e.g., Fatima Oucherrou) and unveiled and unromanticised portraits of women (e.g., Souad Bennani Smires). Asilah. (lat. 35º 30' N., long. 6º 04' W.) The Phoenicians built a settlement named Zilis and the Romans one named Julia Constantia on the site of modern Asilah (aSîlâ) or Arzila (azîlâ). A town on the site was captured by the Goths and then in 713 by the Arabs. It was razed by the Vikings in 843 but was rebuilt. Asilah was walled by qâsim bn idrîs bn idrîs in the 9th century, and a qasba was added in 1235. It was captured by the Portuguese on 24 August 1471 and it was held by Portugal until 1545 and then again from July 1577 to 1588, when Portugal lost Asilah to the Spaniards who remained in control until 1690 when mawlây ismâ‘îl conquered it. Along with Larache and Tétouan, Asilah was bombarded by the Austrians in 1829. In 1860 it was bombarded by the Spanish in a paroxysm of imperialism (see Tétouan War). The governor of Asilah (al-raysûnî) during the early part of the Spanish protectorate was one of the few indigenous figures of any standing to oppose ‘abd al-karîm but was captured by the latter in 1925. Asilah’s small port, like Essaouira’s, suitable only for fishing vessels, has dictated that it remain a small urban center in the 20th century. ‘askar niZâmî. As the 19th century progressed, the need for a modernized army (the ‘askar niZâmî) became increasingly obvious to Moroccan sultans, who sent initially for advisors to the Ottoman empire and Egypt and then to Europe. By 1873 the need for such reform was finally accepted by the factions that counted in Moroccan society. Between 1873 and 1900, a new military order was established that organized better than its predecessors the Moroccan military on generally modern principles (Rollman 1983). This involved reform in the salary structure, the capacity to provide appropriate logistic support, and the acceptance of nontraditional ways and even of European military advisors. With the rapid rise of European influence

Azemour

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in Morocco’s internal affairs, concomitant to Morocco’s development of external debt on the eve of the Partition of Africa (1900-1904), the European role in Morocco’s military structure added to the intellectual and moral crisis leading up to the French protectorate. Aujjar, Mohamed. Born in 1959 in Targuist, Al Hoceïma, Aujjar received a licence in law from Université Mohamed I in Oujda and training in communication in the United States, France, and Portugal. A member of the executive bureau of the Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI), Aujjar was a founding member of the Organisation Marocaine des Droits de l’Homme (OMDH) and was responsible for its first office. He is the secrétaire général-adjoint of the syndicat national de la presse marocaine (SNPM), a founding member of the Club de la Presse Marocaine, and the director of the weekly Al Mithaq Al Watani. In March 1998, he became ministre chargé des Droits de l’Homme, and in September 2000, his portfolio name was changed to ministre des Droits de l’Homme. Avempace. See ibn bâjja. Averroes. See ibn rushd. awraba. The awraba were a Berber group in the North mentioned by ibn khaldûn in his kitâb al-‘ibar, from which historians have learned most that they know Berbers in North Africa. The awraba initially resisted the Islamic conquest in the Aurès region under an apparently Christian chief named kusayla who was defeated and killed in 682. They migrated west and it was they who received idrîs I and gave him protection in walîlî (Volubilis) around 788. The awraba helped idrîs I establish himself but were persecuted 20 years later by idrîs II. In later periods, the awraba were noted for professing mu’tazilite doctrines and maintained some influence in nukûr on the Mediterranean coast and in the region of Bône. They first opposed the Almohad and then fought on their side in Andalusia as they did for the Marinid. In 1308, a number of awraba leaders revolted against the Marinids and were crucified on the walls of Marrakech. The only remaining awraba tribes (the lajâya, mazyata, and raghiwa) are found north of the jabal zarhûn (north of Moulay Idriss). Azemour. (lat. 33º 18' N., long. 8º 19' W.) Located on the west bank at the mouth of the Oum Rbia river, Azemour (azamûr) was occupied in 1513 by the Portuguese who subsequently added the ramparts, which still survive. They evacuated it in 1541. It remained a significant coastal settlement in subsequent centuries. Azemour’s early history may date as far back as a Carthaginian settlement. Because it is only fifteen kilometers north along the coast from El-Jadida/Mazagan, which has a better port, it has been overshadowed by its southern neighbor in the past as well as in the 20th century.

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Aziz, El Houcine

Aziz, El Houcine. Born on 3 January 1943 in Oujda, Aziz has been minister responsible for the civil service (de la fonction publique et de la réforme administrative). He studied at Lycée Abdelmoumen in Oujda, Faculté des Lettres in Rabat, and Faculté des Lettres d’Aix-enProvence (France). Aziz obtained a licence ès-Lettres Arabes, a doctorat de 3ème Cycle, and a doctorat d’Etat ès-Lettres et Sciences humaines from the Faculté des Lettres d’Aix-en-Provence. Aziz served as a répétiteur (1960) and directeur de lycée (1965); he directed many programs at the Lycée Dar Es Salam until 1983. Aziz also taught at the Ecole Nationale Supérieure until 1987 before he was named director of the Ecole Normale Supérieure. In 1988, he became an Attaché au cabinet du Ministre de l’education nationale and délégué du Ministère de l’education nationale in Rabat. Between 1989 and 1993, he was named Directeur de l’enseignement fondamental. Aziz served as president of the commune of Oujda-Sidi Ziane in 1992 and president of the parliament group Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI) in 1993. In 1994 he became president of the Jury du Concours de l’Agrégation de Traduction. Azmani, Abdellah. Born in 1947 in Agadir, Azmani received a licence in économie politique. Azmani served as a bureaucrat at the finance ministry between 1964 and 1987. During 1987-1992, he was named by Hassan II as Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie. Azmani was elected to the Chamber of Representatives in September 1993. Azmani served as president of the Fédération des chambres de commerce et d’industrie and presided over the Commission des Finances et du Développement Régional in the Chamber of Representatives. Azmani has also published widely in the field of Moroccan economy. Azoulay, André. Born in 1941 in Essaouira, on the Atlantic coast west of Marrakech, Azoulay migrated to France in the 1960s. He studied journalism, economics, and political sciences in Paris. From 1963 to 1966 he served as director of the editorial board of the economic weekly, Maroc-Informations. In 1967, Azoulay joined the Paribas Bank where he served in many posts and took on many responsibilities, particularly for branches working in Africa. From 1969 to 1991, André Azoulay was an executive vice president of the Paribas Bank, and in 1991 he became the head of the Paris-based Eurocom Corporation. Also, from 1991 to1999, Azoulay served as counselor to King Hassan II for economy and finance. From 1999-present, Azoulay has served as counselor to King Mohammed VI. Azoulay is the cochairman of the International Center for Peace in the Middle East and is founder and chairman of Identity and Dialogue (an organization begun in 1974). Azoulay is also the president of the Association Essaouira Mogador: Festival des Ganaoua. This music and cultural festival has taken place each year in the second week of June since 1998 and attracts performers from all over North Africa including the Western Sahara and Mali. Azoulay’s contributions to the economic, social, and

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cultural renaissance of Essaouira are innumerable. He has long played a major role in interreligious dialogue in Morocco and has promoted Muslim-Jewish relations in a highly productive way. Azoulay is a member of the board of al-Maghrib Bank, the board of trustees of Al Akhawayn University, the Moroccan Royal Academy, the board of governors of the Peres Institute for Peace, the executive committee of the Three Cultures and Religions Foundations, Seville, and the Royal Academy of Spain for Economic and Financial Sciences. See also Music. Azrou. (lat. 33º 26' N., long. 5º 14' W.) Azrou (azrû) lies sixty-four kilometers southeast of Meknès at 3,900 feet in the Beni Mguild region at the intersection of the route from Fès to Marrakech and that from Meknès to the Tafilalt. In 1140, the Almohads regrouped in Azrou and the future prince ‘abd allâh took a wife from the region. In 1274, a local chief revolted against the Marinids and was besieged, then pardoned, in Azrou. In 1663/4, mawlây al-sharîf was proclaimed sultan by the ‘ulamâ’ of Fès in Azrou. Its qasba dates from construction by mawlây ismâ‘îl in 1684. Azrou’s most famous historical part was as the site of a major makhzan defeat in 1811. The Azrou affair, as it came to be called, ruined mawlây sulaymân’s claims to legitimacy, and he died shortly after. During the protectorate, the French took advantage of the altitude and beautiful cedar forests to turn Azrou (population in 2004 of 49,400) into a resort area, which it has remained to this day. Azziman, Omar. Born on 17 October 1947 in Tétouan, Azziman received multiple degrees in law (a licence ès-droit privé, a diplôme d’études supérieures ès-droit des affaires, and a doctorat d’état ès-droit privé). Azziman is a former minister of justice. Azziman has been a professor at the Faculté de Droit in Rabat, the Ecole Nationale d’Administration Publique (ENAP), the Institut National d’Aménagement et d’Urbanisme (INAU), and at the Académie Militaire. Azziman also taught at the Facultés de Droit de Tunis, Algiers, Iremam (Aix-en-Provence), Institut du Monde Arabe (IMAParis), and Idli (Rome). He has held a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) chair of human rights at Université Mohamed V in Rabat since 1996. Azziman is also a permanent member of the Académie du Royaume du Maroc and collaborates with the Institut international pour l’unification du Droit privé (UNIDROIT) in Rome. Azziman has been a lawyer in Rabat since 1972 and is a member of the Conseil supérieur du système EuroArabe de Conciliation et d’Arbitrage as well as a member of the Comité Averroès pour le rapprochement des peuples espagnol et marocain. Azziman represented Morocco in the annual sessions of the United Nations commission on commercial and international law (1988-1993). Azziman has been put in charge of numerous diplomatic missions

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bâbâ, aHmad

to Central and South America. He has been the legal advisor of the Conseil national de l’ordre des ingénieurs géomètres since 1996 and has been a member of the Commission d’experts, asked by the finance ministry to prepare an insurance code in 1991. Between 1993 and 1995, Azziman served as the minister, delegated to the prime minister, and was responsible for human rights. Azziman has also been a président-délégué of the Fondation Hassan II pour les marocains résidant à l’étranger since 1997 and served as a minister of justice (1997-2002). Azziman’s published academic works include his thèse de 3ème cycle Etudes portant sur les structures juridiques des banques au Maroc (Paris 1972) and Etudes sur la profession libérale au Maroc.

-Bbâbâ, aHmad. aHmad bâbâ (abû al-‘abbâs aHmad bâbâ bn aHmad bn aHmad bn ‘umar bn muHammad aqit al-takrûrî al-masûfî) was born near Tombouctou in the village of arawân on 26 October 1556. Most of his recent ancestors had been imams or qadis, and his family, the aqit, was very prominent in Tombouctou. aHmad bâbâ studied with his father and grandfather as well as with muHammad baghio, a local scholar, and had become one of the most prominent local malikî scholars by the time Morocco conquered the Sudan and installed a governor, maHmûd zarqûn, in Tombouctou in the year 1592. Two years later aHmad bâbâ and many of his supporters and colleagues were arrested on orders of the Moroccan sultan, aHmad almanSûr billâhi “al-dhahabî,” on the charge of planning an insurrection and where then deported across the Sahara to Morocco, arriving in Marrakech on 21 May 1594. There the prisoners were first put under house arrest and then released with the proviso that aHmad bâbâ would remain in Marrakech. The Sa‘dian sultan al-manSûr’s first convocation of aHmad bâbâ provided the latter an opportunity to both vent his outrage for being imprisoned and an opportunity to critique the legitimacy of the Sa‘dian sultanate through a refusal to talk to the sultan unless the customary veil behind which the sultan was concealed was removed. During his years in Marrakech, aHmad bâbâ taught jurisprudence in the mosque and wrote some forty books including two biographical compendiums, nayl al-ibtihâj bi-taTrîz al-dîbâj and kifâyat al-muHtâj li-ma‘rifat mâ laysa fi-l-dîbâj. These biographical dictionaries include entries for all the malikî scholars including contemporary scholars as well as entries for the greatest Moroccan saints and in general complete and bring up to date the works of ibn al-qâDî. aHmad bâbâ and the other exiles were allowed to leave Marrakech when al-manSûr died. aHmad bâbâ died in Tombouctou on 22 April 1627, a few years after returning home.

Bahnini, Hadj Muhammad

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al-bâdisî, abû muHammad. The details of the life of abû muHammad ‘abd al-Haqq bn ismâ‘îl bn aHmad bn muHammad bn al-khadîr bn qays bn sa‘d bn ‘ubâda al-gharnâTî al-khazrâjî al-bâdisî (c.1322) are little known. He was living in Fès in 1322/3, his father was a qadi, and his grandfather was imâm and khaTîb in bâdis (the traditional Mediterranean port for Fès to its northeast). Born in bâdis, al-bâdisî taught there before moving to Fès where he taught and made a living as a merchant. His only work to survive, titled al-maqSid (the goal), is a monograph about the saints of the Rif that gives evaluations and biographies of forty-eight saints as well as an initial general discussion of miracles and asceticism. The biographies vary in length, with the longest being about twenty pages, but all provide valuable details including discussion not only of the saints’ religious works but also of the activities they engaged in to make their livelihood (commerce, etc.). al-bâdisî takes great care to verify anecdotes and scrutinize his information in a serious effort to differentiate the good from the bad. bâ Hmâd. The grand vizier who ruled during the minority of ‘abd al-‘azîz, aHmad bn mûsa bn aHmad al-bukhârî (1841/2 to May 1900) had a black grandfather who had been Hâjib under mawlây sulaymân but was himself said to have had a Spanish mother. His father had also become Hâjib (see makhzan) under sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd al-raHmân and then was made vizier under mawlây al-Hasan. Although bâ Hmâd was not much liked, he had an immense fortune and ruled, as regent, in a reasonably judicious and efficient manner. He continued the construction of the bâHiya palace in Marrakech begun by his father. He also constructed the Agdal there. Major problems arose after his death that were directly attributable to the incompetence of mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz, but none that are attributable to mistakes by bâ Hmâd. Bahnini, Ahmed. The first president of the Moroccan Supreme Court, Bahnini (1909-1971) also served as minister of justice (1963 and 1967) and prime minister (13 November 1963-June 1965). He was serving on the Supreme Court (since 1965) when he died at Skhirat in the coup manqué in July 1971. Bahnini, Hadj Muhammad. A member of an elite fâsî family, after graduating from the Lycée Gouraud/Lycée Hassan II in Rabat, Bahnini (b.1914) began his public career as secretary to sultan muHammad bn yûsuf. Shortly later he was appointed as magistrate to the High Sharifan Tribunal, then became the private tutor of Prince Hassan (1941), and in 1950 served as judge in Meknès and as a member of the sharifan cabinet. Returning with the sultan from exile he was appointed minister of justice (1958-1960), minister of administrative affairs (1965-1970), minister of defense (1970-1971), minister of justice and vice premier (1971-1972), and minister of state for culture (1974-1980).

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al-bakrî, abû ‘ubayd ‘abd allâh

al-bakrî, abû ‘ubayd ‘abd allâh. Born near Cordoba, the son of the sovereign of the diminutive principality of walba, which was absorbed by the king of Seville when al-bakrî was about 30 years old, abû ‘ubayd ‘abd allâh bn ‘abd al-‘azîz bn muHammad bn ayyûb al-bakrî (1020-1094) seems not to have traveled much beyond the CordobaSeville region but moved in court circles and collected his information assiduously. He died in Cordoba in 1094. He is best known for his geographical dictionary, mu‘jam mâ ista‘jam (catalogue of what has become foreign), and his geographical description of the known world, kitâb masâlik wa-l-mamâlik (book of routes and kingdoms), written in 1068. The latter exists only in fragments, but these include the North African and Sahelian sections. A French translation of these sections has long been available (al-bakrî 1965). al-bakrî’s account is invaluable for its sociopolitical and geographical details as well as for its botanical and faunal observations, which document the ecology of the regions his sources passed through in some detail. al-bakrî wrote several works that have been, it seems, lost in their entirety, including a botanical treatise, kitâb al-nabât, and an ethnological/philological treatise on Arab tribal names, al-mu’talaf wa-l-mukhtalaf. Balafrej, Ahmed. An early associate of ‘allâl al-fâsî, whom he joined in 1927, Ahmed Balafrej (b.1908), a Rabati, received his education from the Lycée Gouraud/Lycée Hassan II in Rabat and the University of Paris (Diplôme des Hautes Etudes). He campaigned against the French Berber Policy and became one of the earliest members of the istiqlâl party, becoming its secretary-general in 1944. Imprisoned from 1944 to 1946, he became Morocco’s first foreign minister (1956) and then served as prime minister (12 May-3 December 1958), minister of state and representative to Hassan II (1961-1963), vice premier (1965-1966), and then again as minister of state and representative to Hassan II (1966-1977). He withdrew from public office in 1977. His son Anis, a Marxist, was charged with subversion in March 1973 and, after an initial refusal in 1976 to accept a release from prison because similar treatment was not offered to his associates, was released in 1977. barghawâTa. The barghawâTa Berber kingdom developed in the Chaouia plateau (referred to at the time as tâmasnâ, a name also given the barghawâTa capital and the name of a no longer extant Berber group) between Salé and Azemour shortly after the Islamic conquest of Spain. The conquest of the Iberian peninsula had included a number of Berber contingents; the leader of the zanâta Berbers, SaliH ibn Tarîf (b. 729/30), who played a major role in the conquest, became the first king of the barghawâTa. The main source available, al-bakrî (d.1094), provides a fairly detailed account of the kingdom up to the time the Almoravids conquered it around 1059. al-bakrî attributes the death of ibn yasîn, the spiritual founder of the Almoravid movement, to the

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barghawâTa prior to their final conquest by abû bakr ibn ‘umar later that year. At the death of Tarîf, his son ilyâs took over the barghawâTa (793 to 842) and both father and son were said to be faithful and even austere Muslims most likely influenced most by the kharijite tradition. The next king, yûnus bn ilyâs (reigning from 842 to 884), was in part inspired by ideas picked up in the central Middle East. According to historians (Talbi 1973), he introduced heretical beliefs including a Berber 80 sûra Qur’an and the claim that he and his immediate ancestors were prophets and that he was the Mahdi. After travels to the central Islamic lands, yûnus reputedly adopted various practices found there including the use of mind-altering drugs. al-bakrî suggests that many innovations were made as well in the obligatory Islamic religious observances. His subsequent reign in Morocco has been referred to as a reign of terror. al-bakrî records that he slaughtered all who did not accept the new beliefs and depopulated 387 cities. In one battle he is said to have killed 7770 people (the number at least is clearly fictive). yûnus was followed by, a nephew, abû ghufayr (d. 300H/913/14), who ruled twenty-nine years and won many battles against the surrounding Berbers. His son, ‘abdallâh abû al-anSâr, succeeded him and ruled humbly and quietly, having recourse mainly to threats rather than actual conquest, for forty-two years (d. 341H/953/4). The heretical elements in barghawâTa doctrine have variously been attributed to Jewish (Slousch 1909:396) and Berber (Marcy 1937:36) North African traditions, but at this point such attributions remain at best moderately reasonable hypotheses. What is clear is that by the 11th century barghawâTa beliefs were widely considered unacceptable and even heretical and this deviance facilitated the Almoravid conquest. There is some evidence, however, that even influential people such as an Almoravid chamberlain, saggût al-barghawâTî, may have continued to follow the barghawâTa sect for some time (Laroui 1977:165 n. 8). Basset, René, André, and Henri. Born 24 July 1855, René Basset studied at the Ecole des Langues Orientales, where he received six different diplomas, and then began research at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. In 1880, he was put in charge of Arabic courses at the Ecole Supérieure des Lettres d’Alger where he became professor in 1885 and Directeur d’enseignement supérieur in 1894. In 1909, when the Ecole became the Faculté d’Alger, René Basset became its first dean, a position he held until his death. Between 1881 and 1914 he led more than thirty expeditions in North Africa collecting linguistic, historical, and ethnographic documents and observations. His publications and academic contributions were enormous and his training of future French scholars incomparable. While his professional publications related to Berber and Arabic culture in North Africa included numerous reports and over one hundred articles, he also was interested in Ethiopia (among other work he translated eleven volumes of

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al-baSri, al-faqîh muHammad

material published as Apocryphes éthiopiens) and translated many Muslim and African fables and stories. René Basset died on 4 January 1924. The second son of René Basset, André Basset, was born 4 August 1895 in Lunéville. André Basset became interested in linguistics and received a degree in grammar in 1922. He became, in sequence, professor at the Lycée Gouraud in Rabat and then at the Collège Moulay Youssef followed by the Institut des Hautes Etudes Marocaines where he stayed five years until 1930. After defending his thesis in 1929, André Basset took a chair in Berber at the Faculté des Lettres d’Alger. Subsequently he distinguished himself by extensive linguistic fieldwork leading to an Atlas des parlers du Nord d’Algérie (1939) and numerous publications on the geographic distribution of specific vocabulary items and grammatical structures. He also published key works on Berber including, Eléments de grammaire berbère (1948) and La Langue Berbère (1952). The first son of René Basset, Henri Basset, born on 7 November 1892. He attended the Ecole Normale Supérieure where, after World War I, he defended his thesis titled Essai sur la littérature des Berbères in 1920. Henri spread his interests beyond literature to archaeology, prehistory, and the history of the Berbers. His obligatory secondary thesis was titled Le culte des grottes au Maroc. Unfortunately, Henri Basset died at thirty-three years of age on 12 April 1926, not long after becoming the director of the Institut des Hautes Etudes Marocaines. al-baSri, al-faqîh muHammad. Born in Demnat in 1930, al-faqîh muHammad al-baSrî was a leader in the resistance, then in the istiqlâl and finally in the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP) when it broke with the istiqlâl in 1959. As an educated southerner he represented those who did not quite trust the fâsî element in the istiqlâl. His association with the most radical elements of the UNFP meant that he was soon automatically suspected of being implicated in any crimes against the monarchy whenever or wherever they might arise. His evolution from nationalist to dissident, accused revolutionary, and then “clearly guilty” revolutionary did not take long. In 1959, as director of al-muHarir (Libération), the journal of the UNFP, al-faqîh al-baSrî was thrown in jail for committing an offense against the king: the publication of a phrase calling for the responsibility of the king before the people. On 23 February 1960, a plot against the king was announced and responsibility assigned to al-faqîh al-baSrî (from prison) and the UNFP. Amnesty was granted by Mohammed V soon after and al-faqîh al-baSrî was released on 3 June 1960. One of the organizers of leftist armed resistance fighters trained in Algeria and Syria, al-baSrî became an indefatigable organizer and was linked to a multitude of failed efforts to bring the monarchy to a violent end. On 17 August 1963, al-faqîh al-baSrî and elements of the UNFP were again implicated in a coup plot against the king. On 7 March 1964, al-faqîh al-baSrî was condemned to death, along with three other

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defendants (Omar Benjelloun, Ahmed Benkilou, and Moumen Diouri), while many others received various prison sentences. The death sentences were commuted to life in prison on 20 August 1964 by the clemency of Hassan II. al-faqîh al-baSrî received a second death sentence (in absentia) in connection with the coup manqué of 1971, and before he died, he admitted in an open letter to Youssoufi ties to the second coup attempt in 1972. On 28 January 1974, al-faqîh al-baSrî received his third death sentence (in absentia) for complicity in armed insurrection. Recently amnestied, he returned to Morocco in 1995. al-faqîh muHammad al-baSrî died on 14 October 2003 in Chefchaouen after returning from medical treatment in France. His treatment had been paid for by King Mohammed VI. See also Leftist movements in the 1960s and 1970s. Basri, Driss [idrîs al-baSrî]. Born in Settat on 8 November 1938, Basri became the directeur of the DST (Direction de Surveillance du Territoire) in 1973 and in 1974 became Secrétaire d’État à l’Intérieur. In 1975, Basri received a doctorat de troisième cycle in political science and also began his career as chief of police in Rabat. In 1979, Basri became minister of the interior, a post he kept for the next twenty years. He became one of the people Hassan II relied on the most. Basri put down the riots of June 1981, January 1984, and December 1990 with an uncompromising harshness that helped to cement his image as a figure to be respected or even feared. Most political issues were soon thought to be shaped by Basri, including the Moroccan Sahara, elections, parties, the economy, education, regional policies, and human rights. Basri was blamed, by some (e.g., Yassine), for almost everything including election fraud, human rights abuses, the disappearance of political prisoners, and general corruption linked to abuse of power. The many dissidents who avowedly intended violence against the state and the monarch during Basri’s tenure lend some credence to Basri’s public statements that he was merely a vigorous defender of the monarchy but leave room for debate about how necessary some of the vigor was. In 1992, Basri’s wide-ranging powers were seen as such an obstacle to parliamentary functioning that the opposition refused to participate in the elections and even told Hassan II that it was “him or us.” It was not until 1998 that the opposition finally accepted Basri’s role and a socialist opposition leader (Youssoufi) was appointed prime minister. Basri retired as minister of the interior on 9 November 1999 and was decorated by Mohammed VI on 11 November 1999 with the “grand cordon du Wissam Al Arch/wisâm al-‘arsh/medal of the throne” for his services to the nation. He was replaced as minister of the interior by Ahmed Midaoui. Since this time, Basri has been a Professor at the Université Mohammed V in Rabat. Basri has edited a number of books dealing with finances, urbanism, and administration and authored several books including La Décentralisatiion au Maroc

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al-baydhak, abû bakr bn ‘alî al-SinHâjî

de la Commune à la Région (1994), L’Administration territoriale: l’Expérience marocaine (1988), and L’Agent d’autorité (1975). Few would dispute that Driss Basri has influenced the current form of the Moroccan state. al-baydhak, abû bakr bn ‘alî al-SinHâjî. The Berber author of a memoir on the Almohad movement, abû bakr bn ‘alî al-SinHâjî al-baydhak was a companion (servant) of ibn tûmart and ‘abd al-mu’min, who apparently joined the former during his stay in Tunis. He is known only through a few citations (e.g., in ibn khaldûn’s kitâb al-‘ibar) and from the titleless memoir that was discovered by Evariste Lévi-Provençal in the Escorial library and published as Documents inédits d’histoire almohade (1928). The thirty-six page memoir includes a great deal of firsthand detail about the early Almohad movement not found elsewhere. bazaar/sûq. The traditional North African market is shaped by both custom and law. In many traditional markets, shops belong to the waqf and are leased for life based on the desirability of their location. Each trade would have a corporation akin to a guild headed by an amîn who would regulate who can sell as well as what prices products can be sold at. Often there was a degree of ethnic control over particular trades, and generally, particular trades were localized in areas of the sûq dedicated to that trade. Bargaining can take one of two basic forms: using an intensive or extensive search strategy. In the former, clients cultivate particular sellers hoping to get better prices on average due to familiarity or even friendship. In the latter, the customer tries to find the best price of the day and even use one seller’s price to beat down the price of another seller. While some significance is traditionally attached to price in a traditional market, the variation in quality has traditionally been much more important than that in price. Buyers required knowledge as well as strategy to do well, and rarely having the expertise of the seller, would be at a disadvantage. This discrepancy would be exaggerated for rural people purchasing in a major market or these days for tourists. The two main types of sûq in North Africa were permanent ones located in major towns and weekly markets; the latter could be in or near a town or out in the country and were held in the same place on a particular day of the week. Bekkai, Si Mbarrek. Twice Morocco’s prime minister (7 December 1955-25 October 1956, 28 October-16 April 1958), Si Mbarrek Bekkai (1897-1961) originated from Berkane (Beni Iznassen), graduated from the dâr al-bayDâ’ military academy in Meknès, and served as an officer in the French army. Appointed Pasha of Sefrou after the war, he refused to sign the Hajj Thami Glawi petition of deposition and resigned to protest the deportation of sultan muHammad ibn yûsuf. As president of the Association of Veterans and War Victims, Si Mbarrek Bekkai was instrumental in raising funds that were critical to the

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success of the fledgling Mouvement Populaire. He also served as minister of interior from 1960 until his death. Belal, Aziz. Born in 1932 in Taza, Belal received his primary and secondary education in Taza. He participated as a student in the national movement against French colonialism but received his higher education in Toulouse (France). After his return to Morocco he played a major role in the five-year planning program (1960-1964). He was nominated secretary general at the ministry of employment. Belal was also the vice dean of the Faculté de Droit in Rabat where he taught political economy. In 1965 he defended his doctoral thesis on investments in Morocco, which earned him a prize from Grenoble University. Belal took part in many conferences on the problems faced by the third world and organized many academic meetings about the Palestinian issue. He was an active member of the Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme (PPS). In 1976 he was elected deputy at the communal council of Ain Sebaâ, Casablanca and vice president of the council. He also took part in the foundation of the association of Moroccan economists and remained its president until his untimely death. He was elected three consecutive times head of the department of economics at the Faculté de Droit in Casablanca. He died by gas suffocation in a room in the Hilton Hotel in Chicago on 23 May 1982. Belarbi, Aïcha. Born in 1946 in Salé, Belarbi studied at the Lycée La Princesse Lalla Nezha in Rabat, earned a licence (1969) and a Diplôme d’Études Approfondies (DEA) in Sociologie (1972). She received a doctorat de troisième cycle at the Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines de Rabat based on a thesis titled “Les Relations Pédagogiques: Monographie de l’Ecole Ettaouhid de Rabat” (1977). In 1987, Belarbi received a doctorat d’état in sociology from the Sorbonne-René Descartes with a thesis on representations of children in Morocco. Belarbi has been a professor at the Faculté des Sciences de l’Éducation at Université Mohammed V in Rabat since 1976. A member of the Moroccan network Femmes 2002, Belarbi has consulted for UNICEF, UNESCO, USAID, and UNDP. She is a member of many organizations including the national secretariat of the women’s section of the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP), the Conseil national of the Organisation marocaine des droits de l’homme (OMDH), the Conseil scientifique de l’Institut arabe des droits de l’homme, and the comité de coordination sur l’éducation aux droits humains of the organisation Initiative for Peace and Cooperation in the Middle East. Belarbi has published widely, particularly on the position of women and girls in Morocco. Her books include most notably Enfance au quotidien (1991), La Situation de la petite fille au Maroc (1992), and Le Salaire de Madame (1993). In the 1998 government, Belarbi was appointed secrétaire d’état à la coopération. She has contributed to the revisions to the mudawwana. See also Skalli, Badia; Taha, Chaïbia; and Women.

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Belfkih, Abdelaziz Meziane

Belfkih, Abdelaziz Meziane (‘abd al-‘azîz mazyân balfqîh). Born in 1943 in Taourirt, Belfkih earned a degree in civil engineering from the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées de Paris and from the Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Lyon, received a DEA in solid mechanics at Paris X, and received a DES in project administration from the Université de Lille. He began working for the ministry of Travaux publics et de la formation in 1968 as an engineer in Moulay Youssef dam. In 1974, he was appointed as the head of the Division technique à la Direction des routes, and then headed the Travaux publics for the arrondissement of Rabat. He became secretary-general of Travaux publics between 1983 and 1992. On 11 November 1994 and again on 7 June 1994, he was appointed minister of agriculture (et de l’investissement agraire). Belfkih has also served as minister of agriculture (de l’agriculture, de l’équipement et de l’environnement) from 13 August 1997 to 13 March 1998. Belhaj, Ali. Born 21 November 1960 in Marseille, Belhaj studied at the Lycée Lyautey and the Université Hassan II before receiving an M.A. in business administration (from the University of Southern California). He first won election as a member of the Union Constitutionelle (UC) in 1983 then was elected in the communal elections (for Dar Bouazza) of 1992 as an independent but lost reelection when he ran in 1997 as a candidate for the Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme (PPS). Président of the Association 2020, Belhaj is also associated with the Alliance des Libertés (râbiTat al-Huriyât)—a new party founded in 2002, which by 2003 was sponsoring almost 3,000 candidates in various regions of Morocco (of the slightly over 122,000 total political candidates). Belkeziz, Abdelouahed. Born 5 July 1939 in Marrakech, Belkeziz studied at Sidi Mohammed College in Marrakech and Moulay Youssef Lycée in Rabat. He received a B.A. and M.A. from the Faculté de Droit in Rabat and a Ph.D. in Law from the University of Rennes, France. In 1976, Belkeziz became professor in the Faculté de Droit in Rabat. From 1977 to 1979, he served as ambassador to the Republic of Iraq and then took a series of ministerial positions: minister of Information (1979-1981), Information, Jeunesse et Sport (1981-1983), and foreign affairs (1983-1985). In 1985, Belkeziz accepted the position of Rector, Université Hassan II in Casablanca, in 1992 he became Rector of Université Ibn Tofail in Kénitra, and from 1997-2000 he served as Rector of Université Mohammed V in Rabat. On this last date, he also assumed the Presidency of the Council (and Conference) of Rectors of Moroccan Universities and became chairman of the executive committee of the World Federation of Islamic Universities. Belkeziz chaired the Moroccan delegation to the Commission on Drafting the Charter of Human and People’s Rights for the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and has been secretary general of the OIC since January 2001.

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Benaissa, Mohamed. Born in Asilah on 3 January 1937, Benaissa studied briefly in Egypt and then completed a B.A. in Communication at the University of Minnesota (1963) and had a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship for research in Communication at Columbia (1964). Fluent in Arabic, French, English, Italian, and Spanish, Benaissa served in a series of international positions: press attaché in charge of the permanent mission of Morocco to the United Nations, New York and Addis Abeba (1964-1967), regional communication advisor of FAO for Africa (1967-1971), and worked in Rome for FAO (1971 to 1976). Working for FAO, he rose in 1974 to director of the communication division. From 1976-1983 Benaissa was an elected member of the Conseil municipal d’Asilah (Province de Tanger). From 1977 to 1983, he was member of parliament from Rabat and served as rapporteur de la commission de la culture et de l’information. Between 1978 and 1985, Benaissa also consulted for the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and Population Fund (UNFPA). From 1980 to 1985, he served as editor in chief of the Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI) Arab daily newspaper Al Mithak Al Watani and the French daily newspaper Al Maghrib, while from 1985 to 1992 he served as editor in chief of the official publication of the ministry of culture. Benaissa served as president of the Conseil municipal d’Asilah from 1983 to 1992 and served again in parliament from 1984 to 1992. He was appointed Moroccan Ambassador to the United States from 1993 to 1999 and on 8 April 1999 was named minister of foreign affairs (et de la Coopération) to replace Abdellatif Filali. This position was renewed on 7 November 2002 and again on 8 June 2004. Benatik, Abdelkrim. Born 19 August 1959 in Rabat, Benatik received his B.A. in Lettres from Mohammed V University in Rabat. He pursued his higher education in Paris where he got his DEA (diplôme des études approfondies) in linguistics from the Sorbonne (Paris V). He also received a DESA in management (Gestion des ressources humaines) from the Institut Supérieur de Gestion du Personnel in Paris. Benatik is also a laureate of CEDS (Centre des Etudes Diplomatiques et Stratégiques) in Paris. Benatik served as a member of the federal office of UNEM (the Union Nationale des Etudiants du Maroc, section Europe). He was also a member of the USFP (Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires, section Europe) and served as a member of the national bureau of the jeunesse ittihadia, in charge of international relations. Benatik, who has an important position at the Banque Marocaine du Commerce et de l’Industrie (BMCI), is a former secretary general and member of the executive bureau of the Confédération Démocratique du Travail (CDT). On 6 September 2000, Benatik was named by Mohammed VI as the secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’économie sociale, des petites et moyennes entreprises et de l’artisanat. He has also been a member of the preparatory commission of the 66th congress of the USFP.

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Ben Barka, Mehdi

Ben Barka, Mehdi. A radical and activist, Mehdi Ben Barka (1920-1965) broke with the istiqlâl party (1959) and helped found the UNFP (Union Nationale des Forces Populaires). He served as the president of the National Consultative Assembly from 1956 to 1959. A graduate of the University of Algiers who studied mathematics at the University of Paris for a period, Ben Barka was jailed by the French as an activist for istiqlâl (1951) and was implicated in the assassination (or accidental death) of abbas mass‘udî (in Fès on 27 June 1956), who reputedly was executed at Ben Barka’s behest because abbas had hindered Ben Barka’s efforts to set up political offices in the Rif. abbas mass‘udi had been one of the three commanders of the Liberation Army, in charge of the northern or Rifan component. In 1961, Ben Barka was accused of subversive acts by Hassan II and went briefly into exile in Paris. After a short return to Morocco during which time he was elected to the National Assembly (1962-1963), he again went into exile in Paris after the discovery of another subversive plot was announced. In 1965 Ben Barka was condemned to death in absentia, and shortly later he disappeared after being picked up (29 October 1965) by agents of Cab 1 (or Cabinet 1), an office of Morocco’s SDECE (Service de Documentation Extérieure et de Contre-Espionage) in front of a restaurant in Paris. He has been presumed dead since shortly thereafter, and some accounts of his murder have since surfaced. His abduction was quickly followed by visits to Paris by General Oufkir, minister of interior, and Ahmed Dlimi, second in charge of Surété in Morocco. One story told is that Ben Barka’s body was brought back to Rabat and dissolved in acid. The disappearance led to Charles de Gaulle, who apparently was not in the loop, recalling France’s ambassador to Morocco and a trial in which Oufkir and Dlimi were charged with complicity in the disappearance but only Oufkir was found guilty. The imbrication of French, Israeli, and Moroccan and possibly United States security services evidently obscures some of the causality. From Paris, Ben Barka had played an active role in promoting the cause of leftist groups around the world and travelled frequently to radical countries, including Cuba. This apparently put him on the list of undesirables kept by most conservative security forces. It seems fairly clear that Ben Barka’s role in arranging training for Moroccan leftist revolutionaries in Syrian camps for the Palistinian resistance was known to the Mossad and hence to the Moroccan government and the CIA. Full diplomatic relations between Morocco and France were reestablished after de Gaulle’s resignation (1969) when, following the preferences of Giscard d’Estaing (a former minister of finance), economic policies driven by pragmatics replaced policies driven by questions of national honor. Bencherifa, Abdellatif. Born in 1951 in Safi, Bencherifa was nominated governor of Kénitra and wali of Gharb-Chrarda Beni H’sin region in 2005 by king Mohammed VI. He received a B.A. in 1973, a DES in human and social geography in 1978 from the University Mohammed

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V in Rabat, and a doctorate from Clark University in 1986. Beginning in 1973, Bencherifa pursued a professional career in the field of education as a secondary school teacher (1973-1976), and then taught at the university level. In 1990, he became the chair of the department of rural geography at the University of Mohammed V. He served as vice dean of the Faculté des Letteres et des Sciences Humaines in Rabat (1990-1994), as vice president of student affairs and academic affairs at the Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane (1994-2002), and as president of the University of Moulay Ismaïl in Meknès (2002-2005). He is also a member of the conseil d’administration de l’IRCAM. Bencherifa is also a graduate of the German Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. He taught at the universities of Joensuu, Finland; Berkeley, United States; Bern, Switzerland; Passau, Germany; and Beirut, Lebenon. He published many articles on arid and semi-arid lands, montagnes, rural development, international migration and desertification. He also served as the president of the association des montagnes de l’Afrique from 1990 to 1993. Bencherifa is fluent in Arabic, French, English and German. Benhima, Driss. Born in 1954 as the son of the former prime minister Muhammad Benhima, Driss Benhima received his diploma from the Ecole Polytechnique de Paris and the Ecole nationale supérieure des mines de Paris. Benhima joined the Office Chérifien des Phosphates (OCP) in 1978. He spent six years as an engineer for the mines of Sidi Daoui. He left OCP in 1990, after working as the director of extraction at the Khouribga Center, to join the private sector. There he became an administrator in the Société marocaine d’oxygène et d’acétylène, a branch of Air Liquide group. Benhima returned to the public sector on 29 March 1994 when he was nominated as the head of the Office national de l’électricité (ONE). At ONE, he began the task of rural electrification and developing Morocco’s self-sufficiency in electrical energy. On 13 August 1997, King Hassan II nominated Benhima as minister of transportation, merchant marine, tourism, energy and mines a position he kept until March 1998. On 14 May 2000, King Mohammed VI selected him as the chief delegate of the national committee in charge of the presentation of the candidacy of Morocco to organize the 2010 World Cup. In July 2001, Benhima became the Wali of Grand (Greater) Casablanca, a post he occupied until he became the director general of the Agence pour la promotion et le développement des provinces et prefectures du Nord. Benhima, Muhammad. Muhammad Benhima (b. 1924) came from Safi and trained in medicine at the University of Nancy (France) and then accepted an appointment as governor of Tarfaya province (Agadir). He later served as minister of public works (1964), minister of education (1965-1967), prime minister (6 July 1966-7 October 1969), and at various points also had the portfolios of agriculture (6 October 1969-10

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August 1970) and commerce. His final post was as minister of interior (1977-1979). Béni Mellal. (lat. 32º 20' N., long. 6º 20' W.) Béni Mellal (banî malâl) lies 160 kilometers south-southwest of Khénifra at 1,980 feet near the western end of a pass through the mountains. The town grew up around a qasba built by mawlây ismâ‘îl in 1688, which was restored in the 19th century by mawlây slîmân and again by the French in 1916. It is possible that there were earlier settlements at the site, including a town reputed to be called HiSn daî, the supposed capital given to yaHyâ bn idrîs when the Idrisid dynasty was split up in the 9th century. A site in the region is mentioned by medieval Arabic geographers as an important market center with a fortress, but details are lacking. The major investments made by the French in irrigation during the protectorate led to a massive growth for Béni Mellal, which has since become an important urban center. See also Demography. Benjelloun, Abdelaziz. Born in 1940 in Fès, Benjelloun is the president of the Conseil constitutionnel and is a university professor of law. He studied at the Collège Moulay Driss in Fès, Lycée Mixte in Fès, and Faculté de Droit in Grenoble (France). He received a baccalauréat (série philosophie), a licence in droit public, and a doctorat d’état in droit public. His academic career includes positions as assistant de droit privé (1964-1967), maître de conférences (1967-1972), and university professor of law since 1972. Benjelloun’s many publications include Réglementation de la propriété foncière, Manuel de droit administratif en droit public marocain, and L’organisation administrative. Benjelloun, Omar [‘umar banjallûn]. Born in Oujda in 1933 from a modest family, Benjelloun managed to attend French school and later studied law in France. He graduated from the Ecole supérieure des PTT (Postes, Télégraphes et Télécommunications) in Paris in 1960. Benjelloun was a leading figure of the Moroccan left. As a student he was elected president of Union Nationale des Etudiants Marocains (UNEM) and the Association of North African Muslim Students. During the independence struggle Benjelloun was a member of the istiqlâl but in 1959, he and Ben Barka and others left the istiqlâl to found the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP). In 1963, Benjelloun was arrested along with many UNFP militants, accused of plotting to kill the king, and condemned to death. His execution was stayed, but he remained in prison until he was released in a general amnesty in 1965. A year later, he was picked up by the police and held in prison for eighteen months before being released. Between 1967 and 1973, Benjelloun remained at liberty, engaged in political activity, work with the UNFP, and a law practice filled with political cases. He also wrote newspaper articles and collaborated in the production of the newspaper Falastin (Palestine). He created the Arabic daily newspaper

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al-Moharrir and was elected member of the political bureau in the second congress of the UNFP in January 1975. A key supporter of the PTT union in Casablanca, Benjelloun helped it become a strong union and aroused the ire of the opponents of the PTT. Benjelloun was assassinated on a Casablanca street on 18 December 1975. It is only recently, after the 2003 terrorists attacks in Casablanca and the detentions that followed those events, that a detainee, ‘abd al-‘azîz al-nu‘mânî, who as a member of Harakat alshabîba al-islâmiya has been investigated by the courts of Rabat, has provided the information that he helped plan the killing of Benjelloun on the orders of mûTî’ (see Mottei, Abdelkrim). Benjelloun, Othman [uthmân banjallûn]. Born on 1 November 1932, in Casablanca, Othman Benjelloun was trained in mechanical and electrical engineering at the Polytechnique of Lausanne, Switzerland and then had further training in Holland (1958) at Phillips/Eindhoven and in Sweden (1959) with various Swedish Industries. One of the most powerful businessmen in the country and president of GPBM (Groupement Professionnel des Banques du Maroc), Othman Benjelloun also heads a leading financial conglomeration of insurance companies, commercial banking and non-banking enterprises. He is also president of the Conseil Maroco-Américain pour le commerce et l’investissement. The founder of the American Chamber of Commerce in Morocco 1995, Othman Benjelloun is a major shareholder and president and director general of BMCE (Banque Marocaine du Commerce Extérieur), which was privatized through Royale Marocaine d’Assurances (RMA), and now among other assets Benjelloun owns one of two licenses for GSM for Morocco. Othman Benjelloun has been chancellor of Al Akhawayn University since November 1998. In 1998, Othman Benjelloun founded the Fondation BMCE to fight illiteracy in rural areas and to preserve the environment. The foundation is directed by Nawal al-Moutawakil.On the corporate front, amid major publicity and intense competition, Othman Benjelloun acquired the top insurance company in Morocco, al Wataniyya, in 1999. Benkhadra, Amina. Born 28 November 1954 in Salé, Benkhadra, the director general of the Bureau de Recherches et de Participations Minières (BRPM) and of the Office National de Recherches et Exploitations Pétrolières (ONAREP), is a former secretary of state. She earned her secondary education at Lycée Descartes in Rabat and Lycée Lyautey in Casablanca. She received her baccalauréat, classes préparatoires aux mathématiques supérieures et spéciales in Casablanca. She also earned a diploma (d’ingénieur des mines) from Nancy (France), a diploma (docteur ingénieur en Sciences et techniques minières option économie des matières premières) from the Ecole Nationale supérieure des mines of Paris, and a certificat in industrial and commercial geography from the Conservatoire national

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des arts et métiers in Paris. Benkhadra worked as Chef du service études minières et contrôle at the study and evaluation division of BRPM from 1982 to 1984. She also served as Chef du département études minières in the Division des études et projets miniers of BRPM (1984-1990), head of the Division des participations at BRPM (1990-1994), and director of mines within the ministry of energy and mines (1994-1997). Benkhadra was named by Hassan II as secretary of state charged with developing the mining sector. She took part in the development of a plan for the restructuring of the CDM. On 29 April 1998, Benkhadra was promoted to director general of BRPM. Benkhadra was also named a member of the expert committee in charge of promoting investments on 19 January 2000 by Mohammed VI. On 20 August 2000, Mohammed VI named Benkhadra director general of ONAREP. Benkirane, Abdelilah [‘abd al-ilâh bankirân]. Benkirane received a diploma in mechanical engineering and a licence in physics. He became the second vice president of the Mouvement Populaire, Démocratique et Constitutionnel (MPDC). A former professor at the Ecole Normale Supérieure, he was elected deputy from Salé-Medina in the 2003 elections. He is best known however as an Islamist militant. Benkirane was the leader of al-tajdîd wa-l-iSlaH and a key figure in two other movements: al-jamâ‘a al-islâmiya and al-tawHîd wa-liSlaH. See also Leftist movements. Benmansour, Abdelwahab. Born in 1920 in Fès. Benmansour is the Historiographer of the Kingdom and the director of the royal archives. He studied at the Ecole Libre de Fès and al-qarawiyyîn university, where he received a diplôme al-Alamia in literary and legal sciences. At an early age, Benmansour was an active member of the national movement of liberation. He collaborated with the Association des Oulémas Musulmans d’Algérie and became the director of its schools. After Mohammed V returned from his exile, Benmansour went back to Morocco and joined the school Mohammed V in Rabat and Nahda in Salé. He also served as the Directeur-adjoint of the Radio Nationale. In 1957, he was named member of the royal cabinet and became the head of the political division where he supervised writing and archiving within the royal libraries. He was nominated the Historiographer of the Kingdom by Hassan II and was head of the Royal cabinet. In 1963, he assumed the responsibility of Directeur des affaires politiques at the ministry of interior. Benmansour became the director general for Radio and Television in 1965. Benmansour also served as chargé de mission and conservateur du mausolée et d’historiographie du royaume (1967), director of the royal archives (1975), and founding member of the Académie du Royaume du Maroc. In 1983, Hassan II appointed him to the level of minister to improve his benefits, remuneration, and indemnities. He then became a member of the cabinet of the king and conservateur of the Mausolée Mohammed V.

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Benmansour has focused most of his life on writing and participation in seminars and conferences on political and cultural issues at the national and international levels. His publications include among others Tribus du Maroc (1968) and the multivolume work al-wathâiq (beginning in 1976), which reproduces key historical documents and treaties. Benmokhtar Benabdellah, Rachid. Born in 1942 in Marrakech. Benmokhtar started his studies at the Régnault school of Tanger before moving to the National Advanced School for Aeronautical Constructions Engineers in France, and then to the International Institute for Management Development (IMD) in Switzerland. Benmokhtar Benabdellah began his career with IBM-France in 1967, which he left in 1973 to start, along with other engineers, a company in the field of data processing and management. In 1978, he was appointed director general of the Moroccan subsidiary of the American Engineering Company “Parsons Brinckerhoff” (PB) in New York. He held this position until 1983. In 1976 he became a member of a Club of Rome team and worked on a learning project. He also developed an interest in education by working jointly with the Moroccan Association on a project for introducing computer science into high schools. In 1983, the minister of education appointed him as a coordinator of a research team to reform primary and secondary teaching. Benmokhtar’s interest in education has led him to major projects both introducing computers to schools and in raising consciousness about the importance of education for girls in the rural areas of Morocco. Benmokhtar is a member of the governing council at the Ecole Mohammédia d’Ingénieurs and at Mohammed V University in Rabat. On 27 February 1995, Benmokhtar was nominated to be a minister of national education, a post he kept until 15 March 1998. On 25 June 1998, King Hassan II appointed him president of Al Akhawayn University. Benmokhtar Benabdellah is also a member of Maroc-Telecom’s board of trustees; member of the board of trustees of HOLCIM Maroc (former CIOR); president of the Moroccan Foundation for Man and Nature (FMNH); member of the advisory board of the First Arab Regional Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Program; and a member of the Committee of Experts on Public administration of the UNDP. Bennani, Aziza. Born in Rabat in 1943, Bennani earned a degree in Spanish Language and Literature (1961-1964), a certificate in French Literature (1968), and a Ph.D. from Université Mohammad V in Rabat. Her dissertation was titled La Guerra de Africa en el diario de un testigo de la Guerra de Pedro Antonio de Alarcón (The War in Africa from the Diary of a Witness of the War by Pedro Antonio de Alarcón). Bennani was also awarded a Doctorat d’Etat from Université Paris X for a thesis titled Monde Romanesque et monde mental de Carlos

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Fuentes (Fictional and mental worlds of Carlos Fuentes). Bennani was the head of the Department of Hispanic Studies at Université Mohammed V from 1974 to 1988. In 1988, she was appointed as dean of the Faculté des Lettres (School of Humanities and Social Sciences) in Mohammédia. In March 1994, Bennani was appointed high commissioner for disabled persons, and in the 1997 government she served as secretary of state (responsible for cultural affairs) to the minister of higher education and scientific research. Active in many organizations, Bennani is the president of the Association of Moroccan Hispanists (AHISMA) and the director of cultural affairs in Morocco for the Luso-Arab Cooperation Institute, of Lisbon. She is also corector of the Al-Mutamid Ibn Abbad Summer University, executive chairperson for the Foundation of the Three Cultures of the Mediterranean (Seville), and vice president of the Moroccan Red Crescent. In September 1999, Bennani was appointed as ambassador and permanent representative of Morocco to UNESCO, and in November 2001, she was elected chairperson of the executive board of UNESCO. Bennouna, Mehdi. Born 22 February 1919, Bennouna attended primary school in Tétouan and secondary school in Nablus (Palestine). He attended law school at the University of Fouad I (Cairo, Egypt) but received a B.A. in journalism from American University in Cairo (1941). Bennouna was the editor in chief of the daily al Hurriyah in Tétouan (1945-1947), the founder and director of the Morocco Office of Information in New York (1947-1953), the editor in chief of the daily al-‘umma of the national Reformist party (Tétouan, 1954-1956), the administrative secretary-general of the first Moroccan parliament (Assemblée National consultative) from 1957 to 1958, and counsellor for press and public relations to Mohammed V (1958-1959). In 1959, Bennouna became the president and director of La Dépêche in Casablanca. Bennouna was an important nationalist before independence. He founded and served as general manager of the Maghreb Arabe Presse (MAP) from 1958 until its nationalization in 1973. In 1973, he became president of the Islamic News Agency. See also media and Fenjiro, Abdeljalil. Benseddik, Mahjoub. Born 24 February 1922 in Meknès, Benseddik has been a long-time member of the Secrétariat Général of the UNFP (Union Nationale des Forces Populaires) and one of Morocco’s most influential labor union leaders. He has been secretary-general of the Union Marocaine du Travail (UMT) beginning 20 March 1955 and president of the All African Trade Union Federation (1964). He has also been secretary-general of Royal Air Maroc. In 1967, he was imprisoned for political reasons. Always outspoken, Benseddik recently pointed out on Moroccan Labor Day (1st May 2001) that 40 percent of Morocco’s wage earners in the private sector earn less than the minimum guaranteed wage and that retirement pensions in that

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sector had been stagnating for six years. In the same speech he deplored anti-union activity and called for the creation of special courts to enforce labor laws and arbitrate union negotiations. Benslimane, Abdelkader. Born 22 February 1932 in Rommani, Benslimane received a licence in law and political science in 1957. Benslimane is a former ambassador and minister with an extensive professional and political career. Between 1957 and 1959, he served as director (affaires administratives) in the finance ministry. He also acted as director for the budget in the finance ministry and censeur in the Banque du Maroc between 1959 and 1961. From 1961 to 1963, he was ministre conseiller at the Moroccan Embassy in Paris. He was charged with the portfolio of director general (Bureau d’Etudes et de Participation Industrielles, BEPI) and director of the cabinet of the minister for economy and finances (1963-1966). Benslimane also served as permanent representative of the Comité Permanent Consultatif du Maghreb (CPCM) located in Tunis from 1966 to 1972. He was appointed as ambassador of Morocco to Benelux and the European Economic Community in Brussels on February 1972. In November 1972, he held the post of commerce minister (de la commerce, de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande), and in April 1974 he became the finance minister. He was also the president and director general of the Banque Nationale pour le Développement Economique (BNDE) and a member of the Conseil d’administration of the Banque du Maroc. Benslimane also represented Morocco at the annual meetings of different financial institutions at the regional and international levels. From 1984 to 1989, he was ambassador to Bonn and then to Algiers (1989) before he became minister of tourism in 1991 and Moroccan ambassador to Tunisia between 1995 and 2001. Benslimane was elected as president of the Conseil Communal de Rommani in 1976, member of the Chamber of Representatives in 1977, président du Conseil municipal de Rommani in June 1992, and again member of the Chamber of Representatives in June 1993. Benslimane, Fatima. Born 12 December 1928 in Fès, Benslimane has been Présidente-déléguée of the Ligue marocaine pour la protection de l’enfance since 1957. Benslimane obtained a licence ès-Lettres in 1952. She is a member of numerous national organizations including the Comité central de l’entraide nationale where she has been in charge of the promotion of women for the commission socio-pédagogique. In 1961, she was in charge of reorganising families impacted by the Agadir earthquake. Benslimane has also been an active member in the Conseil national of the istiqlâl party, where she has been in charge of the commission de la femme (1956) and a member of the executive committee of the party between 1982 and 1989. Benslimane has written many articles in national and international revues and newspapers about the situation of Moroccan women.

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Bensouda, Noureddine. Born 21 July 1963 in Casablanca, Bensouda, the Directeur des impôts, studied at the Collège Royal in Rabat where he received a baccalauréat ès-Lettres modernes and joined the Faculté des Sciences juridiques et sociales in Rabat where he graduated with a licence ès-Droit public, diplôme de Droit comparé and Doctorat de 3ème cycle ès-Droit public. Bensouda joined the finance ministry in 1986 as chargé d’études au cabinet. During the same period, he was the chef de cabinet for the finance ministry and participated in the training provided by the International Monetary Fund in Washington, DC in public finance in 1991. In 1993, he took over key responsibilities in the tax administration (directeur-adjoint en charge de l’inspection centrale et des recoupements à la direction des impôts). He participated in many missions involving international cooperation in particular with the United States Internal Revenue Service and the Administration Fiscale Canadienne and Québéquoise. Bensouda has also been a member of the Moroccan delegation involved in the negotiations with the Club de Paris and the Club of London as well as the annual assemblies of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Berber Policy/Politique Berbère. From the time the French began to conquer Berber areas of Morocco in 1913 (Béni Mguild and Béni Mtir) up to 1934, French colonial apologists began to attempt to harness the Berbers to a vision of a modernizing, pro-Western, and even nonIslamic Morocco. The racism of the era enabled the idea of a Berber race with distinct racial traits (variously purported to include honesty, love of liberty, lack of attachment to Islam, superior physical traits, bravery, cupidity, malleability, xenophobia, lack of xenophobia, etc.) to be greeted with approval by the French colonial faction rather than with the “self-serving” and “biologically naive” assessments they would receive from modern historians and anthropologists. In the initial stages of the French colonial effort, even most educated Europeans did not view such purported racial traits as impossible. The strategic underpinning was the realization that a classic divide and conquer strategy could serve French interests and the further hope that the Berbers would support the French and avoid the extremes of religious and anti-French fanaticism the French associated with the Arabic elements in Moroccan (Algerian) society. The Moroccan politique berbère closely paralleled the earlier Algerian politique kabyle (even to such physical characterizations as “round headed” kabyles and “round headed” chleuh) and reflected the same colonial insecurities and naivete. It found its moment when the attempt to generalize the Grand Caid policy of the south foundered on the refusal of Middle Atlas Berber chiefs to be co-opted while World War I precipitated the need for a policy. The intent of Berber policy was to preserve Berber customs and religion in the hopes of fostering the future acculturation and education of Berbers as colonial allies ever distinct from the supposedly ineradicably untrustworthy Arabs. Early on, Catholic missionary activities were generally encouraged

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even if viewed as ideally oriented toward Berber areas and aimed at arousing Francophilia through the reawakening of Berber Christianity. The core of the policy focused on separate educational and judicial systems for Berbers. Schools for Berbers were begun with six schools in the Middle Atlas in 1923, which had grown to twenty schools with six hundred students by 1930. This effort was crowned by the creation of a school for advanced study in Azrou (the Collège Berbère) that soon, to the consternation of la politique Berbère, turned into a center where Berbers assimilated nationalistic and pan-Islamic ideas and learned Arabic. The judicial system that was established began with a circulaire of 22 September 1915 (no. 7041) recognizing the legal importance of Berber customary law that tried to both accept Berber principles of arbitration and place the choice of a final arbitrator, failing the success of arbitrators mutually agreed upon by the contesting parties, in the hands of the jamâ‘a (traditionally an assembly of elders). Although this circulaire was never accepted in practice, by 1924 a series of attempts were made both to develop the legal functions of the jamâ‘a as well as those of appointed arbitrators and to render the Berber legal system separate from the standard judicial hierarchy and statutes prevailing for the rest of Morocco. By 1929 there were seventy-two judicial jamâ‘a providing legal services to about a third of all Muslim Moroccans. The new system caused problems for Arabic groups located in predominantly Berber areas and aroused the ire of the sultan, who maintained that all areas should be submitted to the shari‘a, but it worked in a reasonably efficient way for most residents. The Dahir Berbère of 16 May 1930 was intended to provide a full (yet separate) judicial hierarchy for the Berber areas. Its most explosive article (number 6 of 8) withdrew legal jurisdiction over crimes committed in Berber areas from the High Sharifan Tribunal, and hence out of the domain of shari‘a law. Its implementation unexpectedly aroused enormous protests throughout much of the Middle East and was interpreted as an attempt to entirely cut off the Berbers from Islam and convert them to Catholicism. Protests in Morocco were almost exclusively urban, but the overall impact of the Dahir was to give a strong impetus to a nationalist movement and, ironically, to force the French to abandon their Berber policy. A Dahir of 8 April 1934 officially abandoned the goals of the Dahir Berbère and placed the Berber areas under the rule of shari‘a for all except civil matters, where customary law and the judicial jamâ‘a were maintained. In 1956, with independence, schools were reorganized into an integrated national system. See also Diplomatic documents. Berbers/Imazighan. The Berbers/Imazighan (free people or pastoralists) have long been a group of people who epitomize the inutility of racial classifications, whose narrow focus on a small subset of a group’s genetic inheritance makes scant sense of modern genetic knowledge. Berbers, as ethnic groups in North Africa and the Sahara, have

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traditionally primarily had language in common; though Berber languages are as varied as the romance languages of Europe, nevertheless they are easily identifiable as closely related. It would be hard to argue that all ethnic groups that would be classified as Berber according to linguistic criteria share a common cultural tradition as well. There are major cultural differences, for example between Tuareg groups and the Berbers of the Moroccan Rif, which it would serve little purpose to downplay, and the different historical processes that each group has participated in have ensured that the cultural divergences are as pronounced as the linguistic ones with the important difference that since the 8th century both Arabs and Berbers have shared an Islamic history and hence many of the newer cultural elements are not unique to Berber ethnic groups. Within smaller subsets of the ethnic groups that might be said to be linguistically Berber there is of course a greater sense of a shared culture, and many sets of practices and beliefs that can reasonably be designated as Berber ones. The origin of the Berbers has long been a topic of scholarly debate perhaps because scholars tend toward the sort of essentialist arguments that Wittgenstein criticized. Just as race, as culturally perceived, is a false essentialist argument, so the idea that Berbers must represent descendents of some pure culturally homogenous group originating (in what way?) in a particular valley or plain makes little sense. In this area modern ideas of the gradual historical and ecologically based social construction of ethnic identity seem substantially preferable. North Africa has been peopled for a very long time, and it has absorbed a multitude of immigrants even in the Islamic era. There is no reason to assume things were different in the periods less well known. More likely, because populations were lower, migratory incursions would have been easier and more frequent in the past. Scholars now assume that major components of the ongoing ethnic creation of the Berbers came into North Africa from the east, the south, and across the straits from Europe. Migrations from all three regions are well documented in the historical record, from the Roman period to the 18th century. At the same time, human habitation in North Africa dates back far beyond the historical record, and there is increasing evidence that the Haratine (HarâTîn), a black, currently Arabic-speaking population, have been living at least on the Saharan fringe of North Africa since long before the Islamic conquest and are at least as indigenous as the Berbers. Even the linguistic evidence is less than ideal. Generally, Berber has been a spoken rather than a written language, though there are rock inscriptions in a deciphered Berber script, the tifinagh still used by the Tuareg throughout much of North and West Africa. More than a thousand Libyan inscriptions in an as yet undeciphered language using a similar script have also been published. Claims have been made that the earliest Libyco-Berber inscriptions may date to the third millenium B.C. Berber has affinities to Semitic languages perhaps most obviously in its reliance on a vocabulary with a predominance of two consonantal

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roots compared to the somewhat similar way in which Arabic (a Semitic language) largely relies on a tri-consonant root system, but the full connection of the inscriptions to ancient Middle Eastern languages such as ancient Egyptian, Akkadian, or even Indus valley writing systems remains to be fully understood. In Morocco there are three main dialects of Berber: tachelhyt (from Essaouira to the south), tamazight (centered in the Middle Atlas), and the Berber of the Rif (dhamazighth). Of course populations move without changing their language and only a linguistic map of Morocco can adequately describe the current linguistic distribution of Berbers. One scholar (Hart 1976:339) has suggested that on the basis of a simple historical linguistic analysis it would appear that dhamazighth diverged from tamazight about 1,000 years ago while tamazight diverged from tachelhyt about 2,000 years ago. Hart’s own analysis also suggests 2,900 years of divergence between dhamazighth and tachelhyt. While all historical linguistic analyses are now understood to give dubious absolute chronologies without other supplementary data, the implied relative degree of difference between the three dialects may be roughly accurate, and all three dialects are clearly different enough that they are no more mutually intelligible than Spanish and French. During the Roman era there were many Berber insurrections but few organized Berber polities. Massinissa (circa 236-146 B.C.), with the support of Rome (in return for aid against Carthage), expanded the Massyli kingdom to extend from the gulf of Sirte to the Moulouya valley in Morocco. The kingdom disappeared around 46 B.C. Later in 25 B.C. Juba II, brought back to Rome by Julius Caesar and brought up by his heir Octavian, was established as ruler of Mauretania Tingitana (the northern Maghrib south only to Volubilis). The area was annexed by Rome around 40 A.D. On the eve of the Islamic conquest, the zanâta Berbers were prominent in the political power structures, inland from the coast, from Tunisia to their homeland of the Moulouya valley. They formed, however, only a series of ever-fluctuating alliances rather than an organized state. At the time of the Islamic conquest, there were three main groups of Berbers in the western Maghrib, though numerous groups were at the time not included among the three and it is reasonable to assume the classification was at best a makeshift one primarily representing fairly recent patterns of alliance. Furthest west and spreading from the Mediterranean to the Anti-Atlas were the maSmûda. The SanHâja also stretched from north to south but did not at the time inhabit the great central plains. The Moulouya valley in the northeast was the homeland of the zanâta confederation of Berbers, which at the time of the conquest was perhaps the dominant force from the Moulouya to Tunisia. In the Islamic period the Almoravid, the Almohad and the Marinid dynasties were the accomplishments of Berber groups: the lamTûna (SanHâja) of the southwestern Sahara, the maSmûda of the

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Atlas, and the zanâta of the Moulouya, respectively. Classical Islamic authors, such as ibn khaldûn, divided the Berbers into two groups, nomadic (al-butr) and sedentary (al-barânis). The first group, al-butr, included the miknâsa and zanâta and were thought to have originated in the area between the Nile and Tunisia and then spread as far as the western Maghrib in recent history, not long before the Arab conquest. This origin is implausible in the extreme from a modern perspective. The second group, al-barânis, derive their name from the burnous (pl. barânis) worn in the colder areas of the Maghrib and so could be lumped as purportedly more ancient inhabitants of the Maghrib. This group included the maSmûda and the SanHâja. A dichotomous classification into nomadic and sedentary is an obviously inadequate basis from which to understand any significant time depth and the assumption that indigenous genealogies are unmanipulated is difficult to support. Although Berber groups had major roles in later periods, a decline in their political centrality, which might be said to have begun with the fall of the Almohad and Marinid dynasties, has accelerated in the 20th century. The French tried a divide and conquer strategy with a Berber Policy that triggered a pan-Islamic reaction that still sets the political agenda today. Berber ethnic revivalism is viewed as anti-Islamic and potentially treasonous and Arabization has prevailed to the point that there are now estimated to be only 5-6 million Berber speakers stretched from Tunisia to Morocco and Mauritania. Morocco and Algeria have the great bulk of the Berber speakers as well as populations that are in large majority of Berber descent. Even Libya has about 23 percent of its population that claim to be of Berber descent, though all now speak Arabic. Berber groups have had well-developed customary law that has survived the Islamic period fairly intact in many regions, in part, perhaps, because Islam has always provided a place for customary law within its system of jurisprudence, as long as the customary rules do not contradict the most central Islamic precepts. These customary rules have not been uniform for all ethnically Berber groups with the aristocratically organized Tuareg and the traditionally democratically and oligarchically organized Berbers of the Maghrib representing two key variants in Berber political organization. In the Maghrib, the Berber jamâ‘a, the current Arabic term for an old institution, has been an assembly of elected members that could function at several levels of social organization and that in practice has tended to result in oligarchic decisions by males. This institution has helped regulate a broad array of legal rules running from marriage customs to land tenure and political alliance structures. In the last half of the 20th century, official government policy was not very supportive of Berber culture or language and many Berberspeaking parents stopped teaching their children their own native language. At that point in time, Berber politics still had, at least officially, an antistate and anti-Islamic or colonial flavor and were seen

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as potentially dangerous. Berbers in the north (see Rif Uprising) and south (see Leftist movements) were slow to support the monarchy and suffered repression. This changed dramatically in the 21st century, and on 17 October 2001 Mohammed VI established the Institut Royal de la Culture Amazighe (IRCAM) and has vigorously supported the development of Berber culture and the addition of Berber languages in schools. Berbich, Abdellatif. Born 17 May 1934, Berbich has been the Secrétaire perpétuel de l’Académie du Royaume du Maroc since 1982. Berbich received his doctorate in medicine from the Faculté de Montpellier (France) in 1961 and was nominated for the Médaille d’Or for the best thesis of the year for his work specializing in nephrology and medical resuscitation at the Hôpital Necker in Paris (1962-1964). Berbich served as chef du service de réanimation (1965), dean of the Faculty (1969-1974), professor and head of the internal medicine service (1972), member and chancellor of the Académie du Royaume du Maroc (1980), and Ambassador to Algeria (1988-1989). Berbich also directed the first kidney transplantation in Morocco in 1968. In 1976, he established the first center for chronic blood dialysis through artificial kidneys in Morocco. Berbich has published many works in the field of medicine and is an active member in numerous associations. He has also been the president of the Commission nationale supérieure de qualification des médecins since 1972. Berdugo, Serge. Born 26 November 1937 in Meknès, Berdugo, a former minister and an active member and president of the Moroccan Jewish community in Casablanca, pursued his studies at the Faculté de Droit de Rabat, Faculté de Droit de Paris, and Institut des Sciences Politiques de Paris (IEP). He received a baccalauréat in law (1961) and licence èsDroit et Sciences économiques (1964). Berdugo has a rich professional experience. He was a spokesperson for the Banque Nationale pour le Développement Economique (BNDE) from 1964 to 1968, and vice président de la communauté Israélite de Casablanca (1977-1992). Berdugo has represented Morocco at the Congrès Juif Mondial since 1979. In 1987, Berdugo became the secretary-general of the Conseil des communautés israélites du Maroc and the president of the Rassemblement mondial du judaïsme marocain. Berdugo also served as minister of tourism between 1993 and 1995. He is also an active member in many associations and national and international organizations. These include the Association francophonie et judaïsme, the Conseil national de la jeunesse et de l’avenir (CNJA), the Conseil d’administration de la ligue contre les maladies cardio-vasculaires, the Conseil d’administration de l’association fondation connaissance du Maroc, the chamber of commerce and industry in Casablanca (1977-1984), and the Association Maroc-Japon.

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Berque, Jacques. Born 4 July 1910 in Molière (Algeria), Berque was the son of a distinguished Arabist (Augustin Berque) who made him study in a qur’anic school as a child before letting him proceed on the normal educational path for a French colonial child. His early exposure to and love of Arabic shaped his future as a scholar. He lived through much of the colonial period as an administrator in Morocco yet supported the creation of a modern state. Berque spent five years as an administrator (of the Seksawa) in Imi n’Tanout, which led to the publication of his doctoral thesis, Les Structures du Haut Atlas (1955), the basis for his subsequent appointment to a professorship in sociology at the College de France and the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. Fluent in Arabic and Tachelhyt, Berque was an ardent advocate of Morocco’s independence as well as a rather idiosyncratic theoretician of North African society who had influence on and encouraged many North African students. Berque took the position that Islamic societies were complex, understudied, and had a legitimate claim in their advocacy of an alternate route to modernity. Rather than conclude that the social structure of the Seksawa was backward, underdeveloped, or primitive he saw it as a complex and continuously updated adaptation to historical change. More generally, historical, religious, political, and ecological contextualization was essential for Berque and the prevailing liberal or leftist theories fell short in their evaluation and recommendations for Islamic society. This is, in part, why Berque was never fêted on the Left Bank like some intellectuals, yet another reason was his failure to provide his own attractive new theory suitable for high culture consumption. Berque felt that while Islamic law and Islamic thought were potentially adequate starting points for a modernization that might escape some of the pitfalls encountered on the route followed by the enlightenment’s heirs, this would require a spiritual renaissance that had yet to appear. Berque called into question many of the simple dichotomies derived from colonial perceptions and continuously tried to tie his analysis more to data than to grand theory—in the process even earning the praise of Edward Said. A scholarly translation of the Qur’an added lustre to his reputation, and he has been fondly remembered in North Africa. Jacques Berque died on 27 June 1995. See also Gellner, Ernest; Hart, David M.; and Pascon, Paul. Berrada, Mohamed. Born 3 November 1944 in Casablanca, Berrada pursued his secondary education at Lycée Lyautey in Casablanca and his higher education in Bordeaux (1961-1968). He received his doctorat d’état ès-Sciences Economiques with a thesis on Les entrepreneurs marocains, une élite de transition (1968). Berrada also received a licence ès-Sciences Economiques and a diplôme d’Etudes supérieures ès-Sciences Economiques (1965). He also successively received diplomas for Etudes supérieures de Droit privé from the Institut d’Etudes politiques, Ecole supérieure de commerce de Bordeaux, and the Institut d’Administration des Entreprises. Berrada

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also obtained a licence ès-Sociologie from the Université de Bordeaux. He has published many works on financial management and is considered an expert accountant qualified to testify in courts. One of his main studies is entitled Comptabilité analytique et le nouveau plan comptable (1984). As a university professor, Berrada taught different courses in the field of management and finance at the facultés des Sciences Juridiques, Economiques et Sociales in Rabat and Casablanca (1969). He served as the chair of the department of economics at the Faculté de Droit in Casablanca (1980-1986). In the domain of business, since 1968 he managed the industrial and commercial firms of his family, which are mainly in the textile sector. From 1986 to November 1993, Berrada was appointed finance minister. In this position, he chaired many international and regional financial institutions and presided over the annual assemblies of the International Monetary Fond (IMF) and the World Bank in Washington (1992). During this period, Berrada played a major role in introducing a series of fundamental reforms: liberalization of external commerce, converting of dirhams at the level of current expenditures, the reforms of public enterprises, privatization, fiscal reform, and the reform of the financial and banking markets. After his experience as minister of finance, Berrada went back to manage the textile firms of his family and contributed in collaboration with ONA and Salomon Brothers to the creation of the Morocco Fund, which focussed on international investments in Morocco and over which he presided. From 1994 to July 1999, he was Moroccan ambassador to France. Berrada was also accredited by the UNESCO as a permanent delegate from Morocco. On 11 November 1999, Berrada was appointed by Mohammed VI as the Directeur Général de l’Office Chérifien des Phosphates. On 2 August 2001, Berrada was appointed by Mohammed VI as the Président Directeur Général of Royal Air Maroc. Berrada is also the president of the Moroccan-Indian committee for the development of exchanges between both countries. The committee was created by the CGEM and Confédération de l’Industrie Indienne (CII). The Betsy. The American brig, The Betsy, was captured by Moroccan corsairs and brought into Tanger in 1783. Its capture prodded the United States government to negotiate a treaty of peace and friendship with Morocco. The treaty was signed in Marrakech in 1787 and now constitutes the longest unbroken treaty relationship in U.S. history. The Betsy and its crew were released in July 1785 through the good offices of Spain. See also riHla. Binebine, Ahmed Chouqui. Born 1946 in Marrakech, Binebine has been the Directeur de la Bibliothèque Royale (Hassania) at the Royal Palace since October 1994. Binebine studied at the Faculté des Lettres in Fès, Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Bibliothèques de Paris, Université de la Sorbonne, (Paris VI), and Université de Bordeaux III.

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Binebine received a baccalauréat in Lettres Modernes (June 1967), a licence ès-Lettres (June 1971), diplôme supérieur de bibliothécaire (1973), Doctorat 3ème cycle (February 1975), and Doctorat d’Etat èsLettres (March 1986). Binebine served as an assistant at the Faculté des Lettres de Rabat and as associate director (directeur-adjoint) of the Bibliothèque Royale in 1975. In 1986, he became maître de conférences and then professeur d’enseignement supérieur. Binebine became Directeur du livre des bibliothèques et des archives royales in 1994 and then associate director of the royal archives. He has published many works including Histoire des bibliothèques au Maroc (1992), and Etudes de codicologie et de recherches bibliographiques (1993). Bouabid, Abderrahim. During the protectorate period, Bouabid (1920-1994) edited the istiqlâl party newspaper, al-‘alam, from 1944-1950. In 1959, Bouabid was one of the founders of the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP) and became its secretarygeneral after Ben Barka went into exile. He served as ambassador to France just after independence, minister of finance and industry (1956-1958), and minister of agriculture (12 May-3 December 1958). In 1958, he aligned with the old guard of the istiqlâl who backed down from the istiqlâl political commission’s attempt to get the king to limit his own powers and, more specifically, allow parliament to appoint the ministers of interior and defense. In 1974, he left the UNFP to form a new party, the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP). In the March 1977 elections the UNFP failed to get any seats and Bouabid, running on an USFP ticket, lost his seat for Agadir and resigned accusing the government of harassment of USFP candidates and election irregularities. In June 1981, a general strike by the Confédération Démocratique du Travail (CDT), the USFP’s associated labor organization, led to many deaths and Bouabid’s arrest. He was pardoned as part of a general amnesty in February 1982 and led the USFP, which presents itself as being a European-style social democratic party to the left of the istiqlâl, until his death. Boucetta, Muhammad. Boucetta (b. 1925) succeeded ‘allâl al-fâsî as secretary-general of the istiqlâl when ‘allâl al-fâsî died. Born in Marrakech, he studied law in France and practiced it in Casablanca. In 1954, he had organized the Paris branch of the istiqlâl and edited the party newspaper, al-istiqlâl, when he returned to Morocco after independence. In 1960, Boucetta was the Moroccan delegate to the United Nations and made Morocco’s case for its sovereignty over Mauritania, the cause of Greater Morocco ‘allâl al-fâsî had raised as early as 1955. He served as minister of justice (1961-1962) and rejoined the cabinet, as secretary-general, in 1977 when Hassan II reconciled matters between the palace and the istiqlâl.

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Bouftas, Abderrahmane. Born in 1944 in Tafraout, Bouftas, the president of the Royal Golf Dar Es Salam, received his primary education at the Ecole Abdelkrim Lahlou in Casablanca and his secondary education at the Lycée Moulay El Hassan. He received a diploma from the Institut Commercial du Maroc. Bouftas started as a president and general director of many companies that specialize in textile, leather, and chemical products. He also served as housing minister (ministre de l’habitat, 1985-1993). Bouftas was the secretarygeneral of the Banque Marocaine pour l’Afrique et l’Orient (BMAO) and a président délégué of ABM-AMRO. He is also an active member of numerous associations and organizations including Conseil d’administration de l’Association marocaine des exportateurs, Association marocaine des industries du textiles, Association de lutte contre le cancer, the Fondation II (for the prevention and fight against nervous-system diseases), the national league to fight cardio-vascular disease, founding president of the Association Illigh, and president of the Comité financière de l’association des oulémas de Souss. Boujad. (lat. 32º 45' N., long. 6º 25' W.) Boujad (abû al-ja‘d) is a pilgrimage center (population of 33,000 in 2000) founded in the 16th century by al-shaykh sîdî muHammad al-‘arabî bn al-ma‘Tî ibn alSâliH al-sharqî (d.1601), whose descendents enjoy great prestige in the Tadla and throughout much of Morocco. Located at 2,340 feet altitude, the town also has a major market due to its interstitial location in the foothills of the mountains. The zâwiya became influential in the 17th century when it judiciously supported the ‘Alawite mawlây al-rashîd in his struggle against the dilâ’iya zâwiya from 1651 to 1668. A century later the head of the zâwiya was enormously wealthy and prestigious. By the 19th century the zâwiya was sufficiently large that it insured its success by having separate factions back different parties when the outcome seemed uncertain. The zâwiya has maintained its status as a major pilgrimage center, but the city has grown very slowly with less than 2,000 inhabitants in 1883 and passed the 20,000 mark only in 1973 (38,700 in 2004). The small number of Jews, never more than a few hundred, virtually all left before 1970. Boujad has the distinction of never having had to be surrounded by walls because from its inception it was protected by spiritual powers of far greater efficacy. Bourqia, Rahma. Born near Khemisset in 1949, Bourqia lived in Tanger during her childhood and adolescence. She obtained her baccalauréat from the Lycée Ibn Al Khatib, a licence in philosophy, and a DEA (Diplôme d’Etudes Approfondies) in sociology from the Faculté des Lettres of Mohammed V University. Bourqia taught philosophy for baccalaureate students in Marrakech at the Lycée Abou Al Abbas Essebti and then continued her studies in Rabat earning a DES (Diplôme d’enseignement supérieur) in sociology. She began teaching at the Faculté des Lettres of Mohammed V first as maître assistante,

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then maître de conférences. A Ph.D. at Manchester University (her thesis titled State and society in rural Morocco was awarded the Malcolm Kerr Prize for the best thesis in 1988 by the Middle East Studies Association) led to a position as a professor at the Faculté des Lettres of Mohammed V University. Bourqia has published articles and books on Morocco, the maghreb, Moroccan culture, history, and women in French, Arabic, and English. She was named Dean of the Faculté des Lettres at Hassan II University in Mohammédia in February 1997 and currently is the first woman to be named president of a Moroccan university (Hassan II University in Mohammédia). Mohammed VI put Bourqia in charge of the group assigned to revise the mudawanna. Boutaleb, Abdelhadi. Born 23 December 1923 in Fès, Boutaleb received a B.A. in law from al-qarawîyîn university in 1943. From 1944 to 1948 he tutored Hassan II, then crown prince. In 1948 Boutaleb became a founding member of the shûra and istiqlâl party and was a member of its political bureau until 1959. He also became the editor of al-ra’y al‘âm (the public opinion) newspaper. Boutaleb was a leading member of the delegation to the United Nations meeting at Palais Chaillot, which raised the issue of Moroccan independence (1951). When Mohammed V was sent into exile (1953), Boutaleb was placed under house arrest in Casablanca. In 1954, he helped found the Parti Démocratique de l’Indépendance with Hasan wazzânî and Abd al-Qader Benjelloun. In 1955, he participated in the Aix-les-Bains negotiations for independence and the return of Mohammed V. In December 1955, he became minister of labor and social affairs in the first postindependence cabinet (October 1956). The PDI had six members in the first government to the istiqlâl’s nine. In 1958, Boutaleb became labor minister (de l’emploi et des affaires sociales). Starting as an organizer of the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP), Boutaleb became secretary-general of the UNFP (1959-1960). In 1961, he became ambassador to Damascus and in 1963 took the position of Secrétaire d’état chargé de l’information, de la jeunesse et des sports. In 1963, Boutaleb also became Ministre député auprès du premier ministre and in 1964 he acceded to the position of minister of justice. From 1967 to 1971 he served as Ministre de l’éducation nationale et des beaux arts and from 1968 to 1971 he held an appointment as Ministre d’état. Boutaleb was elected president of parliament (1970), ambassador to Washington and Mexico (1974), advisor to King Hassan II (1976), minister of information (1978), and then lectured at the Faculté de Droit in Casablanca and Rabat (1979-1982). Boutaleb also became director general of the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization—ISESCO in Rabat (May 1982) and a member of the royal academy for Islamic Civilization Research—of the Al Bait Foundation—Jordan (October 1982). He is the author of books in history, politics, and law.

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Bouzoubaâ, Mohamed. Born in 1939 in Meknès, Bouzoubaâ received a Diplôme supérieur in commerce from Cairo University and a licence in law from the Faculté de Droit in Rabat. A founding member of Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP), Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP), and the Organisation Marocaine des Droits de l’Homme (OMDH), Bouzoubaâ has also been secretary-general of the Union Nationale des Etudiants du Maroc (UNEM). A lawyer in Rabat since 1962, Bouzoubaâ served (from 1973) as the secretarygeneral of the bar of Rabat before being elected in 1976 as the advisor and first vice president of the Conseil municipal de Rabat. Bouzoubaâ was elected in 1983 as the advisor of the commune of Rabat Youssoufia and in 1984 was elected deputy of Meknès and then reelected in 1992 advisor of the commune Rabat Youssoufia. In 1983 he also became a member of the administrative committee of the USFP. In 1990, Bouzoubaâ became a member of the Conseil consultatif des droits de l’homme and in 1997 he became a member of the Comité de direction of the Institut socialiste de l’action communale. From 1998 to 2002, Bouzoubaâ held the post of minister in charge of parliamentary relations and then on 7 September 2002 assumed the post of minister of justice, which was renewed on 8 June 2004. bû Hmâra [jîlâlî bn drîss al-yûsfî al-zarhûnî]. Known as bû Hmâra (master of the donkey) in Morocco and El-Rogui (also the nickname of a 19th century pretender of the Riyaga tribe; Hart 1976:361) by much of the foreign community, al-zarhûnî studied religion alongside almanabhî, later minister of defense under ‘abd al-‘azîz, and, along with the future minister, had also been sent by mawlây al-Hasan to get technical training in Europe. He was present in Fès when ‘abd al-‘azîz went against religion and tradition by refusing to honor the sanctity of the shrine of mawlây idrîs where the murderer of a British missionary named Cooper, who had ventured too close to the holy precincts, had taken refuge. When the assassin was executed (October 1902) much of Fès was outraged and viewed the action as confirmation that the sultan was betraying Islam to the foreigners. al-zarhûnî raised the flag of rebellion a few weeks after this incident and had himself declared the sultan by the ghyâta from the mountains to the south of Taza, under the name of mawlây muHammad, the name of the older brother of mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz. The makhzan sent a column against al-zarhûnî and it had two quick successes in November 1902, but these were followed by a serious defeat for the makhzan on 29 January 1903 and then a standoff beginning with the pinning down of makhzan troops in Taza in October and the subsequent escape of the troops to Oujda. al-zarhûnî remained a force until his troops were largely wiped out in the autumn of 1908 by the Ait Waryaghar, perhaps the most powerful Berber group in the eastern Rif and the tribe of the Rif’s future hero, ‘abd al-karîm. al-zarhûnî’s end came when he was captured on 11 August 1909 by makhzan troops, brought to Fès,

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publicly humiliated, and then executed on 15 September. His continued campaign exacerbated the makhzan’s financial problems during the critical years, when the makhzan went into debt, by undermining the sultan’s credibility in Morocco as well as by necessitating military expenditures that otherwise might not have been needed. bû majân, sîdî. abû majân shu‘ayb al-anSârî al-andalusî, known as sîdî bû majân (1126-1198), was probably born in Seville and lived in Fès, Bougie, and Cordova and died in al-‘ubâd near Tlemcen. A disciple of ‘abd al-qâdir jilânî, sîdî bû majân was one of the first to bring ‘abd alqâdir jilânî’s teaching to the Maghrib. Legends attribute many mystical powers to him and even the birds were said to listen when he taught. One of his disciples was ‘abd al-salâm bn mashîsh.

-CCalendars. The correspondence between the solar-based calendar in use in Europe and the Muslim lunar-based calendar, which is based on alternate months of thirty and twenty-nine days plus an extra day on eleven of the years in each thirty-year cycle (years 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, 16, 18, 21, 24, 26, 29), is a little complicated. The Muslim lunar year is on average a bit less than eleven days shorter than the solar year (365.25-354 11/30 = 10.8833). The Muslim calendar begins with year 1 in the year the Prophet Muhammad emigrated (hegira: hijra = emigration) from Mecca to Medina. That year’s beginning itself corresponds to 16 July 622 A.D., so 16 July 623 is toward the beginning of the year 2 hegira and 631-632 (not 632-633) embrace year 10 hegira. The calendar in use in Europe during the subsequent years was modified from the Julian 365.25 day calendar, begun by Julius Caesar in 46 B.C., by Pope Gregory XIII on 4 October 1582 by the addition of ten days; changing the 5th of October to the 15th of October in order to fix the spring equinox on the 21st of March. It is worth noting as well that, to increase precision, after 1582 only one out of four centenary years was allowed to be a leap year (those divisible by 400: e.g., 1600, 2000, etc.). Although calculating the exact correspondence of specific dates is best done by consulting a table of concordance between the two calendars, it is possible to directly calculate a simple approximation. To convert from the Gregorian calendar to the Islamic (producing a date hegira) do the following: subtract 621.537 from the Gregorian years (including fractions) and multiply the result by 1.030686. To convert from a date hegira (to produce a Gregorian date) do the following: multiply 0.970203 times (hegira years minus one) and add 622.537 to the result. Obviously, for a date after 5 October 1582, you would need to adjust this simple result (subtract ten or more days from the penultimate hegira date or add ten or more days to the penultimate

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Gregorian date) to take account of the ten skipped days plus account for the three out of four centenary years not considered leap years. This gives a close approximation, but it could still be off by a day because the eleven extra days of the thirty-year cycle (or the leap year’s 29 February) are added as whole days on specific years, not as11/30 (or one quarter) of a day in each year. Different historical sources regularly differ by more than a day in their chronologies of the same events, so this small inaccuracy is in practice rather insignificant. In Morocco before the 20th century, many rural cultivators still maintained two traditional calendars: a solar Julian calendar for agricultural matters and the Islamic lunar calendar for religious matters. Today, the Gregorian calendar predominates except when the religious calendar is specifically needed. Casablanca. (lat. 33º 36' N., long. 7º 40' W.) Casablanca (al-dâr albayDâ’) is currently Morocco’s major commercial and industrial city, but it was a relatively small town during most of the 19th century until the latter part when it developed into a small urban center with a population of a few tens of thousands. A settlement existed on the site of present-day Casablanca at least as early as the 12th century, though some Arabic sources claim it dates from the 7th century. In the 13th century, the Marinid sultan abû yûsuf found it worthwhile to conquer the settlement, and when Marinid power declined, the town became a pirate republic. The Portuguese demolished the settlement, at the time called anfâ, in 1468. Some sources suggest that the Portuguese destroyed it again in 1515 and then had it rebuilt in 1575 and that they finally abandoned the town in 1755. sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd allâh had the town rebuilt after the Portuguese evacuation of Mazagan (ElJadida) in 1769, and it appears to have acquired the name al-dâr albayDâ’ (and Casablanca to the Europeans) during his reign. sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd allâh added defensive ramparts to protect against attack from the sea (a sqâla like that of Essaouira, Rabat, or Larache), populated the town with Berbers from the HâHâ (region south of Essaouira) and also stationed a contingent of ‘abîd al-bukhârî there. In the late 18th century Casablanca engaged in significant trade in grain with Spanish companies such as the Compaña de los Cinco Gremios Majores of Madrid, which had the monopoly for a time (1789). But a revolt in Chaouia, organized by its governor, led mawlây sulaymân to close the port in 1794, and it remained closed until 1830 when ‘abd al-raHmân opened it again to international trade. European traders began to arrive in 1840 with a large influx to the town in 1852. Casablanca grew steadily but slowly until the latter part of the century and then began to grow at a vigorous rate, overtaking Tanger in total trade around 1906 (with a total value of 14 million gold francs). The foreign loans forced on Morocco and the Conference of Algeciras pushed the population of the Chaouia again into revolt in 1907-1908, which the French used as a key pretext for landing an army

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in Morocco. Once the protectorate was firmly ensconced, General Lyautey decided to make Casablanca the principal port of Morocco, and construction of a modern port soon followed. Casablanca has continued to grow each year since, to the point that now the greater urban area, including both vast slums and vast elite neighborhoods (the most upscale is called anfâ), is regularly subdivided into additional governorships. Currently the premodern city is collectively called the Old Medina while the first major area constructed for indigenous residents is called the New Medina. New suburbs are now added almost continuously and the agglomeration (Grand Casablanca: population in 2000 of 3.422 million) now includes the following nominally separate cities: Aïn Chock-Hay Hassani, Aïn Sebaâ-HayMohammadi, Al Fida-Derb Sultan, Ben M’Sick-Médiouna + Moulay Rachid Sidi Outhmane, Casablanca-Anfa, Mechouar de Casablanca, Mohammédia, and Sidi Bernoussi-Zenata. Ceuta. (lat. 35º 54' N., long. 5º 20' W.) Ceuta (sabta) as a settlement dates back to the Phoenicians when it was called Abyla. The Romans first called it Julia Trajecta, and then in the 6th century it became a Byzantine capital named Septem Fratres, from which the modern name derives. It was occupied by the early Arab conquerors of Morocco in 682. From 828 to 931 Ceuta was part of the Idrisid kingdom and from 941 to 1016 it was an outpost of the Umayyads in Spain. The Almoravids took it in 1083, the Almohads in 1146, and the Marinids in 1309. The city soon regained a measure of independence under the ‘azafid dynasty until it collapsed around 1327 when the Marinid sultan abû sa‘îd (1310-1331) established control over the town by fortifying a camp on the heights to the west. Named âfrâf or al-manSûra, the fortifications even included a palace and mosque by the end of abû alHasan’s reign (1331-1351). Much of the camp was still standing in the 18th century, but it did not suffice to keep Ceuta in Moroccan control. Ceuta fell to the Portuguese in 1415 and remained in their control until Spain captured it in 1580. Today it is still occupied by Spain. Chafik, Mohamed. Chafik is one of the main figures in the domain of Berber politics in Morocco. Born on 17 September 1926 in the Beni Sadden region of Fès, Chafik pursued secondary studies at the Lycées Tarik ibn Zyad in Azrou and Moulay Youssef in Rabat and received a licence in history and a diploma in “inspection pédagogique.” After independence he held the post of regional inspector of primary education in different cities of the kingdom, and in 1963 he became a general inspector of primary education. In 1967, Chafik became the principal inspector of history and geography. In 1970, Chafik became undersecretary of state (à l’enseignement secondaire, technique et supérieur, et à la formation des cadres), a post that he maintained through the government of August 1971. From 13 April to 19 November 1971, Chafik also served as secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre. He has been appointed as chargé de mission au

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cabinet royal and a Director of the Royal College as well as a member of the Moroccan Royal Academy. Chafik has taught Arabic, French, history, pedagogy, and psychological pedagogy and is one of the authors of the Berber Manifesto, which asked for the official recognition of the Amazigh language and culture. He won the Prince Claus Award (Netherlands) and has published a Dictionnaire araboamazigh (3 volumes), Le dialecte marocain: Espace de Confluence entre l’arabe et l’amazigh, Glimpse of Thirty-Three Centuries of Berber History (1989 Arabic), Forty-Four Berber lessons (1991 Arabic), and What the Muezzin Says (1974). Chafik was the first rector of IRCAM and is a founding member of OMDH (Organisation Marocaine des Droits de l’Homme). Ahmed Boukous replaced Chafik as rector of IRCAM in November 2003. Chaïbaïnou, El Hadi [al-hâdî sha‘aybaynû]. Born in Kénitra in 1958, Chaïbaïnou studied at the Lycée Mohammed V in Kénitra and earned a B.A. at the Faculté de Droit et des Sciences économiques in Montpellier. He went on to specialize in law and information sciences, earning a licence en droit privé, a diplôme en droit des assurances, a diplôme des études approfondies (DEA) en droit privé appliqué, a doctorat d’état en droit privé, and a doctorat d’état en informatique juridique et droit de l’informatique. His banking career began at the Banque Nationale Populaire in France, but he has since worked at the Société Générale, the Association Française des Banques, in many Moroccan banks, and consulted on many occasions for the World Bank. Since 1982, Chaïbaïnou has been an Enseignant-chercheur at the Université de Montpellier I, at the Faculté de Droit Hassan II, and at the Institut National des Études Judiciaires, ISCAE. Chaïbaïnou joined GPBM (Groupement Professionnel des Banques du Maroc) in 1986, became a director (1989), secretary-general (1990), délégué général adjoint (1991), directeur général adjoint (1994), and in June 1997 was named Directeur général par intérim of GPBM. Chaïbaïnou is the founder and director of the international magazine Informatique Juridique et Droit de l’Informatique. Currently, Chaïbaïnou is also a member of the Conseil d’administration de l’Agence nationale de réglementation des télécommunications (ANRT). Chami, Hassan [Hasan al-shâmî]. Born on 30 April 1938, Chami graduated from the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées de Paris in 1961 and served as an engineer in the port of Casablanca, becoming Directeur of the port from 1965 to 1968. From 1968 to 1970, Chami was Directeur de l’Hydraulique before being made minister for public works in 1970. In this capacity, he was a key figure in the Moroccanization of public works and the creation of the Ecole Hassania des travaux publics and the Office National de l’Eau Potable (ONEP). In 1971, Chami was named director general of the OCE (Office de Commercialisation et d’Exportation), in which capacity he participated in the creation of many firms including INGEMA

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Chaouia, revolts in

(engineering), FACEMAG (construction), MULTITEX (textiles), and MARBAR (services). Hassan Chami was elected the president of the Confédération générale des entreprises du Maroc (CGEM) on 23 June 2000 in Casablanca (replacing Abderrahim Lahjouji) and was reelected on 20 June 2003. Chaouia, revolts in. On the eve of the protectorate, the French decided to occupy the plains around Casablanca in purported response to an incident (30 July 1907), in which eight Europeans associated with the construction of a short railway from a quarry to the port of Casablanca were killed. The original incident was caused by popular discontent over the French decision to take over Casablancan customs revenues as collateral for the loans of 1904 as well as the outrage over the Conference of Algeciras in 1906. The landing of 2,000 French troops under General Drude to deal with an outbreak of violence linked initial European responses to the eight deaths (including shelling of the town) met with tribal resistance led by sharîf abû al-zawî from 1907 to 1908. The violence escalated, under the leadership of muHammad ibn alrashîd, as a simultaneous succession dispute between mawlây HâfiZ and mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz reached its apex and embroiled the Chaouia area. General Drude briefly quelled the fighting in a twenty-four kilometer perimeter around Casablanca by September 1907, but it was not until 1908 that General d’Amade finally forced a comprehensive surrender in the Chaouia. CHEAM. Originally created in 1936 as the Centre des Hautes Etudes d’Administration Musulmane by Robert Montagne, CHEAM later became the Centre des Hautes Etudes sur l’Afrique et l’Asie Moderne while keeping its acronym. This collection of administrative reports and studies (more than 15,000 works plus 550 journals) was traditionally divided into two sets of dossiers, rouge (classified) and vert (open to the public). In August 2000, the material held at CHEAM (13 Rue du Four in Paris) was assimilated into the Fonds historique et encyclopédique sur les colonies (1800-1960) located at 105 Bd Raspail 75006 in Paris. Chefchaouen. (lat. 35º 05' N., long. 5º 20' W.) Located about fifty-six kilometers south of Tétouan at an altitude of 1,900 feet, Chefchaouen (shafshâwan) was founded in 1471 by sîdî ‘alî bn al-rashîd, an Idrisid sharîf, as a center for jihâd against the Portuguese and Spanish. With the Iberian exodus at the end of the 15th century, many Andalusians settled in the town, which grew to be a prosperous commercial and artisanal center. In 1561, Chefchaouen was conquered by the Sa‘dians, and it remained part of the sharifan empires until the Spanish protectorate. The population grew significantly in the 16th and 17th centuries and Chefchaouen soon became one of the centers of learning in the north. In 1924 during the Spanish protectorate, ‘abd al-karîm briefly captured Chefchaouen from the Spanish. Its status as a holy city

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with many resident sharîfs gives it a continuing special status in modern-day Morocco. Chekrouni, Nouzha [shaqrûnî, nuzha]. Born 3 October 1955 in Meknès, Chekrouni received a Licence en Lettres Modernes from the Faculté des Lettres in Fès in 1978, a DEA (diplôme des études approfondies) from Sorbonne Nouvelle-Paris III in 1979, and a Doctorat de Troisième Cycle in Linguistics from Sorbonne NouvelleParis III in 1983. Chekrouni is a professor of linguistics at the Faculté des Lettres de Meknès. She was head of the department of French Language and Literature in Meknès from 1986 to 1990. She is also a member of SILF (Société Internationale de Linguistique Fonctionnelle) and of the research group JAREL (Judeo-Arabic Ethnolinguistics). Chekrouni became a member of the provincial secretariat of USFP of Meknès in 1987 and, since 1992, has been a member of the USFP National Secretariat of women assigned to foreign relations. During the sixth general political meeting of USFP in March 2001, she was elected member of its political office. In April 2001, Chekrouni became the secretary general of the Organisation arabe du travail. On 14 March 1998, she took a government position dealing with the handicapped (Secrétaire d’Etat auprès du Ministre du développement social, de la solidarité, de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle, chargée des handicapés). On 6 September 2000, her mandate was extended to include women and families as she became Ministre déléguée auprès du Ministre de l’Emploi, de la formation professionnelle, du développement social et de la solidarité, chargée de la condition féminine, de la protection de la famille et de l’enfance et l’insertion des handicapés. In September 2002 Chekrouni was elected to the Chamber of Representatives. Chenier, Louis. Born in Montfort-sur-Boulzane (Aude) on 3 June 1722, Chenier studied at the Collège des Doctrinaires de Limoux and then was initiated into the export business by a maternal uncle in Carcassone and found a job with the textile firm Lavabre et Dussol as director of their offices in Constantinople (1742). He had the support of the French ambassador, Count Roland des Alleurs, and was put in charge of the commercial aspects of the Levant mission. At the death of the ambassador, Chenier returned to France (1765). In 1767, Chenier was appointed to be consul général to Morocco, accompanying the new ambassador, the count of Breugnon, who had been sent to sign a new treaty of peace and friendship on behalf of Louis XV. Chenier stayed in Morocco until 1882, except for a brief vacation between 1773 and 1775. Initially, Chenier established himself in Essaouira and then in Safi until in July 1768 he moved to Salé to be closer to Meknès where the sultan spent a lot of time. While Chenier’s first period in Morocco as consul general was reasonably straightforward in terms of his relationships with the sultan, his second period was much more problematic.

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In this second period, Chenier’s problems centered around two points: a) the refusal of France to make regular payments to the makhzan for the privilege of trading in the empire, something Great Britain, Venice, and Spain did, and b) issues surrounding the shipwreck of the Louise, a boat out of Nantes. sidi muHammad bn ‘abd allâh sent a letter asking for the French to pay for the shipwrecked mariners, as was the custom, but addressed it “au plus grands des Français” instead of, as protocol of the time demanded “au plus grand des Chrétiens, l’empereur de France,” which meant that the king was insulted and refused to respond. Chenier was reprimanded by the sultan. In 1781, sidi muHammad bn ‘abd allâh tried again but with the same honorifics, and received a reply not from the king but from the Secrétaire d’état à la marine. The sultan was so insulted he banished Chenier to Tanger. Chenier was recalled in 1782 and spent the remainder of his life in France where he wrote two histories: Recherche historique sur les Maures et l’Histoire de l’empire de Maroc (1787) and Révolutions de l’Empire Ottoman et observations sur ses progrès, sur ses revers et sur l’état présent de cet Empire (1789). Louis Chenier, who despite the ignominious end to his career was an excellent observer of Moroccan affairs, died in Paris on 26 May 1795. Cherif, Mourad [murâd sharîf]. Born in Tanger on 9 March 1945, Cherif earned a degree as a civil engineer in mining from the Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris in 1969 and began his professional career with the mining section of Groupe ONA. After numerous positions was promoted in 1989 to director general of Groupe ONA. In 1993, Cherif became minister of commerce (du commerce extérieur, des investissements extérieurs et de l’artisanat) and subsequently minister of finance (et des investissements). From February 1995 to November 1999, Cherif was director general of the Office Chérifien des Phosphates (OCP), Group and in April 1996, he also became a member of Hassan II’s Groupe de Réflexion. From 13 August 1997 to 14 March 1998, Cherif served as minister of housing and employment (de l’habitat, de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle). On 20 April 1999, Cherif became Président directeur général of Groupe ONA, and on 9 April, 2002, he again became director general of the OCP. Mourad Cherif has also been a prominent member of numerous foundations and professional as well as cultural associations. Cherkaoui, Taieb. Born in 1949 in Boujaâd, Cherkaoui has been the director of prisons (affaires pénales et des grâces) since 1997. He pursued his secondary and higher education at Ecole El Hassania in Boujaâd, Lycée Mohammed V in Rabat, and the Faculté de Droit at Université Hassan II in Casablanca. He obtained a licence in law and a diplôme d’Etudes Supérieure in law. Cherkaoui served as a substitute for the procureur du roi in Casablanca (1973-1979), and substitute for

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87

the procureur général du roi in Casablanca (1979-1988). He served as the procureur général du roi in El-Jadida (1988-1993) and in Casablanca (1993-1997). Cherkaoui, Taoufiq. Born 6 July 1958 in Marrakech, Cherkaoui has been the director of statistics in the planning ministry (de la prévision économique et du plan) since 1996. Cherkaoui pursued his education at the Institut National de Statistique et d’Economie Appliquée in Rabat and the Université Paris I Panthéon Sorbonne in France. Cherkaoui served as chef de service (des études, de la centralization statistique et de l’informatisation de la dette extérieure) at the Direction du Trésor et des Finances Extérieures in the finance ministry between 1990 and 1995. From 1995 to 1996, he served as directeur du cabinet du ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre, chargé de la population. Chkili, Tayeb. Born in Marrakech in 1939, Chkili took his secondary education at Lycée Mohammed V in Marrakech. He went on to obtain a doctorate in medicine and a diplôme de spécialiste du systéme nerveux. Chkili served as the director of the Hôpital Al-Razi in Salé, university professor at the Faculté de medicine in Rabat, dean of the Faculté de médecine et de la pharmacie de Rabat, and president of the organization of the African Congress of Drug Abuse. Chkili is a deputy for the Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme for the circonscription of Menara (Prefecture Marrakech). He served as minister of national education between 1988 and 1993. He was named chancellor of AlAkhawayn University from 1993 to 1998. Chkili is also the president of the Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches Aziz Belal (CERAB). Since 1999, he has been part of a special national commission that looks at education. Chkili is an active member of the Filiale Mondiale Neurologie, Association Française de Neurologie, and other associations of neurology and psychiatry. He has also been an active member in the elaboration of national reports on the regulation of medicines and treatment for the handicapped in Morocco. Chorfi, Abderrahmane. Born April 1948 in Rabat, Chorfi is a graduate of Lycée Descartes in Rabat, Ecole d’Architecture de Strasbourg, and the Ecole spéciale d’Architecture (Paris). He has a diploma as Architecte DES and a DEA in géographie urbaine. Chorfi served as chef de la division de l’Architecture in 1978. In 1980, he became director of the Ecole Nationale d’Architecture (ENA). In 1982, he joined the private sector. In 1999, he was again named director of the Ecole Nationale d’Architecture. Chorfi is the president of the Comité Marocain du Conseil International des Monuments et des Sites. Cohen, Levi A. Born in Essaouira in 1844, Cohen went at a young age to England and then settled in Tanger. He was a correspondant of the Anglo Jewish Association and editor/founder of the paper Réveil du

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Maroc. He used his influence to support Jewish causes and more generally to support the cause of the poor through trips to the court of the Sultan to plead their case. Levi Cohen died in Tanger on 9 November 1888. Confédération Démocratique du Travail (CDT). Eight labor unions formed a trade union confederation, the CDT, in 1978 to compete with the Union Marocaine du Travail (UMT) whose leadership it considered bureaucratic and corrupt. Its first secretary general was Muhammad Amawi, a secondary school teacher. Constitutions. Morocco has had a number of different constitutions since independence, due primarily to the need to negotiate sharing of power between the executive branch (the king) and the legislative branch (the parliament). By any standard the executive branch continues to hold, as has long been the case in Morocco, virtually all the real power. The only period when there was any doubt that this might be the basic form of the government was in the late 1950s immediately after independence when there was a chance, not seized, that the istiqlâl might negotiate a significant sharing of power between the king and the parliament. The first constitution, approved by national referendum on 7 December 1962, provided that the king acts as head of state with the power to appoint and dismiss ministers. Following student riots and civil unrest in June 1965 Hassan II declared a state of emergency, assumed both legislative and executive powers, and named a new government by fiat. The second constitution was short-lived because shortly after it was approved by referendum in 1970 there was a coup attempt and Hassan II suspended the constitution again. The third constitution, approved by national referendum in March 1972, was not derailed by the second coup attempt organized by General Oufkir, the minister of interior (10 August 1972). This constitution made some concessions to political pluralism by both making political organization less problematic and guaranteeing elections every six years as well as providing a series of risk-reducing measures bolstering the king’s authority. The king was assured the right to appoint and dismiss ministers, command the armed forces, and be the last arbiter in legislative and judicial matters. In short, the legislative branch was confined primarily to an advisory role. In addition the new constitution provided for a unicameral parliament in which two-thirds of the members are chosen directly by universal suffrage and the remaining members are elected by governmentrecognized organizations such as community councils, and business, labor, artisan, or farmer groups who self-affiliated with political parties (Table 7: ID). In June 1977, parliamentary elections were held with candidates from opposition parties allowed, though they won few seats.

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The fourth constitution, approved by referendum in 1992, provides for a 333-seat parliament structured similarly to the 306-seat parliament provided for in the third constitution. The parliament’s powers are expanded to include approving bills presented by the king and even initiating ad-hoc commissions of inquiry to investigate (lower levels of) the executive branch. The judges of the highest court, the Supreme Court, are appointed by the king as are the prime minister and the governors of the thirty-nine provinces (four in the former Spanish Sahara) and eight urban prefectures. Other ministers are appointed by the prime minister, though they may be removed by the king. The secretary-generals of each ministry are also appointed by the king and their powers and salaries were significantly increased by a decree issued in April 1992 in which Hassan II advocated creating a bicameral parliament with the upper house elected indirectly and the lower house elected directly. A new system having this form was in effect beginning with the 1997 elections: it included two chambers in the parliament (as opposed to two ways of being elected to the same parliament), a Chamber of Representatives (Chambre des Représentants) elected by direct suffrage, and a Chamber of Councillors (Chambre des Conseilleurs) elected by indirect suffrage, i.e., by official representatives of various organizations and municipalities. As such, the latter are in effect elected by electors approved by the state. Coup attempt of August 1972. This second coup was reputedly planned by General Oufkir, at the time the minister of defense. Two pilots were instructed to shoot down Hassan II’s plane as he returned to Morocco from Paris on 10 August . The pilots did shoot up the plane but it still managed to land safely and loyal troops quickly came to the king’s aid. Two of the pilots sought refuge in Gibraltar but were extradited. They were executed on 13 January 1973, at the Kénitra air base, despite pleas for clemency in the interest of national unity by the political opposition. The pilots were trained in Texas and landed, after the attack, at the U.S. air base in Kénitra (since closed), but as of 2003 there is no clear evidence of American involvement. Oufkir’s role in the plot was announced immediately after his death sometime during the night of 17 August, officially a suicide but one reputedly involving multiple shots to various parts of the body. Coup manqué of 10 July 1971. This first coup attempt was organized by General Muhammad Madbouh and Colonel Muhammad Ababou, who induced the cadets from the Ahermoumou NCO school near Fès to go on maneuvers to the royal palace at Skhirat. There the cadets were to capture the king who was celebrating his birthday with guests. The leaders were motivated by their conviction that the government was incurably corrupt, but the cadets did not know what was going on. When the main forces left Skhirat to take control of Rabat and Hassan II found himself held by young cadets he easily persuaded them to

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change sides. A number of senior government ministers and foreign diplomats were killed in the coup attempt and the two coup leaders died during the coup. In light of the following coup by General Oufkir, many questions are still unanswered since reputable sources claim that General Madbouh was closely tied to the CIA and it is hard to imagine either general acting without some promise of support, which would most obviously suggest France or the United States. In all, seventyfour additional people were sentenced in connection with the coup attempt; five to death (four of which, including al-faqîh al-baSrî, were in absentia) and the rest to various terms in prison. The cadets were acquitted. Currency, Accounting. In practice, Morocco used terms identical to a subset of the currency terms used in the marketplace to keep government accounts, but the makhzan made a serious effort to keep the accounting values separate from the market values. Historians of the 19th century have a complex set of issues to deal with because Morocco from mid-century tried, quite successfully, to devise a system of taxation and customs duties that would be sheltered from the depreciation of its own copper currency (flus) and the depreciation of various foreign silver currencies produced by France and Spain. This effort (documented in detail in Park 1983a:104-200) was constrained by treaties, foreign pressures, the existence of a variety of copper, silver and bronze coins in the market, and a long tradition of the relative values of various coins plus the exigencies of paying attention to both intrinsic and nominal values. As depreciation became important in the latter half of the 19th century, the Moroccan government’s primary goal became the maintenance of the real value of revenues. These revenues were of two fundamentally different origins. The first, taxes paid internally, had to be assessed in a coinage available to the poor and this meant a copper/bronze currency. The second key source of revenue was associated with international trade and included import duties and rents paid by foreigners on government housing. This was assessed in silver. As both currencies were subject to depreciation, the only rational solution was to keep accounts and assessment rates in an accounting currency to which real currency could be converted and on the basis of which assessments could be floated with the market. This meant that government accounts show conversion rates for both sources of revenue. This system, simple in conception, has been confusing to historians because the same terms were often used in the accounting side of the ledger and on the intake side and only careful note of the conversions involved make it absolutely clear that the same terms, e.g., “rial,” embody different values in the two sections of the ledgers. An “uqiya,” which in times past had referred to an ounce of gold, became a key accounting currency, but it and its multiples (such as the mithqal or 10 uqiya) were also regularly used to count copper/bronze coins. Thus at mid-century an uqiya was seen as worth 24 flus (and a

Currency, Accounting

91

mithqal was worth 240 flus) and in 1897 the accounting uqiya was worth 1/40th of a rial (in this case the 5F piece) or in market currency 90 flus not 24 flus (the rial was valued at 3600 flus). In 1863, foreign pressures led to the accounting uqiya being valued at 32.5 to a 5F piece, thus again the equivalent (for the last time) of 24 flus in the market despite a rise in the flus per 5F piece to 780. Moroccan officials did not use decimals and made all calculations in fractions. In the 19th century from 1828, those counting copper or bronze coins would still talk of 24 flus being worth an uqiya; it just was not the accounting uqiya after mid-century and all coins were henceforth converted on the government books at exchange rates that took depreciation into account. Similarly another accounting currency, the rial, had its correlates (the 5F piece and the 5 peseta piece) in the marketplace, and while the latter could and did fluctuate in value, the accounting system converted currency to accounting rial at a fixed rate that was adjusted from time to time (at mid-century it was 32.5 uqiya and in 1896 it became 40 uqiya), but the rial selected as the accounting rial changed as well and its appreciation with respect to flus was reflected in the flus value of the uqiya. The accounting currencies also included a bilyun initially defined as 1/20th of a Spanish rial (with the 5F piece—the first accounting rial set at 19 bilyun). This allowed easy conversions between the two rial until the 5F piece began to appreciate around 1878 and began to show up in accounts as also worth 20 bilyun. A decade later the Spanish rial began to depreciate and had to be reevaluated in terms of bilyun. The accounting rial used in Morocco was the 5F piece after 1897 and from 1856 to 1878, but since both rials in the decade of 1878-1889 were of similar market value the Moroccan government seems to have used the Spanish rial as the accounting rial in this period and during the following decade when the Spanish rial depreciated. This is clear both at the level of written discussion (pesetas not francs are discussed) and at the level of conversions; after 1889 when the Spanish rial depreciates (but the 5F piece does not) assessments are made in the depreciated currency. Prior to 1897, the accounting rial was less fundamental than the uqiya (the bilyun was merely an accounting fraction of an accounting rial), but after 1897 the the critical monthly accounts (sent to the central administration) for both taxes (mustafâd) and customs were for the first time done in rial and bilyun. Up to this time uqiya were always used for the monthly report of taxes collected, while after this time uqiya appear in the daily accounts but do not show up on the monthly summaries. In brief, while the full details cannot be given here it is critical to note that the accounting currencies must be seen as distinct from the market currencies, and the historical adjustments of those accounting currencies must be noted before any comparisons can be made as well as before any assessment of Moroccan revenues can be persuasive. It is thus a fundamental mistake to assume that rates in the marketplace can simply be used as if they were the same as the accounting rates used in

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ledgers. Unfortunately, historians have quite generally failed to recognize this and regularly confuse the two currencies (Ayache 1979b made the first small step in this direction; the link between the Moroccan and Spanish market currencies in the decade after 1889 was made by D. Eustache 1984:392; and all key details were available in Park 1983a). A key question remains, whether there was a single guiding mind behind this policy or if, as is more likely, it was a collective accomplishment. Currency, Historic. Morocco’s currency has long been linked in intricate ways both to foreign currencies and to the needs of both taxation and international trade (table 3). After 1956, the relationship between the dirham and other currencies can be seen in figure 9 (see Exchange rates). During the protectorate (1914-1955) Morocco used the French franc, but the franc rapidly devalued in terms of other currencies during this period. The value of the French franc relative to the pound sterling began at roughly 25 in 1914, then began to slip; to 52 in 1920, 100 in 1925, 176 in 1939, 480 in 1946, and 980 in 1956. The Spanish peseta in the same time frame only went from 25 to 109 while the German mark inflated dramatically from 1919 to 1924 but was reissued and then appreciated (from 20 in 1925 to 10 in 1940 and 12 in 1956). In the 18-19th century many coins circulated in Morocco, and their relative values fluctuated as reminting changed their intrinsic values. It can be assumed with fair confidence that, by and large, those whose business it was to change currencies both knew what they were doing and tried to make a profit. Thus it is as unlikely that absolute intrinsic value (as ascertained from surviving coins in museums) defined completely the exchange rates that prevailed in particular places and times as it is that intrinsic value had nothing to do with those rates. Public confidence and tradition undoubtedly had their roles as well. D. Eustache (1984) has documented the intrinsic value of Moroccan coins (i.e., their silver or gold content) during the Alawite period, and similar studies are available for each of the foreign currencies in the Moroccan market. Fluctuations over time in these intrinsic values combined with a utility value of particular coins for foreign trade purposes to set exchange rates in the market. These fluctuating rates had relevance to the state because duties might be paid in any combination of coins and had to be translated on the books into some common currency. A dynamic link between market and accounting currencies was as critical as it was for there to be some stability in the value of the latter. While no theorist in the 19th century came up with a measure of value immune to depreciation (such as Sraffa’s standard commodity), the system followed in Morocco during the 19th century was, all things considered, exceptionally well thought out.

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Table 3. Sketch of Late 18th- to Early 20th-Century Currency in Morocco. Nominal market values of coins in flus (copper/bronze coins) 1766 1828 1830-40 1845 1848 1852 1863 1873 1889 1896 1897 1903 dublun

7680 12800 12800

Louis d’or bunduqî mithqâl

3000 1920

720

1329314400 12000

960 1600 1600

960 240

rial ‘azîzî

3000

rial Hassani

2880 2880 2343

5 P rial

324

360 384 432 480

821 1263 2496 2880 2880 3000

360 408 456

780 1200 2880 3312 3600 3000

5 F rial Philippine P

432 430.2

dh sudâsî

42

large dh

36

dh rubâ‘î small, shra‘î dh

27 96

24

real vellon

24

24

19.2

24

40

40

144

144

150

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

24

24

24

24

24

24

40

144

centime

6

muzûna

24

market uqiya

96

24

24

24

24

Conversion rates for market currency (flus) to accounting currency bilyûn uqiya

16.2 96

24

18 19.2 21.6

24

41

144

180

150

24

24

24 36.92 76.8 82.8

90

75

24

24

63

Exchange rate between accounting currencies (in uqiya) 5 P rial 5 F rial

13.5

15

16

18

20 34.21 34.21 30.88

32 33.28

40

15

17

19

40

40

32.5

32.5 32.5

40

Note that in 1863 the Spanish 5 P rial was pegged at 20/19 that of the French 5 F rial and the latter was pegged at 32.5 accounting uqiya hence the 5 P piece was approximately 34.210526 uqiya. Similar considerations explain the other odd numbers and decimals (often left out of table) since the Moroccan officials only used fractions. The bilyûn was always 1/20 of the accounting rial (see text). From 1852 to 1878 and after 1897 the accounting rial was the French 5 F piece but from 1878 to 1896 the Spanish 5 P piece seems to have been the accounting currency (see text). Although this table provides the relative values of all the main coins conversions can only readily be made within a stable time period. In addition, it should be noted that many coins were adulterated or scarce and market forces led to market adjustments in such cases. All data are from Park 1983 (Pp. 104-200), which also provides copious archival sources.

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Dahak, Driss

In earlier periods, Moroccan dynasties minted silver and bronze /copper currency as well as the occasional gold coins. In general Moroccan dynasties tried to maintain a bimetal silver-copper system with all the difficulties that entailed. There were thus regular problems with the demonetization of overvalued currency. Yet the most serious monetary difficulties appeared in the 19th century when European powers tried to enforce advantageous terms of trade, thus constraining policy options even as European coins flooded the market. Making treaties on the basis of market-adjustable accounting currencies (not themselves subject to Gresham’s law) became the only viable way to maintain a functioning monetary system. In retrospect, the 19thcentury Moroccan state succeeded rather well in this effort and certainly far surpassed France or Germany’s performance in the first half of the 20th century.

-DDahak, Driss. Born in Ksar El-Kébir in 1939, Dahak received a Doctorat en Droit from the Université de Nice, a licence in law, from the University of Bagdad, and certificates in aviation law, maritime law, and insurance law from the Université de Bruxelles. From 1962 to 1967, Dahak was an investigating magistrate in the ministry of justice before becoming an avocat general/public defender (1967-1968), a procureur publique/public prosecutor (1968-1972), and conseilleur in the ministry of justice for the Cours d’Appel/Appeals Court (1972-1977). Following this (1977-1985), Dahak became the director of the magistrature/magistrates office. Between 1973 and 1982, Dahak also served as a Moroccan delegate to the United Nations for maritime law while from 1982 to 1985 he served as counselor to the UN for Human Rights on the Arab Committee. He was chairman of the Arab Permanent Committee for Human Rights from 1984 to 1987 and secretary-general of the Arab organization for the social defense against crime in 1985. Moroccan ambassador to Syria (1989-1994), Dahak was named president of the Cour suprême and président of the Conseil consultatif des droits de l’homme by Hassan II on 7 October 1996. Dahak helped resolve major union struggles over the management of the national railways (ONCF) and presided over the February 1997 reconciliation between the parliamentary opposition and the executive branch, which returned government operations to normalcy and reestablished democratic prospects in the eyes of many in parliament. darqâwa. mawlây al-‘arbî al-darqâwî (1737-1823) established a zâwiya based on a reform of the shâdhilîya aimed at reorienting religious practice away from a concern with worldly affairs. To this end, he

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emphasized curbing human passions (detachment or tajrîd) and the value of self-humiliation and poverty as a means of disassociating oneself from material concerns and facilitating complete obliteration of the ego (fanâ’). These rather radical reforms were received by the masses with great enthusiasm but met with very negative responses from the elites (al-khâSSa). By the late 18th century the darqâwî Tarîqa was exceedingly popular in Morocco and had achieved such prominence in Algeria that it was causing problems for the Ottoman rulers. It had become so popular in the remote mountainous regions of Morocco that mawlây sulaymân, who had been repressing it, decided it might be better to harness its popularity. In 1805, mawlây sulaymân even sent mawlây al‘arbî al-darqâwî to Tlemcen to reestablish amicable relations between Morocco and the Ottomans. To his surprise mawlây al-‘arbî al-darqâwî returned with a bay‘a from the ‘ulamâ’ of Tlemcen pledging their support and allegiance to mawlây sulaymân. The Moroccan sultan did not want to create problems with the Ottomans and so refused to act on the bay‘a. This and the allegiance to the zâwiya of several important dissident Berber leaders led to a deterioration of relations between the makhzan and the zâwiya, and the continuing intense dislike by the elites prompted mawlây al-‘arbî al-darqâwî to decide to make the darqâwî Tarîqa a little more palatable to the elites. To this end he recruited muHammad al-Harrâq, a sharîf and ‘alîm in the mosque at Tétouan to revamp the Tarîqa. muHammad al-Harrâq moved the zâwiya in a new and less radical and more pro-makhzan direction from 1818 on when he began to distance himself from the principles of the founder. Daure-Serfaty, Christine. A French writer and militant for human rights in Morocco, Daure-Serfaty has worked for the rights of victims of “les années de plomb” and is the wife of Abraham Serfaty. She arrived in Morocco in 1962 as a teacher of history and geography on the French government’s “coopérant” program. In 1972, while living in Casablanca, Daure-Serfaty hid two Marxist militants in her house as they fled the Moroccan police. In 1974, one of the militants, Abraham Serfaty, was sent to prison while the other, Abdellatif Zeroual, died from torture. For years, Daure-Serfaty fought to save the life of her husband, Abraham Serfaty, whom she married in prison in 1986 after the intervention of Danielle Mitterrand. From 1986 to 1991, she lived in Rabat and travelled continuously to the prison of Kénitra. In 1989, she gave to Gilles Perrault all the information she had about the disappeared political prisoners and the Tazmamart prison for political prisoners whose very existence was not public knowledge at the time. In 1990, Gilles Perrault’s book, Notre ami le roi, appeared and radically changed the image of the regime of Hassan II in the West. Soon many prisoners were freed, and Abraham Serfaty was released

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dâwûd, muHammad bn aHmad

from prison (1991) and expelled from Morocco with his wife. After the death of Hassan II, the two were granted the right to return. In September 1999, they returned to Morocco to live in Mohammédia. Christine Daure-Serfaty is the president of the Observatoire international des prisons. dâwûd, muHammad bn aHmad. muHammad bn aHmad dâwûd (1900-1984) was one of the great 20th-century historians and scholars. His multivolume târîkh tiTwân (History of Tétouan) is crammed with documents and observations of interest to modern historians. The work provides insight into social, economic, and diplomatic history as well as providing the most detailed account of the city of Tétouan available. The author was director of the Bibliothèque Hasaniya (Bibliothèque Royale) from 1969 to 1974 and his own library, al-dâwûdîya, is now managed by his family. de Foucauld, (Vicomte) Père Charles. Born in Strasbourg on 15 September 1858, Foucauld inherited wealth and position in society but lost his parents at the age of six. He chose the army and attended SaintCyr where he dissipated himself on parties and graduated eightyseventh out of eighty-seven students. Nevertheless, he became an officer, but when ordered with his regiment to Sétif he resigned from the army. In 1881, he was allowed to reenlist and was given a command in southern Algeria where, after extensive contact with devout Muslims, he asked for a leave to study religious issues but was refused, so he resigned again from the army. At this point he made the acquaintance of Mac Carthy, the director of the Bibliothèque Nationale d’Alger, who set him up with a Jewish guide, and he set out to explore Morocco (1883-1884). His disguises were readily recognized by local caids but they proved quite hospitable and his explorations produced a book, Reconnaissance au Maroc, and an atlas (original edition was 1888) that have rich and perceptive observations as well as enthusiasm for Moroccan society and geography. Foucauld’s return to France also developed into a new orientation leading first to menial work as a Trappist monk in France and Jerusalem followed by an assignment to the monastery of Akbes in Asia Minor and finally ordination as a priest—after ten years as a Trappiste—in Paris on 9 June 1900. Foucauld was inclined toward poverty and solitude and was given an assignment in the far south of Algeria at Beni Abbes, a prosperous oasis near the Grand Erg. Foucauld studied Arabic and practiced both material and spiritual succor but in time found the place too populous and comfortable. He urged his superiors to let him join the Tuareg and jumped at an opportunity to accompany a military column led by Lapperrine to Tamanrasset where formal protection was arranged for him through Moussa Ag, Amastane the caid of Hoggar. Foucauld, however, even found Tamanrasset a little populous and established another hermitage at Assekrem, a distant Tuareg settlement at 2,800 meter elevation.

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There he found time to continue his studies and produced four dictionaries, a collection of poetry and proverbs, a collection of prose texts, and a grammar of Tuareg. On 1 December 1916, Père Charles de Foucauld was murdered in Assekrem for reasons that can only be conjectured. Demnate. (lat. 31º 50' N., long. 7º 05' W.) Located about 120 km east of Marrakech, Demnate (damnât) is located in the foothills of the High Atlas at a little under 1,000 meters in altitude on the traditional road between Marrakech and Meknès as well as at the base of mountain passes leading to the Draa and the Tafilalt. Dating as a market center perhaps to the second half of the 6th century, Demnate has served as a garrison town for rulers in Marrakech since at least the time of the Almoravids. It was conquered by the Almohads around 1140 and has been a significant center since. It is located on the banks of the tasâwt river, which has traditionally been used to irrigate olives and figs. Its location has made it a meeting place of nomads and cultivators and a traditional major center for hides and wool. Demnate had a sizable Jewish community until the mid-20th century. This community suffered significant persecutions after 1864 and construction of a separate mallah was ordered (11 May 1887), which was completed in 1894. Demography. Moroccan demographic figures are less than perfect but unlikely to be far off the mark. Government projections have generally been viewed as optimistic but feasible. Figures for earlier centuries fluctuate wildly and depend principally on the imagination and experience of the observer. Table 4 provides the basic population figures. As table 4 suggests, there were probably around 5 million Moroccans at the turn of the 20th century and the rate of growth during several earlier centuries can be presumed to have been close to zero. Nevertheless, this is only an assumption, and the fairly rapid rates from 1936 on, to say nothing of the massive increase from 1952 to 1960, which must involve some earlier undercounting, suggest that in times of peace the population can rapidly increase. Less historic cities have also shown rapid demographic growth, and though we do not have a long history of urbanism, their current populations are mentioned in the appropriate dictionary entries. Figure 2 illustrates the steadily rising levels of life expectancy at birth. Morocco, like many countries, has benefited enormously from improved public health and nutrition such that life expectancy at birth is now about 33 percent higher than it was in 1965. While the economic picture (see Economy) does not show an overall increase in standard of living, the basic demographic numbers shown in figure 2 suggest that there is a significant improvement in standard of living at the most fundamental level of survivability.

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Table 4. Population in Morocco in Thousands. Year Tot. Pop. Growth Rate Rural 1900 1912 1926 1936 1952 1960 1971 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2004 2007

5,000 5,400 6,200 7,100 8,700 11,626 15,379 20,419 20,832 21,311 21,791 22,270 22,749 24,649 25,117 25,582 26,074 26,386 26,848 27,310 27,775 28,238 28,705 29,170 30,606 32,115

0.06 0.10 1.36 1.278 3.690 2.576 2.61

2.0582

1.6158 1.6158 1.6158

4,580 4,800 5,220 5,650 6,050 8,237 9,969 11,689 11,808 11,926 12,037 12,140 12,235 12,530 12,581 12,625 12,666 12,702 12,748 12,786 12,821 12,837 12,865 12,863 12,854 12,813

Percent

Urban

Percent

91.6 88.9 84.2 79.6 69.5 70.8 64.8 57.25 56.68 55.96 55.24 54.51 53.78 50.83 50.9 49.35 48.58 48.14 47.48 46.82 46.16 45.46 44.82 44.1 42.0 39.9

420 600 980 1,450 2,650 3,389 5,410 8,730 9,024 9,385 9,754 10,130 10,514 12,119 12,536 12,957 13,408 13,684 14,100 14,524 14,954 15,401 15,840 16,307 17,751 19,301

8.4 11.1 15.8 20.4 30.5 29.2 35.2 42.75 43.32 44.04 44.76 45.49 46.22 49.17 49.91 50.65 51.42 51.86 52.52 53.18 53.84 54.54 55.18 55.9 58.0 60.1

Note: Figures for years after 1994 are government projections, using an estimated trend line for urbanization (see February 1985 below). Those after 2001 are our projections using a flat rate of 1.6158 percent and a 0.7 increase in the urban percent per year. These projections will be high if the rate of growth continues to decline. Sources: 1900-1952: D. Noin (1970), R. Escalier (1982) and J.F. Troin (1985); from 1960-2007, Direction de la Statistique, February 1985, Annuaire Statistique du Maroc (1992, 2001).

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Life Expectancy at Birth 70

Age

65

60

55

50

45 1965

1970

1975

Female

1980

1985

1990

1995

1999

Male

Figure 2. Moroccan Life Expectancy at Birth, 1965-2000. Source: World Bank: Development Indicators dataset. Life Expectancy at Various Ages 80

Life Expectancy in years

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0

5

15

25

35

45

55

65

75

85

95

Age bracket Males

Females

Figure 3. Moroccan Life Expectancy by Age Bracket. Source: WHO Life Expectancy Tables (Morocco) 2000.

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Demography

An examination of figure 3 suggests that not only do men consistently have lower life expectancy at birth than women, they also have lower levels at every age. Given that Moroccan men now live far longer than Moroccan women did in 1965, and may in the future live longer than those women currently do, the statistics suggest one of two possibilities: a) men have higher exposure to risk during each stage of life or b) that men have lower capacities to overcome risk than women. In either case, the gradual increases in life expectancy would then simply reflect the lowering general levels of risk exposure during a lifetime.

Composition of Morocco’s Population Age and Residence

70

Population (%)

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 0-14

15-64

65+

Urban

Figure 4. Composition of Morocco’s Population: Age and Location. Source: World Bank: Development Indicators dataset. The general profile of Morocco’s population from 1965 to the present is presented in figure 4. The figure shows four sequences of bars, each of which shows a clear trend. The first set of bars for youth aged 0-14 as a percent of the population shows an unmistakable decline, which correlates obviously with Morocco’s declining rate of population increase. The second group of bars depicting the working-

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age population from 15-64 shows an equally unambiguous growth over the last thirty-five years. This means that Morocco’s productive capacity is at an all-time high but also that unemployment is potentially a major problem. The third set of bars depicts a basically stable elderly population (65+), which is obviously linked to current life expectancy levels. If, as may be expected, these life expectancies increase much beyond their current levels (in the high 60s), this category may begin to grow. The final sequence of bars shows the rapid growth in the urban population as a percent of the total. Thus, the big picture is that of a major increasing trend of urbanization, which will more than absorb the increasing numbers of employable (but frequently unemployed) people. Table 5. Population of Historical Urban Centers in Morocco. Population from 1856 to 2004 in thousands Urban Center 1856 1884 1900 1930 1937 1951 1960 1971 1982 1993 2004 Agadir - 3.7 5.6 30.1 16.7 61.2 110.5 155.0 608.6 Asilah - 5.3 - 10.8 14.1 18.8 24.5 29.0 Azemour - 8.7 7.8 - 12.4 17.2 24.8 32.7 38.0 Béni-Mellal - 7.1 - 28.9 53.8 95.0 140.2 162.7 Berkane - 3.5 - 20.5 39.0 60.5 77.0 92.3 Casablanca 1.6 9 21 163.1 257.4 682.4 965.3 1506.4 2139.2 2,943.0 3,672.9 Chefchaouen - 6.0 - 13.7 15.4 23.6 31.4 36.4 El Jadida 1.5 7 10 20.8 24.4 34.8 40.3 55.5 81.5 119.0 138.2 Essaouira 14.0 15 20 14.4 15.2 - 26.4 30.1 42.0 56.1 68.9 Fès - 80 100 112.5 144.4 179.4 216.1 325.3 448.8 564.0 1,003.0 Kénitra - 21.1 17.6 55.9 86.8 139.2 188.2 292.6 373.4 Khouribga - 8.1 - 40.8 73.7 127.2 190.0 206.8 Ksar El Kebir - 30.8 - 34.0 48.3 73.5 107.1 124.2 Larache 4.5 8 11 - 29.5 41.9 30.8 45.7 63.9 90.4 114.7 Marrakech - 60 80 195.1 190.3 215.3 243.1 332.7 439.7 602.0 848.0 Meknès - 25 30 57.0 74.7 140.4 175.9 248.4 319.8 401.0 545.0 Mohammédia - 35.0 70.4 105.1 170.1 205.0 Nador - 7.4 - 17.6 32.5 62.0 112.5 130.5 Oujda 8 10 30.0 34.5 80.5 128.6 175.5 260.1 331.0 457.8 Rabat 25.0 27 30 55.3 83.3 156.2 227.4 367.6 518.6 1,220.0 1,550.0 Safi 10.0 11 13 26.2 25.2 56.8 81.1 129.1 197.3 376.0 334.8 Salé - 25.9 31.8 46.6 75.8 155.6 289.4 504.9 776.0 Sefrou - 9.9 11.9 - 21.5 28.6 20.9 54.2 119.0 Settat 2 12.8 18.1 - 29.6 42.3 65.2 96.2 124.8 Tanger 10.0 21 45 60.0 62.0 150.0 141.7 187.9 266.3 307.0 620.4 Taroudannt - 8.9 - 17.1 22.3 35.8 57.1 76.9 Taza - 12.4 14.9 - 31.7 55.2 77.2 121.0 102.2 Tétouan 22.0 22 22 35.0 49.5 80.7 101.4 139.1 199.6 277.5 318.8 Note: Before 1930, population estimates varied enormously from observer to observer, for all Moroccan urban centers. Figures for the early period are our own composites from a multitude of sources; those for 1993 are a mix of U.N. official estimates (for large cities broken into smaller units in the recent census) and official figures from the 1993 census for the smaller cities. The authors thank Alice Clague (UN/DESIPA) for both sets of figures. Published Sources: Population légale du Maroc (1971, 1982, 1994), Ganiage 1994, Great Britain. Naval Intelligence Division 1941-2, Annuaire Statistique du Maroc, 1992. Demographic Yearbook (UN) 1993. Annuaire Statistique du Maroc 2001, www.world-gazetteer.com.

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al-dhakhîra al-sanîya

The detailed picture for historic urban centers (table 5) suggests that the majority of the urban growth is confined to ten agglomerations: Casablanca, Fès, Kénitra, Marrakech, Meknès, Oujda, Safi, Rabat-Salé, Tanger, Tétouan. In the overall picture, the traditional capitals of Fès, Meknès and Marrakech now account for less than 6 percent of the urban population compared to the 50 percent they comprised in 1900. The primary area of growth has been on the coast and in the North with most southern towns tending toward slow growth though Marrakech has maintained steady growth at intermediate levels. al-dhakhîra al-sanîya. An anonymous chronicle for the Marinid period of which only six out of ten chapters survive, al-dhakhîra al-sanîya fî ta’rîkh al-dawla al-marînîya (the magnificent treasure of the history of the Marinid state) may be the oldest surviving Marinid historical chronicle. It ends with the construction of Fès Jdid in 1276 and begins with a Marinid ancestor, ‘abd al-Haqq, in roughly 1200. The chronicle includes verse, rhymed prose, and prose mixed together and ordered both chronologically and biographically. It is largely based on written sources, some identified and others not. al-dilâ’î, al-masnâwî. abû abdallâh muHammad al-masnâwî bn aHmad bn muHammad al-masnâwî bn maHammad bn abû bakr al-dilâ’î (1662-1724) was born at the dilâ’î zâwiya six years before its destruction in 1668 whereupon his family moved to Fès. There he became the greatest scholar of his time and included among his own students most of the biographers of the 18th century. In Fès, he was imam of the bû ‘inânîya madrasa and then of the sanctuary of mawlây idrîs II, as well as mufti. muHammad al-masnâwî wrote a number of works including several of interest to historians: a short treatise (1715) on the genealogical descendants of ‘abd al-qâdir al-jilânî, titled natîjat altaHqîq fî ba‘D ahl al-sharaf al-wathîq (The verified outcome for some reliable shurafâ’ families, available in part in English: Weir 1903), a brief account of the saint aHmad al-yamanî, a treatise on the genealogy of the Idrisid shurafâ’, titled risâla fî nasab al-sâdât al-ashrâf aladârisa al-jûTîyîn, a hagiography of the saint ‘abdallâh al-khayyâT, titled jawâhir al-simâT fî manâqib sayyidî ‘abdallâh al-khayyâT, and some notes on the most famous shurafâ’ of Fès, titled taqyîd fî alashrâf alladhîna shuhra bi-fâs li-mâ waqa‘a fî al-mas’ala min khilâf. In addition, muHammad al-masnâwî wrote legal works including one on the definition of ahl al-dhimma, titled Sarf al-himma ilâ taHqîq ma‘nâ al-dhimma, literary works including an elegy on the dilâ’ zâwiya, al-maqâma al-fikrîya fî maHâsin al-zâwiya al-bakrîya, and mystical works. On 8 July 1724, muHammad al-masnâwî died.

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dilâ’, zâwiya of. There were originally two zâwiyas referred to as dilâ’. The first was founded on the slopes of the Middle Atlas by abû bakr bn muHammad al-dilâ’î around 1566. The second was founded by abû bakr’s grandson, muHammad al-Hâjj al-dilâ’î in 1638 some twelve kilometers from the first at the location of the current zâwiya of ayt isHâq between Khénifra and Kasba Tadla. The main (first) zâwiya was endowed with such great wealth in lands and support from the powerful zayân Berbers that it rose to cultural and political prominence. By the 17th century as Sa‘dian powers weakened after the death of al-manSûr (1603) the dilâ’ites came to be viewed as the principal source of cultural and political stability in the north. Contemporary accounts, perhaps exaggerated, suggested that the zâwiya had a library of 10,000 volumes and taught more than 4,000 students. Such was its renown by 1638 that the key figures in the original zâwiya established themselves in new, much expanded quarters at the new site a few kilometers from the original zâwiya. The new zâwiya, with its walls, palaces, mosques, and water works, explicitly moved the dilâ’ites into contention for political and military supremacy in Morocco. During the next three decades the zâwiya vied for political control of Northern Morocco, and even the Tafilalt, until it was finally destroyed by the founder of the ‘Alawite dynasty mawlây al-rashîd in 1668. The dilâ’î scholars were forcibly relocated to Fès and other cities and the zâwiya was razed to the ground. Perhaps the most famous dilâ’î scholars were maHammad bn abû bakr al-dilâ’î (d.1636), who was known as one of the greatest teachers of Hadîth and sunna, almasnâwî al-dilâ’î and al-Hasan al-yûsî. Dilami, Abdelmounaim. Born 23 November 1949 in Fès, Dilami studied at Université Mohammed V and Université de Grenoble (Paris). He obtained a licence in political science, a diplôme d’Etudes supérieures ès-Droit public, and doctorat d’état ès-Droit International. Dilami is the director general of L’Economiste. He taught at the Faculté de Droit in Rabat (1976-1998) and served as head of the department of political science at the Université Mohammed V. Since 1991, Dilami has been the president of the Association des Publicistes et Politologues Africains. Diplomatic documents. The Almohad dynasty introduced a formula to be placed at the head of diplomatic documents, al-Hamdu-li-llâhi waHdahu (praise to God the unique), which distinguished dynasties in the maghrib from other dynasties: the Hafsids to the east added the phrase wa-l-shukru li-llâh (and thanks be to God), while the naSrids of Granada selected the phrase wa-lâ ghâliba illa-llâh (there is no victory without God). The Sa‘dian dynasty continued the Almohad tradition, though it turned the phrase into more ornate calligraphy. Alawite documents from the 19th century still were prefaced with the

104

Direction de la statistique/maSlaHat al-iHSâ’

traditional Almohad phrase. A number of standard documents can be mentioned. The dahir (Zahîr) was originally a certificate of investiture typically used to bestow immunity from taxes, tolls, or labor obligations on prominent religious figures, but it became over time a general document having the role of a royal decree. Dahirs from the Alawite dynasty often also include the additional phrase, wa-Salâ allâh ‘alâ sayyidnâ muHammad wa-âlihi wa-SaHbihi (and the prayers of God on our lord Muhammad and his family and his companions). The tanfîdha was a diploma that conferred a pension or usufruct sustained by royal properties to those meriting royal support. The archives generally contain numerous examples of royal correspondence (risâla), much of which assumed a legal aspect and would have been read from the pulpit (minbâr) of the local mosque. Such letters dealt with a range of issues from dealing with the collection of taxes or the containment of rebels to the appointment of officials. The bay‘a was a contract of allegiance sworn by notables to a sultan or to a religious figure seen as a defender of the faith. Direction de la statistique/maSlaHat al-iHSâ’. Since March 1998, the Direction de la statistique has been linked to the Ministère de la prévision économique et du plan. The first statistical organization in Morocco dates back to the colonial era; in 1942 colonial authorities set up the Service central des statistiques. After the second half of the 1950s, the central government became more interested in statistics. In 1959, a Comité de coordination des enquêtes statistiques was established, and in 1961 an Ecole de formation d’ingénieurs statisticians was created in order to guarantee the continuous training of statisticians who could answer the needs of the government. In time, the government created seven and then, later on, sixteen regional offices in charge of statistics, one in each economic region of the country. The Direction de la statistique, named as such in 1975, is located thus in the middle of a national system of decentralized statistical data. The Direction de la statistique currently employs about 900 people at the central level and possesses the modern technologies necessary for the production and analysis of the data. Dlimi, Ahmed. For many years a senior figure in the state security apparatus, Ahmed Dlimi (1931-1983) had the reputation of being a fastidious bureaucrat enjoying a hands-on role in suppressing dissent, to the point of instilling both terror and disdain in many Moroccan minds. He played a considerable role in putting down the Rif uprising and other insurrections. In France, Dlimi was accused of complicity in the disappearance of Ben Barka but was acquitted. Hassan II maintained Dlimi’s innocence throughout and kept him in office. Dlimi was on the plane that was shot at in the coup attempt of August 1972 and can therefore be safely assumed to have not been involved. After the treachery of General Oufkir, Dlimi was promoted to head the royal

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cabinet, took advantage of many business opportunities, and served as general in the war against the Polisario. He was in fact credited with implementing the idea of building the wall that effectively turned the odds in favor of Morocco and radically diminished the Polisario’s opportunities for successful raids. Dlimi’s accidental or contrived death on 25 January 1983 has stimulated many theories based on the assumption that it was deliberately arranged. The basic problems to be resolved are twofold; Dlimi was fond of money and not fond of democracy so it is difficult to imagine him supporting a coup against the monarchy. The least implausible of these theories (proposed by Ignacio Ramonet in Le Monde Diplomatique in 1984) suggests that Dlimi, who, though he was born in Sidi Kacem, had family roots among the Ouled Delim of the Rio del Oro (the southern part of the former Spanish Sahara), contrived a plot to replace Hassan II with the crown prince. Hassan II, in this scenario, was himself viewed as an obstacle to a Polisario settlement due to past policies and perceived mistreatment of Sahraouis and his replacement would enable a rapprochement with the Polisario that would include them in an acceptable way in the government. The plot would then have been discovered, according to some accounts by an American intelligence service, and Dlimi summoned on 25 January 1983. At the time of his death, Ahmed Dlimi held the positions of general, director of national security, and commander in chief for the war in the Sahara. Doukkala [dukkâla]. Traditionally the dukkâla were a confederation comprising the ragrâga, hazmîra, banû dghûgh, banû mâgir, mushtarayya, and the SanHâja. The classic location for the dukkâla was the area bordered by the Oum er-Rabia and Tensift rivers and the Atlantic. After the early immigrations by al-ma‘qil (13th-14th century) only the ragrâga remained intact. The ragrâga legend has it that seven ragrâga went to Mecca and spoke in Berber with the prophet muHammad and then returned to Morocco bringing Islam to the Maghrib before the Idrisids or anyone else. Today the dukkâla as such do not exist, though the region around al-jadîda is referred to as the Doukkala and several cities (e.g., Essaouira and Marrakech) have gates named bâb dukkâla. Draa (dar‘a). The Draa river rises in the southern slopes of the High Atlas, flows south and then west, and generally dries up long before it reaches the sea. Its valley is divided into eight populated districts named (from north to south) mazgîta, ait saddrât, ait zarrî tinzûlîn, tarnâta, fazwâta, ktâwa, and mHammid. The Draa region has played an important role in Moroccan history. Inhabited from an ancient time, its population currently consists of many layers of immigrants plus an indigenous black population, the Haratine, who preceded any of the other current population groups in terms of local residence. Oral history suggests that in the pre-Islamic period, and up to the 10th

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Dryef, M’hammed

century A.D., Jewish Berber groups had significant political power in the region, but contemporary documentation for this is entirely lacking. Islamic records seem to be little interested in early Jewish states, and the Jewish records that survive are accounts written many centuries after the fact. Roman sources and Islamic ones do provide some explanations for the presence of Jewish communities in the Maghrib, yet the details included are obviously inadequate to account for the full gamut of Jewish settlement in the Maghrib. Various later accounts suggest that settlement may date to emigrations caused in the 6th century B.C. by Nabuchadnosar’s conquest of Palestine in 587 B.C. On this account Jews would have arrived around 361 B.C. in the Middle Atlas. Toward the end of the 10th century, the Draa came under the influence of sijilmâsa, then was ruled by the maghrâwa (a branch of the zanâta). The Almoravids used the Draa as their entry point into Morocco and from this time it began to be viewed as at least ideally a part of the Moroccan polity. The Almohads and the Marinids also made efforts to integrate the Draa into their empires. ma‘qilian Arabs began to move into the Draa beginning in the Marinid period (1269-1465). In the 16th century the Draa was the cradle of the Sa‘dian dynasty, which took advantage of the Draa’s long contacts with the sahel (sûdân) to expand trade across the Sahara culminating in the conquest of Gao in 1591 and in the process increased the economic importance of the region. The ‘Alawite dynasty made efforts to keep the Draa under control, though they viewed the Tafilalt to the northeast as their own homeland. By the late 19th century the Draa was, however, almost independent under the leadership of the influential nâSiriyîn zâwiya in Tamgrout. The influence of the various political movements and historical changes created a composite population in which various groups laid claim to authority and economic resources on the basis of their ancestors’ predominance at a particular point in history. In the recent period, the population has been divided into five strata: shurafâ’, mrâbiTîn, the aHrâr (nomadic conquerors without claims to baraka), Haratine (Haratîn), and ‘abîd. The first three claim elite status, with its appurtenances, based on descent from the prophet (sharifan descent put most recently into prominence by the ‘Alawite dynasty), descent from a holy saint (Marabout), or mere earthly conquest (the case for the various nomadic groups that have conquered the region in particular periods). The indigenous Haratine are at the bottom of the social pyramid next to the ‘abîd, currently freed slaves. Social structure is now changing on the Moroccan desert fringe, in particular as many Haratine have gained wealth through emigration and have begun to make strides politically as well. Dryef, M’hammed. Born 30 June 1948 in Taounate, Dryef who is wali attaché à l’administration centrale, pursued his studies at Lycée Moulay Idriss in Fès, Ecole Nationale d’Administration Publique

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(ENAP) in Rabat, Faculté de Droit at Université Mohammed V in Rabat, and Faculté de Droit at l’Université de Grenoble. He received a diplôme from ENAP, a diplôme des études supérieures, and a doctorate in law. Dryef started his career as a bureaucrat at the general secretariat of the government, chef du cabinet du secrétaire d’état à l’urbanisme, then became chef du cabinet du secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur, and chef du cabinet in the ministry of interior. He also served as the governor of the province of Benslimane. Dryef became governor and director of the Agence urbaine de Casablanca before he was appointed director general of the Sûreté Nationale. He was also named governor and director general for urbanism (et de l’amenagement du territoire et de l’environnement). Dryef also served as wali of Fès and governor of Fès Jdid dar Dbibagh. He also worked as wali in the central administration. Dryef is a member of the Association des chantiers sociaux marocains, Association des lauréats de l’ENAP, and Association nationale des docteurs en droit, section Rhones-Alpes-France. Dryef has published many works in in the field of law and urbanism but most notably L’Urbanisation et droit de l’urbanisme au Maroc, Editions CNRS/La Porte, 1993. al-Du‘ayyif, muHammad. muHammad bn ‘abd al-salâm bn aHmad bn maHammad bn al-rabâTî al-Du‘ayyif was born in Rabat in 1165H (1752/3), and although his date of death is unknown it must have been after 1236H (1821/2) when his history of the ‘Alawite dynasty was completed. This history, which in untitled form can be found in the Bibliothèque Générale in Rabat (Mss. D 660 and D 1706), is a virulent critique of the ‘Alawite dynasty in the form of an annual chronicle (covering the dynasty from its beginnings to the middle of mawlây sulaymân’s reign) providing in addition an evaluation of each sultan’s conduct at the end of their reign. The focus is on how events affected life in Rabat. al-Du‘ayyif also authored a number of works of poetry.

-EEch-Chenna, Aïcha. Born on 14 August 1941 in Casablanca, EchChenna spent her childhood in Marrakech. She went back to Casablanca in 1953 to pursue her studies in French at the Foch School and the Lycée Joffre. In 1958, Ech-Chenna began volunteering to fight tuberculosis in the Prefecture of Casablanca and in 1960 she enrolled at the Ecole d’Etat d’Infirmière where she received a diploma. From 1962 to 1980 she held the position of Animatrice d’éducation sanitaire et sociale in the medical prefecture of Casablanca. In 1972, Ech-Chenna joined the Union Nationale des Femmes Marocaines (UNFM) and organized the first televised show on sanitary education on Casablanca TV. In 1985, she founded the Association Solidarité Féminine (ASF). In 1991, Ech-Chenna attended an international conference in Paris,

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Racine de l’avenir, which helped prepare the feminist agenda for the 1992 summit in Rio de Janeiro. In 1995, the Association solidarité féminine received the “droits de l’Homme de la République Française” prize in Paris. In the same year she published Miseria, a feminist proclamation published by éditions le fennec, which was translated into Arabic in 1997. The Association Solidarité Féminine provides help for working teenage girls struggling with abuse, rape, and rejection. It also supports abandoned children, unmarried women, silent victims of incest, and all rejected women accused of prostitution. Economy. The traditional division of the economy into primary sector (extractive processes), secondary sector (transformative processes), and tertiary sector (services) does not capture the situation of modern economies well. The advent of information economies, modern finance, and advances in economic theory have made it almost irrelevant. Theory now recognizes the significance of the enormous disparity included within these old categories and that a finer typology, distinguishing between electronics and furniture or agriculture (involving a renewable resource) and mining (involving a nonrenewable resource), for example, is both fundamental to any economic analysis and implies the inutility of blending such disparates into single categories such as “transformative” or “extractive” processes. Even if modern economists find the old categorization into three sectors of no analytical value, for historical purposes it may be noted that in 2000 the primary and secondary sectors could be put at approximately 23 percent each with the tertiary or service sector occupying the remaining 54 percent. While an adequate level of detail for a modern sector analysis would be inappropriate in this entry, a case can be made for comparing agriculture, industry (broadly conceived to include both extractive and transformative industries), and services. As of 2001, Morocco’s mining and energy sectors contributed only 2 and 7.5 percent, respectively, of its GDP, but this conceals the importance of the phosphate industry to the economy inasmuch as its products assume multiple forms varying primarily in their degree of transformation, and this is linked to their ultimate destination: national use or international commerce. The international role of phosphate products as sources of foreign exchange is itself critical to Morocco’s purchase of energy on the international market (see Environment).

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Proportion of GDP comprised by Agriculture, Industry, Services and Interest payments

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% GDP

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Figure 5. Moroccan GDP by Sector. Source: World Bank: Development Indicators dataset. GDP is so often considered a key economic indicator that it is important to stress that gross domestic product has many flaws as an indicator of an economy, not least of which are that the values of natural resources are poorly incorporated into the index, that calamities counterintuitively add to GDP through the expenditures they necessitate, and that prices in the market reflect what those who have money are willing to pay and this is not synonymous with what society needs or would pay for if income were differently distributed. Thus the price structure used to calculate the index is itself problematic for multiple reasons. For want of better data, figure 5, nevertheless, depicts the changing proportions of agriculture, industry, services, and interest payments on debt as percentages of Moroccan GDP (see also Agricultural development, Irrigation, Natural resources and energy, and Trade). The figure suggests that the part of agriculture in GDP is in steady decline and now around 15 percent, the part of Industry is in a roughly steady state at about 30 percent, that of services dominates at about 54 percent of the total, and that interest payments take a modest 5 percent of GDP. A significant part of Morocco’s economy passes through the local

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markets, and one of the most important things consumers notice is changes in the purchasing power of their income. Obviously, if income were to keep pace with inflation the latter would cause little discomfort, but this is often not the case. The backdrop to any examination of the economy is thus the general level of basic consumer price indices. Figure 6 plots a food production index, a non-food production index, and the Consumer Price Index (CPI). The first production index (food) indicates that relative to the base years (1989-1991), the level of food production has stayed fairly steady with one significant peak around 1990. The second production index (a basket of non-food commodities) shows a rapid growth over the last thirty-five years to levels that are currently about twice what they used to be. Against this background, the extraordinarily rapid and unwavering growth in the CPI suggests that production may not have kept up with demand. Food and non-Food Production Indices and Consumer Price Index Prod. Index: 1989-91 = 100, CPI Index: 1995 = 100

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Figure 6. Indices of Moroccan Economy, 1965-2000. Source: World Bank: Development Indicators dataset. In order to understand this situation better it helps to consider various measures of the standard of living over the same period. Figure 7 plots GDP per capita (and the plot illustrates the problems with that measure) as well as purchasing power of per capita GDP adjusted by the CPI and finally per capita GDP adjusted by the food price index. These three lines can only tell us what the potential might be for people’s standard of living to decline, rise, or remain the same

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on the rather hazardous assumptions that the distribution of income does not become more skewed over time and that those things most important to people are purchasable in the market. Standard of Living in Morocco Per capita GDP and Purchasing Power (adjusted per capita GDP)

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U.S. $

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GDP per capita (current U.S. $) Purchasing power: per Capita GDP adjusted by CPI Purchasing power: per capita GDP adjusted by Food Price index

Figure 7. Per Capita GDP and Purchasing Power, 1965-2000. Raw Data Source: World Bank: Development Indicators dataset. Figure 7 shows a fairly rapid and almost continuous growth in per capita GDP of the sort some economists find satisfactory. Looking at the adjusted lines for consumer purchasing power, the period from 1965 to 1980 stands out as one of steady improvement. After 1980, matters do not look so rosy. Consumers’ ability to purchase food remains roughly the same with minor fluctuations but their ability to purchase non-food items declines rapidly and then platforms at levels inferior to those that prevailed in 1965 (see Exchange rates). This situation may explain the appeal of radical courses of action, however doomed, to those many who have been left out of the prosperity. The growth of per capita GDP seems to have been vitiated by growth in the CPI. At the same time, if some manufactures (e.g., cell phones and watches) have radically decreased in price, smaller expenditures in the market may provide valued returns in a small number of areas. The reorientation of purchasing patterns is a dynamic matter that economists and economic historians regularly attempt to tame through complex indices too complicated for this discussion. Let it suffice to say that things are usually not quite as bleak as they at first sight appear yet many will have economic difficulties today they did not have

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Education

before. Even if from a health and nutrition perspective as reflected in life expectancy, they are obviously doing far better (see figures 2 and 3). Education. Figure 8 plots the fluctuations in enrollment in schools as a percentage of the relevant age group. At the top of the chart is the line for primary education, which clearly indicates that Morocco is making some progress toward enrolling every child in primary schools. This may become easier in the next decade as declining fertility levels lessen the needs for new infrastructure.

Education Rates in Morocco 100

Percent of Age Group

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Primary Students % age group (7-12) Male Secondary students % age group (13-15) Female Secondary students % age group (13-15) Tertiary students % age group (16-22)

Figure 8. Education Rates in Morocco, 1965-2000. Source: World Bank: Development Indicators dataset. Below this line are lines for male and female secondary enrollments (in that order). In the past, as well as today, higher levels

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of male children have been encouraged to attend secondary school, but the figures suggest that the growth in the percentage of female children attending secondary school is more consistent than that for male children, so it is possible the former may overtake the latter in time. The bottom line shows percentages of the 16-22 age group still engaged in study. As might be expected these are low, slowly increasing, and exhibit the rapid rate of attrition in children passing through the Moroccan school system. If human resources are the key resource in the modern period, figure 5 suggests clearly where priorities should be placed. Elites. In addition to the extended royal family, Morocco has three general categories of elites: descendants of the prophet (shurfa), scholars and intellectuals (‘ulamâ’) and their descendants, and wealthy merchant families. Most elite families can trace their ancestry as elites well back into the 19th century or before. A number of family names (including such names as Alami, Alaoui, Filali, Kettani, Lamrani, Ouazzani, or Bargash, Belkhayat, Bennani, Benjelloun, Benkirane, Bennis, Bensouda, Berrada, Chraibi, El Fassi, Guennoun, Guessous, Kadiri, Lahlou, Mernissi, Tadili) are immediately recognizable to Moroccans as families that traditionally belong to the power elite. Marriage tends to be endogamous within this elite and members of it regularly imagine themselves to be intrinsically superior and feel entitled to, and receive, privileged positions in business and administration. In some measure, access to the best schools, as in other countries, ensures the perpetuation of these privileges despite the reality that there is nothing innate at issue. A disproportionate number of elites trace their origins to Fès, and few Moroccans are without opinions about the phenomena of there being so many Fassi elites. At the beginning of the 20th century elite Fassi families were divided into two basic groups: those linked to administrative posts (e.g., Benslimane, Bensouda, El Mokri, and El Fassi) and those who focused on commerce (e.g., Benjelloun, Berrada, Lahlou, Lazrak, Tazi, and Sqalli). Some families traditionally fit into both groups (e.g., Bennis), but in recent times the distinction has become moot. The development of the istiqlâl party in Fès and its enormous influence in subsequent years undoubtedly played a role in the subsequent prominence of both groups of families. Fassi families were soon the key founders of national banks (most prominently Wafabank), but their success elicited competition from non-Fassi groups (e.g., the Soussi-founded BMAO) and even key anti-Fassi administrators such as the influential interior minister Driss Basri. The period from 1955 to 1985 was particularly marked in terms of the predominance of Fassi families in government, as some 61 percent of the ministers from that period were from elite Fassi families (El Messaoudi 1996). Like most modern countries, Morocco’s elites control an enormously disproportionate amount of resources and usually act

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El-Jadida

primarily in their own economic self-interest. While, statistically speaking, the system does not allow much equality, it is not clear that social mobility is significantly more difficult than in Europe or North America, though the stagnating and low standard of living experienced by most Moroccans makes such low levels of social mobility perhaps less tolerable. El-Jadida. (lat. 33º 16' N., long. 8º 31' W.) El-Jadida (al-jadîda) was the name given at independence to the city that the Portuguese had named Mazagan. The old walled city is now the medina of a larger metropolis. The Portuguese constructed a fort on the site in 1502 and a town in 1506. Mazagan was a thorn in the side of the Sa‘dians who besieged it in 1561, but it was the last Portuguese town to fall when in 1769, under pressure from sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd allâh, the Portuguese finally withdrew from the Moroccan coast. The town was largely destroyed at the time but was rebuilt as a Moroccan town in 1815 by mawlây ‘abd al-raHmân. Entente Cordiale (1904). See Algeciras, Conference of. Environment. Despite scenic beaches, fertile plains, and beautiful mountains and deserts, Morocco has a number of major environmental problems, though there are only a few areas in which its problems are significantly above the norm for an industrializing country. These latter include significantly polluted coastal waters in the vicinity of all major coastal cities, fresh water quality, energy dependence, and depletion of indigenous fauna and flora. Morocco is party to a number of international treaties on biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, nuclear test ban, ozone layer protection, ship pollution, wetlands, and whaling. Morocco has also signed, but not ratified, treaties on environmental modification and the law of the sea. Improvement in a number of environmental areas has been made in the last two decades, in particular in workplace safety, sanitation, and urban sewage systems, but more progress can be expected in these and other areas. Morocco has few protected areas (0.7 percent of its territory) but large areas in biosphere reserves (9,754,000 hectares). A relatively high proportion of Morocco’s fresh water is polluted, 6th worst out of 69 countries surveyed (Center for Environmental Systems Research, University of Kassel, WaterGap 2.1, 2000 via ciesin.org), and it has an extremely high level of salinization of fresh water, 2nd out of 142 countries in a survey (UN Environment Programme, Global Environmental Monitoring System/Water Quality Monitoring System via ciesin.org). Morocco has 206 known breeding bird species and 105 known mammal species, but the human population pressure on resources has resulted in 39 species being on the threatened species list (UN World Statistics Pocketbook).

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International organizations have produced a number of environmental measures that make it possible to compare countries both in terms of environmental indicators and environmental impacts. Perhaps the most significant have been produced (in 2002) by CIESIN (www.ciesin.columbia.edu/indicators/esi/ESI2002_21MAR02c.pdf) a set that include (contrasting idiosyncratic but useful comparison countries): environmental footprint per capita (Morocco = 1.56, United States = 12.22), memberships in environmental intergovernmental organizations (Morocco = 18, France = 35), energy efficiency in billion btus/million $ of GDP (Morocco = 4.29, North Korea = 24), fertilizer consumption per hectare arable land (Morocco = 38.791 kg, Iceland = 3100 kg), forest cover change 1990-2000 (Morocco = 0.0 percent, Haiti -5.5 percent), ratio of gasoline price to world average (Morocco = 1.34, Saudi Arabia = 0.39), phosphorus concentration in nilligrams per liter as measure of eutrophication (Morocco = 0.26, Cuba = 0.01), index of neglect of environmental regulation enforcement (Morocco = 0.13, Denmark = 2.13, France = 1.28), pesticide use in kg/hectare of cropland (Morocco = 626, Oman = 24,125), percentage of breeding birds threatened (Morocco = 4.29, Kuwait = 35), percentage of mammals threatened (Morocco = 15.24, New Zealand = 80), proportion of renewable energy production as percentage of total energy consumption (Morocco = 3.71, Bhutan = 367.59), percent of territory under severe water stress (Morocco = 81.5, Syria 99.6), percentage of population with access to clean water (Morocco = 82, United States = 100). These various scores, and a number of others, were amalgamated in 2002 into a single index of environmental sustainability (ESI) for 142 countries by CIESIN (http://www.ciesin.columbia.edu/indicators/esi/ ESI_01_tot.pdf). This index places Finland first (73.9) and Kuwait last (23.9) while Morocco scores 73rd (with a score of 49.1). Given Morocco’s resources and population, this is a reasonably good score but it may be noted that Algeria was 70th (49.4) and Tunisia came in 60th (score of 50.8). The difference in ranking between Tunisia and Morocco (13 ranks) corresponds to a difference in ESI scores of only 1.7 points, which obviously does not indicate a very sigificant difference in environmental sustainability. It might also be noted for comparison purposes that Morocco came ahead of Japan (48.6), Italy (47.2), and the United Kingdom (46.1) but behind the United States (53.2) and France (55.5). Essaouira. (lat. 31º 32' N., long. 9º 46' W.) Essaouira (al-Sawîra), known in the colonial period primarily as Mogador, is located on the Atlantic coast due west of Marrakech. Although settlement in the general vicinity dates as far back as a Phoenician outpost on the island just offshore, to harvest the purple dye-producing marine snails, the current town was constructed by sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd allâh in 1765 to redirect trade away from Agadir (which he closed) to a site easier to monitor and control. The location was just up the coast from an

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abandoned Portuguese fort on the river qsob, a river named after the sugar cane refinery that used to exist just inland from the coast before the Caribbean sugar industry made it uncommercial in the 17th century. The name Mogador was derived from a local shrine to sîdî magdûl, which predates the 1765 construction. The term Essaouira is more difficult because the spelling of the modern city makes no sense in Arabic. Even manuscripts in Essaouira dating from as early as 1766 indiscriminately spell “Essaouira” either with a “sîn” or a “Sâd” thus providing for two entirely different potential etymologies. The actual meaning is that of walled city (as in Arabic “suwayra,” spelled with a “sîn”) but the pronunciation and modern spelling seem to have been influenced by the Berber term for walled city (ta’Surt, with a “Sâd”). In the 18th and 19th centuries Essaouira quickly became one of Morocco’s major trading entrepôts and sheltered a diverse population of foreigners, Muslims and Jews. The latter comprised around 40 percent of the population before their exodus, both from Essaouira and Morocco, in the decade before and after independence. Historical sources suggest, if unclearly, that the Jewish population of Essaouira grew steadily after 1830, as it seems to have done in other coastal cities. As the port of the south, and a prosperous market center, Essaouira for a while had the reputation of having streets paved with gold. Essaouira’s bombardment by the French on 15 August 1844 one day after the French victory at Isly epitomized French chauvinism of the time. By 1890, the European community was so at ease that it even boasted a German club complete with bowling alley and beer hall. In the 20th century, Essaouira’s poorer natural harbor has meant that Safi became the primary port of the Marrakech region and Essaouira has remained a fishing port, the administrative center for its region and is now an important tourist center with an international music festival. European Union. Moroccan relations with the European Union have been shaped by its historic ties with Spain and France as well as its desires to export to Europe and the desire of European Union members to export to and invest in Morocco. Although Morocco now has signed a free trade agreement with the United States and has negotiated similar agreements (Foreign policy) and a comparable relationship with the European Union, as late as January 2003 the French minister for foreign trade François Loos warned Morocco that it had to choose between the European Union and the United States and could not expect to have a free trade agreement with both. This proprietary attitude toward Morocco by the European Union may seem humorous or antiquated and aggravating to some but it has had many consequences. Morocco’s major exports include citrus, an area in which it competes with Algeria, phosphates, an area in which it might have to compete if the former Spanish Sahara were an independent state, and international migrant labor, an area that more significantly impacts the welfare of most normal Moroccans. Morocco also controls

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significant fishing areas off of its coast and, historically, regularly negotiated fishing permits with many of the current member states of the European Union. It now needs to negotiate a similar agreement with the Union while still being able to ban fishing by specific countries if it feels this is necessary, as it did during its recent dispute with Spain over the island of Layla. These multiple goals all depend on both multilateral negotiations and the foreign policy actions of other states outside the negotiations. Thus Algeria relies on the EU’s dependence on its natural gas exports to negotiate special trade privileges and is thought to have opposed Morocco’s acquisition of the Spanish Sahara at least in part because the consequent monopoly on phosphates would put Morocco in a similar position and impact Algeria’s privileged position. Currently Morocco’s agreement with the European Union is spelled out in the Accord Euro-Méditerranéen, which is divided into eight topics and ninety-six articles: I. political relations, II. free trade, III. commercial law, IV. financial issues and competition, V. economic cooperation, VI. socio-cultural cooperation, VII. financial cooperation, and VIII. institutional and general provisions. Topic II specifies that “La Communauté et le Maroc établissent progressivement un zone de libre-échange pendant une période de transition de douze années au maximum...” or in short that the EU agrees to incrementally implement a zone of free trade within a maximum of twelve years. The details of the annexes to the agreement specify the details of the current tariffs that will then be incrementally eliminated. The feeling by some members of the European Union that they should dictate much of Morocco’s foreign policy is obviously threatened both by Morocco’s ties with the Muslim world (Arab League, Arab Maghrib Union) and by its relationship with the United States. Exchange rates. The entry on currency provides more significant historical depth in table 3. By contrast, figure 9 below depicts the exchange value of Morocco’s currency since 1960. Figure 6 (see Economy) illustrates the difficulty of using a single indicator to estimate long-term changes in the standard of living. The situation is somewhat comparable when it comes to interpreting the meaning of changes in the foreign exchange rate. Given the fluctuations in other currencies and standards of value (such as gold), the position of the dirham is best judged by a simultaneous comparison with more than one other currency. Figure 9 makes it fairly clear that the two basic levels (pre- and post- 1990) that show up in the bars for the French franc were preceded by losses in value relative to the British pound and the U.S. dollar (circa 1983). It is also clear that the two latter currencies seem to have risen in tandem with the value of gold at the expense of the dirham and initially at the expense of the franc. Thus in recent historical perspective, the dirham had greatest value before 1983 and now runs at about half of that value relative to the major European currencies. This

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particular watershed shows up in figure 7 (see Economy) where the standard of living as adjusted by the CPI flattens out and then stagnates after 1985.

Exchange Rates value of foreign currency in dirham

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Figure 9. Exchange Value of Dirham, 1960-2003. Sources: Park (1983a, chap. 3), Statistical Abstracts of U.S. Department of Commerce, and Annuaire Statistique du Maroc (2001:643).

It should also be noted that currency exchange rates impact imports and exports but have no direct significance for locally produced and consumed products. Nevertheless, there are indirect effects, both from the changes in costs of imported machinery and the value of wages sent home by foreign migrants, as well as policy effects caused by the need to meet foreign exchange needs with a different quantity or mix of exports depending on the exchange rate prevailing from year to year.

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-FFadili, Mohamed. Born 3 May 1943, Fadili pursued his studies at the Ecole et Institut Théologique (Nador), the Faculté de Théologie in Fès, and the Faculté de Droit (Fès). He obtained a DEUG in law and a licence in theology. Fadili is the premier vice-président de la Chambre des Conseillers. His career started as a chef de service in the post office in Holland. In Tanger, he directed many companies. Between 1976-1993, he was elected to the office of the president of the Amhajer commune in Nador. In 1977, he was elected to parliament and became a member of the political bureau of the Mouvement National Populaire (MNP), its president within the parliament and the president, between 1984 and 1990, of a parliamentary commissions on health, social affairs, youth and sport, “la résistance,” and “l’armée de libération.” From 1997 to 2000, Fadili served as president of the group MNP at the Chambre des Conseillers. Fadili also served as a member of the Conseil provincial of Nador and the commune Amhajer. He has also been general secretary of the Syndicat national de l’agriculture. Faraji, Omar. Born 13 March 1957 in Fès. Faraji studied law at the Faculté de Droit de Rabat. He received a licence ès-Droit public in 1978 and a certificat d’études supérieures in international relations in 1980. Faraji is a director of customs (directeur des ressources et de la programmation in the Administration des Douanes et Impôts Indirects [ADII]. Faraji started his career as inspector of industry at the ministry of commerce and industry in 1979. From 1981 to 1983 he was attached to the Direction chargé de la coopération in the Direction de l’industrie. In 1983, he was named Chef du service administratif et de la formation. Faraji headed the Service des affaires générales in 1987. In September 1992, he was named Directeur du cabinet in the ministry of commerce, industry and privatisation and Directeur des affaires générales in the ministry of commerce and industry in 1993. Faraj also served as a Secrétaire général par interim in the ministry of commerce and industry. Until 1999, he served as an advisor to the directeur général des douanes et des impôts indirects. Faris, Mustapha. Born 17 December 1933 in Casablanca, Faris has been the Président-Directeur général de la Banque Marocaine pour le Commerce et l’Industrie (BMCI) since 1994. Faris received his higher education at the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées in Paris. He earned a certificate in mathematics and a diplôme in civil engineering. From 1956 to 1960, Faris started his career as an engineer in charge of the development of the port of Casablanca, infrastructure and major equipment for the northern zone of Morocco, and work in the city of Agadir after the earthquake of 1960. Faris held many other public

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positions: directeur de l’équipement and then directeur général-adjoint of the Office National de l’Irrigation (ONI), directeur de l’hydraulique, secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan et du développement régional in the finance ministry, président directeur général of the Banque Nationale pour le Développement Economique (BNDE), minister of agriculture and agrarian reform, vice president and then director general of the Banque Arabe et Internationale d’Investissement in Paris, and président-délégué of the Banque Marocaine pour l’Afrique et l’Orient (BMAO). Faris has been responsible for representing Morocco internationally for different financial institutions such as the Bank al-Maghrib, Banque Marocaine du Commerce Extérieur (BMCE), Banque Centrale Populaire (BCP), Crédit Immobilier et Hôtelier (CIH), and the Société Nationale d’Investissement (SNI). al-fâsî, aHmad bn maHammad. aHmad al-fâsî (abû al-‘abbâs aHmad bn maHammad bn aHmad bn maHammad bn ‘abd al-qâdir bn ‘alî bn yûsuf al-fihrî al-fâsî) was born in Fès in 1166H (1753/4) and studied at the qarawîyîn University in Fès. He made a pilgrimage beginning in 1796 and then died in Fès a year after his return in 1799. He left a detailed travel account (riHla) of great historical interest for its detail on every stage of the pilgrimage route during the late 18th century as well as for the clarity and simplicity of its style. al-fâsî, al-Hasan ibn muHammad. See Leo Africanus. Al-Fasi, Muhammad. Minister of national education (1955-1958) and minister for cultural affairs (1968), muHammad al-fâsî was educated at qarawîyîn University in Fès, the Sorbonne, and the Ecoles des Langues Orientales in Paris. He served as tutor to Prince Hassan at the Collège Impérial in the 1940s and to Crown Prince Mohammed after retiring in 1968. al-fâsî, muHammad ‘allâl. muHammad ‘allâl al-fâsî (1907-1973) was the founder, head, and most famous figure both in the istiqlâl party and in the nationalist movement. At independence the istiqlâl party was in the position of having won independence from France through its popular support and resistance activity, and for a brief moment it seemed as if the party might impose conditions on Mohammed V that would move Morocco for the first time in the direction of a democracy. The political commission of the istiqlâl issued a communiqué listing the various rights they wanted the king to guarantee. These included most importantly the establishment of democratic institutions and a constitutional monarchy. This moment passed when ‘allâl al-fâsî and colleagues of his generation ignored younger members of the istiqlâl and agreed to allow the king to reserve for himself all basic powers in exchange for a vague promise of reorganizing the division of powers

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later once matters had settled down. The resulting disappointment of the younger members, including Ben Barka, led to a crisis in the istiqlâl, the formation of a National Confederation within the istiqlâl, and then the breakaway of this faction in the form of a new party, the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires in 1960. ‘allâl al-fâsî was educated at the qarawîyîn University in Fès where he was introduced by mawlay al-‘arabî al-‘alawî to the Islamic reformist ideas of the salafîya movement in the Middle East. He and his friends began by protesting the discriminatory education and legal systems promoted by the French, focusing, by 1930, on the most egregious example, the apartheid system set up for Berbers by the Berber Dahir of 16 May 1930 (Berber Policy). Protest on this point was so well received elsewhere in the Middle East that the movement quickly developed into a nationalist movement that eventually became the istiqlâl party in 1944. In 1934 ‘allâl al-fâsî and others presented a Plan of Reforms to the protectorate (maTâlib al-sha‘b al-maghribî), which were in part answered by the abolition of the Berber Dahir. By 1936, the movement had formed two distinct parties, al-Haraka alqawmîya and al-Hizb al-waTanî li-taHqîq al-maTâlib, which merged in 1943 to form the istiqlâl party. In 1937, ‘allâl al-fâsî was exiled to Gabon for his political activities and remained abroad until independence, though he promoted the istiqlâl cause in many countries and continued as head of the party until his death in 1973. In 1957 he began a newspaper, Le Sahara marocain, aimed at incorporating Mauritania into Morocco (see map 24). On returning to Morocco, ‘allâl al-fâsî primarily served as the influential leader (secretary-general and then president) of the istiqlâl but he also served briefly as minister of Islamic affairs (1962-1963). When the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires was formed in 1960, following the crisis in the istiqlâl referred to above, ‘allâl al-fâsî took over undisputed leadership of the party. An important legal scholar, ‘allâl al-fâsî published two works analyzing the historical and juridical basis of the French and Spanish protectorates: al-Himâya fî marrâkush min al-wijha al-târîkhîya wa-lqânûnîya and Himâyat isbânîya fî marrâkush min al-wijha al-târîkhîya wa-l-qânûnîya. Perhaps his most controversial claim was for the legitimacy of a “greater Maghrib” embracing parts of Algeria and Mauritania as well as the whole of the Spanish Sahara (see map 23). He also published a collection of his legal lectures, titled maqâSid alsharî‘a al-islâmîya wa-makârimuhâ. Various collections of lectures and addresses given throughout the Islamic world and numerous pamphlets have also been published. The Fondation ‘allâl al-fâsî in Rabat houses a library of his manuscripts, printed works, and archives related to his work. al-fâsî, muHammad al-Tâhîr. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad al-Tâhîr bn ‘abd al-raHmân al-fâsî was born in Fès in 1830 and studied at the qarawîyîn but quit his studies to take a position as palace secretary and

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in 1860 was sent as part of the delegation to London by sultan sîdî muHammad. On his return he wrote an account of his trip, riHla, which is one of the first Moroccan accounts of such an encounter in Europe. muHammad al-Tâhîr notes carefully not only the splendors of Queen Elizabeth’s palace and her gracious manners but even such details of everyday life as that the houses in London are primarily distinguished only by the numbers on their doors. El Fassi, Abbas. Born on 18 September 1940 in Berkane, El Fassi completed his primary and secondary education in Kénitra and Tanger before earning a licence in law from Université Mohammed V in 1963. In 1961, El Fassi was elected president of the Union Générale des Etudiants du Maroc (UGEM) during its constitutive congress, and in 1972 he became secrétaire générale of the Ligue Marocaine des Droits de l’Homme. El Fassi was elected a member of the executive office of the Association Marocaine des Juristes in 1973 and became president of the bar of Rabat in 1975. El Fassi first became a member of the Comité exécutif of the istiqlâl in 1974 and was reelected in 1978, 1982, and 1989. In September 1984, El Fassi was elected as deputy for the district of Larache in the Chamber of Representatives. He was housing minister (de l’Habitat et de l’aménagement du territoire) from 10 October 1977 to 4 November 1981 and minister for artisanal production (de l’artisanat et des affaires sociales) from 5 November 1981 to 10 April 1985. El Fassi participated as a delegate to the Arab Maghreb conferences in Tanger (1983) and Tunis (1984) and in October 1985 was made Ambassador to Tunisia and permanent representative of Morocco to the Arab League when it was headquartered in Tunis. El Fassi was the representative of Morocco to the secretariat of the Arab Maghrib Union in 1990 (from 21 January to 21 July) and then became Moroccan Ambassador to France from 1990 to 1994. In February 1998, El Fassi was elected secretary-general of the istiqlâl party replacing M’hamed Boucetta during the 13th congress of the party. On 6 September 2000, he was appointed employment minister (de l’emploi, de la formation professionnelle, du développement social et de la solidarité). Al Fassi, Malika. Born in Fès in 1920, Al Fassi was educated at home and at age 15 published an article, signed Al Fatate (the young woman), in the journal Al Maghrib (edited by Said Hajji) denouncing the situation of young girls and women who could not go to school. This became the first feminist article published in Morocco. After marrying her cousin, Mohammed al-Fassi (future director of alqarawîyîn, 1942, and several times prime minister) the following year, Malika Al Fassi took the pseudonym “bâHithat al-HaDâra” (the scrutinizer of civilization) under which name she regularly published articles. In 1944, she was one of the signatories, and the only female signatory, of the Manifeste de l’lndépendance, and she headed the Section féminine of the istiqlâl from its foundation in 1946.

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Fassi Fihri, Omar. Born on 18 March 1939 in El-Jadida, Omar Fassi Fihri earned a licence in mathematics (Université Paris-Orsay), a licence in physics (Université de Rabat and Université de Paris), a doctorat de spécialité troisième cycle (Université de Paris), and a doctorat d’état en mécanique (Université de Metz). Omar Fassi Fihri is a professor of higher education and directeur de l’école normale supérieure de l’enseignement technique de Rabat (ENSET). He is also a faculty member of Université Chouaib Doukkali and president of the Société marocaine des sciences mécaniques. An early member of the Moroccan communist party, he became a member of its central committee in 1964 and was a member of the executive committee of Union Nationale des Etudiants Marocains (UNEM). In 1975, Omar Fassi Fihri was elected to the central committee of the Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme (PPS) and in 1979 he became a member of its political bureau. In March 1998, he was appointed Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’enseignement supérieur, de la formation des cadres et de la recherche scientifique, chargé de la recherche scientifique. In September 2002, Omar Fassi Fihri became ministre délégué auprès du ministre de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique chargé de la recherche scientifique. Fassi Fihri, Taïb. Born 9 April 1958 in Casablanca, Taïb Fassi Fihri obtained a baccalauréat in mathematics in 1976 from Lycée Descartes in Rabat, a diploma in statistics (ingénieur d’application de la statistique) from the Institut National de la Statistique et d’Economie Appliquée (INSEA) in Rabat (1980), a master’s in planning (économie publique et planification) from the Université Panthéon-Sorbonne in Paris (1981), and a doctorat in political economy (analyse et politique économique) from the Institut d’Etudes Politiques in Paris (1984). During 1984, Taïb Fassi Fihri was affiliated with the Université de Paris VII and Institut Français des Relations Internationales (IFRI). In 1984, he worked for the Direction de la Planification au Ministère du Plan, and in 1985 he worked in the cabinet of the minister in charge of relations with the EEC. In June 1986, he became Chef de la division in the ministry of foreign affairs (et de la coopération) in charge of relations with the European Community. In November 1989, Taïb Fassi Fihri became directeur du cabinet du ministre d’état chargé des affaires étrangères et de la coopération, and in November 1993, he became secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères et à la coopération. He kept this position in several subsequent governments (June 1994, February 1995, and August 1997). In March 1998, Taïb Fassi Fihri was appointed chargé de mission au Cabinet Royal, and in November 1999, he became secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères. On 6 September 2000, his portfolio became secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères et à la coopération. As of 2003, Taïb Fassi Fihri was administrateur principal des administrations centrales and ministre délégué aux affaires étrangères et à la coopération.

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Fenjiro, Abdeljalil. Born on 5 August 1938 in Rabat, Fenjiro received a diploma from the Institut des Hautes Etudes Marocaines (where he has since been a senior lecturer) and was a lauréat du Centre international de l’enseignement supérieur de journalisme of the Université de Strasbourg in 1965. He was a correspondent for Newsweek, the Associated Press, and French radio and television. From 1962 to 1974, Fenjiro began as a reporter, became a journalist, and then became editor in chief of one of Morocco’s premier media institutions, the Maghreb Arabe Presse (MAP). When MAP was nationalized in 1974, Fenjiro took over as director of MAP from Mehdi Bennouna. He remained in this position until 1999. Fenjiro was also a founding member of the Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool (NANAP); International Islamic News Agency (IINA); Federation of Arab News Agencies (FANA); Pan-African News Agencies (PANA); Maghreban News Agencies Pool; and the Alliance of Mediterranean News Agencies (AMAN), for which he has also served as president. Ferhati, Jilali. Born in 1948 in Ait Ouahi (Province of Khémisset), Ferhati is a movie producer. Ferhati obtained a licence in Lettres and sociologie. He founded the production company Heracles Production in 1982. He also participated in the activities of the international theatre in Paris (1969-1971). Among his films are Breche dans le mur (1977), Tresses (1999), and Mouchoir Bleu (1999). He also produced many series for television such as Tanger, une ville, un port. Ferhati has won several prizes: Grand Prix at the Festival du Cinéma Africain in Milan, médaille de bronze at the Festival in Damas, and Grand Prix at the Festival du cinéma in Milan. Fès. (lat. 34º 08' N., long. 4º 58' W.) Associated with the Idrisid dynasty, according to some traditions Fès (fâs) was built in 807 by mawlây idrîs the younger. It is more probable that it was founded by idrîs bn ‘abd allâh (the elder) in 789 as madînat fâs on the right bank of the river fâs. In 791 idrîs the elder died, and eighteen years later his son, idrîs the younger, founded another settlement called al-‘alîya on the left bank. Fès is located near the confluence of the Sebou and Fès rivers at about 1,200 feet altitude in a location that is at the confluence of the easiest west-east passage across the Maghrib and one of the main passes southeast over the Middle Atlas. The city now comprises several layers of settlement including the modern city outside the walls, dating from the colonial period, as well as the old city (fâs al-bâlî) and a relatively ancient addition to the old city referred to as fâs al-jadîd or New Fès. From 980 to 1012 the double city was under the suzerainty of the Umayyads of Spain and enjoyed a degree of prosperity. The two main settlements (from Spain and Tunisia) were early on referred to as ‘adwat al-andalus (on the right bank) and ‘adwat al-qayrawân (on the left bank). The two separate settlements were brought together by yûsuf bn tâshafîn, the Almoravid sultan, when he conquered Fès in 1069. After his conquest of Spain, Andalusian art and architecture

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became dominant in Fès. The old town takes its basic form from the monuments of this period, although some institutions, such as the alqarawîyîn mosque dating in an early form to 859-861, are, as institutions at least, older. The current form of the old city’s wall with eight gates largely dates from the beginning of the 13th century under the Almohad al-nâSir. The Almohads took Fès in 1145 and the Marinids occupied it in 1248. abû yûsuf (1258-1286) built fâs al-jadîd (in 1276) on a plateau a little to the west of the old city to house the sultan’s palaces and administrative quarters. The Marinids also constructed a series of splendid madrasas whose decoration represents Andalusian/ Maghribian architecture at its height. In 1438 a separate quarter for Jews, the mallah, was added to fâs al-jadîd. Fès remained the premier city of the Maghrib and a flourishing commercial center until the advent of the Sa‘dian dynasty in the 16th century. The Sa‘dians, who had already established their capital in Marrakech, conquered Fès on 28 January 1549. Henceforth Fès lost the preeminence it had long claimed and served off and on as the capital, alternating with Meknès and Marrakech. Under the Sa‘dians, Marrakech was the dominant city, yet when the ‘Alawites came to power the first sultan, mawlây al-rashîd (1664-1672), made Fès his capital and significantly expanded New Fès, adding a new quarter, mosque, and palace. mawlây ismâ‘îl (1672-1727), who followed, disliked Fès and made Meknès his capital to the detriment of Fès, although he had the sanctuary and mausoleum of mawlây idrîs rebuilt. Later ‘Alawite sultans added numerous buildings up through the 19th century. With the advent of sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd allâh (1757-1790), Fès began to split relatively equally with Marrakech the status of dynastic capital as Meknès slipped relatively quickly into third place among the capitals. By mid-19th century fâsî merchants had begun to engage in international trade and were establishing representatives in the port cities. This trend accelerated as foreign representatives began to frequent Fès, but Fès remained very much a center of traditional Islamic learning. When ‘abd al-‘azîz was forced to abdicate, Fès elected sharîf muHammad al-kattânî as sultan, but this did not prevent mawlây HafiZ from being declared sultan in Marrakech nor did it prevent the latter from entering Fès and having muHammad al-kattânî flogged to death for treason in 1909. In 1911, mawlây HafiZ called on French troops for help against tribal rebellions and civil unrest and then on 30 March 1912 signed the treaty of protectorate at a nearby country house built in the 18th century by mawlây ‘abd allâh. In the colonial period, General Lyautey was so fascinated by Fès that he decided to preserve Morocco’s traditional cities by ordering all modern construction and expansion to take place in distinct districts. Fès’s modern section (ville nouvelle) was begun in 1916 in an area to the southwest of the traditional al-fâs jadîd. In the modern period one major concern is that the traditional part of the city no longer has the

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basic amenities increasingly expected by Morocco’s urban dwellers (see Architecture and Music). Filali, Abdellatif [‘abd al-laTîf filâlî]. Born 26 January 1928, Filali studied at the Collège Moulay Idriss and the Lycée Mixte in Fès before receiving a doctorat from the Université de Paris. Filali was chargé d’affaires for the Kingdom of Morocco at the United Nations from 1958 to 1959 and then chargé d’affaires for the Kingdom of Morocco in France from 1960 to 1961. He was made director of the Royal Cabinet and the royal protocol from 1961 (to 1963) by Hassan II upon his succession to the throne. In 1964, Filali served as ambassador to the Benelux countries, while in February 1965 he was made ambassador to China, followed in 1967 by ambassador to Algeria. In 1968, he became minister for higher education and then rose to minister of foreign affairs (appointed in August 1971, April 1972, November 1972, and in 1974). He was then appointed ambassador to Spain and in April 1978 became the permanent representative of Morocco at the United Nations in New York. In 1980, Filali became the ambassador to the United Kingdom. He assumed the position of information minister from 30 November 1983 to 11 April 1985 and took the position of Ministre d’état pour les affaires étrangères et la coopération in August 1992, a position he kept until February 1995 when he also assumed the position of prime minister, a position he kept until March 1998. Filali, Rachid. Born in 1960 in Rabat, Filali earned a baccalauréat in economics in 1980 and a diplôme from the Institut Supérieur de Commerce et d’Administration des Entreprises (ISCAE). Filali worked as an auditor in an accounting consulting firm. Filali was then employed in an office responsible for financial studies at Wafabank and became an administrator of a group of textile firms. On 14 March 1998, Filali was joined the finance minisry as secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des finances chargé du secteur de la privatisation. Filali is a member of the Chambre de commerce, d’industrie et des services de Casablanca, the Confédération Générale des Entreprises du Maroc (CGEM), the Association Marocaine des Industries du Textile et de l’Habillement (AMITH), and the Association Marocaine des Exportateurs (ASMEX). al-fishtâlî, abû muHammad. abû fâris ‘abd al-‘azîz bn muhammad bn ibrâhim al-SanHâji al-fishtâlî or abû muHammad, who was born in 956H (1549) and died in 1031H (1621/2), was designated mutawallî ta’rîkh al-dawla (official historian) by aHmad al-manSûr and also served as wazîr al-qalam al-a‘lâ (vizier of the pen or secretary of state charged with royal correspondence) and as royal poet. The only historical work whose title has come down to us, his manâhil al-Safâ’ fî akhbâr al-mulûk al-shurafâ’, was apparently an eight-volume work of which only one volume dealing with the twenty-year period of aHmad al-manSûr’s reign (1578-1597) and a few passages copied by

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later historians such as akansûs and al-ifrânî remain. These passages indicate that the work included details about the events during aHmad al-manSûr’s reign as well as about the details of court and military organization. In addition, the work apparently was written in an elegant literary style with copious poetic insertions. fitna. The original meaning of fitna is to test or put to the proof as one might do in assaying gold, but it soon came to be used in the more metaphorical sense of a temptation sent by God to test a Muslim’s faith. In this sense it developed further to refer to the state of those who succumbed and rebelled against religious (state) authority. The classic example was the period of schisms that led to the sunni and shi‘î divisions in Islam. Thus whole communities or regions could be deemed to be in fitna or rebellion. A famous Hadith notes, “after me there shall break forth such troubles (fitna) that the believer of one morning shall, by evening, be an infidel, while the believer of the evening shall, next day, be an infidel—save only for those whom God will strengthen through knowledge.” In Morocco, the term blad sîba (land of dissidence) was also used to refer to more local versions of such dissidence. See also makhzan. al-Fizazi, Mohamed [muHammad al-fizâzî]. Born in 1949 in the Marnisa tribe in the region of Taza, Fizazi studied the Qur’an in rural qur’anic schools and then went to public schools and graduated from the teachers training school in Rabat in 1970. He early expressed interest in sharî‘a studies and received a licence in hadith sciences and began preaching in Tanger in 1976. He has published more than twenty books. Fizazi is thought by many political parties to be responsible, through his religious sermons, for the rise of the salafiya al-jihâdiya (see Islamist groups). Folk dances. Beginning in 1956, the National Festival of Folk Dances has been celebrated outside the gatedwalls of the Chellah in Rabat. The festival became one of the most celebrated of national cultural meetings, gathering groups from all around the country, and has been an occasion for the ministry of tourism to publicize the country’s diverse cultural heritage, although many Berber cultural critics have spoken against the way the government has been using and representing these dances. The Festival is now held each June at the Palais al-badî’ in Marrakech. Lately the Ministry of Tourism has been organizing, especially during the summer, many regional folk dances (such as the Festival of the Middle Atlas and the Festival de Rabat) as a way to attract more national and international tourists. We can classify the Moroccan folk dances into the following groups: religious dances that include (spelled as typically transliterated from colloquial) daqqa al-murrâkushiyya, gnâwa, al-hît of Zemmour and al-gharb, al-harma of Zagoura, es-sinssia of Tissint, the guadra (al-

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‘uyûn), and ‘issawa of Meknès among others. There are also many folk dances whose nature demonstrates wars and conflicts such as Ait Boudar (Talsint), Ghiata (Taza), the sword dances of Ihahen de Tamanr and Zagoura and the dance of Taskiouine. Apart from these folk dances there are two groups of collective dances that are practiced in wider regional zones among the Berbers of the Atlas mountains and that include other subgroups. They are aHwâsh in the central Haut Atlas (tashalHit) and aHidus in the Middle Atlas (tamazight). These folk dances take the form of a group festival during social gatherings and activities such as circumcisions and marriages. In both aHwash and aHidus, poetry and songs (izlane) are a key component of the dances (Boum 1997). Neither are about choreographical movement but are mostly judged by the quality of their poets and their poetic expertise. Dances became a symbolic war between tribes during periods of peace through a moussem, for example, or between social components of a single tribe during a social gathering. These traditional features of aHwash and aHidus have been lost as the dances have been co-opted by the state and face fierce competition from the global music industry as well as because young rural men and women are no longer much attached to their cultural heritage. Foreign policy. On 25 February 2004, Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, and Jordan signed the Agadir Declaration, which created a Free Trade Zone (Zone Libre Echange/muntaqa al-tabâdil al-Hurr) as a step toward the creation of a Arab Common Market. The accord envisions a 100 percent elimination of tariffs on industrial products by 1 January 2005 and other incremental measures leading to the creation of a larger Free Trade Zone in the near future. Others attended the signing ceremony including representatives from Mauritania and Libya, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Algeria as well as the Arab League, the Arab Maghrib Union, and the European Union. This accord was followed by the signing of a free trade agreement with the United States (negotiations concluded on 2 March 2004) making Morocco the second Muslim nation (after Jordan) to sign a free trade agreement with the United States. It is worth noting that the agreement deals with the elimination of tariffs, the specification of quotas for specific goods, and concerns only locally produced goods, i.e., commodities from other countries cannot transit through either country and qualify under the agreement. The inclusion of quotas means that the agreement deals with limited free trade (a slight misnomer) as do other such agreements around the world and not with what might be called completely unfettered free trade. With regard to the European Union, Morocco signed an association agreement on 26 February 1996 that went into effect on 1 March 2000, which established an association between the European Community and the state of Morocco and which specifies in detail all the relevant tariffs and trade agreements. This accord replaced a 1976 cooperation agreement with the European Community and specified, among other

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provisions, a gradual elimination of tariffs over twelve years. An important area of the association agreement deals with migration and social affairs and a commitment by the European Union to develop a coherent immigration policy. Morocco also began negotiations on 7 April 2003 on an “EC readmission agreement,” but this is still under negotiation. While Morocco’s foreign relations with a number of countries go back centuries (see Algeria, France, Spain, United Kingdom, United States), events in the 18th and 19th centuries in particular set the stage for the colonial period (see Madrid, Conference of and Algeciras, Conference of). Between 1913 and 1955, Morocco as a protectorate had no foreign policy, though elements of the government maintained unofficial ties with other countries in the Islamic world. With independence, Morocco began to enter into a series of agreements, both political and commercial, with countries in Africa and the Middle East. These include becoming a founding member of the Organization of African Unity (OAU; Morocco was a member from its foundation in 1963 until it withdrew its membership in November 1984), a founding member of the Arab Maghrib Union (founded in Marrakech in 1989), a member of the Arab League (joining in 1958), and a founding member of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC established in Rabat in 1969). During the Cold War, Morocco assiduously took a middle ground and welcomed Soviet and American aid. In the 1970s leftist movements had close ties with the Soviet bloc and their opposition to the monarchy had begun to push the government of Morocco more into the Western fold, though Marxisoriented labor organizations remained strong. Morocco has long been active diplomatically across the Middle East and Africa, but it has has one particularly difficult diplomatic problem to resolve—the question of its southern provinces or the former Spanish Sahara. When Spain gave up the territory (at the time referred to as the Spanish Sahara) in 1975 and Morocco occupied it (see Green March) there were wide ramifications from a diplomatic perspective. The occupation put Morocco at odds both with the United Nations and the OAU (as well as today with the new African Union) and of course with its two neighbors, Algeria and Spain. UN attempts to solve the dispute have found that neither the Polisario, who wish for speedy (or at least near-term) self-determination, nor Morocco, which will not countenence any loss of any part of the territory, are interested in compromise. Morocco has the upper hand and no one seems likely to force Morocco to give up the territory anytime soon, but Morocco may continue to suffer diplomatic indignities unless the Polisario are in some way mollified. With the crisis over terrorism following the World Trade tower attacks, the Moroccan state took a strong stance against terrorism and subsequently drafted a law similar to the U.S. Patriot Act passed into law in the United States. The implementation of this law was held up in parliament by Islamist groups who realized they would be its

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primary targets. When the terrorist attacks of May 2003 in Casablanca occurred, parliament realized it needed to act and quickly passed the new legislation with all eighty-nine legislators present voting in favor. The bill defines a terrorist act as any premeditated act, by an individual or a group, that intends to disturb the public order by means of terror and violence. The legislation is sufficiently strong that human rights groups had succeeded in getting it off the agenda, for revisions, in April 2003, but it was passed much as originally formulated. In the space of a year after the Casablanca bombings, the Moroccan security forces had arrested more than 2,000 people on terrorist charges. Despite the involvement by individual Moroccans in many international terrorist activities, in June 2004, Morocco was designated a major non-Nato ally by President George W. Bush because of its strong stance against terrorism. France. Since independence, France has maintained a strong commercial presence in Morocco as well as strong government, military, and security ties with Morocco. The Ben Barka affair, in which Moroccan security with the aid of some elements of Israeli and French security forces kidnapped and murdered someone in France without the president (de Gaulle) being informed, strained relations for the duration of de Gaulle’s presidency (1959-1969). While the two governments became significantly closer under Valerie Giscard D’Estaing (1974-1981), revelations about Hassan II’s human rights transgressions distanced the two states during the presidency of François Mitterand (1981-1995). The commercial clout of French business in Morocco has meant that there have been major continuities in the day-to-day relationships between France and Morocco, and the French government also funds an extensive cooperation program. In 2001, there were 25,580 French citizens registered with the French consulates, and of these, 74 percent were residents in Morocco. Five hundred French firms employing 65,000 people are part of France’s official Mission économique in Morocco, and this does not include smaller companies. France’s Agence pour l’Enseignement Français à l’Etranger employs 2,500 people in Morocco. The general disregard experienced by the large immigrant community of Moroccan origin in France has led to a lot of strain in recent years, which the well publicized successes of racist political groups within France has only aggravated. In February 2001, a decision was made to set up a joint task force to study immigrant integration in France, but subsequent terrorist activities and harsh prosecularism measures in France have actually made the problems more acute. The reality of these social problems has not significantly strained government relations, and the recent popular preoccupation with blaming the United States for all that is wrong in the world has significantly attenuated the memory of the colonial period and the consequent popular opprobrium felt toward France and things French within Morocco. (See Grand Caids).

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Franco-German Treaty of 4 November 1911. This accord provided Germany with compensation for waiving its rights to Morocco and cleared the way for a Spanish and French protectorate in Morocco. In order to emphasize its need for some compensation before stepping aside in favor of France, Germany sent an imperial battleship, the Panther, to anchor off the coast of Agadir on 1 July 1911. Germany announced that the ship was there to protect German merchants from potential anti-European agitation, although there were no significant threats to German merchants in southern Morocco. Given that war did break out in Europe only a few years later, the common perception that conflict between France and Germany over Morocco could precipitate war in Europe was probably not devoid of truth. Nevertheless, the decision makers in France were primarily a small set of diplomats, financial interests dominated by Paribas, and various merchant and industrial groups (Morocco was widely viewed as having mining potential). The industrial interests were unambiguously in support of a French takeover. In contrast, the financial groups stood to gain from loans to an independent Morocco, and the diplomats, though undoubtedly inspired by dreams of French imperialism in Africa, had to be concerned about diplomatic relations in Europe. In consequence, the gravity of the crisis was undoubtedly exaggerated by the press. There were no significant reasons for not making a deal with Germany. From the German perspective, the choice of Agadir symbolized both Germany’s important trade with southern Morocco and Germany’s desire not to precipitate a war; Agadir was far south of French forces in the Chaouia and the farthest away from the core areas of French activity of any significant port. In fact, the German mission in Mogador/Essaouira was approached by Hâjj Thami al-Glawi with a proposition, supposedly endorsed by most of the southern caids and notables, to hand over southern Morocco to Germany (Park 1983a:appendix 2). Given that France was clearly in the process of taking over, some southern notables apparently would have preferred a German protectorate. This proposal was unhesitatingly rejected by the German mission as probably not as widely supported as claimed and certainly unworkable even if it were. Nevertheless, the Panther’s action triggered immediate French concern and probably worked to Germany’s advantage in its negotiations with France. In the end, France ceded to Germany an eastwest strip of the Moyen Congo-Cameroun frontier (from the coast inland) as well as a larger adjoining strip north-south along the Cameroun-Central African Republic frontier in return for assurances that Germany would relinquish all claims to Morocco. Assurances were also given to protect German merchants and to respect prevailing agreements over protection, operation of postal services, and banking facilities. The historical significance of the agreement was, however, to clear away the last significant European obstacle to the establishment of a French protectorate in Morocco.

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Franco-Italian Accord of 1901. As France realized it wanted a free hand in Morocco, it began to work out agreements to that effect with various states. Italy had no significant interests in Morocco and was quite willing to negotiate with France in exchange for a free hand in Libya. Negotiations with the Italian foreign minister, Visconti-Venosta, were begun in 1899, and an exchange of letters in 1901 finalized the mutually beneficial arrangements. Franco-Moroccan Accords of 1901, 1902, 1909-1911. In March 1901, the makhzan decided to adopt a package of reforms for its internal administration and taxation systems patterned roughly after reforms developed in Egypt and the Ottoman Empire more generally. Since the proposed reforms impinged on tax exemptions claimed by foreigners and were expected to increase Morocco’s financial credibility in the eyes of Europe, missions were dispatched to London (headed by almunabbih) and Paris and Berlin (headed by ibn sulaymân). Although Britain was preoccupied with the Boer War and the Far East, on 20 July an accord was reached with Paris that resolved imminent border problems between French Algeria and Morocco (these were more definitively resolved, though no complete border was established, in an accord of 1902), but negotiators failed to attain French support for the intended financial reforms in Morocco. The intended reforms would have raised salaries for umanâ’ and caids to eliminate the need for supplementary income through corruption or forbidden nonmandated tax levies and, much more significantly from an economic perspective, would have eliminated the exemptions for sharîfs, jaysh tribes, protégés, and certain zâwiyas. Unfortunately, this included most of the people with influence. Ratification of the proposed reforms took until 1903, in part delayed by French worries that the reforms were targeted at the sharîfs of Ouazzane, who were French protégés. The reforms failed spectacularly, and between 1900 and 1904 Morocco went from a country with a marginally adequate treasury balance to one with a 100 million franc debt to foreign powers—suggesting that the political and economic reform was neglected at great cost to the state (Burke 1976:53). In 1909, a series of discussions were begun between France and Morocco over the French occupation of the Chaouia region, Algerian frontier questions, and makhzan debts. These issues were partially resolved despite hardening of French positions, troubled by an additional demand that the makhzan sever all relations with mâ al‘aynîn, and growing Moroccan anti-French sentiment. mawlây HâfiZ attempted to break the French monopoly on technical advisors, an extrapolation from the free hand given to France by the Conference of Algeciras, by hiring Turkish military advisors, but was forced by French diplomatic pressure to dismiss them in 1910 in order to get the accords ratified later that year on March 4 in Paris. In the final agreement, the makhzan agreed to implement the border accords of

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1901 and 1902, sever connections with mâ al-‘aynîn, and implement article 60 of the Algeciras Act, which granted foreigners the right to own property in Morocco. More indicative of its dependency position vis-à-vis France, the makhzan was also forced to agree to pay the entire cost of French military operations in the Chaouia and Oujda regions, pay all fines and indemnities claimed, and recognize France’s right to administer these two occupied territories on behalf of the makhzan until France chose to withdraw. Ratification of the accords were a prerequisite for further discussions of another French loan to the makhzan. On 3 March 1911 muHammad al-muqrî (the Moroccan representative in Paris) and Jean Cruppi (French foreign minister) signed an agreement (the Cruppi-Muqrî accords) that linked further financial reform to receipt of another loan. The Treaty of Fès was now barely a year away. See also France, Algeria, United Kingdom, and Franco-Moroccan Treaty of 18 March 1845. Franco-Moroccan Commercial Treaty of 1767. This quite general agreement between France and Morocco granted French merchants security of commerce and most favored nation status where customs rates were concerned. Consuls were reestablished but not given the right to hire agents who would not be under Moroccan legal jurisdiction. Such a right was later claimed by France’s representative Vernouillet in Tanger in 1879, and later echoed by French historians (Julien 1969:244), but this was due, apparently, to a lack of agreement between the French translation of the treaty and the legally binding Arabic original (Parsons 1976:76 n. 77). Franco-Moroccan Treaty of 18 March 1845. Following the Battle of Isly and the Tangier Convention of 10 September 1844, establishing basic military agreements between Morocco and the new Frenchoccupied Algeria, both countries felt a need to establish a more definitive mutual border. The undefined frontier between Morocco and Algeria was accordingly defined for about 150 kilometers inland from the Mediterranean by a treaty on 18 March 1845, which also listed various communities farther inland as falling within one or the other respective country’s borders. The Saharan portion of the frontier has otherwise been left undefined to this day. Franco-Spanish Accord of 1904. Along the lines of the Entente Cordiale with Great Britain (see United Kingdom), France’s foreign minister, Delcassé, negotiated, on 3 October 1904, an agreement with Spain for France and Spain to give each other a mutual free hand in Morocco. Spanish territory was designated to be north of Larache and the Oueghra river, and Spain was not to act within this territory until after France had established itself in the remaining (French) area.

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al-fudaylî, abû bakr zakrî. abû al-‘alâ’ idrîs bn aHmad bn abû bakr zakrî al-fudaylî al-‘alawî al-sijilmâsî al-fâsî was born around 1844 in Fès and died in 1316H (1898/9). al-fudaylî wrote one of the great biographical works on the shurafâ’ of Fès, titled al-durar al-bahîya wal-jawâhir al-nabawîya fî al-furû‘ al-Hasanîya wa-l-Husaynîya. This work sets out to clarify who has a legitimate claim to being a sharîf and then provides a detailed discussion of all such families that is greatly expanded over earlier works both with regard to the branch descended from Husayn and in terms of the details given for groupings in the Tafilalt. At the end al-fudaylî provides a section with a multitude of details on twenty other non-shurafâ’ prominent families of Fès including the fâsî, ibn al-Hâjj, dilâ’, ibn al-qâDî, ibn al-wazîr alghassânî, and Guennoun families (Levi-Provençal 1922a:374-376). The claim to sharîf status even today in Morocco is a significant one, but the two claims that are most current are traced either through families linked to the Idrisids or the ‘Alawites. The other main claimants were the Sa‘dians though the sharîf familes of Fès did not tradtionally accept the Sa‘dian claim.

-GEl Gahs, Mohammed. Born in Taza in 1964, El Gahs studied law at the Faculté de droit et des sciences économiques of Université de Nancy II (France) as well as journalism at the Ecole de journalisme de Strasbourg (France), where he received a DEA in administration and a DES in journalism, respectively. El Gahs has been Directeur-adjoint and Directeur de la rédaction of the daily paper Libération since 1993. El Gahs was elected a deputy for the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP) in September 2002 representing Bernoussi-Zenata. In 2002, El Gahs became secrétaire d’état, chargé de la jeunesse, auprès du ministre de l’éducation nationale et de la jeunesse. gasûs, ‘abd al-laTîf bn ‘abd al-ghânî. Born in Tétouan in 1933, gasûs went to primary and secondary school in Tanger and Rabat and then studied fiqh (jurisprudence) and Hadîth (Prophetic Traditions), and uSûl (Religious Foundations) with Muslim scholars. He published altaSawwuf maqâm al-iHsân—Sufism: the Topic of Charity” (1980), ’azmat amâna—“The Crisis of Faith” (1981), and fî-l-Hukmî bimâ anzala allâhu—“On the Governance God has Given” (1990). The last book details gasûs’s ideas on an Islamic state led by Muslim scholars. Gellner, Ernest. Born in Paris on 9 December in 1925, Gellner attended an English grammar school in Prague until his family moved to England in 1939. After brief service in the Czech army following WWII, he studied at Oxford and then the London School of Economics

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(LSE) where he began to teach philosophy, logic, and scientific method in 1962. Yet he had an early fascination with anthropology (an article in 1956 was titled “Berbers of Morocco”) that was influenced by Malinowski but stimulated by an LSE mountaineering expedition to the Atlas in 1954. Gellner wrote a classic ethnography of Morocco (Saints of the Atlas, 1969), which, though widely admired and as widely critiqued, has inarguably, if in part through the debates it has stimulated, contributed greatly to the understanding of Moroccan society. The book studies the ideological rejection of the state by pastoral nomads in Morocco as well as the role of saints in controlling conflict without the need for state institutions. Gellner’s major works have been philosophical and sociological discussions along similar themes: the need to overcome the chasm between individualistic or liberal (associated with Malinowski) and communal or nationalistic (epitomized by the later Wittgenstein) approaches to our understanding of society and culture. His last work, Language and Solitude (1998), makes his most eloquent case for the urgent need to transcend this intellectual standoff, which he felt was at the root of many societies’ problems with modernity. Gellner valued historical contextualization and logical consistency while he criticized relativism (Geertz’s Wittgenstein inspired variants in particular) as well as intellectual self-indulgence and blind faith in culture, yet he seemed always a little regretful that he himself had neither a community nor a faith (despite his Jewish upbringing). His wit and intellect left an indelible impression on those who met him. Ernest Gellner died in 1995 a few days short of 70 years of age. Ghallab bn Abdelkrim. Born in 1919 in Fès, Ghallab was the director of the journal al-Alam and a member of the Académie du Royaume du Maroc. He studied at the Université al-Qarawiyyîn in Fès. Ghallab obtained a baccalauréat in Cairo in 1939 and received a degree from Cairo University in Lettres classiques. Ghallab compaigned for the Moroccan independence while in Cairo and participated in the creation of the Bureau du Maghreb Arab in 1944. Ghallab was named by Mohammed V as an attaché to the Cabinet Royal and then Ministre plénipotentiaire aux affaires étrangères (foreign affairs) in 1956. In 1959, Ghallab became editor in chief and director of al-Alam. Between 1962 and 1977, he was secrétaire du syndicat de presse. Ghallab became the président of the Union des Ecrivains du Maroc from 1967 to 1977. During 1977-1984, Ghallab was elected deputy from Casablanca and deputy from Salé between 1993 and 1997. Ghallab served as Ministre chargé de la réforme administrative during 1981-1985. Ghallab has written more than forty works including novels and historical, political, ideological, and theological studies. Ghallab has been a member of the Académie du Royaume du Maroc since its creation in 1980 and was a member of the executive committee of the istiqlâl party, clandestinely in 1949 and officially as of 1960.

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al-ghassânî, muHammad al-wazîr. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn ‘abd al-wahhâb al-wazîr al-ghassânî (d.1119H/1707/8) was the secretary of mawlây ismâ‘îl in Meknès until retiring to Fès just before his death. After serving as ambassador to Spain, he wrote a famous travel account, riHlat al-wazîr fî ifkâk (iftikâk) al-asîr (Voyage of the vizier for the ransom of prisoners), which is characterized by an extraordinary level of detail in the description of customs, clothing, and standard of living and is written in a clear style from the perspective of a curious and impartial observer. It has been translated into French by H. Sauvaire (Paris 1884) as Voyage en Espagne d’un Ambassadeur Marocain, 1690-91. ghâzî, muHammad bn aHmad bn. (d.1513). ibn ghâzî was born in Meknès but moved with many disciples to Fès where he quickly acquired a reputation as one of the Sa‘dian dynasty’s most eminent scholars. Residing in the al-aSda’ quarter of Fès, he taught first in a local mosque but soon became an eminent professor at al-qarawîyîn. He taught exegesis, fiqh and grammar, Hadîth, and mathematics and wrote many books. These included some famous commentaries, a book on succession, al-jâmi‘ al-mustawfî li-jadâwil al-Hawfî (The Complete Collection of Debates about Succession—i.e., by non-kin members of the family), and a 200-verse poem on the basic principles of mathematics, munyat al-Hisâb (The Goal or Object of Calculation) (Hajji 1976). al-ghazzâl, aHmad. abû al-abbâs aHmad bn al-mahdî al-ghazzâl alandalusî al-mâlaqî grew up in Meknès the son of one of mawlây ismâ‘îl’s secretaries and died in Fès in 1191H (1777) after serving as Morocco’s ambassador on several occasions. He was first sent to Spain to negotiate an exchange of prisoners with Charles III on 8 June 1766 and then again later to Algiers and Spain in 1768. He retired from public office in 1771. aHmad al-ghazzâl is important for historians primarily because he wrote an account of his travels, natîjat al-ijtihâd fî al-muhâdana wa-l-jihâd (The consequence of efforts in our settlements and holy war), which gives an account of on and off hostilities between Spain and Morocco after the expulsion of the Moors but is characterized above all else by the curiosity of the author and the clarity and detail of his observations in the many cities and villages he visited in Spain. Glawi, Hâjj Thami. The ultimate beneficiary of the Glawi influence, Hâjj Thami (1879-1956, Arabic: tuhâmî), when his holdings were finally sequestered in 1958, was shown to have owned 11,400 hectares of irrigated land plus 660,000 feet of olive trees (on other lands) in the Haouz alone, to say nothing of his vast holdings in the Draa and Dadès, Casablanca, Rabat, and Tanger. The family had 16,000 irrigated hectares and title to 25,000 hectares in the Haouz. Only 42 percent of Hâjj Thami’s fortune was estimated to have been in the

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Haouz. At the time, this was vastly more than the total holdings of the sultan and far and away the largest holdings in Morocco. Hâjj Thami also had industrial investments of about 2 billion francs in 1956; the equivalent at the time of about 2 million pounds sterling, which for 1956 Morocco was a more than substantial sum. This material echo is paralleled in the popular mind by an image of Hâjj Thami as indescribably oppressive, taking for himself the least signs of wealth, but almost paradoxically also a keeper of his word who defended his allies and friends with the utmost vigor (Pascon 1977:300). Hâjj Thami Glawi’s fortune was facilitated by two major factors, the replacement of the makhzan system of light (legitimate) rural taxation around 1860-1870 by a heavier level of taxation that squeezed local elites and set up a scramble for control of major sums and, later, the protectorate policy instituted by Lyautey that relied on Glawi, and other Grand Caids, to govern the south for the French. In both cases, the prevailing government focused on its own needs and ignored almost entirely the plight of those being squeezed. The first major step for Hâjj Thami Glawi was the conquest of the Mesfioua and the establishment of a stake in the Haouz for his brother Madani between 1903 and 1905. In July 1909, Hâjj Thami was named Pacha of Marrakech, a title he kept until his death in 1956, except for a brief interval from June 1911 when he was dismissed by mawlây HâfiZ to August 1912 when the French gave him back his position. In the context of a French protectorate, what changed compared with what had been the norm since the mid-19th century was that acquisitions obtained by force were turned into permanent legal property. Hence the French disdain for what happened to the normal members of the population had infinitely more significant ramifications than comparable attitudes on the part of the 19th-century makhzan. The dispossessed became irrevocably dispossessed rather than temporarily deprived of income in a society much in flux. Thus the French imprimatur allowed Hâjj Thami Glawi to annex stupendous amounts of land and exact income from approximately one million individuals by 1955. It is hardly surprising therefore that when mawlây muHammad V began to side with the nationalists in the 1940s and became an obstacle to French policy, Hâjj Thami Glawi, and some like thinkers such as ‘abd al-Hayy al-Kattani who hated the ‘Alawites for his own reasons, proposed that the sultan should be deposed and sent into exile. In his place they suggested the more malleable muHammad bn ‘arafa. This treachery, in the eyes of the nationalists, added immeasurably to the disdain with which the populace regarded Hâjj Thami Glawi. When mawlây muHammad V returned from exile, Hâjj Thami Glawi, who was dying of cancer, met him in Paris and, reversing himself, swore allegiance. This did not obviate the earlier actions, and the family holdings were seized by the state. The family is now rehabilitated, although reputedly they still have some restrictions imposed on their activities, and Telouet, the ancestral home, remains off-limits.

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Glawi, Madani. Madani Glawi (1860-July 1918) was the member of the Glawi family primarily responsible for the family’s preeminence among the Grand Caids on the eve of the protectorate and hence for the role his younger brother, Hâjj Thami Glawi, was to play during the protectorate. After taking over the leadership of a not particularly prominent family in 1886 from his father muHammad al-ibibat, Madani, beginning from the family qasba in Telouet, began to extend his control over a larger region until in 1893 the Glawis were organized on a comparable scale to the other Grand Caids such as Goundafi and Mtouggui. When in the same year Madani allied himself with mawlây Hassan I, who was on mahalla collecting taxes, he was appointed khalîfa for a large region (Todgha, Tafilalt, and Fayja). The sultan, who was traveling through the High Atlas pass and was very hospitably received by Madani, left a 77 mm Krupp cannon and some mortars to be sent on later when the snows cleared, but these were never sent on and instead were used to significantly promote Glawa prestige and authority. After subduing much of the High Atlas, Madani turned to the plains around Marrakech (the Haouz) over which Goundafi and Mtouggui were struggling for control. By defeating the Mesfioua, Thami Glawi gained significant revenues for the family and established a fortress in Ait Ourir to secure the revenue flow. After an expedition by mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz, with the assistance of Madani and Thami Glawi, to defeat al-hîba failed miserably, at considerable cost to all parties, the Glawis began to doubt mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz’s ability to keep the state together and so, along with Mtouggui began to support mawlây HâfiZ’s bid for power. In reward, Madani was briefly made minister of war (1907) and vizier (1909), from which post he derived the title al-fqîh, but mawlây HâfiZ was pressured by the French to abandon the Glawis whose power and apparent links with al-hîba may have appeared disturbing and whose exactions on the population had largely precipitated the rural rebellions of 1911. Thami and Madani were soon reconciled with the French, who had quickly begun to regret their mistake as they realized how difficult it would be to rule southern Morocco without the Glawis. As the protectorate developed they received back many of the lands taken from them by mawlây HâfiZ and expanded their holdings very significantly. Grand Caids. The era of the Grand Caids proper began in the 1870s when, under mawlây Hassan I, the makhzan began to need more significant resources from the rural areas. There were new financial needs based on external and internal pressures combined with an inability to raise taxes from other sources due to treaty arrangements that limited the state’s ability to increase revenues from customs. In addition, the Tétouan War had engendered a large debt for the payment of which Spain had access to half of Morocco’s customs receipts in all port cities from 1861 to 1884. During mawlây Hassan I’s reign (1873-1894) the vast bulk of the increased government receipts

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came from the rural areas, which both undermined traditional rural elites and set up a scramble for control of the taxation apparatus. In short, the financial pressures in the final decades of the 19th century and the first decade of the 20th century pushed the makhzan to legitimize in one form or another a set of new elites both wealthier and more monopolistic than earlier caids. These caids developed to the greatest extent in the southern reaches of the empire because it was those areas that the makhzan had the greatest difficulty directly taxing. When the French established a protectorate in 1912 they moved quickly to legalize the status, as massive land holders and official tax farmers, of the majority of the Grand Caids in southern Morocco because they too felt it would be easier to control the south through a system of indirect rule. The direct control of the north already put a strain on French resources, and the advent of WWI made resources even more scarce. By 1900 there were three main factions in the Marrakech region: Thami and Madani Glawi, Abdel Malik Mtouggui, and Tayyib al-Goundafi. With the advent of the protectorate the Glawis came out far in advance of the others in no small part due to Lyautey’s infatuation with aristocracy and his fantasy that Hâjj Thami Glawi’s aristocratic demeanor represented an ancient racial superiority destined to rule. Not all southern caids were co-opted by the French, but those who were not (e.g., Caid Guellouli) were often, at least initially, imprisoned and largely rendered destitute. Most of the French appointments of caids and qadis during the protectorate were made based on the most simplistic system of prioritization imaginable: the haste with which members of the elite had thrown in their lot with the French. This preference for exemplars of a moment’s lucky pragmatism or facile hypocrisy kept younger, and often better qualified, people out of important positions throughout the protectorate and accentuated the unresponsiveness of the protectorate administration to the needs of the population. Green March/La Marche Verte. Mawlây al-Hasan II organized this five day march (6-10 November 1975) to emphasize Morocco’s claim to the Spanish Sahara. It was precipitated by Franco’s imminent death (20 November 1975), which promised to open up possibilities for the Spanish Sahara, the formation of the Front Polisario on 10 May 1975, and the pronouncement, 16 October 1975, by the International Court of Justice at the Hague of a nuanced decision. This judgement recognized Morocco’s historical claims to the Spanish Sahara while noting that they did not suffice in themselves to establish dominion and that a referendum of the population should decide matters. Following riots in Casablanca in 1965 and two coup attempts (1971 and 1972), mawlây Hassan II needed some cause to mobilize support and the Green March (al-masîra al-khaDrâ’) was a perfect crown to a diplomatic offensive to establish Morocco’s claims to the Spanish Sahara that had been initiated in the early 1970s. The

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government opposition and the population almost without exception turned out on the king’s side. Over 300,000 Moroccans, selected by lottery from the many willing to march, participated in the Green March. The March was pacific and began in Marrakech with a huge armada of trucks and cars that deposited the marchers in Tarfaya. From there they marched south until, ten kilometers within Spanish territory, mawlây Hassan II called off the march, its symbolism established. On 14 November 1975 the tripartite agreement between Spain, Mauritania, and Morocco divided the Spanish Sahara between Morocco and Mauritania. In 1977, mawlây Hassan II was reconciled with the government opposition and in June parliamentary elections were held. Mauritania, under Algerian and Sahraoui pressure, quickly backed out of its claim to its southern third of the Spanish Sahara, and Morocco took over the whole territory in August 1979. Groupe Office Cherifien des Phosphates [majmu‘at al-maktab alsharîf li-l-fusfâT] (Groupe OCP). The OCP was created in 1920 and became Groupe OCP in 1975. Its purpose is the extraction of phosphates and the production of phosphate-based products. Controlling roughly 75 percent of the world’s exportable reserves of phosphate, the OCP is the premier exporter of phosphates (phosphate, phosphoric acid, and P205) in the world. In 2002, the OCP produced 23 million tons of phosphate, approximately half of which was transformed locally into phosphoric acid and solid fertilizers. Exports were valued at 1.3 billion dollars U.S. Almost 23,000 people work for OCP including more than 700 engineers or technical professionals. Guédira, Ahmed Reda. After receiving a law degree from the University of Paris (1947), Ahmed Guédira (1922-1995) served in numerous cabinet posts and as the conseiller of mawlây Hassan II. He served as minister of defense (1956-1959), director of the Royal Cabinet (1961-1963), minister of agriculture (26 February 1961-13 November 1963) and interior (26 February 1961-June 1963), minister of foreign affairs (13 November 1963-15 August 1964), minister of higher and secondary education (1969-1970), and beginning in 1977 as mawlây Hassan II’s conseiller. Ahmed Guédira also was active politically helping to organize the informal Parti des Indépendants Libéraux/ Liberal Independents Party in 1955, the Front pour la Défense des Institutions Constitutionelles (FDIC) in 1963, and the Parti Socialiste Démocratique (PSD) in April 1964. His position as both a Rabati and an intimate of mawlây Hassan II gave him the opportunity to be a rallying point for those who were both royalist and left out of the istiqlâl party and its offshoots. As one of the founders of the Parti des Indépendants, which was itself a development from a less institutionalized group referred to as the Friends of Rashid Mouline since 1945, Ahmed Guédira’s credentials as an alternative political voice have deep roots and have had considerable appeal among urban elites less than satisfied with the istiqlâl party. The FDIC

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was designed as an alliance between the Mouvement Populaire and Guédira’s supporters and was intended as a pro-royalist alternative force to an expected istiqlâl victory in the 1963 parliamentary elections. In the election the FDIC won the most seats (24 percent), but the istiqlâl (21 percent) and the UNFP (16 percent) together were a significant problem. Many UNFP members soon were accused of sedition, understandable since in a monarchy they were for radical change, and the UNFP lost most of its momentum under the cumulative weight of the sedition trials and the Ben Barka affair in 1965. Guédira spoke out vigorously against government overreaction to dissent and advocated reconciliatory moves on the part of the palace. The FDIC fell apart in the pragmatics of running a parliamentary coalition and was replaced by the PSD, but this party too lasted only until 1965. Guedira, Mohamed Najid. Born 28 May 1953 in Rabat, Guedira studied at the Ecole Al Atlas (Mission) in Rabat, Lycée Al Laymoune (Mission) in Rabat, and the Faculté de Droit in Rabat. There he received a Baccalauréat B, licence in economics, and a DES in economics and development. In 2000, Guedira became the director general of the Agence de Développement Social (ADS). He was also research professor during 1977-2000. Between 1986 and 2000, he served as a consultant for the World Bank, USAID, OMS (WHO), UNDP, and other financial and development organizations. Guedira is also a member of many associations, including Bureau National du SNE (1985-1988), the Bureau de la Fondation Abderrahim Bouabid (1988-2000), and he is the founding president of the Réseau Maghrébin d’Economie et des Systèmes de Santé (RESSMA:1998-2000). Guennoun, Abdellah. Born in Fès in 1908, Guennoun moved to Tanger with his family during the protectorate and so went to school in Tanger. His advanced studies were at al-qarawîyîn in Fès, after which he moved back to Tanger to set up the first private school there. During the protectorate he was active in the national liberation movement and wrote for many newspapers advocating Moroccan independence. In 1954, he worked in the Ministry of Justice in Tétouan and directed the mawlay al-Hasan center in Tétouan. After independence he was appointed governor of the province of Tanger, then head of al-majlis al-‘ilmî in Tanger. Guennoun is most known however for his scholarship. A famous Islamic thinker, nationalist, and salafist reformer, Guennoun wrote many books, particularly of literary criticism, and a large compendium of Moroccan literature, al-nubûgh (Genius). A distinguished lexicographer, poet, and linguist, he donated his books and archives to set up a library in Tanger, which was inaugurated on 28 February 1985 as maktabat ‘abd allâh gannun (the Abdellah Guennoun Library). It has roughly 14,000 maTbû‘ (printed works), 2,600 journals, 1,200 manuscripts, and 10,000 published books (7,000 in Arabic, 1,500 in

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Spanish, 1,000 in French, and 500 in English). Abdellah Guennoun died in 1979. Guercif. (lat. 34º 15' N., long. 3º 19' W.) Deriving its name from its location at the confluence of the moulouya and mulullû rivers sixty kilometers east of Taza (Berber ger=between plus âsîf=river), Guercif was founded around mid-9th century by a group of miknâsa Berbers, the banû abî al-‘âfiya. Its location also puts it near the intersection of caravan routes from Fès to Tlemcen and from sijilmâsa to Melilla. By the beginning of the 13th century the zanâta banû marîn were using Guercif as a central storage for grain and in 1213 they occupied it. In 1248 they destroyed the Almohad army, which was returning from Tlemcen to Fès. By 1275 the Marinids had conquered Morocco. By the time of the Sa‘dian dynasty the normal frontier had been pushed east beyond Oujda and Guercif lost its key military importance, although it gained a qasba in the 18th century. Guercif’s population in 2004 was 48,700. Guerraoui, Abdellatif. Born 10 July 1939 in Safi, Guerraoui, a former minister, studied at ENSEEIHT (Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Electrotechnique, d’Electronique, d’Informatique, et d’Hydraulique de Toulouse). Guerraoui received a diploma in computer science (d’ingénieur en informatique) in 1964. He joined the OCP (Office Chérifien des Phosphates) as chef de service and then chef de division (1964-1990). Guerraoui also served as director and administrator of branches of the OCP (Maroc-chimie, Maroc-phosphore, Fertima, and Comanav) from 1971 to 1990. From 1991 to 1995, he became administrative director general of the Société maroc-saoudienne d’investissement. From 1993 to 1997, Guerraoui became minister of energy and mines as well as an administrator of OCP, and then, from 1997 to 1998, he became minister for social affairs (des affaires sociales, de la santé, de la Jeunesse et sports, de l’entraide nationale). Guerraoui also served as the President of the Conseils d’administration de l’ONE and SAMIR and an administrator of the OCP (also from 1993 to 1997). In April 1999, he became president of the Directoire de THARWA Finance.

-HEl Hadani, Driss. Born 30 November 1963 in Casablanca, El Hadani has been the Director of the Centre Royal de Télédétection Spatiale (CRTS) since 1998. El Hadani received a diplôme du Cycle supérieur de gestion from the Institut Supérieur du Commerce et d’Administration des Entreprises (ISCAE) in 1997, a diplôme des études supérieures spécialisées (DESS) Télédétection Appliquée from the Université de Paris VI (France) in 1989, and a diplôme d’Ingénieur

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from the Ecole Mohammadia d’Ingénieurs (EMI) in 1988. In 1989, he helped in the creation and development of CRTS including formulating its mission, objectives, recruitment, training, and equipment. In 1993, he was in charge of Service Marketing. Before El Hadani became the director of the Centre Royal de Télédétection Spatiale (CRTS), he served as its Chef de la division des projets in 1997. In June 2000, he was named the first vice president of the Comité des Nations Unies pour les Utilisations Pacifiques de l’Espace Extra Atmosphérique (COPUOS). Since 1993, he has been a member of the Moroccan delegation at COPUOS and in its judicial, technical, and scientific subcommittees. El Hadani also contributed to the establishment of the Centre régional africain des sciences et technologies de l’espace en langue française (CRASTE-LF, Rabat) and in the training of its participants. He is a member of the group of experts on future orientations in the area of Systèmes d’Information Géographique (SIG or GIS) in Africa. El Hadani is a member of the Conseil de l’Association Eurisy and was President of the International Program Committee of the MARISY 2000 Forum (Middle East and Africa Remote Sensing International Symposium) held in October 2000 in Rabat. El Hadani has been awarded several prizes: Eurimage Award for the best developing Eurimage Distributor (1995), SPOT IMAGE Award for the services provided to the users (1998), NASA appreciation for his development of the relationship between NASA and the Kingdom of Morocco (1999), and ESRI Award for his special achievements in GIS (2000). El Hadani has been a member of the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) since 1996 and the International Space University (ISU) since 1996. He is also the director of the publication GéoObservateur and has published many articles on remote sensing. al-HaDramî. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn abî bakr bn ‘abd almuhaymîn al-HaDramî (d.1385) was probably born in Ceuta and died at a fairly advanced age. He most likely resided longest in Ceuta but knew Fès, Meknès and Salé, where he visited ibn ‘ashîr. He was a sufi and devoted most of his efforts to biographical works about pious and religious figures. His only work to survive is a biographical monograph dealing with forty saintly personages of Fès, Meknès and Salé, alsalsal al-‘adhb wa-l-manhal al-aHlâ al-marfû‘ li-l-khilâfa al-‘azîzîya allatî lâ tazâlu manâqibuhâ ‘ala marr al-dahr tutlâ fî silk man taHallâ silkuhum min al-arba‘în fî jîl miknâs wa-fâs wa-salâ. Each saint is provided a biography, a discussion of his/here lifestyle and saintly deeds, and a psychological profile specifying their dominant trait (e.g., knowledge, asceticism, hope, generosity, gratitude, etc.). El Hafidi Alaoui, Abdelaziz. Born 15 September 1939 in Outat-El-Hadj, El Hafidi Alaoui is the first vice president of the Chamber of Representatives. El Hafidi Alaoui studied at the Université Mohammed V, Centre d’Etudes du Développement Economique et Social

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(CEDES), and Centre de Préparation à l’Administration des Entreprises (CPAE). He has a diplôme from the CEDES and CPAE and a licence in law. El Hafidi Alaoui has been a parliament deputy since 3 June 1977. He is a member of the Association Barreaux de Casablanca and the Union des Avocats du Maroc. His publications include L’Experience démocratique dans les pays africains et arabes, l’unanimité. Hajji, Nasr. Born 23 May 1953 in Rabat, Hajji pursued his secondary education in Rabat and received his baccalauréat from Lycée Descartes. Hajji studied telecommunications and economics in Paris and received a diplôme d’ingénieur d’état en télécommunications in 1975 and a Doctorat d’état in economics in 1983. Hajji also earned a degree in management from Harvard University. Hajji was nominated by Mohammed VI as secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de la poste, des technologies de l’information et de la communication on 6 September 2000. He served in many key political positions within the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP) and the Confédération Démocratique du Travail (CDT) of which he was a founding member. Since 1978, Hajji has been a member of the central committee of the USFP. He was also a member of the national administrative commission of the CDT. From 1998 to 2000, Hajji was an advisor to Prime Ministre Abderrahmane Youssoufi. Hajji is a professor at the Institut National des Postes et des Télécommunications (INPT), Faculté des Sciences juridiques, économiques et sociales, and Ecole Nationale d’Administration Publique (ENAP) in Rabat. Until 1996, he served as the directeur adjoint and directeur du Cycle des Ingénieurs d’état at the INPT. Hajji was also a member of the cabinet of the ministre d’état, Abderrahim Bouabid, from 1983 to 1984. Hajji is the founding president of the association Club Convergence 21 and an active member in the social activities of the PTT. He is also a consultant for many national and international organizations. His research interests include the fields of economy, new information technology systems, and the audio-visual studies. El Hajoui, Abdessamad. Born 11 September 1940 in Rabat, El Hajoui is the former president of the Chambre à la Cour Suprême, the secretary of the Conseil supérieur de la magistrature, and a magistrat au grade exceptionnel. El Hajoui received a licence ès-Droit. He joined the administration in 1966 and the magistrature in 1970. In 1971, El Hajoui became a substitute for the king’s prosecutor (procureur du roi), before the tribunal regional de Rabat. Between 1972 and 1974, he became a judge in the tribunal regional de Rabat. From 1974 and 1982, he was conseiller à la Cour d’Appel de Rabat chargé de l’instruction préparatoire. From 1982 to 1994, El Hajoui served in the Inspection Générale. He also served as administrateur adjoint at the ministry of agriculture and agrarian reform and then secretary of the Conseil supérieur de la magistrature (1994-1999). On 9 Februray 1999, El

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Hajoui became the president of the Chambre à la Cour Suprême. El Hajoui has been the president of the subcommission at the Commission National du Recours Fiscal since 1990. He also represents the ministry of justice on Conseils régionaux and on the Conseil national de l’ordre des pharmaciens. al-Hajwî, muHammad bn Hasan. muHammad al-Hajwî studied at the qarawîyîn and then joined the entourage of mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz (1900) and was sent to Oujda by mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz to represent Morocco on the eve of the French conquest. There he met some of those who were later to administer Morocco. Disgraced during the reign of mawlây ‘abd al-HâfiZ, he returned to the qarawîyîn and studied law and history further. In 1912 he was appointed counselor to the government of mawlây yûsuf bn al-Hasan and assigned first to public instruction and then justice. At independence he was among those dismissed for collaboration. In the judgment of A. Laroui (1992:114ff), Hajwî kept his intellectual integrity and was the leader of a moderate liberal reform movement. Hajwî’s major personal concern was to make an historical and legal case for the makhzan’s role as an entity charged with the duty to organize all aspects of communal life, in particular urban life. He argued that the primary cause of Islamic decadence was Islamic individualism with its effect of weakening traditional Islamic communal institutions such as the habous and various forms of common property. Hâ-mîm. Hâ-mîm bn mann allâh bn HâfiZ bn ‘amr, al-muftarî was a Berber prophet among the ghumâra (in the Tanger-Tétouan region) who preached a bowdlerized version of Islam complete with a Berber qur’an and modifications of the five pillars (two daily prayers, a weekly fast day, three to ten days of fast during Ramadan, and almsgiving, but no pilgrimage). Hâ-mîm began preaching in 925 and died in battle with the maSmûda around 927/8. Fish and birds eggs were forbidden as were animal heads, but wild animals except the boar were allowable. A paternal aunt and Hâ-mîm’s sister were also seen as having religious and magical powers. Hani, Idris [idrîs hânî]. Also called Hojatolislam Driss (Hujjatu-l-islâm idrîs, i.e., the argument of Islam, Idris). At the age of 18, hânî went to Damascus and joined the ja‘farite school of shi‘î Islam. He studied and received a diploma in shi‘ism in Syria and returned to Morocco to proselytize. He and his followers were quiet until the religious climate became more tolerant after the mid-1990s. Currently there are branches in several parts of Morocco. The television chain Al Manar, which originates in Lebanon and proselytizes for shi‘ism and the Hizbullâh, has recently become popular in Morocco, and many bookstores in major cities now carry shi‘ite literature from Iran and Lebanon selling at minimal prices. A large shi‘ite bookstore chain from Beirut has

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recently opened in Casablanca. hânî is active in proselytization across Morocco and takes the position that shi‘ism and sunni Islam are two sides to a single faith whose major differences are political, not religious. idrîs hânî is generally viewed as the spiritual leader of shi‘ism in Morocco and is often called Hojatolislam Driss and claims developed organizations in El Hoceïma, Tanger, and Meknès. Haouz [al-Hawz]. The Arabic term Hawz meaning “environs” or “territory” has acquired a special meaning in Morocco. In the 12th century the Atlantic plains of Morocco were divided conceptually into two parts, the gharb and the Hawz. By the 16th century the term Hawz had come to mean the hinterland (in a broad sense) of Marrakech and, by extension, of other major cities such as Fès. By the 20th century the term Haouz referred unambiguously to the extended rural area around the city of Marrakech (Pascon 1977). Haratine. The Haratine (HarâTîn, s. HarTânî) are a black ethnic group indigenous to the southern oases of Morocco and found as well in the Western Sahara and Mauritania. They are generally treated as an inferior social strata. The dating of their original residence in the region is as obscure as that of the Berbers. In the southern Saharan valleys of Morocco it is fairly clear that they are the earliest of the current residents. In Mauritania, there is a general belief that they are former slaves freed “some centuries ago,” but there is no historical record of this massive emancipation. In some areas of Mauritania the Haratine are accepted legally as free Muslims while in others they are treated comparably to slaves and in still others they are seen as people who owe “protection” to the Bidan (white Maures) who have saved them from slave raiders. In all cases a clear conceptual distinction is and has been made between slaves (‘abîd) and HarâTîn. It is probable that the Haratine are simply the original inhabitants of the region who have been subjected to the ever-repeated rewriting of history. The etymological derivations for the term are unconvincing. The Arabic false etymologies include Harrâthîn (ploughmen) and Hurr althânî (free men of the second group). Neither explains adequately the emphatic “T” in the pronunciation of HarâTîn and both are more than a little forced. In Mauritania the plough is not used but the term is ancient. There is no record of such an emancipation or set of late arrivals. The Berber term is âHarDân, and there is also a Tuareg term, ashardan, meaning mulatto. The Haratine are not found as far east as the Tuareg areas, and there is a long linguistic distance from ashardan to HarâTîn. HarTânî and âHarDân are reasonably close, but the similarity sheds little etymological light on the subject unless an assumption is made that this is an ancient Berber term borrowed at some point into Arabic. In some areas of the Maghrib the term qibla or qiblî (from the Arabic root for prior and possibly meaning indigenous) has long been used more or less synonymously for Haratine. The Berber variant is aqblî or iqbliya. The modern interpretation of the

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term qibla relies on its use for the holy cities in the Hijaz and therefore has the connotation to Moroccans of “those who reside to the east on the southwestward edge of the Sahara.” This interpretation will not, obviously, work for those groups using the term but located to the east or south of the areas occupied by Haratine. Harouchi, Abderrahim. Born 31 January 1944 in Casablanca, Harouchi is a pediatric surgeon and professor in the Faculté de Medécine in Casablanca. He is also the president of the Association AFAK Civisme et Développement. Harouchi pursued his education at Lycée Moulay Hassan in Casablanca, UFR Bobigny in Paris, Université René Descartes, Faculté de Medécine in L’Hôpital Cochin Port Royal in Paris, and Facultés de Medécine in Lyon and Nancy. He received a baccalauréat (1961), Internat des Hôpitaux in Paris (1969), Doctorat in Médecine (1972), Agrégation in Chirurgie Pédiatrique (1975), and Maîtrise de pédagogie des Sciences de la santé (1992). Harouchi started his career as chef de clinique at Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades in Paris (1973-1975). He became a head physician in the children’s hospital in Casablanca (1983-1986). Between 1986 and 1992, he held the post of Doyen de la Faculté de Médecine de Casablanca. In 1992, he was nominated by Hassan II as Ministre de la Santé Publique (1992-1995). Harouchi also served as professor of pediatric surgery at the Faculté de Médecine in Casablanca (1978-1998) and Chef de Service de Chirurgie Familiale at the children’s hospital in Casablanca (1976-1998). Harouchi is an active member of many associations including Société Française de Chirurgie Pédiatrique, Société Marocaine des Sciences médicales, and Société Marocaine de Chirurgie Pédiatrique. He has also published numerous works in the field of medicine, including Chirurgie pédiatrique, priorités diagnostiques et thérapeutiques (Editions Maghrébines, Casablanca, 1982), 50 réflexes fondamentaux en chirurgie-pédiatrique (1983), Guide de l’évaluation au cours des études médicales (1987), and Chirurgie pédiatrique en pratique quotidienne (Editions Alinéa, Casablanca, 1989). Harouchi has also produced more than ten documentaries for teaching pediatric surgery, and two of them won prizes at the Festival International du Film Médical de Mauriac. Harouchi, Jamal. Born 24 July 1960, Harouchi has been the director general of AXA ASSURANCE Maroc since 2000. He received a diploma from the Hautes Etudes Commerciales (HEC) in Paris in June 1982. Harouchi served within the Banque Commercial du Maroc in the departments of marketing and communication, markets and clientèle, and the direction générale de l’exploitation from 1982 to 1994. During 1994-2000, he became the director general of the Companie Africaine d’Assurances. Harouchi is the vice president of the Association HEC Maroc and an active member at the Association AFAK and Association Maroc 2020.

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Hart, David M. Born in Philadelphia in 1927, Hart went to Princeton and then received a Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania. His first field trip to Morocco (1952-1955) was funded by the Ford Foundation. Hart then received funding from the American Museum of Natural History in New York to set up a long-term fieldwork project in Morocco from 1959 to 1966. This work and subsequent visits to the Rif resulted in his brilliant monograph, The Aith Waryaghar of the Moroccan Rif An Ethnography and History (1976), which combined extraordinary scholarship and brilliant analytical insight. No other ethnography of Morocco, in any language, succeeds as well in both regards. Hart’s first job was with Aramco but his devotion to the study of Morocco led him to settle in Spain and spend many years doing ethnographic work in Morocco. In all he spent eleven full years in Morocco, at least half of each year being spent doing ethnographic research while he also taught at the Institut de Sociologie of the Université Mohammed V in Rabat. Hart enriched his years in Spain with countless short trips to Morocco for research as well as many years of archival research within Spain. A prolific correspondent, Hart kept up an enormously rich and varied correspondence with colleagues around the world that should be collected into a book of its own. The author of many brilliant articles and books, Hart’s main research areas were the Rif and the Middle Atlas of Morocco, though he also did work in Pakistan. In two monographs on the Middle Atlas, Hart brought comparative insights from one Berber group to bear on another (Dada ‘Atta and his forty Grandsons: the Socio-Political Organization of the Ait ‘Atta of southern Morocco plus The Ait Atta of Southern Morocco: Daily Life and Recent History). Hart was prolific, brilliant, and had the benefit of a life devoted almost entirely to research, and such a luxury could not have been bestowed on a more capable, industrious, and willing scholar. In recent years, only the work of Paul Pascon compares in originality, brilliance, and ethnographic richness to Hart’s. David M. Hart died in Garrucha, Spain on 22 May 2001 at the age of 74. A research foundation named after him was established at the University of Granada in the mid 1990s. Hasbi, Aziz. Born 1947 in Abda (Safi), Hasbi, a former minister, has been the Recteur of Université Hassan II since 1997. He received a diplôme d’études supérieures in Droit public from the Faculté de Droit in Nancy (France) and a doctorat d’état from the same school in 1978. Hasbi started his career as a professor at the Faculté de Droit in Metz (1975-1978). In 1978, he joined the Faculté de Droit in Rabat. Between 1985 and 1986, he became the Directeur de la formation des cadres administratifs et techniques in the ministry of interior. In 1986, Hasbi was appointed secretary-general of the ministry of information (1986-1990). Hasbi became a permanent representative of Morocco to the United Nations in 1990-1991 before he again joined the ministry of

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information as secretary-general in 1991-1992. From 1992 to 1995 he was promoted to minister (des affaires administratives). Hashish. Hashish (Hashîsh) use spread in the Islamic world and North Africa around the beginning of the 14th century and was quickly declared a mind-altering drug and hence illicit. Legal opinion concurred on this fairly rapidly but hashish smoking was generally not seen as quite as grievous an offense as consumption of wine since the latter was not only illicit, because of its mind-altering properties, but was also explicitly condemned by name in the qur’an. The condemnation of hashish undoubtedly influenced many jurists in their initial opinions ruling for the illicit character of tobacco smoking two centuries later (Hajji 1976:300). Hassad, Mohamed. Born 17 November 1952 in Tafraout, Hassad, who is currently wali de la région Marrakech-Tensif-El Haouz, is a graduate of the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris (1974) and the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées in Paris (1976). Hassad started as a director of public works (travaux publics) for the provinces of Fès, Taounate, and Boulemane (1976-1981). In 1982, he was named chargé d’études and Directeur de la planification des études in the Ministère de l’équipement. In 1983, Hassad was named director general of the Régie d’Aconage des Ports (RAPC) (1983-1984). Hassad joined the Office d’Exploitation des Ports (ODEP) as a general director in 1985. Hassad served as minister (des travaux publics, de la formation professionnelle et de la formation des cadres) from 1993 to 1995. From 1993 to 1995, he was also the président directeur général of Royal Air Maroc. Hassad was a member of a select group appointed by Hassan II to study the future of Morocco. Hassad is an active member in different associations: président de l’Amicale des ingénieurs de l’école polytechnique de Paris, member of the Bureau de la fondation des trois cultures de la méditerranée, and vice president of the Association Ilighan association for the development of the south and the Sous in particular. In 2005, Hassad became governor of Tanger-Asilah and wali of the Tanger-Tétouan region. Hassan II, mawlây. The eldest son of mawlây muHammad bn yûsuf and heir to the ‘Alawite dynasty, mawlây Hassan II (b. 9 July 1929) was educated by tutors but received a license en droit (1949) and then a Diplôme d’Etudes Supérieures from the University of Bordeaux (the rough equivalents of a B.A. and M.A. in law). After returning with his father from exile in Madagascar, Prince Hassan quickly assumed important government posts. In 1956 he was made commander-in-chief of the armed forces, in July 1957 he became the official crown prince, deputy prime minister, and minister of defense. On 3 March 1961 he succeeded mawlây Mohammed V as king, after the latter’s death on 26 February. mawlây Hassan II had a brother, mawlây ‘abd allâh bn muHammad bn yûsuf (d. 1983), and five sisters, Lalla A‘isha, Lalla

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Malika, Lalla Nezha (d.1977), Lalla Amina and Lalla Fatima. mawlây Hassan II married Lalla Latifa, of a prominent fâsî family, in 1960 and has five children, Mariam (b. 26 August 1962), Crown Prince Muhammad (b. 21 August 1963), Asma’, Hasna’, and Mawlây Rachid. mawlây Hassan II ruled as a king, assuming all significant powers, in an age when this has a tendency to turn the civil opposition to particular policies into less civil opponents of the king’s person. With luck, intelligence, and force mawlây Hassan II survived two coup attempts and several other plots against his person including a partial army mutiny in March 1973. The Green March in 1975 won him enormous popular acclaim and in some respects the regime seemed more stable in the mid-1990s than in the early 1970s. The 1980s and 1990s saw another batch of new political parties and further accusations of human rights abuses against numerous government officials from a variety of quarters, yet in the international arena the regime suffered little opprobrium; a Moroccan government official served as interim president of the preparatory commission for the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights in Geneva. At the same time, mawlây Hassan II’s policies led to a peace agreement (August 1988) in the war in the Sahara and relatively stable national finances, though the latter were won at the expense of high unemployment and continuing high illiteracy (at least 55 percent). mawlây Hassan II’s rule had many parallels with earlier ‘Alawite regimes; it might even be said that the fâsî-dominated official opposition, the istiqlâl, plays a similar role to that of the traditional fâsî ‘ulamâ’, often vociferous but usually ineffectual and significantly compromised even if essential. mawlây Hassan II died on 23 July 1999 and was succeded by the crown prince, Mohammed VI. Hassar Benslimane, Joudia. Born 29 April 1943 in Casablanca, Hassar Benslimane is the Director of the Institut national des sciences de l’archéologie et du patrimoine. Hassar Benslimane studied at the Ecole primaire française d’El-Jadida, the Lycée français Ibn Khaldoun d’ElJadida, Lycée Lyautey in Casablanca, Faculté des Lettres et Sciences humaines of Université Mohammed V in Rabat, and Université Paris IV, Sorbonne in Paris. Benslimane received a baccalauréat in philosophy (Rabat-Bordeaux, 1961), a Certificat d’études litéraires générales, Lycée Lyautey Casablanca (1962), licence ès-Lettres, spécialité: histoire (1965-1969), licence (1974) and maîtrise (1976), a diplôme d’études approfondies (1977), Doctorat troisième cycle (1979) in art history and archaeology, and a Doctorat d’état es-Lettres et Sciences humaines (1987). Hassar Benslimane started her professional career as Conservatrice du Musée Archéologique de Rabat (1973-1986). In 1975 she became Chef du service archéologie and was assigned the task of restructuring its services. During 1978-1983, she joined the Faculté des Lettres in Rabat and was assigned to teach archeology and the history of art. In 1985, she was behind the creation and establishment of the Institut

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National des Sciences de l’Archéologie et du Patrimoine, which she directed. Hassar Benslimane is the president of the Commission mixte Maroco-Française chargée du développement des Recherches archéologiques et du patrimoine. In 1992, she was an advisor to the ministry of cultural affairs responsible for preserving “le patrimoine.” Hassar Benslimane also represented Morocco on the Commission marocaine euroméditerranéenne. She has been an active member of numerous organizations and associations: a corresponding member of the Institut Allemand since 1982, a member of the Centre international pour les recherches sur le Sahel et le Sahara since 1981, founding president of the Société marocaine d’archéologie et anthropologie since 1980, a member of the Casa de Velazquez in Madrid since 1985, a member of the Comité d’orientation de la fondation de l’ONA since 1989, and member of the Conseil National de la Culture since December 1994. al-Hawwât, sulaymân bn muHammad. abû al-rabi‘ sulaymân bn muHammad bn ‘abdallâh bn muHammad bn ‘alî bn mûsa alshafshâwanî or al-Hawwât was born in Chefchaouan around 1747 and died in Fès on 30 January 1816. al-Hawwât devoted his life to study and refused even to accept positions or support with the exception of the position of naqîb of the shurafâ’, an honorary post given him by mawlây sulaymân. His works were primarily biographical and included works on the dabbâghîyîn Idrisid shurafâ’ of the ‘uyûn quarter of Fès (qurrat al‘uyûn fi-l-shurafâ’ al-qâTinîn bi-l-‘uyûn), the qâdirîyûn shurafâ’ (alsirr al-Zâhir fi-man aHraz bi-fâs al-sharaf al-bâhir min a‘qâb alshaykh ‘abd al-qâdir), the ibn sûda family (al-rawDat al-maqSûda wal-Hulal al-mamdûda fî ma’âthir banî sûda), as well as an autobiography (thamsarat unsî fî al-ta‘rîf bi-nafsî) that provides valuable details about both the mountain milieu in which al-Hawwât grew up and the milieu of Fès where he spent most of his life. His greatest work was the monograph on the dilâ’îya zâwiya (al-budûr alDâwîya fî al-ta‘rîf bi-l-sâdât ahl al-zâwîyat al-dilâ’îya), which provides copious details about the various members of this family, particularly those who settled in Fès after the zâwiya’s destruction by mawlây al-rashîd. The book includes details about the members’ scholarly genealogies, literary correspondence and production but little political history. Hayat, Nezha. Born 18 November 1962 in Casablanca, Hayat has been the president of the Association professionnelle des sociétés de Bourse de Casablanca since August 1999. Hayat studied at Lycée Ragnault in Tangier and Ecole Sainte Geneviève in Versailles (France). She received a Baccalauréat série C in July 1979, préparation HEC from the Ecole Sainte Geneviève of Versailles (1979-1981), and a diplôme ESSEC in June 1984. In August 1998, she served as an administrator at the Bourse de Casablanca, director of the Pôle Banque

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d’Investissement, general director of Sogebourse, and general director of Gestar at the Société générale marocaine de banques de Casablanca. From November 1995 to March 1996, Hayat was the directeur adjoint DIT (International et Trésorerie) at the Société générale marocaine des banques de Casablanca. Hayat has served in numerous positions, including directrice de succursale de Marbella and responsable du réseau commercial de la costa del Sol for Banco Inversion (Spain: November 1990-December 1991) and director of corporate finance and in charge of commercial strategy for foreign institutions at Bravo y Garayalde (Société de Bourse) in Madrid (July 1989-October 1990). She has also served in the département d’opérations hors bourse (Debt to equity swaps, mergers and acquisitions) at Inverfinanzas S.A. (Agent de Change) in Madrid (May 1988-June 1989), has been responsible for international risks assessments (country risk and bank risk) and administration of the portfolio of restructured debts in Banco Atlantico S.A. in Madrid (January 1985-April 1988). Hayat has gone through additional training at the BNP, Banco Inversion, and Banco Atlantico and participated in a seminar at Harvard on international finance. Hayat is also an active member in different associations: a member of the Conseil national du patronat, vice president of the Association des femmes Chefs d’Entreprises (AFEM), and vice president of the Fédération secteur financier et bancaire. Hayyuj, Judah bn David [abû zakariyya yaHya bn dâ‘ud]. Born around 950 in Fès, Hayyuj moved at an early age to Cordova where he remained. He wrote two volumes of grammar for Hebrew (in Arabic), which became the cornerstones of Hebrew grammarians and have remained so until this day. Hayyuj applied the concepts of Arab grammarians to Hebrew and discussed strong and weak verbs, concealed and doubled roots, a tri-stem structure, and so forth. His two books were kitâb al-af‘âl dhawât Hurûf al-lîn (The Book of verbs containing weak letters) and kitâb al-af‘âl dhawât al-mathalayn (The Book of verbs containing double letters). Hayyuj also wrote kitâb altanqîT (The Book of punctuation) and a supplement containing verbs left out of the two volumes, kitâb al-natf (The Book of extracts). Health care. The Ministère de la Santé is responsible for government policy related to public health while the private sector devoted to health care is regulated by the Conseil national de l’ordre des Médecins, the Conseil national des Pharmaciens, the Conseil National des Churugiens Dentistes, and the Secrétaire Général du Gouvernement, who regulates nurses, midwives, and veterinarians. As of 2000, there were 5,812 doctors working for the Ministère de la Santé, 6,627 doctors practicing in the private sector, and 2,299 dental surgeons practicing in Morocco. In the same year Morocco’s hospitals had 25,106 beds, of which 6,967 were in specialized hospitals, and immunization programs vaccinated approximately 560,000 children (for B.C.G., Polio, DTCP1, DTCP2, and DTCP3). Diagnosis of infectious diseases in 2000 included

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measles (10,853), tuberculosis (31,444), meningitis (218), typhoid fever (1,460), conjunctivitis (242,780), and trachoma (11,182). Epidemiological cases included bilharzia (212), malaria (17), viral hepatitus (1,836), R.A.A. (5,224), and AIDS (620), The comparable figures for sexually transmitted diseases were urethritus (61,474), syphilis (5,936), cancer (4,692), leucorrhea (217,632), condyloma acuminata (1,693), genital herpes (1,442) and other STDs (12,081). al-hîba, aHmad. Born aHmad hîbat allâh (1876-23 June 1919), the fourth son of shaykh mâ al-‘aynîn, in Chinguetti far to the south in presentday Mauritania, he took over direction of the zâwiya ‘aynînîya in 1910 (in Tiznit) after the death of his father. By this date, the French were in the process of taking over the northern sectors of Morocco and forcing mawlây HâfiZ to make concessions unacceptable to the majority of Moroccans. On the 3rd of May 1912, after French troops entered Fès, Moroccan troops revolted, and rumors spread that the sultan had been killed, al-hîba took the title of imâm al-mujâhidîn (chief of the resistance). Lyautey persuaded caids Glawi and Mtouggui (of Marrakech and the plains to the west and mountains to the south) to mount an expedition against al-hîba but al-hîba, was supported by Caid Guellouli of Haha (from Essaouira south along the coast) and the expedition failed. In short order, al-hîba sent letters to numerous other caids instigating revolts against and pillages of the properties of Mtouggui and Glawi. All noncanonical taxes (every levy except ‘ushr and zakat) were declared illegal. This discrediting of French policies carried with it the implication that collaborators were equally also against Islam and had quick results. Mtouggui and the Pasha of Marrakech, idrîs manû, sent al-hîba funds and Glawi sent emissaries. mawlây HâfiZ was reported by the French to have notified al-hîba of his own impending abdication, though that this included an implicit encouragement to alhîba to take over from mawlây HâfiZ, as the French authorities insinuated, is unlikely. Lacking military brilliance, al-hîba, despite quickly becoming the most popular figure in Morocco, was not able to provide a significant military challenge to the French. He briefly entered Marrakech on 15 August 1912 as al-sulTân al-azraq (due to his blue robes). He and his supporters were severely defeated on 29 August and again on 6 September 1912. Thereupon, al-hîba retreated to Tiznit and resigned himself to the spiritual leadership of the zâwiya. When the French under Colonel Justinard finally reached Tiznit on 17 October 1917, they encountered such unexpected resistance led by murabbih rabbuh, al-hîba’s military director, that they returned to Marrakech. The area fell to the French only in 1934, though al-hîba died at Kerdous on 23 June 1919. Like many other southern caids, al-hîba had acquired German protégé status when a French protectorate seemed imminent and had this status when he declared himself the leader of the resistance (Le Tourneau 1992:134; Laroui 1992:99-106).

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Hilalian invasions. The banû hilâl were invited into Egypt in the 8th century, whether from the najd (Arabia: Hijâz) or the fertile crescent (al-shâm) is unclear, and then deported into Upper (southern) Egypt, by the Fatimid al-‘azîz bn al-mu‘izz in 978 as punishment for rebellious activities. Around 1047, when the zîrids allied themselves with the ‘abbâsids, the Fatimids in Egypt decided to send the banû hilâl west to both punish the zîrids and free themselves of a troublesome group. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the slave-based agriculture of Tunisia and much of the Maghrib was in rapid decline because Byzantine and Italian fleets had gained control of the Mediterranean and radically decreased the northern supply of slaves. The hilalian invasion thus came as a nomadic conquest of a crippled agricultural society, money had already shifted to urban centers and trade, and the result was in some sense catastrophic inasmuch as it led to a rapid displacement of huge areas of agriculture by nomadism. The banû hilâl, as a nomadic movement gathering momentum, spread across ifrîqiya and the Maghrib. It took the Almohads (c. 1160) to reestablish a more balanced and productive economy. El Himma, Fouad Ali [al-himâ fuâd ‘ali]. Born 6 December 1962 in Marrakech, El Himma graduated in 1981 from the Collège Royal along with Mohammed VI and is still one of the king’s closest confidants. El Himma received a licence in Droit et droit comparé from Rabat (1985) and certificates in political science (1988) and administrative sciences (1989). His thesis dealt with the finances of local collectivities. From 1986 to 1995, El Himma joined the ministry of interior and from 1995 to 1997 he was elected as deputy for the Rhamna region in the Province of El Kalaâ des Sraghnas. In 1998, Hassan II appointed El Himma to the position of Chef de Cabinet de Mohammed VI. On 9 November 1999, Mohammed VI appointed El Himma to the position of Secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur, a position that was renewed on 6 September 2000. Himmich, Hakima. Born 28 February 1945 in Meknès, Himmich is a professor of medicine, chef des services de maladies infectieuses at CHU Ibn Rochd, Casablanca since 1981, and the president of the Association marocaine de lutte contre le sida (association to fight AIDS) since 1988. Himmich pursued her studies at Lycée Paul Valéry in Meknès and the Faculté de Médicine Cochin Port-Royal in Paris. She graduated from the Faculté de Médicine Cochin Port-Royal in 1973. She also attended Hôpitaux de Paris as an intern in 1973. In 1981, she joined the Faculté de médicine de Casablanca as a professeur agrégée in internal medicine and a professor of internal medicine in 1984. Himmich served as chef de clinique CMC Foch in Paris (1977-1980). She is an active member in different associations including the Société méditerranéenne de Chimiothérapie. Hakima Himich served as vice-présidente du comité d’ethique de l’ONUSIDA (1996-1999), and is president of the Société marocaine de

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Chimiothérapie. Himmich has published extensively in academic journals. hintâta. The hintâta were a Berber confederation in the High Atlas who played a key role in the Almohad successes from their beginnings in the 13th century until their collapse. After the Almohad collapse, some of the hintâta moved east and established the HafSid dynasty in Tunisia; others remained as local chiefs in the south (particularly the Draa valley) for the Marinids. A hintâta governor of Marrakech led a revolt against the Marinids and was finally captured and flogged to death in 1370. When the Sa‘dians wished to capture Marrakech (1525) they arranged to have the last hintâta governor, muHammad bn al-nâSir bû shaTûf, assassinated. Hispano-Moroccan Accord of 1910. Upon finishing the FrancoMoroccan Accords in 1910, muHammad al-muqrî was able, with French diplomatic help, to work out an accord with Spain to resolve outstanding disputes. The accord, signed on 16 November, had sixteen articles but three main points. The amount of the indemnity owed to Spain by Morocco for an outbreak of fighting over the enclave of Melilla in July 1909 was agreed upon, a police force was established to ensure peace around the Spanish enclaves, and a customs port was set up at Ceuta. In addition, a letter accompanying the accord concurred with a future implementation of a provision of the 1860 HispanoMoroccan accords, which had provided for Spanish rights to Ifni, a tiny fishing village south of Agadir. The main advantage of the accord in Moroccan eyes was that outstanding problems were cleared up without conceding further territory to Spain. Hispano-Moroccan Commercial Treaty. (see Tétouan War of 1859-1860). Hokimi, Bassim Jaï. Born in Casablanca on 7 December 1960, Hokimi attended the Ecole Polytechnique of Paris in 1980 and the Ecole Sainte-Geneviève of Versailles obtaining a degree in telecommunications engineering before getting a M.Sc. in Computer Science from Stanford University in 1984. In November 1984, he started his career with Royal Air Maroc (RAM), as an engineer. By 1992, he headed information systems at RAM, but he left the organization in 1994 to take up financial consulting (in particular as part of ORGA-CONSULTANTS in France). Hokimi returned to Morocco to take charge of Omnium Nord-Africain (ONA) in 2002, replacing Mourad Cherif as chairperson. Human rights. Morocco’s numerous human rights groups interact both with the government and with international human rights groups to monitor human rights and to advocate for improvements. Historically

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human rights during the protectorate period were much abused. During the reign of Hassan II the government was under serious threat from leftist movements (in the 1960s and 1970s) and then from radical Islamist groups in the following decades. The government response was to fight fire with fire, and many dissident groups were infiltrated and harshly repressed. Two attempted coups d’état added incentive from the government perspective. Neither the government nor its radical opponents subscribed to nonviolent methods, and the government consistently had the upper hand (see also Driss Basri, Dlimi, and Oufkir). Against this background, it can be said that human rights have been both more respected and better enforced under the reign of Mohammed VI. While international and local human rights groups still have many complaints, there are now cases where members of security organizations have been disciplined for human rights violations, the media are now much more free to publish material addressing human rights violations, and people arrested for what most would deem political offenses are regularly freed after short stays in prison. In addition, several noted dissidents have not only been freed but have been given passports and allowed to travel. A Royal Arbitration Commission was set up in 1999 to compensate victims of human rights violations (or their families) and was granted 40 million DH as an initial budget. The budget was enlarged by 140 million DH the following year. Political and religious activist Yassine who was freed from house arrest after eleven years in May of 2000 has been followed by numerous other opponents of the government who have either been freed or allowed to return to Morocco untroubled by the security forces. Initiatives have also been put in place to make legal council available to victims of domestic violence, and huge progress has been made in the area of rights for women with the mudâwwana or family status code passed in parliament and made law in January 2004. The Moroccan human rights groups, the United Nations, the United States State Department, Amnesty International, and Human Rights Watch all have ample reports on Morocco, which the reader can easily consult, but the consensus is that matters have improved radically in the last five years, and there is reason to hope that this trend will continue despite the new concerns over international terrorism, new laws to strengthen security prerogatives, and the terrorist attacks of 16 May 2003. Human rights groups. The nongovernmental Moroccan human rights groups include three officially recognized organizations: the Organisation Marocaine des Droits de l’Homme (OMDH), the Ligue Marocaine pour la Défense des Droits de l’Homme (LMDDH), and the Association Marocaine des Droits de l’Homme (AMDH). The LMDDH, associated with the istiqlâl, and the AMDH, associated with the Parti de l’Avant Garde Socialiste, have a coordinating committee and often issue joint statements. The government body assigned the

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role of dealing with human rights issues is the Conseil Consultative des Droits de l’Homme (CCDH), and a deputy minister for human rights was established in 1993. There are continuing credible reports of human rights abuses by government officials and agencies, but for understandable reasons no Moroccan human rights groups are in the forefront of protests against the government.

-Iibn ‘abbâd. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn abî isHâq ibrâhîm al-nafzî alHimyarî al-rundî (1333-1390), known as ibn ‘abbâd, was born in Ronda (Spain) and emigrated when young to Morocco. He studied first in Tlemcen and then in Fès where he focussed on legal materials. Dissatisfied with jurisprudence he turned to mysticism and asceticism and reached Salé, where ibn ‘ashîr was already famous, in 1359. He studied there until ibn ‘ashîr died, and then he moved to Fès where his writing brought him fame and an appointment as imâm at the qarawîyîn, which he held until his death. He is known as one of the greatest mystics of his time and as a promoter of the shâdhilî Tarîqa. ibn ‘abd al-mâlik. Born in Marrakech, abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn sa‘îd ibn ‘abd al-mâlik al-marrâkushî (1237-1304) lived and traveled in the Maghrib in the period when the Marinids, from Fès, were wresting control from the Almohads, who were still holding on in Marrakech. ibn ‘abd al-mâlik liked to criticize others’ morality and is best known for his biographical dictionary, al-dhayl wa-l-takmila li-kitâbayn almawSûl wa-l-Sila (supplement and completion of the two books almawSûl fî ta’rîkh ‘ulamâ’ al-andalus of ibn al-faraDî [d.1012/13] and al-Sila fî akhbâr a’immat al-andalus of ibn bashkuwâl [d.1182/3]). This work is devoted to the famous scholars of Andalusia and the Maghrib and is of great value for its details on history, literature, and culture. Originally in nine volumes, only volumes, 1, 5, 6, 9, and part of 4 appear to have survived. ibn abî zar‘, abû al-Hasan ‘alî. A famous chronicle (1326), al-anîs almuTrib bi-rawD al-qirTâs fî akhbâr mulûk al-maghrib wa-ta’rîkh madînat fâs (the delightful friend in the garden of the beautiful girl, on the affairs of the kings of the Maghrib and the history of the city of Fès), long without clear authorship, is now attributed to abû al-Hasan ‘alî ibn abî zar‘ (Shatzmiller 1982:29). Virtually nothing is known, however, about the author. The chronicle is important for many reasons, not least being that it includes the earliest surviving history of Fès and as such is the key source for endless numbers of later works fired by the Idrisid story. Prior to this time there was no local urban genre in Moroccan historical accounts. The obvious motivation is the

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ongoing disputes between the Marinids and the fâsî elites who, though descended from a dynasty that had accomplished little militarily, were simultaneously descended from the dynasty that had introduced Islam to the Maghrib. They thus vociferously opposed their religious heritage to the crass military claims of the Marinids. The rawD al-qirTâs also deals with the Idrisid, maghrâwa, Almoravid, Almohad, and Marinid dynasties. Matters are arranged chronologically with an emphasis on military accomplishments. Details are included for everything from recruitment, military organization, battle topography, and debate over strategy. The rawD al-qirTâs also includes biographical details for each sultan as well as mention of the key functionaries appointed by each sultan. ibn ajarrûm. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn muHammad bn dâwûd alSanHâjî, known as ibn ajarrûm (1273/4-1323), was a Moroccan grammarian versed as well in legal sciences, mathematics, and qur’anic reading. He taught grammar and qur’anic recitation in Fès. His fame was due almost exclusively to a work of Arabic grammar, almuqaddima, which synthesized Arabic grammar in such a concise and felicitous way that it was, and is, used through much of the Islamic world and has been known in Europe since the 1600s. ibn al-aHmar. ismâ‘îl bn yûsuf abû al-walîd bn al-aHmar (1324/6 -1404/7) was a descendant of the royal family that ruled Granada for almost three centuries. Possibly born in Andalusia, though there is no evidence for this other than his own oft-repeated nostalgia, his family sought refuge in Fès for political reasons around 1343, and it is there that ibn al-aHmar was educated. He wrote numerous works of history, which are primarily valuable for the social details they provide. Modern historians agree that his political accounts are severely biased and sometimes even falsified. ibn al-aHmar’s most available historical works are nathîr al-jumân fî shi‘r man naZamanî wa-îyâhu al-zamân (1374), al-nafHa alnisrîniya fî al-lamHa al-marîniya (1387), mustawDi‘ al-‘alâma wamustabdi‘ al-‘allâma (1393), nathîr farâ’iD al-jumân fî naZm fuHul al-zamân (1396/9), and rawDat al-nisrîn fî dawlat banî marîn (1404). The first work, nathîr al-jumân, consists of collections of poetry composed by various historical figures (Marinid, zayyânid, Almohad, Hafsid, etc. rulers, princes, secretaries, and qadis), which shed considerable insight into the customs of the times. The second, alnafHa, is a poem with commentary dealing with the exploits of the Marinid sultans and giving portraits of the ministers, secretaries, and qadis. This work is similar in content to the fifth but provides a fair number of different details as well as a long, self-aggrandizing introduction. The third work, mustawDi‘ al-‘alâma, begins with a brief introduction about the position of kâtib al-‘alâma (the person who adds an annotation at the top of a letter signifying that the sultan has revised

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and approved it) and then provides short biographical notices for those who have fulfilled this function. The fourth work, nathîr farâ’iD aljumân fî naZm fuHul al-zamân (roughly: scattering of the precious heritage among the luminaries of the age), provides similar material to the second. The fifth work, rawDat al-nisrîn, is a short chronology of the Marinid sultans to which is added a scurrilous attack on the ‘abd al-wadîds who were becoming major adversaries of the Marinids from their base in Tlemcen. Overall, ibn aHmar’s work is primarily valuable for the incidental social material it includes in abundance and of minimal value for accurate political or historical synthesis. ibn al-bannâ’. abû al-‘abbâs aHmad bn muHammad bn ‘uthmân al-azdî al-murrâkushî, known as ibn al-bannâ’ (29 December 1256-31 July 1321), was born in Marrakech from poor parents but proved to be brilliant in virtually all fields of knowledge. He excelled particularly in mathematics, astronomy, astrology, and occult sciences. He is considered one of Morocco’s greatest mathematicians, but he wrote numerous works in an extraordinary number of fields, including exegesis (7), theology (2), fiqh (9), mysticism (2), occult sciences (16), mathematics (14), grammar and metrics (6), agriculture (2), astronomy and astrology (17), and philosophy, logic, and psychology (7). His two works on agriculture are mukhtaSar fî al-filâHa (synopsis of agriculture) and risâla fî al-anwâ’ (a treatise on the agricultural calendar). ibn al-darrâj, muHammad. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn aHmad bn ‘umar bn al-darrâj al-sabtî (d.1293) is known only for the single work that has survived and from two brief biographical mentions in the works of his contemporaries. He was characterized by an approach to jurisprudence that placed more importance on the spirit than the letter of the law. His sole surviving work, which is a defense of singing and recreation in general, reflects this attitude. The full title of the work is kitâb al-imtâ’ wa-l-intifâ’ fî mas’alat sama‘ al-samâ‘ li-sti’thârih bi-lkifâya wa-l-ghinâ fî aHkam ahl al-ghinâ wa-l-radd ‘alâ man naghghaSa ‘alâ al-muslimîn bi-taHrîm mâ ubîHa lahum minh fî maZânn al-maSarra wa-l-hanâ. The book of enjoyment and utility (kitâb al-imtâ’ wa-l-intifâ’), as it is usually abbreviated, provides a scholarly discussion of all the arguments against singing and recreation and then proceeds to refute them and concludes that there is both nothing intrinsically irreligious about singing, that society needs recreation, and that no one need fear engaging in singing provided that the song in question does not itself attack religious values. ibn al-Hakîm. There is little biographical information about abû al-Hasan ‘alî bn yûsuf al-Hakîm al-fâsî other than that he was alive in the reign of the Marinid sultan abû fâris ‘abd al-‘azîz (1366-1372) and that his grandfather was, for fifty years, the director of the mint in Meknès. ibn al-Hakîm produced an extraordinarily original work entitled dawHa al-

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mushtabika fî aHkâm dâr al-sikka (The intricate tree of statutes governing the mint), which has unique historical value. The book is divided into ten chapters: 1) On gold and silver as God’s gifts to humanity, 2) On the different types of gold and silver and the related terminology, 3) On the mining of gold and silver and the advantages of various extraction techniques, 4) On precious stones and their make-up, 5) A historical chronicle from the first minting and the first mint, 6) On the quantity of dinars and dirhams and the reasons sultan abû yûsuf ya‘qûb established a mint, 7) On the circulation of the two monies and the measures against usury, 8) On the quantity allowed to goldsmiths, artists and the sales of decorated qur’ans and jewelry, 9) On the recompense God gives to those who circulate money and the punishment given to those who take it out of circulation to hoard, and 10) On the methods of forgery and the penalties imposed for it. The bulk of the work is in chapter 5, which provides copious details, subdivided into ten sections, which inform the reader both about the statutes governing the mint and the weights and measures in use as well as the social and geographical situation of the various workshops. ibn al-khaTîb. One of the most prolific of Nasrid and Marinid scholars, lisân al-dîn abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn ‘abd allâh bn sa‘îd bn ‘abd allâh bn sa‘îd bn ‘alî bn aHmad ibn al-khaTîb al-salmânî (1313-1374) wrote works of history, poetry, mysticism, biography, politics, medicine, music, and law as well as a travel account (riHla). Not all survive, but many do, including a number that have been edited and published in the modern period. A friend of ibn khaldûn, ibn khaTîb served in high positions first in Granada (vizier) and then in Fès, twice briefly as ambassador and twice for longer periods while in exile (1359-1362 and 1371 until his death by assassination in 1374). Probably the most famous scholar in the Maghrib during his lifetime, his body was burned in Fès after he was assassinated, to the horror of many, but indicative of the political and religious antagonisms in the city at the time. More than a scholar, ibn al-khaTîb was prominent in politics and as the vizier in Granada and its ambassador to Fès before living in exile in Morocco he was strongly associated with the Marinids. As such he was disliked by the fâsî opponents of the regime who cultivated the Idrisid tradition to highlight their own sharifan status compared to that of the non-sharîf ruling dynasty. His historical works were not only famous in his time but also used by such later historians as muHammad al-qâdirî, al-zayyânî, and alnâSirî. Although ibn al-khaTîb’s works are above all noted by their high literary style, they also represent a break with the historiographical tradition of the time. Rather than taking a pedestrian chronological or purely biographical approach, they are written as literature in which the reader is intrigued by brief references to what is to come and persuaded to read on by literary devices. Nevertheless, the basic approach is psychological with no attempt to elucidate other levels of causality such as are found for the first time in the work of ibn

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al-khaTîb’s contemporary, ibn khaldûn. ibn al-khaTîb wrote histories (primarily dealing with the Nasrid dynasty in Granada), a travel account, and three works on politics, which are of particular historical value. Some are available in manuscript form at the Escorial library in Spain or the qarawîyîn while others are edited and available in modern editions. One is lost. The histories are al-iHâTa fî akhbâr ghanâTa (edited), al-tâj al-muHallâ fî musajalat al-qidH al-mu‘alla (Escorial #54?), al-lamHa al-badrîya fî al-ta‘rîf bi-l-dawla al-naSrîya (edited), Turfat al-‘aSr fî ta’rîkh dawlat banî naSr (lost), nufâDat al-jirâb fî ‘ulâlat al-ightirâb, and nubdat al‘aSr fî akhbâr mulûk banî naSr (qarawîyîn #28). The riHla is titled khaTrat al-Tayf fî riHlat al-shitâ’ wa-l-Sayf (edited). The works on politics are bustân al-duwal (edited), risâlat al-siyâsa, and al-ishâra ilâ âdâb al-wizâra (last two included in Escorial #554). ibn al-qâDî, aHmad bn muHammad. shihâb al-dîn abû l-abbâs aHmad bn muHammad bn muHammad bn aHmad bn ‘alî bn ‘abd al-raHmân bn abî al-afîya al-miknâsî al-zanâtî, known as ibn al-qâDî, was born in 960H (1552/3) and died in the month of Safar 1025H (Feb-Mar 1616) in Fès. He studied with many people, including aHmad bâbâ in Marrakech and various scholars in the central Middle East where he attempted the pilgrimage twice. He was in the Fezzan returning from his first pilgrimage when aHmad al-manSûr first conquered Tombouctou (1578). On his second pilgrimage he was captured in the Mediterranean by corsairs (31 July 1586) and subsequently released at the price of a ransom of 20,000 ounces of gold paid by al-manSûr (23 June 1587). Toward the end of his life he visited the dilâ’ zâwiya and even taught the children of shaykh abû bakr who was just beginning to become renowned. ibn al-QâDî wrote three historical works and four biographies. The first history, dealing exclusively with the Sa‘dian sultan aHmad almanSûr “al-dhahabî,” was titled al-muntaqâ l-maqSûr ‘alâ ma’âthir khilâfat al-manSûr. This apparently was an elegy in repayment for his release from captivity and took the form of a genealogical introduction plus eighteen chapters showing the personal development of the sovereign. Although the chapters do include a lot of detailed firsthand accounts of events of the time, the core of the work qualifies as digressions and literary asides, not substantive history. ibn al-qâDî’s two other historical works are equally thin from a historian’s perspective. The first of these, durrat al-sulûk fî-man Hawâ’ l-mulk min al-mulûk (pearls of conduct possessed by the king of kings), is a historical poem that provides little more than a basic chronology, while the second, al-durr al-Halûk al-mushriq bi-durrat al-sulûk, is a brief commentary on the first that provides only a few additional developments to slightly contextualize the chronology. ibn al-qâDî’s biographical works are far more substantive. The first, durrat al-Hijâl fî asmâ’ al-rijal, is a biographical dictionary of distinguished people throughout the Islamic world with only a minor

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part devoted to the Maghrib. The second, jadhwat al-iqtibâs fî-man Hall min al-a‘lâm madînat fâs (The benefits of acquiring knowledge about the learned of the city of Fès), provides exceptionally valuable details beginning with a sketch of fâsî topographic history and proceeding to an alphabetical list of the city’s rulers and distinguished residents and visitors. The biographical part provides a comprehensive and precise survey of the scholarly community during the Marinid and Sa‘dian periods. ibn al-qaTTân, abû ‘alî. A seldom-discussed scholar, abû ‘alî (or abû muHammad) al-Hasan (or al-Husayn) bn ‘alî bn al-qaTTân wrote works on history, Hadîth, and prophets, almost all of which have been lost. Historians are ignorant of his dates of birth and death yet know that he was writing during the reign of the Marinid al-murtaDâ (1248-1266). A portion of his major historical compendium, kitâb naZm al-jumân wa-wâDiH al-bayân fî mâ salafa min akhbâr al-zamân, has survived. It incorporates Moroccan administrative documents and even provides details about the Fatimids not elsewhere available. ibn al-sakkâk. A friend of ibn khaldûn, abû yaHyâ (d.1415/16), or more completely abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn abî ghâlib bn aHmad bn muHammad bn abî l-Hasan ‘alî bn muHammad bn al-sakkâk, studied in Fès and became the preacher (khaTîb) of the main mosque as well as the qâDî al-jamâ‘a in Fès. He was the author of several religious works as well as two or three variants of a work whose intent was to scrutinize the way in which past sultans had treated the descendants of the prophet and demonstrate that those who treated them well prospered while those who mistreated them suffered. Two variants have survived, but the most comprehensive, according to ibn al-sakkâk, has not. The first, and least comprehensive, is his nuSH mulûk al-islâm bi-l-ta‘rîf bi mâ yajib ‘alayh min Huqûq âlâ’ ‘alâ l-bayt al-kirâm, while the second, and somewhat more comprehensive, is simply titled nuSH mulûk al-islâm al-kabîr. ibn al-wannân. abû al-‘abbâs aHmad bn muHammad bn muHammad ibn wannân (d.1773) is known primarily for a single poem. His father was a court poet, of muHammad bn ‘abd allâh (1757-1790), who though deaf had a reputation for wit and was given the kunya (nickname) abû al-shamaqmaq. The son could not obtain access to the court so he waited until the sultan was passing and began to recite loudly a poem, which began, “My lord, son of the Prophet (nabî,), abû al-shamaqmaq was my father (abî)” which halted the sultan who gave him an audience, an opportunity to recite the poem, and, finding it delightful, a place henceforth in his court. The poem is a précis of Moroccan cultural and natural knowledge that has been memorized and recited by cultured Moroccans ever since. It includes memorable syntheses about winds, flora, fauna, proverbs, anecdotes, famous men and women, history, and literature.

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ibn al-zayyât. abû ya‘qub yûsuf bn yaHya bn ‘îsâ bn ‘abd al-raHmân altadhilî bn al-zayyât (d.1230/31) was born in the Tadla and spent virtually all of his life in the Marrakech region, not even making the pilgrimage. His higher education was in Marrakech, and his honesty and legal scholarship won him the post of qadi, of the ragrâga, which he kept until his death. ibn al-zayyât left only three works, of which one is a commentary and another is a hagiography titled simply akhbâr abû al-‘abbâs al-sabtî. His major work, al-tashawwuf ilâ ma‘rifat rijâl al-taSawwuf (seeking the knowledge of sufis), is a huge compendium of biographies of saints from Marrakech and its region, excluding any alive at the time of the work’s composition. This work reflects a prodigious amount of biographical research but includes, as well, analytical commentary and edifying discourse. Its value is indisputable for any historical reconstruction of the sufi tradition in southern Morocco, and many of the biographies are of value for other reasons. ibn ‘âshir. abû al-‘abbâs aHmad bn ‘amr bn muHammad bn ‘âshir (d.1363) was one of the great sufi mystics. He fled Andalusia after the Reconquista and after a pilgrimage settled in Meknès for a while and then established himself in first the Chella of Rabat and then in Salé, where he acquired great renown before his death. ibn ‘âshir made his living teaching the Qur’an and even copying works of Hadîth, which he sold for cost. He formed no Tarîqa and preferred solitude. According to disciples he taught careful study of the iHyâ’ of alghazâlî and the acceptance of no gifts. He strove always to support himself at the minimal level necessary. His writing survives only in the form of correspondence with the Marinid sultan abû ‘inân in which he advised the sultan to promote justice, help the poor, punish evil, and realize that at his death he would be alone with his maker. The sultan replied to the effect that he would take the advice to heart. ibn ‘âshir’s tomb in Salé is venerated to this day. ibn bâjja. abû bakr muHammad ibn bâjja (d.1138) or ibn al-Sâ’igh, known in Europe as Avempace, was born in Sargossa and practiced medicine first in Seville and Granada and then finally in Fès. His highest administrative post was that of vizier under the Almoravids. He was said to be versed in medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and music, but most of the surviving manuscripts are short, unrevised treatises. He is best known for his neo-Platonic work tadbîr almutawaHHid, Governance of the Solitary, which addresses the issue of how to arrange to live a virtuous/philosophical life in the imperfect environment of a city. The work develops the theme of striving for individual spirituality within the constraints imposed by corporeal form and the political nature of human beings. ibn baTTûTa. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn ‘abd allâh bn muHammad bn ibrâhîm bn ‘abd al-raHmân bn yûsuf al-luwâTî al-Tanjî (25 February 1304-1377), known as Ibn Battuta, was the greatest traveler

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of the 14th century. Born in Tanger he traveled (beginning on 13 June 1325) through North and East Africa, the Middle East, and as far as China via India, Ceylon, and Sumatra, returning to Morocco (1350) at the bequest of the Marinid sultan abû ‘inân to live out his days in Fès. The account of his travels, tuHfât al-nuZZâr fî gharâ’ib al-amSâr wa‘ajâ’ib al-asfâr (Rarities to behold in strange capitals and the wonders of travel), is available in many languages. The work describes places, people, institutions, and especially the manner in which Islam is practiced by normal people wherever Ibn Battuta traveled. Ibn Battuta excels in describing the middle class, unlike most other Muslim travelers who focus on the elites, and he provides a great deal of information about morals and customs in the societies he visits. He includes numerous tables of information, which is also unusual, but compared to other travelers he is decidedly weak on the classic stuff of high culture (mosques, monuments, etc.). Overall, the work is an exceedingly rich source of information for the period, which is slightly marred by some obvious exaggerations and errors as well as some aspersions on its authenticity due in part to it having been actually written under Ibn Battuta’s direction by abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn juzayy, perhaps because sultan abû ‘inân was in a hurry to read the account or because Ibn Battuta’s literary or calligraphic skills were not up to the task. Some suspicions have also been voiced about whether Ibn Battuta actually visited all the places claimed, but most authorities grant the general authenticity of the account. ibn ghâzî. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn aHmad bn muHammad bn ‘alî bn ghâzî al-‘uthmânî al-miknâsî al-fâsî (1437/8-13 July 1513) was one of the greatest scholars of the Wattasid period. He was born in Meknès and was taught until age 17 by his mother raHma and then went to Fès to study further. He soon became renowned as a teacher and assumed the position of preacher and imam of the great mosque at the qarawîyîn. He remained, however, involved in political life and died shortly after returning from accompanying the Wattasid sultan muHammad al-shaykh al-burtughâlî in an expedition against the Portuguese who were trying to capture Asilah. Two of his many works are particularly noteworthy for historians: the first, al-rawD al-hatûn fî akhbâr miknâsat al-zaytûn (harnessing the rains for news about Meknès of the olives) is a brief monograph on the city of Meknès, which contains interesting historical, geographical, and ethnographic details as well as biographical notices for the former great scholars of Meknès. The second is his fahrasa, al-ta‘allal bi-rasm al-isnâd ba‘d intiqâl ahl al-manzil wa-l-nâd (attempts to delineate genealogy after relocating the family plus notices), which provides biographical details on many personalities of the Wattasid period as well as a list of important scholarly works known and used in the same period.

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ibn ‘idhârî. abû al-‘abbâs aHmad bn muHammad bn ‘idhârî al-marrâkushî (c.1250-1315) was a historian, noted primarily for his al-bayân almughrib fî ikhtiSâr akhbâr mulûk al-andalus wa-l-maghrib (the elucidation of what is obscure in a brief account of the kings of Andalusia and the Maghrib). The first part of this work summarizes the history of the Maghrib from the conquest of Egypt in 640 to the capture of al-Mahdîya by the Almohads in 1206, the second examines the conquest of the Iberian peninsula, and the third covers the Almoravids and Almohads in the Maghrib and Andalusia. ibn khaldûn. Undoubtedly the most famous figure from the Marinid period, there is also little doubt that ‘abd al-raHmân abû zayd ibn muHammad ibn muHammad ibn khaldûn (27 May 1332-17 March 1406) has stimulated more scholarly writing in the 20th century than any other North African. The secondary literature in philosophy, sociology, history, and political science dealing with his ideas is enormous. Born in Tunis but orphaned by the Black Death at age 17 in the chaotic aftermath of the Marinid invasion, ibn khaldûn nevertheless encountered the Marinid scholars arriving in Tunis with sultan abû alHasan and began study under one of them, al-âbilî (1347-1349). With the departure of the Marinid scholars, ibn khaldûn went west to Fès (1352). An ambitious as well as brilliant man, ibn khaldûn moved from position to position through much of the Islamic world including Andalusia, the Maghrib, and the Orient. In Fès, he first obtained a minor post as a signer of royal correspondence (‘alâma). This did not suit him well, and he left for Biskra where he had friends. When the new Marinid sultan abû ‘inân began to expand the Marinid areas of control, ibn khaldûn first went to Bougie and then back to Fès. While in Fès, ibn khaldûn continued to study with scholars at the qarawîyîn. He soon acquired a high reputation both as a scholar and palace functionary and became one of the intimates of abû ‘inân but was apparently not satisfied and whether guilty or not was implicated in a plot to liberate the Hafsid sovereign abû ‘abd allâh muHammad who was in prison in Fès. When the plot was discovered ibn khaldûn was sentenced to two years in prison. Freed by the grand vizier al-Hasan bn ‘umar al-fawdûdî, he was given back his position in the palace administration. When manSûr bn sulaymân took power ibn khaldûn received the post of secretary. In 1361 he left this post for a judicial position. Soon he was involved in a plot to replace manSûr bn sulaymân, and when the latter was replaced by abû sâlîm, ibn khaldûn was offered the post of personal secretary to the sultan as well as that of “punisher of the guilty” (maZâlîm). It was not long before the grand vizier al-Hasan bn ‘umar al-fawdûdî had abû sâlîm killed and replaced by ‘umar bn tâshafîn, under whose reign ibn khaldûn was also offered a high administrative post. At this point ibn khaldûn decided to go on to Andalusia and was well received in Granada (1362) by ibn al-aHmar and muHammad V,

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whom ibn khaldûn had helped when he and his prime minister ibn alkhaTîb had been in exile at the court of abû sâlîm. In 1365, ibn khaldûn moved on to the court of the newly ascendant Hafsid ruler abû ‘abd allâh in Bougie. Soon after the subsequent fall of abû ‘abd allâh to the amîr of Constantine, ibn khaldûn entered the service of the victor but was quickly defeated by the new ruler of Fès, abû fâris ‘abd al‘azîz, who also enlisted ibn khaldûn’s services in his own cause. Around 1372, ibn khaldûn decided to abandon politics and settled down to write his kitâb al-‘ibar in the fortress of qal‘at ibn salâma near Oran but he did not in fact finish the introductory muqaddima until November 1377. By this time he had relocated to Tunis. In 1384, he was in Cairo and serving as the Grand Qadi of the mâlikite rite as well as professor of jurisprudence at the qamHîya college. His courses were crowded with students and his fame established even if security of employment evaded him. Henceforth ibn khaldûn remained in Cairo, except for brief trips to the Fertile Crescent and a pilgrimage, and served on no less than five separate occasions as Grand Qadi of Cairo before his death in 1406. ibn khaldûn’s great work was his world history, titled kitâb al-‘ibar wa dîwân al-mubtada’ wa-l-khabar fî ayyâm al-‘arab wa-l-‘ajam wa-lbarbar wa-man ‘âshârahum min dhawî al-sulTân al-akbar (book of advice and first council and information about the days of the Arabs, the non-Arabs, and the Berbers and their relations with the greatest sultans). The prolegomena to this work, al-muqaddima, presents a theoretical explanation (or science of civilization: ‘ilm al-‘umrân) for the historical rise and fall of empires that has been the primary reason for ibn khaldûn’s fame in the modern era. In some ways ibn khaldûn’s model resembles Hegel’s famous dialectic and fascinates for similar reasons. The model attempts to explain the development and decline of civilization by focusing on the development and decline of social solidarity within the context of a complex society embracing both urban (HaDâra) and rural (badâwa) elements. The Arabic term used for civilization, ‘umrân, is tied etymologically to “Development” while a second key term for ibn khaldûn, ‘aSabiya or social solidarity, focuses attention on the development of social organization. ibn khaldûn proposed that dynasties rise in complex societies because groups with strong ‘aSabîya achieve predominance and they fall because inevitably they become increasingly corrupt over time. This involves pursuit of luxury and monopolization of power, both of which cut the rulers off from their sources of social support. This both weakens their social solidarity and provides an opportunity for new, more vibrant, and hence potentially more powerful social groupings to arise. Religious-based movements among peoples outside the corrupted urban centers of the dynasty and the corrupt example of the dynasty in decline provide the basis and reason for change. Just as power corrupts so freedom from power clears the way both for new concepts and new ‘aSabîya, which become the sources of power capable of sweeping away the old dynasty. Once the new

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dynasty is established it goes through a period of great dynamism and originality, and then, as power corrupts it, ‘aSabîya declines and society starts down the slippery slope of corruption and decay. The process, like Hegel’s Geist-based dialectic, in principle continues indefinitely. Yet both Hegel and ibn khaldûn were seduced by the thought that they might be living at the end of time when a final state for the former and a final decay for the latter would occur. ibn khaldûn’s 14th century perspective was decidedly more pessimistic than Hegel’s 19th century one, for obvious reasons. The muqaddima does far more than present a model to explain historical change for it reflects with great subtlety on all aspects of Islamic science and civilization in a way never equaled before the 20th century. The remainder of the kitâb al-‘ibar is valuable in terms of the materials assembled together but is less original than the muqaddima and takes the standard form of a historical chronicle. Like other historical works in the premodern period it includes less firsthand material, less documented distillation of primary sources, and less analysis than one might wish given the author’s brilliance and experience. Its primary advance over other earlier, and most later, chronicles is its organization and consistent prose. One influential classification used in the main text of the kitâb al‘ibar is a dichotomous division of Berbers into al-butn (nomadic) and al-barânis (sedentary-from the plural of burnous). Although this dichotomy takes after and is obviously linked to ibn khaldûn’s urbanrural dichotomy it is distinctly less valuable and has probably been a source of considerable confusion since. The idea that a simple classification of this sort was essential derived in part from classic ideas, now understood to be misguided, that a part of the Berbers were relatively recent nomadic arrivals from the Fertile Crescent, more specifically Goliath’s folk who emigrated after his defeat. From a modern perspective not only is this tradition discredited but so also is the idea that ethnic groups in a region such as North Africa can be simplistically classified into nomadic or sedentary. The duration and flexibility of human habitation in North Africa is far too great for such a static dichotomy to be persuasive. In addition to the introduction, the kitâb al-‘ibar has a final part, alta‘rîf, which is basically autobiographical and to which ibn khaldûn relegates all the poetry and nonprose material other historians of the time tended to mix into their accounts. Thus, the ‘ibar presents an organized and consistently prose account of world history with a focus more on explanation than mere description. It has many acute observations and plausible summations dealing with issues as varied as the historical roles of demography, agriculture, nomadism, and politics. ibn khaldûn also wrote several other works. One in particular is noteworthy, lubâb al-muHaSSal (the quintessence of al-muHaSSal), a summary of a work by faHr al-dîn al-râzî (kitâb muHaSSal afkâr almutaqaddimîn wa-l-muta’akhirîn min al-‘ulamâ’ wa-l-Hukamâ’ wa-lmutakallimîn/book of the fruits of the thoughts of the earliest and latest

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of the ‘ulamâ’, philosophers and scholastics), which provides summary, commentary, and analysis. ibn khaldûn also wrote a response to a then-current sufi dispute, two commentaries on other scholars’ works, and several summaries of Averroes’ work as well as one work each on logic and arithmetic. Despite ibn khaldûn’s obvious originality and analytical skills he nevertheless held the standard positions of his era and culture, both that change is fundamentally driven by religion and that all truth is to be sought in divine revelation. ibn maryam. muHammad bn muHammad bn aHmad ibn maryam (d.1605) is primarily known for a compilation of local saints that focuses on Tlemcen but includes material from as far away as the Sous and even the Mauritanian Trarza. The compilation, titled al-bustân fî dhikr al-awliyâ’ wa-l-‘ulamâ’, deals with people who studied in Tlemcen and who acted as proselytizers, scholars, or mystics. ibn marzûq. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn aHmad bn muHammad bn muHammad bn abî bakr al-‘ajîsî al-tilimsânî, referred to as shams aldîn al-khaTîb or al-jadd and ibn marzûq (1310/11-1379), was born in Tlemcen but left for the Orient in 1327 and remained there for fifteen years where he traveled and studied with some 250 scholars. He returned to the Maghrib a learned faqîh and was quickly offered a position as the preacher of the al-‘ubbâd mosque by the Marinid sultan abû al-Hasan. Soon he became the sultan’s advisor, secretary, and teacher. He was sent on missions to Algeria and Spain where he concluded a treaty of peace with the king of Castille, Alphonse XI. On the death of abû al-Hasan, ibn marzûq returned to Tlemcen where he engaged in intrigue against the new Marinid sultan and ended up fleeing to Spain where he was offered the position of khaTîb of the great mosque al-Hamrâ in Granada. He was recalled to Fès by the sultan abû ‘inân where he held a high position until a diplomatic mission to Spain that he was charged with failed completely and he was sentenced to six years in prison, getting out in 1358. ibn marzûq soon was offered a high position in Tunis by abû sâlim ibrâhîm. He remained in Tunis until deciding to retire to Cairo in 1372, where he lived until his death. ibn marzûq wrote numerous works in the areas of traditional legal and religious scholarship, but three works are of particular historical value. The first, a work of history (1371), al-musnad al-SaHîH alHasan fî ma’âthir mawlâna abî l-Hasan, deals with the Marinid sultan abû al-Hasan. It consists of an introduction and fifty-five chapters that provide a multitude of details on a variety of subjects including customs, clothing, culinary matters, and morals as well as politics, administration, and financial matters for the period discussed. The book is also in part an autobiographical work in which ibn marzûq notes his own role and accomplishments. The obvious selfaggrandizing purpose of much Islamic historical work is pushed further

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by ibn marzûq than was usual in the hopes of pointing out his own key role in the past to the son of his former employer. The result is, if less objective, at least valuable in its attempt to give details about an individual’s causal role in history. As such it adds a new historiographical dimension to Marinid history. The second work of particular significance is his kitâb al-imâma, which defines the caliphate and discusses general principles of politics and government. The third work is an unusual fahrasa (list of teachers). This is unusual not so much because it lists a very large number of teachers (primarily from Egypt, Medina, and Palestine) but because included in this list are seven learned women. ibn qunfudh. abû al-‘abbâs aHmad bn Hasan bn ‘alî bn al-khaTîb bn qunfudh al-qusanTînî (1339/40-1407/8) was born in Constantine but left his natal city at the age of twelve to go to Morocco to study and stayed there for the next twenty years. As a sufi he was attracted to the tradition of abû madyan and traveled regularly to study and visit various sufi centers. He was appointed qadi for the Doukkala, for an unknown length of time, and then mufti. He wrote numerous works of religious science, jurisprudence, logic, mysticism, and astronomy as well as several works of more particular historical interest. The latter include a history, al-fârisîya fî madâbi’ al-dawla al-HafSîya, and two biographical works, al-wafayât and tabaqât ‘ulamâ’ qusanTîna. ibn riDwân. abû l-qâsim ‘abd allâh bn yûsuf bn riDwân al-nijârî al-malâqî al-fâsî (1318-1381) was born in Malaga the son of a minister to the sultan in Granada, but it was in Fès that ibn riDwân finished his education and was entrusted with high administrative positions. In Fès, he served as secretary to abû al-Hasan and then served in high administrative posts under abû ‘inân, abû yaHyâ abû bakr al-sa‘îd, abû sâlim ibrâhîm, abû ‘umar tâshafîn bn abî al-Hasan, abû fâris ‘abd al‘azîz bn abî al-Hasan, abû zayyân muHammad al-sa‘îd, and abû al‘abbâs aHmad bn abî sâlim ibrâhîm. His reputation rests primarily on his extraordinary administrative career, but ibn riDwân also left numerous pieces of poetry and one prose work. This work, al-shuhub al-lâmi‘a fî al-siyâsa al-jâmi‘a (the luminous stars in the community’s policy), is a treatise on political ethics. In an introduction and twentyfive chapters ibn riDwân deals with everything from the restoration of monuments to the consultation required by the sovereign. There are chapters devoted as well to viziers and secretaries, compensation, prisons and punishments, the army and the treasury, as well as policy in general and the measures taken to support the populace. ibn rushayd al-sabtî. muHibb al-dîn abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn ‘umar bn muHammad bn ‘umar bn idrîs bn sa‘îd bn mas‘ad bn Husayn bn muHammad al-fihrî bn rushayd al-sabtî (1258/9-1321) was born in Ceuta and went on a pilgrimage for three years before returning to Ceuta in 1282 where he stayed for a decade. In 1292 he was offered a

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position as imâm and khaTîb of the great mosque in Granada, but the death of his patron ibn al-Hakîm led him to relocate to Fès shortly after taking up duties in Granada. There he was favorably received by abû sa‘îd ‘uthmân and was granted permission to settle in Marrakech. In Marrakech he assumed the duties of imâm and preacher in the main mosque and acquired such a reputation that abû sa‘îd ‘uthmân felt obliged to bring him back to Fès where he died soon after. ibn rushayd wrote on the traditional subjects but his most important work from a historical perspective is his riHla, mâl al-‘ayba wa iHDâr mâ jumi‘a bi Tûl al-ghayba min al-wijha al-wajîha ilâ makka waTayba (collection of shortages and supplies encountered in the course of heading toward Mekka and Madina). Originally between four and six volumes there are five lengthy fragments that seem to have survived (Escorial 1680, 1735, 1736, 1737, 1739). The presumed first volume of the riHla is considered lost. Originally not intended for publication, the riHla consists of a set of unedited notes on various people, places, and subjects. The author’s intent seems primarily to have been to put down the maximum number of details, and as such the work includes large amounts of cultural and biographical information of historical value. ibn rushd. Known in Europe as Averroes, abû al-walid muHammad ibn aHmad ibn muHammd ibn rushd (1126-1198) was born in Cordoba and served as qadi of first Seville and then Cordoba but spent much of his time in Morocco, dying in Marrakech. He was offered the position of court physician, in Marrakech, to Almohad sultan abû ya‘qub yûsuf to succeed ibn Tufayl, but was soon released from the obligation. When abû ya‘qub yûsuf had been governor of Seville, he had appointed ibn Tufayl as court physician and had looked to the younger ibn rushd, a protégé of ibn Tufayl, as a successor. Although ibn rushd wrote numerous famous medical treatises, his renown was even greater as a philosopher. He lost favor under abû ya‘qub yûsuf’s successor (abû yûsuf al-manSûr ya‘qûb, 1184-1199), who even briefly had him banished and banned as well as works of philosophy, but ibn rushd was able to return to Marrakech for the last two years of his life. After his initial burial outside the Taghzut gate, his body was taken to Cordoba and reburied there. Only a few of Averroes’ works have been preserved in Arabic, but substantially more have survived in the form of Latin and Hebrew manuscript copies. Averroes’ main original works include: faSl almaqâl wa-taqrîb mâ bayn al-sharî‘a wa-l-Hikma min al-ittiSâl (an authoritative treatise and exposition of the convergence which exists between the religious law and philosophy) and kitâb al-kashf ‘an manâhij al-adilla fî ‘aqâ’id al-milla wa-ta‘rîf mâ waqa‘a fîhâ bi-Hasb al-ta’wîl min al-shuba al-musayyifa wa-l-bida‘ al-muDilla (exposition of the methods of demonstration relative to the dogmas of religion, and definition of the equivocations and innovations which appear in them as methods of interpretation and which distort truth or lead into error).

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Averroes’ philosophy was taught in the University of Paris, critiqued by Thomas Aquinas, and condemned by the Church in 1240 and again in 1513. Averroes developed materialist and rationalist positions based on commentaries of Aristotle that suggested that revealed and rationalist truths might be distinct but could be reconciled. In a famous controversy with al-ghazâlî, ibn rushd maintained (in his work tahâfut al-tahâfut, or Incoherence of the Incoherence) that the Qur’an was allegorical and required a rationalist interpretation while al-ghazâlî held that intuitive apprehension of God was the basis of knowledge and that the Qur’an represented such an apprehension, and hence it would not benefit from rational analysis. Averroes’ position lost out in the Islamic world as secular knowledge was increasingly seen as secondary or subsidiary to religious (revealed) knowledge and not capable of embracing, let alone explaining, the latter. ibn shaqrûn al-miknâsî. A physician and poet in the time of mawlây ismâ‘îl, abû muHammad (or abû naSr) ‘abd al-qâdir bn al-‘arabî almunabbahî al-madaghrî (d.1727/8) studied in Fès, Alexandria, and Cairo before settling in Meknès. He wrote two works of direct interest to historians. The first, al-shaqrûnîya, is a 673-verse poem on food hygiene that includes a lot of details about hygienic practices of the early 18th century. The second work is a medical treatise on the treatment of syphilis with sarsaparilla, al-nafHa al-wardîya fî al-‘ushba al-hindîya, which has been studied by H.J.P. Renaud and G.S. Colin (1935). ibn Tufayl. Contemporary and mentor of Averroes, abû bakr muHammad ibn ‘abd al-mâlik ibn Tufayl (c.1105-1185), known in the Middle Ages as Abubacer, was reputed to have an encyclopedic grasp of contemporary knowledge. He was born in Guadix near Granada, practiced medicine in Granada, and was appointed by ‘abd al-mu’mîn, the founder of the Almohad dynasty, as tutor to the latter’s son abû sa‘îd, who was the governor of Ceuta and Tanger. He then served as physician (and one source suggests vizier) to the Almohad sultan abû ya‘qub yûsuf in Marrakech. He retired as physician in 1182. ibn Tufayl wrote treatises on many subjects, but most particularly on philosophy and medicine, though he is best known for his allegorical novel (written circa 1169-1185) titled Hayy ibn yaqZân (Hayy the son of yaqZân), which is a philosophical predecessor of Robinson Crusoe, as well as a philosophical reversal of an earlier work by Avicenna (ibn sînâ) of the same name (but written around 1023). In Avicenna’s version, the phrase Hayy ibn yaqzân is a name meaning “Living, son of wakeful” given to itself by a sage who appears to a human soul in the context of a sophisticated philosophical discussion, the gist of which might be that humans must receive ultimate truth from the divine realm since they are incapable of reaching it through pure reason. In the novel by ibn Tufayl, “Hayy ibn yaqZân” is the name of a

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human who succeeds alone on an island through pure introspection, rationality, and asceticism in reaching the ultimate truths. In this allegory Hayy is said to have either washed ashore or spontaneously appeared on a deserted island (either possibility is allowed by the author). As Hayy grows up his high intelligence allows him to ingeniously make an easy living and drives him to meditate on the meaning of existence. Through meditation, and forty days fasting in a cave, he reaches an understanding of all the important truths. Shortly later he encounters an ascetic who came from another island to meditate on what he thinks is a deserted island. The newcomer teaches Hayy language and discovers that Hayy is an enlightened sage and invites him to his home island to help raise the local levels of philosophical consciousness. The attempt fails because most people are unable to grasp the higher truths, and the two sages return to Hayy’s island counseling those they leave behind to stick with their religion with its historically conditioned imperfections. Hayy thus finds civilized life and its people inadequate to a full grasp of truth. This salutary tale has been translated into Hebrew (1349) as well as many European languages and was very widely read some centuries later in its Latin translation, Philosophus autodidactus, sive Epistolla Abi Jaafar ebn Tophail de Hai ebn Yokdan, quomodo ex Inferiorum contemplatione ad Superiorum notitiam Ratio human ascender possit, published in Oxford in 1671. ibn tûmart. Although most of the details of ibn tûmart’s life (1078/91August 1130) are not established well enough to be fully persuasive to a modern historian, most traditional accounts concur in a general sense in many details. The essentials of the traditional account also have the merit of being widely accepted and as such are well worth recapitulating. Born by some accounts as late as 1091 in the village of ijîlî al-wârgan (south east of Taroudannt on the north side of the AntiAtlas in the Sous, the present day Guilliz of the Hargha tribe), muHammad bn ‘abd allâh ibn tûmart displayed an early obsession with learning and was reputed to have passed most of his childhood in study. At around the age of 18 he left the Maghrib to travel in Spain and then in the Orient, at the time the Islamic center of learning and culture. Accounts of his voyage to the East concur that wherever he went he made efforts to study with the most eminent scholars, though obviously it is not easy in retrospect to distinguish those scholars with whom ibn tûmart actually studied from those at whose feet his traditional chroniclers have assumed he must have studied. There are differences of opinion about ibn tûmart’s intellectual genealogy, and some differences are doubtless due to chroniclers’ inability to resist appending hypothetical intellectual apprenticeships to the slightly less glorious accounts already on hand. The period in which ibn tûmart traveled in the central lands of the Middle East was a period of intellectual ferment perhaps epitomized by al-ghazâlî’s (1059-1111) efforts to assimilate the ideas of classical

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Greek philosophy, the mu’tazilite ideas (including the idea of human free will), sufism (Islamic mysticism), and a variety of other ideas then in play (including ash‘arism, which among other points claimed that human acts were in some sense direct outcomes of the way God created human beings). Although there is some disagreement about whether ibn tûmart studied directly with al-ghazâlî (most of the chroniclers claim he did), it is clear that the intellectual climate in ibn tûmart’s “orient” was exciting and stimulating to anyone interested in learning. ibn tûmart was, however, not just stimulated intellectually, he quickly became religiously inspired to the point of wanting to have people punished who transgressed what he saw as religious laws. His intolerance and moral castigations were even reputed to have caused such a stir in Mecca that he was forced to leave and go to Alexandria in Egypt where he once again stirred up riots and had to flee. Accounts of his voyage back to the Maghrib claim that his religious zeal on the boat was such that the crew threw him into the sea, but on perceiving that he remained unharmed (for two days) they brought him back onboard and treated him with great respect henceforth. Chroniclers suggest that ibn tûmart’s religious zeal met with resistance in most cities he stopped in on the way home. Whatever their veracity, these accounts were important historically to help explain the role ibn tûmart was to play in founding the Almohad movement that was soon to transform Morocco. Most likely, ibn tûmart reached the Maghrib (probably Tripoli or Mahdia) around 1116. At the time of his return to the Maghrib the banû hilâl had been sent west by the Fatimids to punish the zirids and were in the process of unsettling the traditional order in North Africa. Coming along the Mediterranean, ibn tûmart had to pass, from east to west, through lands controlled by the zirids (at this point centered in Mahdia) and the Hammâd (who controlled bijâya, in Algeria) to arrive in the western Maghrib controlled by the Almoravids. Most chroniclers concur that it was in a village south of bijâya, mallâla, where he was teaching in the mosque that ibn tûmart recruited ‘abd al-mu’min, who was to become the first Almohad caliph. ibn tûmart and a small group of followers soon travelled west stopping in Fès, Meknès, and Marrakech. In Marrakech, ibn tûmart is said to have met the reigning Almoravid sultan, ‘alî bn yûsuf bn tâshafîn, and although the accounts of the event(s) differ substantially, he apparently found substantial reasons for criticism of the way the Almoravids were ruling and was soon banished from the city. ibn tûmart made his way south, spreading his teachings on the way, until he arrived in his native village in the Sous, ijîlî al-wârgan, where he attracted a host of students from many places and within a few years was proclaimed mahdi of the Almohads (in 1121/515H) by the Hargha and many of his supporters among other maSmûda tribes in the region. After several increasingly serious, if unsuccessful, attacks by the Almoravids, ibn tûmart moved his capital to a virtually impregnable site in the Atlas mountains, Tînmal. There the Almohads seem to have

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organized their supporters into a hierarchy of consultative assemblies in which an elite assembly of ten focused on ideological issues and a larger assembly focused on political organization among the tribes. After some years ibn tûmart had enough support to lay siege to Marrakech. Although the siege may have lasted thirty to forty days, in the end the nascent Almohads had to retreat. The defeat aggravated ibn tûmart’s declining health and before dying (in 524H/1130) some versions say he had his companions swear allegiance to ‘abd almu’min while other versions of the account suggest he left no designated heir. History leaves little doubt that ‘abd al-mu’min was in charge by the time Almohad forces circled north to engage the Almoravids, successfully this time, between Taza and Tlemcen in 1139. Fès fell in 1145 and Marrakech in 1146. ibn tûmart taught the unity and inscrutability of God, the impeccability of the imam, the allegorical nature of qur’anic passages describing God and heaven (a position presumably derived from the mu’tazilites), and the concept of predestination (which he probably took from the ash‘arites). The term Almohad (from al-muwaHHid referring to the unity of God) may also have resonated with the idea of unifying the competing doctrines of his time. These doctrinal positions served both to give basic coherence and an essential difference to his teaching as well as to bolster his supporters in the belief that they were predestined to success. Although ibn tûmart was apparently a superb Arabist, his preaching in the Atlas was in Berber and the first version of his book, the kitâb al-tawhîd, was also in Berber. Compared to the sunnism that was to prevail later, ibn tûmart’s personal attempts at doctrinal unifications were to prove inadequate and provincial, but at the time they provided the essential moral stimulus for the Almohad conquest of the Maghrib (Bourouiba 1974; Laroui 1977). ibn ‘uthmân al-miknâsî. Fulfilling a similar role to that of al-ghassânî a century earlier, abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn ‘abd al-wahhâb bn ‘uthmân was a Moroccan diplomat and vizier who wrote three riHlas describing his diplomatic travels in Spain, Malta and Naples, and Istanbul. The riHlas, in order, were titled al-iksîr fî fikâk al-asîr, albadr al-sâfir fî iftikâk al-asârâ min yad al-aduww al-kâfir, and iHrâz al-mu‘allâ wa-l-raqîb fî Hajj bayt allâh al-Harâm wa-ziyârat al-quds al-sharîf wa-l-khalîl wa-l-tabâraka bi-qabr al-Habîb. The first two accounts deal with the redemption of Muslim captives while the last describes a mission to settle a border dispute between Ottoman forces and Moroccan ones. As a diplomat, ibn ‘uthmân was sent on a final unsuccessful mission to Spain in December 1790 and was prevented by Charles IV’s declaration of war on Morocco (19 August 1791) from returning to Morocco. He returned in 1792 after living as a private citizen in Madrid and died in Marrakech in mid-1799 after helping to conclude a treaty between Morocco and Spain.

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ibn wîsa‘dan, zâwiya of. The zâwiya of ibn wîsa‘dan was founded in the Sektana (Sous) about 140 km northeast of Taroudannt around 1540. The founder, sîdî maHammad bn wîsa‘dan al-‘umarî al-suktânî (d.1579), claimed a genealogy from the caliph ‘umar bn al-khaTTâb. He was renowned for his generosity, reputedly giving out clothing, food, or money to all who needed them for the forty years until his death. The zâwiya gained great wealth and prestige reputedly teaching 700 students at the height of its influence in the Sa‘dian period. When muHammad al-mutawakkil was deposed by his two uncles he sought refuge in the zâwiya of ibn wîsa‘dan before joining with the forces of the Portuguese King Don Sebastian to attempt to regain his throne. The attempt ended in the complete defeat of al-mutawakkil and his allies at the Battle of Three Kings, or wâdî al-makhâzin (4 August 1578), but such was the prestige of the zâwiya that no attempt was made to punish it for its role in the affair. ibn yasîn, ‘abdallâh. ‘abdallâh ibn yasîn al-jazûlî was born toward the end of the 10th century in the jazûla in the Sous. After ten years’ study in Cordoba as a young man, he returned to study with muHammad wajjâj ibn zalwî al-lamTî, a jurist and saint teaching in malkûs near sijilmâsa. Around 1036 muHammad wajjâj received a letter from his own teacher abû ‘imrân al-ghafjûmî (d.1039) in al-qayrawân to the effect that a jurist of the Gudâla, jawhar bn sakkum, passing through al-qayrawân, had indicated a need in the Western Sahara for more rigorous Islamic learning. One of the few pupils willing to settle in the Western Sahara was ibn yasîn, so he was dispatched to the chief of the confederation, yaHyâ ibn ibrâhîm. Initially ibn yasîn was well received, but soon his teaching took a more militant turn, and he and his followers engaged in attacking those not yet persuaded. The various extant accounts differ considerably and are most probably a composite of historical accounts and later myth making. In several versions, ibn yasîn retreats to an island to regroup and then sets forth to spearhead what was to become the Almoravid conquest of North Africa. By the time ibn yasîn resumed his conquests yaHyâ ibn ibrâhîm had died and the leadership of the SanHâja had passed from the Gudâla to the Lamtûna, who had long enjoyed aristocratic claims in the Western Sahara. The Lamtûna probably arrived in the Western Sahara from the Fezzan to find the Gudâla already ensconced on the Atlantic coast and around the mouth of the Senegal, and ended up controlling a slightly more eastern segment of the region. Their aristocratic status was symbolized by a face scarf (lithâm) worn by men that brought them the appellation al-mulaththamûn and gave rise to later disparagement by ibn tûmart and Almohad historians, since wearing the scarf especially during prayer was considered by many to be wrong. In Andalusia, Almoravid puritanism was considered particularly repugnant. The Almoravid version of orthodoxy has been critiqued by most subsequent Islamic scholars as being overly fond of corporal punishments and

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lacking in a number of areas, but the charges have also been attributed to later accretions by supporters of subsequent dynasties and to Almohad scholars in particular. Whatever the truth of ibn yasîn’s religious scholarship and practice, he inspired multitudes, including great generals such as abû bakr ibn ‘umar and yûsuf ibn tâshafîn, the greatest Almoravid head of state. According to al-bakrî, ibn yasîn was killed at kurayfîla near Rabat by some barghawâTa at the beginning of 451H/circa 17 February 1059. ibn zaydân. ‘abd al-raHmân bn muHammad bn ‘abd al-raHmân ibn zaydân (June 1873-16 November 1946) was born in the imperial palace at Meknès. He was tutored there and then studied at the qarawîyîn in Fès. He succeeded his father to the office of naqîb of the ‘Alawite shurafâ’ of Meknès in 1906. He made a Hajj in 1913 and on return to Morocco accepted the post of assistant director of the military college of dâr al-bayDâ’ (in Meknès). On his death in 1946 he was buried at Meknès in the burial chamber of his ancestor mawlây ismâ‘îl. As a historian, ibn zaydân made careful use of sources and built a considerable library with a catalogue to support his work. His official positions and family ties gave him access to royal dahirs and other materials. ibn zaydân’s historical works include itHâf a‘lâm al-nâs bijamâl akhbâr HâDirat miknâs, al-durar al-fâkhira bi-ma’thîr al-mulûk al-‘alawîyin bi-fâs al-zâhira, al-‘izz wa-l-Sawla fî ma‘âlim nuZm aldawla, and al-manâhij al-sawîya fî ma’âthir mulûk al-dawla al‘alawîya. ibrâhîm, ‘abd allâh/Abdullah Ibrahim. Abdullah Ibrahim served in the resistance, was imprisoned, and then, when released from prison shortly before independence, took a leadership role among the younger generation in the istiqlâl. He was one of the leaders of the “Young Turks,” the younger generation that through the aegis of the political commission of the istiqlâl issued a communiqué stating the party’s conditions, vis-à-vis the king, for agreeing to accept further government responsibilities. The gist of the proposal was acceptance of real power sharing between the king and parliament. This memorandum was presented to mawlây Mohammed V on 22 April 1958 by a delegation of the older generation (Balafrej, allâl al-fâsî, and Bouabid). When the king persuaded the delegation that the time was not ripe for such a proposal and the delegation backed down, the Young Turks, who understood that a historic opportunity had been lost by the old guard, precipitated a split in the istiqlâl that formally took place following the departure of the UMT in 1958 and the formation of the Union Nationale des Forces Populaire (UNFP) in September 1959. Abdullah Ibrahim served as prime minister from 24 December 1958 to 21 May 1960. Initially chosen by the king to respond to the crisis in the istiqlâl by nominally empowering the more radical elements, Abdullah Ibrahim was unceremoniously dismissed by the

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king when the new UNFP became worrisome both in terms of its popular support and the radical (democratic) nature of its proposals. Prior to its own dissolution the Ibrahim government was forced to ban the communist party and accept the arrest of some of the UNFP’s key members, al-faqîh al-baSrî and ‘abd al-raHmân yûsufî. al-idrîsî. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn muHammad bn ‘abd allâh bn idrîs al-‘âlî bi-amr allâh (c.1100-1165), or al-idrîsî, is known primarily for his work kitâb nuzhat al-mushtâq fî ikhtirâq al-âfâq (account of the longed-for excursion through remote regions), which was completed around 1154 on the orders of Roger II, the Norman king of Sicily. The work, often referred to as the Book of Roger (kitâb rûjâr), is a geographical description of Spain and North Africa that has long been known in the West and has given rise to numerous translations and commentaries. The text, or some copies of it, include a planisphere in the introductory chapter and a map for each of the seven climatic zones covered, some of which are in color. al-idrîsi was reputed to have written a number of other works, but the only other surviving work is his multilingual compendium of pharmaceutical terminology, kitâb aljâmi‘ li-ashtât al-nabât, also known variously as kitâb al-mufradât or kitâb al-adwiya al-mufrada. Idrisid dynasty. The Idrisid dynasty was founded in 789 by idrîs (alakbâr) bn ‘abd allâh (Idris the elder or Idris I) who was succeeded at his death in 791 by his son, idrîs al-aSghar (Idris the younger or Idris II) through a regent, rashîd. Idris I had escaped the massacre of the faction of al-Husayn bn ‘alî bn al-Hasan at fakh (11 June 786) with his companion, rashîd, and fled to the Maghrib where he had settled in walîlî (Volubilis). At his death, he was said to have been poisoned on the orders of harûn al-rashîd; he left a concubine, kinza, seven months pregnant. The infant was declared the new imâm and rashîd ruled as his regent until he too was assassinated when Idris II was eleven (802). The new regent, abû khâlid yazîd bn ilyâs, had the young Idris II declared imâm the following year, but Idris II did not formally rule until 808. The Idrisid dynasty introduced Islam in a definitive way to Morocco and is remembered for this major transformation. It also left many sharîfs behind it who have played significant parts in Moroccan history up to the present. It also conquered a significant part of Northern Morocco beginning with Fès, established as an Idrisid town in 789 and then as true capital in 809. The Idrisid dynasty did not remain centralized for long. With the death of Idris II, twelve sons were left behind and the barely started Idrisid empire was quickly divided up among the seven oldest sons (828) with the eldest son, muHammad, remaining in charge of Fès. This led quickly to quarrels and eventually, in 917, contributed to the Fatimid conquest of the Idrisids. The zanâta Berbers, the Umayyads, and the Fatimids disputed over Northern Morocco for the rest of the century. An Idrisid prince

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held out in the Rif for a period and a final Idrisid was briefly restored to power with Fatimid backing, circa 982, but was assassinated in 985. Although the Idrisid dynasty only briefly maintained power over a significant part of the Maghrib, their status as the first sharifan dynasty gave them a crucial historical importance that neither military losses nor recurrent lack of political savvy could erase. Idrissi Kaitouni, Mohamed. Born in 1946 in Fès, Idrissi Kaitouni is the director of the newspaper l’Opinion. He studied at the Faculté de Droit in Rabat where he obtained a Certificat d’études supérieures in Droit International Public. Idrissi Kaitouni has been an active member of the istiqlâl party since an early age and became a member of the Jeunesse Scolaire in 1960. In 1966, Idrissi Kaitouni was elected as member of the Comité Exécutif de l’Union Nationale des Etudiants du Maroc (UNEM) and then its vice president. In 1967, he became a member of the Comité central de la Jeunesse Istiqlalienne and a member of the Conseil national of the istiqlâl party. In 1969, he served as assistant professor at the faculté de Droit, special secretary of ‘allâl al-fâsî and chargé de l’information for the istiqlâl party. In 1970, Idrissi Kaitouni became the political editor and editor in chief of the of the newspaper l’Opinion. In 1974, he became a member of the Comité central of the istiqlâl party. In 1977, he served as the director of l’Opinion and a member of its executive committee. In 1993, he was elected to parliament as a deputy for the Circonscription of Sidi Moumen, Casablanca. Idrissi Kaitouni is also an active member of the Bureau du syndicat national de la presse marocaine and treasurer of its syndicat, member of the Bureau central du syndicat UGTM, member of the Bureau central de l’Association marocaine de soutien à la lutte du Peuple Palestinien, member of the Bureau central of the Ligue marocaine de défense des droits de l’homme, member of the Association des jurists marocains, and member of the Union des écrivains marocains et arabes. Idrissi Kaitouni, Mohamed Rachid. Born 5 June 1950 in Fès, Idrissi Kaitouni is the secretary-general of the parliament. Idrissi Kaitouni received a diplôme d’Etudes Supérieures in law and political science from the Université de Paris. Idrissi Kaitouni taught at the Faculté de Droit in Rabat and the Ecole Nationale d’Administration Publique (ENAP). He served as director of the administration générale at the Académie du Royaume du Maroc and editor at the Direction scientifique de l’Académie du Royaume du Maroc. Idrissi Kaitouni is also an active member in the Association des secrétairies généraux des parlements auprès de l’union interparlementaire and its executive committee. He is also a founding member of the Association des secrétairies généraux des parlements Arabes and the Association de Droit Constitutionnel.

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Ifni. The purported site of a concession made to Spain, called Santa Cruz de Mar Pequeña, from 1476-1524, the area was disputed by Morocco shortly after independence and was never seen as of much value by Spain. During the protectorate, the area was occupied by Spain (from 1934). In 1958 a small Moroccan invading force was repulsed. A December 1965 resolution of the UN General Assembly called on Spain to speed up the decolonization of the area. Finally, in January 1969, Spain agreed to give Ifni back to Morocco. al-ifrânî, muHammad al-Saghîr. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn al-Hâj muHammad bn ‘abd allâh al-ifrânî al-Saghîr (1669/1671-c.1741) was born in Marrakech around 1080H (1669-1670) and died around 1153H (1741) in a state of abject poverty. After studying in Marrakech, al-ifrânî spent some years at the qarawîyîn and finished a commentary on a Spanish poet, Ibrahim Ibn Sahl, in 1716. His first historical work, al-Zill al-warîf fî mafâkhir mawlânâ ismâ‘îl ibn al-sharîf also titled rawDât al-ta‘rîf fî... (The long shadow of the exploits of mawlânâ ismâ‘îl bn al-sharîf, or, alternately, The known garden in the exploits of...), focuses equally on biographical details about mawlây ismâ‘îl and his most famous children and the sultan’s military successes. His second, a monograph on the seven saints of Marrakech, durar al-Hijâl fî ma’âthir sab‘at rijâl, exists in manuscript form but is unfinished. His third historical work, which was a general history of Morocco, al-mu‘rib fî akhbâr al-maghrib, seems so far to be lost. The basis of his reputation as a historian is al-ifrânî’s comprehensive history of the Sa‘dian period extended to the end of the 11th century hegira (1511-1689), nuzhat al-Hâdî bi-akhbâr mulûk alqarn al-Hâdî, written around 1726 (cf. M. Houdas, Nozhet elhâdi, Histoire de la dynastie saadienne au Maroc 1511-1670). This work includes, in addition to a chronology of Sa‘dian military victories, numerous details on the composition of the makhzan, discussion of the qadis of Fès and Marrakech, an account of the revolts and anarchy at the death of al-manSûr (1603), the development of Salé as an independent center for piracy against Christian ships (1610-1641), and a discussion of the development of the dilâ’ zâwiya (1566-1668) and of the rise of the ‘Alawite dynasty. Overall al-ifrânî’s history is characterized by careful use of sources and an admirable concern over correcting anachronisms such that the work remains one of the best sources on the Sa‘dian period. al-ifrânî’s biographical work, Safwat man intashar min akhbâr SulaHâ’ al-qarn al-Hâdî ‘ashar (The best information that has come to us about the pious in the 11th century), follows the same high standards as his history. It provides precise dates, sources, judicious choice of poetic citations, and includes people from Fès, Marrakech, and Moulay Idriss as well as saints and scholars from the Sous and the Jbala mountains of the Rif. In addition, al-ifrânî adds occasional

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references to odd mystics such as ‘antar al-khulTî, who paraded nude in the market, or the Marrakech mystic who was so beautiful the sultan al-zidân wanted to seduce her. al-ifrânî seems to have used the available written and oral sources in a judicious fashion. Ikken, Bouazza. Born in 1934 in Khemisset, Ikken has a baccalauréat, licence ès-Droit, and a DES in Droit. Ikken is a member of the Chamber of Representatives. He served as a lawyer, magistrat général of Casablanca, and director of the cabinet of the minister of justice. Ikken has been a member of the MNP since 1991. He was elected as deputy for the circonscription of Khemisset. He served on various commissions dealing with law, fisheries, and tourism (1993-1997). Ikken is also the president of the Association des pêcheurs en Haute Mer. Iligh (îlîgh). Located in the Tazerwalt (Sous) and just west of the zâwiya of sîdî aHmad u mûsâ, Iligh was founded around 1625 by sîdî ‘alî, known also as abû al-Hassûn al-samlâlî, after he rebelled against the Sa‘dian sultan and the population of the Sous joined him in dissidence. abû Hassûn populated the town with scholars brought from all over the Sahel, and Iligh became a major center of scholarship supported by the munificence of the emir. Iligh quickly became a major entrepôt for the trans-Saharan trade; the nearby moussem at the zâwiya of sîdî aHmad u mûsâ was a major slave market as well as a market for animals and other products of the trans-Saharan trade. Iligh even had a large Jewish community engaged in trade and gold working. Records suggest that between 1625 and 1653, the irrigation infrastructure for Iligh was fully developed, though much of the work involved renewing existing irrigation works. By 1659, sîdî ‘alî, the reigning head of family, was in control of the western trans-Saharan trade and had relations with Great Britain, Holland, and other European powers. Iligh’s great wealth and power, as well as its early animosity against the ‘Alawites, made it a target. Iligh was destroyed in 1670 by mawlay al-rashîd the year after his conquest of Marrakech. The heirs of sîdî ‘alî lived as nomads until they cautiously returned to the Tazerwalt in 1695 and later rebuilt Iligh some fifty years after its destruction. They slowly rebuilt their political and economic power, managing to recover their former landholdings as well as their control of much of the Western Saharan trade, and became a major political and economic force again by the mid-19th century. Although Iligh generally maintained its distance from the makhzan in the 19th century it never reached the level of autonomy attained under sîdî ‘alî and on several occasions had to back down in front of makhzan superior force. In the mid-19th century, Iligh also had competition for control of the Western Saharan trade in the form of the Bayrukh shaykhs, of Wad Noun to the south, who were also assiduously developing international commercial relationships. A considerable scholarly production has survived, including rich

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archives, and much has been written about Iligh. Through the efforts of Paul Pascon and others, historians now have access to the key archives of Iligh, and the role of the Tazerwalt in Saharan trade is fairly clear. Those interested should begin with Justinard (1954), mukhtar alsûsî’s multivolume al-ma‘sûl or his brief synthetic book Iligh qadimân wa-Hadîthan, and the works of Paul Pascon (e.g., Pascon 1984). mukhtar al-sûsî’s works provide copious details about the origins of Iligh and its relations with the makhzan and other zâwiyas, such as that of dilâ’, a discussion of its trade networks, and a vast amount of detail on individuals linked to Iligh as well as biographical information on all the key figures of Iligh. The work by Pascon and his collaborators, by contrast, focuses on illuminating the sources of wealth and power through careful analysis of archival records held for centuries in Iligh. Industry. The Ministère de l’Industrie, du Commerce, de l’Energie et des Mines monitors and regulates the Moroccan industrial sector. Since 1976, it has conducted exhasutive surveys of all transformative enterprises employing more than ten people or having annual business greater than or equal to 100,000 DH. The ministry also produces a set of annual weighted indices of all industrial production based on departmental data, data from other ministries, and surveys of a large sample of representative firms. These indices (table 6) indicate that overall industrial growth has been strong—growing at 2.82 percent per year between 1992 and 2000. Not all sectors have been equally strong, with a few such as textiles and lingerie (0.25 percent) and metal products (1 percent) being particularly weak while others such as clothing (4.17), office products, paper products (6 percent), and basic food industry products (3.85 percent) have been particularly strong. A closer look at the figures suggests that in the case of office products the vast bulk of this growth has been since 1998, which, if continued, may be indicative of major growth rates in the white-collar parts of the service and financial sectors. Economists now recognize that growth in different sectors has different long-term multiplier impacts, but little can be said on this score without a more detailed analytical approach (see Economy).

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Table 6. Indices of Industrial Production by Sector. Base year 1992 = 100. weight 1997 1998 7.4 120.3 126.6 Basic food industry products Other food industry products 10.01 110.9 121.6 Drinks and tobacco 6.49 108.6 117.1 Textiles and lingerie 11.33 95.9 97.3 Clothing (excluding shoes) 9.04 139.7 147.5 Leather and leather goods 2.04 122.8 114.1 Wood and products mad of 2.07 103.7 105.4 wood Paper and paper products 3.69 126.8 128.4 including printing Construction materials, e.g., 10.82 119.9 114.0 stone, plaster, etc. Basic metals industry 2.19 122.3 121.0 Metal products industry 6.08 103.0 100.5 Machine and equipment industry 1.94 102.2 103.4 Transportation materials 4.06 111.2 116.6 Electrical and electronic 3.42 112.5 115.8 products Office products, measuring, 0.21 101.7 102.0 optical, and clocks Chemical and chemically 15.09 118.5 120.0 derived products Rubber and plastics products 2.97 120.4 122.2 Other industrial manufactures 0.14 120.1 109.7 Overall Indices 100.0 115.1 117.9

1999 127.0 125.0 116.3 98.4 142.1 112.2 106.2

2000 135.3 131.1 120.8 102.0 138.7 114.1 110.8

135.1 148.2 117.3 121.3 135.0 105.4 109.2 120.3 126.4

135.3 109.0 120.3 125.5 127.1

136.9 159.6 125.7 130.0 127.7 126.3 108.6 111.7 120.7 124.9

Note: Overall industrial growth, 1992-2000, corresponds to an annual rate of 2.82 percent. Source: Annuaire Statistique du Maroc 2001:172. Institut Royal de la Culture Amazighe (IRCAM). IRCAM was created by decree by Mohammed VI on 17 October 2001 at Ijdir, Khénifra to promote Amazigh (Berber) culture as an integral part of the national heritage. The institute is part of the modern societal and democratic project of Mohammed VI, whose intent is to strengthen national identity and its linguistic and cultural values. The king named Mohamed Chafik, an Amazigh, as the first rector of the Institut. A

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provisional commission for the Institut was composed of Abdelaziz Meziane Belfkih, the king’s advisor; Mohamed Rochdi Chraibi, director of the Royal Cabinet; Hassan Aourid, official spokesman of the Royal Palace; and Abdelouahab Benmansour, Royal Historian. The commission was created to propose to the king the members of the first IRCAM Administrative Council and to take all the necessary administrative and financial steps to launch the institute. One of the first recommendations of IRCAM was the adoption of the Tifinagh alphabet as the alphabet of Amazigh, and this was accepted by Mohammed VI. IRCAM is currently working on the introduction of the language in primary education in Morocco, compiling school dictionaries, children’s books, and school grammar books. The introduction of Amazigh in Morocco’s schools began in the autumn of 2003. IRCAM is also fighting for a more effective integration of the language within the public media. On 28 June 2003, King Mohammed VI appointed the first Conseil d’administration of IRCAM, which comprised Mohamed Chafik as rector and Hussein Moujahid as secrétaire général of the Institut. Other members include twenty-five people from various professions and seven members who represent different administrations involved with the institute; these currently are Mohieddine Hamzazi: Gouverneur directeur des études et des analyses, representing the ministry of interior; Abdellatif Bencherifa: rector of Université Moulay Ismail in Meknès, representing the rectors of the universities; Said Belkadi: directeur de la recherche scientifique et de la coopération universitaire, representing the Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur, de la Formation des Cadres et de la Recherche Scientifique; Slimane Chekdali: directeur de l’académie régionale, d’éducation et de la formation de Settat, representing the directors of the regional educational and professional academies; Salah Benyamna: Directeur de l’appui pédagogique, representing the ministry of national education; Mohammed Abderrahim: Directeur des études de la planification et de la documentation, representing the communication sector; and Ali Amhane: head of the cabinet of the minister of culture (et de la communication), representing the cultural sector. The first issue of the Inymisen n Usinag (Notices from the Institut), the weekly bulletin issued by IRCAM, appeared in July 2003 in Arabic and French. The rector of IRCAM, Mohammed Chafik, is the director of the bulletin, and M. Jilali Saib is in charge of its publication. The IRCAM scientific committee includes Boudris Belaïd, Ahmed Boukouss, El Houssaïn El Moujahid, Mohammed Hammam, El Houssaïn Ouaazi, M’Hamed Sallou, and Lahbib Zenkouar. Islamist groups active in Morocco. A large number of groups centered around an Islamic identity may be found in Morocco. Many that are actively political and a few that are deliberately not are included in this section. Many of these groups took over the revolutionary niche occupied by leftist movements in the 1960s and early 1970s when the

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violent paths of the latter manifestly failed to bring about major changes. It is worth noting that the salafiya was a reform movement begun in Egypt and founded by Mohammad ‘Abduh in the 19th century that advocated reform and that “salafiya” combines the idea of honorable forebears (salaf SâliH) as well as the idea of a loan or cash advance that could be seen as an investment in the future (see also Political parties). The following Islamist subentries for key movements should, at least initially, be read in the order presented. jamâ‘at al-tablîgh wa-l-da‘wa ilâ allâh (community of transmission and invitation to God). This is one of the largest missionary movements of Islam founded in India by muHammad ilyas alkând halwî. Nicknamed ‘Jehovah’s witnesses of Islam,’ its followers proselytize via al-khurûj, or ‘going out,’ by making door-to-door visits in a given neighborhood to bring Muslims back to practice their religion. The movement started in Morocco in 1964 when it opened its first office in the country and chose muHammad al-Hamdâwî as its religious leader. It was officially recognized as an association by the Moroccan government on 6 July 1975. The legalization of a wing of jamâ‘at al-tablîgh wa-lda‘wa ilâ allâh in Morocco is often interpreted as signaling the intention of the government to counterattack Nasser’s PanArabism and stress Morocco’s religious ties with the rest of the Islamic world. al-Hamdâwi was born in Boulemane in 1935, finished his studies at the qarawîyîn mosque in Fès, and became a teacher. He joined the missionary movement in 1962 and met the amîr of jamâ‘at al-tablîgh wa-l-da’wa ilâ allâh, al-sheikh muhammad yusuf. al-Hamdâwî remained the leader of al-tablîgh wa-l-da’wa ilâ allâh until his death on 19 March 1987 when he was replaced by al-shaykh al-bashîr al-yûnusî. The movement’s primary objective is religious, and it claims to disengage from any political activity. Islamic practice for the jamâ‘a is said to be sufism, seen as the only road to God, and it stresses the following six principles outlined by muHammad ilyâs: 1) al kalima alTayîba: lâ ilâh illâ allâh wa-muHammad rasûl allâh [reciting the phrase “there is no god but God and muHammed is his prophet”], 2) iqâmat al-Salât (saying prayers), 3) al-‘ilm wa-l-dhikr (knowledge and memorization), 4) ikrâm kulu muslim (honoring all muslims), 5) al-ikhlâS (devotion), and 6) al-nafar fî sabîl allâh (being a soldier on God’s road). Many observers think, however, that the movement has diverged from its goals and has been a tool for radical Islam. Ahmed Rafiki, alias abû Hudayfa, a former nurse, is believed to be one of its main supporters. Ahmed Rafiki, also known as sheikh al-afghân al-maghâriba, is a former combattant in the Afghan war and has also participated after 1989 in the wars between the different Afghan factions. He was arrested and sent to ‘ayn barja prison after being accused of forming a criminal organization. This association is a group of wahhâbî Islamists who have their

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headquarters at al-nûr mosque in Casablanca. This association is also believed to be linked to al-râbiTa al-jihâdiya, which opposes Muslim regimes that it considers to be infidel ones. Harakat al-shabîba al-islâmiya (movement of Islamic youth). Founded in 1969 by abd al-karîm muTî‘ (Mottei) and kamâl ibrâhîm, this clandestine association was created to counter the Marxist leftists. The association was accepted by the government during the 1960s because of the general political situation at the time involving the rise of leftist movements and the threat of Nasserism. The birth of the new left and the spread of Nasserism led to the growth of al-shabîba from its foundation by Mottei in 1969 to the end of 1975. The organization managed to avoid a state ban by establishing a ‘legal’ association. They presented a legal application to the authorities stressing the religious and educational aspect of the association, that it had no relationship to politics and that its methodology relied on Islamic education. alshabîba also stressed its objective to fight the Marxist leftist teachings especially with regard to nonbelief in God. This suggested that Mottei and the government had similar objectives, but in practice Mottei followed a different strategy in that he stressed the jâhiliya nature of the political system (borrowing from the ideas of sayyid quTb, a member of the Muslim Brotherhood executed in Egypt in 1966) and similarly relied on an authoritarian discourse. This was appealing to many especially after the ban of al-ittiHâd al-waTanî li-Talbat al-maghrib in 1973. Harakat al-shabîba al-islâmiya consisted of two wings: the da‘wa wing and the jihâd wing. The da‘wa (civil) wing involved building Harakat al-shabîba al-islâmiya as a structure that had its roots in society. This wing consisted of five shu‘ab (departments): shu‘bat al-asâtidha (teachers), shu‘bat al-mu‘alîmîn (scholars), shu‘bat altalâmîdh (students), shu‘bat al-‘umâl (workers), and shu‘bat alHirafiyîn (professionals). Each shu‘ba was composed of a group of ’usar (families). Each ’usra was headed by a naqîb and the sum of nuqabâ’ al-’usar formed a council called the majlis jamâ‘at alnuqabâ,’ which was headed by a raqîb under the authority of the amîr al-shu‘aba. The Amirs [Arabic plural: umarâ’] of the five shu‘ab formed a further council under the authority of the amîr alHaraka (top Amir of the da‘wa wing). The jihâd wing or al-janâH al-jihâdî/al-janâH al-râdîkâlî almusalâH was organized on principles established by Hasan alBanna (1906-1949), a sufi thinker and Islamic activist of the Muslim Brotherhood, who also wanted a secret organization. Mottei made sure that both wings were separated and the jihâd wing was seen as the armed wing of al-shabîba al-islâmiya. This wing had a small group of Islamists led by ‘abd al-‘azîz alnu‘mâni, who has since been accused of killing Omar Benjelloun, leader of the USFP and director of the journal al-muHarrir, on 18 December 1975 in Casablanca (Benjelloun is thought to have been

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killed by a group also comprising aHmad sa‘d; muHammad mustaqîm; ‘ummar Halîm; Hasan jâbir; ‘ummar ‘uzukalâ; Hasan kindî; and aHmad shu‘ay). al-nu‘mâni, the presumed killer, was condemned for life. Early in 1980, ‘abd al-‘azîz al-nu‘mâni left the Haraka and Mottei established another military wing in September 1980 that he called faSîl al-jihâd. Its structure was based on the concept of al-katâ’ib (the regiment). The new wing’s objectives were to prepare for new military operations inside Morocco. By July 1985, two groups that belonged to faSîl al-jihâd were arrested. The first group of seventy-one was indicted and convicted in the summer of 1983; fifty-one of these were apprehended and twenty were not found but were condemned in absentia. Mottei himself was legally condemned to death on 31 July 1984. A second group of twentysix, whose members were arrested between 10 and 11 July 1985, were condemned in September 1985. Of these, seventeen members were apprehended and nine were not. Mottei (who was among those not found in both cases-he was believed to have sought refuge in Libya) received a second death sentence in absentia. Before the death of Benjelloun, the government realized that the danger of the Haraka had to be contained so they used bahâ’ al-dîn al-amîrî, a Syrian refugee in Morocco who worked as an advisor in the royal cabinet, under the cover of a professor in dâr al-Hadîth al-Hasaniya. He was asked to study Mottei and his movements. al-amîrî used his experience with the Muslim Brotherhood (al-ikhwân al-muslimîn) and acquaintance with security systems run by Arab leaders to have one of his daughters join al-janâH al-niswî li-Harakat al-shabîba al-islâmiya to help him gather information about the male and female wings of the Harakat. al-amîrî also organized meetings between Mottei, kamâl ibrâhîm, and many government personalities to offer Mottei and his followers opportunities to change their behavior. When this did not work, the government had recourse to imprisoning Mottei on many occasions. This seems to have pushed his movement to commit the murder, which justified the state’s more severe crackdown on the movement. It is instructive that Omar Benjelloun was himself an opponent of the state who had been frequently imprisoned and although amnestied in 1965 was once himself condemned to death (1963). al-jamâ‘a al-islâmiya (Islamic community). Founded in 1981 by a group of Islamists including muHammad yatîm, Abdelilah Benkirane, and ‘abd allâh bâha, former adherents of the alshabîba al-islâmiya who did not leave the country after the trial of September 1980 that resulted in the condemnation of Mottei. aljamâ‘at islâmiya was also inspired by Mottei’s publication of majalat al-mûjahid in March 1981, in which he criticized Morocco’s political power and its foundations in the country. al-

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jamâ‘at al-islâmiya called for an Islamic social and political agenda and denounced all forms of violence. The group also stressed its adherence to moderation. The group was led by muHammad yatîm between 1981 and 1985 who was then replaced by Abdelilah Benkirane. al-jamâ‘a tried through many letters to the Royal Cabinet (November 1985), to the Ministre de l’intérieur (17 March 1986), and to the king (12 October 1987) to obtain official recognition. The founders of al-jamâ‘a al-isâmiya started a weekly publication titled al-iSlâH in 1984. In 1988, the leaders of al-jamâ‘a made the decision to try to legitimize the movement by entering politics. al-iSlâH wa-l-tajdîd (reform and renewal). Founded by a group of aljamâ‘a al-islâmiya (Abdelilah Benkirane, yatîm, and sa‘d al-din al-‘uthmânî) who changed the name of al-jamâ‘a in 1992 to aliSlâH wa-l-tajdîd. The new name was considered preferable because it did not have the connotation of an exclusive claim to being Islamic and because the new group could have a new direction: muHammad yatîm became the head during the fourth general assembly in July 1994. The new group tried to get authorization to form a political party but were unsuccessful. They then tried to interest the istiqlâl in allowing them to join as a group but were rebuffed. Finally at a congress of the MPDC (2 July 1996) their formal association with the MPDC was approved. al-tawHîd wa-l-iSlaH (unity and reform). An outcome of an agreement between al-iSlâH wa-l-tajdîd and râbiTat al-mustakbal al-islâmî in 1996, al-tawHîd wa-l-iSlaH is a social and religious movement that sees a compatibility between democracy and Islam. Based in Rabat, the movement is very active throughout the country. Its executive body includes a number of prominent figures: aHmad al-raysûnî; ‘abd allâh bahâ; aHmad al-‘umârî; Abdelilah Benkirane; ‘abd al-nâSar al-tîjânî; muHammad amnâs; muHammad ‘az al-dîn tawfîq; al-amîn bukhabza; ‘abd al-razâq almrûrî; muHammad al-Hamdâwî; muHammad yatîm; aHmad almashtâlî; and sa‘d al-din al-‘uthmânî. In 1998, the association reelected aHmad al-raysûnî as its leader and they merged two papers, jarîdat al-râya [banner] and jarîdat al-SaHwa [awakening], into one single publication called al-tajdîd [renewal]. râbiTat al-mustakbal al-islâmî (union of the Islamic future). Established on 4 April 1994, active mainly in Ksar El-Kébir, râbiTat al-mustakbal al-islâmî is a regional religious organization that adopts a moderate Islamic discourse. râbiTat is the result of a fusion between three smaller Islamic organizations. The first, jam‘iya al-da‘wa al-islâmiya (in Fès), was established in 1976 by ‘abd al-salâm al-harâs to provide islamic education in order to save society from corruption and delinquency. The second, aljam‘iya al-islâmiya (in Ksar El-Kébir) was established in 1976 by ahmad al-raysûnî and had a somewhat different focus. The third,

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jam‘iyat al-shurûq al-islâmiya, was established in 1986 by some of the former members of Harakat al-shabîba al-islâmiya who quit that organization in 1978 and focused their attention on Islamic cultural work. The three associations shared a cultural rather than political focus and claim to eschew political Islam. In 1999, the executive bureau of râbiTa was composed of aHmad alraysûnî; aHmad al-‘umârî; ‘abd al-nâSar al-tîjânî; al-mufaDâl alghalwâtî; muHamad al-Habîb al-tijkânî; Hasan al-imrânî; muHammad al-rûkî; ‘abd al-salâm balâjî; anas gdîra; farîd alanSârî; and riDwân banshaqrûn. al-badîl al-HaDârî (the civilized alternative). A political association closely linked to the PJD, al-badîl al-HaDârî was created on 22 October 1995. The majority of its members are former members of Harakat al-shabîba al-islâmiya. kamâl ibrâhim, the former second man in the Harakat al-shabîba al-islâmiya is its spiritual leader. al-badîl al-HaDârî publishes a monthly newspaper, al-jisr (the bridge). The elected officers include muHammad al-amîn; almuSTafâ al-mu‘taSim; al-Hasan maqdâd; muSTafâ al-mas‘ûdî; muHammad al-‘ayâdî; zahîra abrînî; muHammad lamsâyal; su‘âd al-fîlâlî al-ghurfî; muSTafâ al-ghâshî; wafâ’ al-sharqâwî; and HafîZa bûjîda. The founding manifesto supports a socialist Islam. al-muSTafâ al-mu‘taSim, al-badîl al-HaDârî’s vice president, has openly regretted in the media the killing of Omar Benjelloun by some Islamists and has called for Mottei to stop the practices of the 1970s and 1980s. al-Haraka min ajli al-umma (movement for the Islamic community). This movement is the product of a splinter within al-badîl alHaDârî. Its founder is Mohamed Marouani. For Marouani, the role of the movement should focus on the the education of society with a focus on the principles of Islamic teachings. usrat al-jamâ‘a (families of the community). This group was created in September 1981 by three major adherents of the zâwiya albûtshishiya; Abdeslam Yassine, Mohamed Mellakh, and Alaoui Slimani. Abdellah Chibani and Abdelouahed Moutawakil later joined the group. The Islamic project of usrat al-jamâ‘a is to be implemented through spiritual preaching and pedagogy. jam‘iyat al-jamâ‘a (community organization). Founded in September 1982 by Abdeslam Yassine, Abdelouahed Moutawakil, and Mohamed Bachiri, the association preached an Islamic project using social activism and struggle to achieve a political existence within the Moroccan political space. On 15 October 1982, the government refused to grant official recognition to the association on the grounds that it mixed religion and politics. After that Yassine founded a third association called jam‘iyat al-jamâ‘a alkhayriya on 29 March 1983. jamâ‘at al-‘adl wa-l-iHsân (community of justice and charity). With Yassine as its spiritual leader, this movement took a radical slant and maintained that any political change must be done through

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transformation of the political structure of the country. For Yassine, Islam and Western civilization are incompatible. In his book, Hiwâr ma‘â al-fuDalâ’ al-dimuqrâTiyîn-“Conversations with the Learned Democrats” (1994), Yassine writes that either peaceful or violent means can lead to al-SaHwa (awakening) and al-qawma (révolution). He does not designate any particular action, but he implies the reader must choose. He warns both against waiting for too long, which might be disastrous for the movement, and against precipitous action which could be suicidal for the Islamists. 30 December 1989, brought a political embargo for Yassine and a ban of the association in January 1990. The leaders, the majlis al-irshâd, were arrested on 13 January 1990. These included muHammad al-mutawakkil al-sulaymânî, fatH allâh arsalân, muHammad bashîrî, muHammad al-‘abâdî, Abdelouahed Moutawakil (the husband of nâdya yâsîn), and ‘abd allâh alshaybânî . Each was sentenced to two years in jail. jund allâh (God’s army). This is a small armed group active within student populations that is entirely clandestine in its operations. Its leaders are not known. jund allâh are thought to be heavily present in the university milieu of Casablanca, Fès, Oujda, and Marrakech. Its militants preach violence. al-mujâhidûn (the mujahideen). A clandestine radical islamic movement, its supporters call for the establishment of an Islamic state. Many prisoners during the 1984 riots of Fès and Nador who were part of al-mujâhidûn are still detained in the civil prison of Kénitra. al-Tarîqa al-bûtshishiya (the path of the bûtshishiya zawiya). The founder of this religious brotherhood is located in Madar near Berkane. al-shaykh sidi Hamza al-qâdirî al-bûtshîshî is considered in Morocco and many other countries as ‘a living mystic’ and the authentic representative of a living tradition of sufism. Unlike many religious brotherhoods, al-Tarîqa al-bûtshishiya is managed as an association. It has a high capacity for mobilization but its role seems limited to mystical practices. In each district, its fuqarâ’ meet two to three times per week under the leadership of a muqadam, a venerable faqîr (mystic); to pray and read the qur’an. jam‘iât al-shî‘a. See Hani, Idris. salafiya al-wahhâbiya. Also called salafiya klâsîkiya, this group was introduced to Morocco centuries ago, during the reign of Moulay Slimane (1792-1822). taqî al-dîn al-hilâlî, one of its major figures, was born in the region of sijilmâsa in 1893. He memorized the qur’an and left for Algeria at the age of 20 where he remained about seven years studying with sheikh al-fâTimî al-sharrâdî sidi bn laHbîb al-shingîtî. The ideas of sheikh muHammad bn al-‘arbî al-‘alawî, however, motivated him to switch his interest from tijânî salafism to wahhâbî salafism. In 1921, al hilâlî moved to Cairo where he met rashîd ridâ. Then, he travelled to India and

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took classes from sheikh ‘abd al-raHmân bn ‘abd al-raHîm lambarkî al-wardî. Afterwards he moved to Saudi Arabia where King ‘abd al-‘aziz appointed him to oversee the teachers of almasjid al-nabawî. Later he became the dean of Arab literature at a college in India. In Geneva he met shakîb arsalân, who introduced him to the University of Bonn where he studied Arabic literature. In 1940, al-hilâlî received a diploma of higher education in German linguistics. In 1942, he returned to Morocco where he stayed in the Spanish zone, and in 1944 he became the head of the Bibliothèque Moulay Hassan in Tétouan. There he published the revue lisân al-dîn and worked as correspondent for the journal of the Muslim brotherhood of Hassan Al Banna of Egypt. In 1947, al-hilâlî moved to Iraq to teach Arabic literature and Rhetoric at the University of Baghdad until 1959 when he returned to join University Mohammed V. In 1968, he returned to Saudi Arabia to teach at al-jami‘a al-islâmiya until 1974. al-hilâlî came back to Morocco and preached in many mosques in Casablanca. He died on 22 June 1987. al-maghrâwî, the leader of jam‘iyat al-da‘wa ilâ al-qur’ân wa-l-sunna is generally seen as the new leader of the movement. After the invasion of Kuwait and the introduction of American forces into Saudi Arabia, a split within the group developed, which led to the formation of al-salafiya al-jihâdiya, which considers the Arab governments that cooperate with American forces infidels and calls for jihad against both. al-salafîya al-jihâdiya (the Salafiya of Jihad). Unlike al-salafiya al-wahhâbiya, this group has refused to work in alliance with any political party and has refused all state support. In particular they feel that Islamist parties that participate in parliament (i.e., the Parti Justice et Développement) are collaborators. They are distinct from al-takfîr wa-l-hijra in the sense that their followers do not see the hijra (leaving then returning) as a necessary step in their jihad against the infidels. A small group inspired by Abdelkrim Chadli, whom his disciples call abû ‘ubayda, alsalafiya al-jihâdiya calls for jihâd against all those it considers heretics. Without organized structure, it is thought to support itself via banditism, crime, and theft. Bendaoud El Khili, one of its executive leaders, who limits dâr al-islâm (or proper Islam) to his movement and his disciples is one of the most radical members of the movement. al-salafiya al-jihâdiya has appropriated the ideology of other islamic movements, including that of al-takfîr wa-l-hijra, the Taliban, and others. However, its principles are spelled out in a work of Abou Omar Ben Mahmoud, widely known abû qatâda. In al-jihâd wa-l-ijtihâd: mulâHaZât Hawla almanhajîya’ (Jihad and Independent Judgement: considerations about procedure) abû qatâda argues for rejecting Western powers, every democratic idea, and adherence to the fight against Western despotism. Some of his followers clearly state their denunciation

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of the United States and support of usâma bn lâdan (Osama bin Laden). jamâ‘at al-SirâT al-mustaqîm (community of the straight path). This group emerged onto the islamic scene in Morocco after the arrest of its leader Miloudi Zakaria, who was apprehended for his killing of Youssef Kerdoudi “as an infidel” on 24 February 2002 in Douar Sekouila, Sidi Moumen. The movement has produced two groups: one directed by Zakaria Miloudi and another by Youssef Fikri. Miloudi is thought to be the leader of the movement. Born in Casablanca in 1970, he comes from a poor family background. After being educated by salafists, he became active in the slums of Rhamna and ahl-laghlâm. His ideology seems to be inspired by the writings of Chadli of al-salafiya al-jihâdiya. The followers of Miloudi are also thought to be involved in the events of 16 May 2003. The group headed by Youssef Fikri, who was recently condemned to death for his responsibility in the terrorists attacks of 16 May 2003, began establishing small armed groups of five persons under his control in 1998. Fikri was born in Safi in 1978, and his followers are usually from slums and have little if any educational background. After a irregular movement between Youssoufia, Nador, Agadir, Tanger, Ben Slimane, Fès, and Meknès, Fikri settled in Casablanca where he met Mohamed Damir, alias abû al-Hârith, considered a dangerous criminal by the police. On 24 July 2002, Fikri was arrested by the police in Tanger. From his prison cell, he described, in an article published in the newspaper Al Ayam on 17 April 2003, his holy war against the infidels. For Fikri, the killing of Omar El Farrak in Youssoufia and others in other cities in the country is justified by the shari‘a. On 12 July 2003 the criminal court of Casablanca sentenced Youssef Fikri, Mohamed Damir, and other members (Salah Zarli, Abderrazak Fouzi, Kamal Hanouch, Bouchaib Karmage, Lakbir Katoubi, Bouchaib Maghdar, Omar Maarouf, and Larbi Dakik) of the salafia aljihâdia to death. The followers of al-SirâT al-mustaqîm are convinced that the killings of nonbelievers including nonpracticing Muslims (though generally seen as prohibited by Islam) is justified. For them, impious institutions have no legitimacy so theft and drug trafficking are legitimate as long as some of the revenues go to the cause of the movement. Because it is not based upon an elaborate theory and calls state authority into question, the movement is thought to be attractive to delinquents. The members of al-SirâT al-mustaqîm follow a very rudimentary and unsophisticated version of Islam although they regard themselves as part of altakfîr wa-l-hijra. al-takfîr wa-l-hijra (atonement and pilgrimage). A radical salafiya movement, al-tafkîr wa-l-hijra is thought to be based in the slums of Casablanca, Salé, Tanger, Nador, Oujda, Fès, and Marrakech.

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The term refers to many small groups without any central planning. The group considers Morocco an infidel state to be emigrated from [for soul cleansing] before returning to fight the infidels. The group was founded in the 1990s by its leaders alkhamlî dâoud who founded the group in Douar Sekouila and then left with his followers to the region of Nador. al-khamli has a baccalauréat in Modern Letters. He was first captured in the middle of the 1990s and spent a period in jail before being released to “migrate to Nador.” There he sold herbs and religious tapes. He declared the Moroccan administration and the people who use any official legal papers infidels. He also founded a society which he called al-jamâ‘a al-mu’mina. He was arrested by the gendarmerie royale in the region of Nador. His ideological ties are salafist. They are influenced by the writings of the Egyptian Islamist Mustpha Choukri, who is believed to be the ideologue of the group al-takfîr wa-l-hijra. The ideology promoted claims Morocco is a corrupt state, and many followers have apparently migrated (e.g., to Afghanistan prior to the U.S. conquest) to places considered properly pious. The leaders have a tendency to preach in an Arabic the poorly educated members have difficulty understanding, using obscure and medieval references, which they use as linguistic indicators of their erudition and holiness. This is thought to facilitate an authoritarian style from which they can gain unquestioning obedience and support. ahl al-sunna wa-l-jamâ‘a (family of the sunna and the community). The theoreticians of ahl al-sunna wa-l-jamâ‘a belong to the traditional salafiya movement. Like many fundamentalists they are opposed to any interpretation of the text that goes beyond a literal one and they lack the linguistic sophistication to realize this is an impossibility. Among these figures Mohamed al-Fizazi (Tanger), abû HafS (Fès), and Hamza al-katânî are distinguished by their strong sermons. muHammad ‘abd al-wahhâb al-rafîqî, alias abû HafS, was born in 1974. He obtained his B.A. from the shari‘a college in Medina, Saudi Arabia, and a diploma of higher education from the Université de Fès. Abou Hafs was an imam in the mosque of the al-barkânî neighborhood in Fès. He was condemned to six months of prison on 8 May 2002 by the tribunal de première instance of Fès for his critical sermons about the government. He was also indicted for inciting people to violence. In his discourse, he has consistently advocated jihad for a free Palestine and has been very critical of the United States and Arab leaders including Yasser Arafat, whom he labelled a traitor to the Palestinian movement. Hassan al-kattânî was born in Salé and received a master’s in fiqh and uSûl from jama‘iyat ahl al-bayt in Jordan in 1999. He also studied in Saudi Arabia. al-kattânî is from a famous family and is related to ‘ali al-kattânî, a famous scholar of solar energy

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and one of the founders of jami‘at qurTuba al-islâmiya. He is one of the young imams who have a wide influence in Salé, Rabat, and Casablanca. On 26 September 2003, Rafiki and al-kattânî were sentenced respectively to thirty and twenty years in prison by the procureur général de la cour criminelle de Casablanca for being the ideologues of the salafiya al-jihâdiya and for being responsible for the events of 16 May 2003. This entire group is sometimes believed to be part of the salafiya al-jihâdiya, but Fizazi and abû HafS have always objected to this description. Zakaria Abougharara, alias abû sayf al-islâm, who is believed to be involved in the terrorists events of 16 May 2003 is however part of this movement. ahl al-sunna wa-l-jamâ‘a is at least ideologically linked to the international movement of jihad and terrorism but has generally escaped any control by states, including Saudi Arabia, and its leaders have frequently been supported, for example during the Russian war in Afghanistan, by scholars who wrote many fatwas calling on Muslims to engage in jihad. jam‘iyat al-da‘wa ilâ al-qur’ân wa-l-sunna (community of the call to the qur’an and the sunna). This association has its headquarters (called dûr al-qur’ân) in Marrakech and is under the direction of muHammad al-maghrâwî, a traditional wahhâbî from Tafilalet who received a salafi Islamic education in Morocco and Saudi Arabia. On 30 October 1993 a group of al-maghrâwî’s followers separated from jam‘iyat al-da‘wa ilâ al-qur’ân wa-l-sunna and founded another association, which they called jam‘iyat al-Hafîd bn ‘abd al-bâr. These separatists believe that al-maghrâwî does not have a clear educational vision and objective. Isly, Battle of. The river Isly is a small tributary of the Tafna whose only historical importance is that, due to it being an obstacle to east-west movement, battles have been fought near it. Although the Marinids fought there in 1250 and 1271, the most important battle was in the 19th century. The leader of the Algerian resistance to the French, amîr ‘abd al-qâdir, sought refuge in Morocco in November 1843 after being seriously defeated by the French in Algeria. In Morocco he was hailed as a hero but his asylum infuriated the French and led them to request his expulsion on 15 June 1844. When the sultan (mawlây ‘abd al-raHmân) rejected the ultimatum, the French decided a demonstration of military superiority was called for. To this end they bombarded Morocco’s two most prominent ports, Tanger and Essaouira, on 9 and 15 August . In Mogador almost 200 were killed and some 130 taken prisoner to Oran (Schroeter 1988:119). Carried away by a rush of machismo, General Bugeaud decided not to wait for the result of the bombardments, defied orders, and crossed the border at Wad Isly with 11,000 men to engage a sizable Moroccan

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force (estimated by Bugeaud at 25,000) led by sîdî muHammad (who became sultan on the eve of the Tétouan War). Bugeaud’s forces crushed the Moroccan army at the Battle of Isly on 14 August 1844. The outcome of this chauvinistic aggression was a FrancoMoroccan Convention in Tanger (10 September 1844) where Morocco agreed not to shelter ‘abd al-qâdir (to treat him as an outlaw). In Morocco there were widespread rural rebellions, based on the failure of the makhzan to stand up to foreign powers. The aggression established a new era in which foreign powers increasingly felt able to breach Morocco’s sovereignty and then demand compensation from Morocco for any real or imagined resistance to their actions or disrespect of their policies of aggression. Despite a brief period of success in 1847, the amîr was eventually cornered by Moroccan and French troops and surrendered on 23 December 1847, ending up in exile in Damascus after five years of incarceration in France. Morocco turned to Great Britain for support against French aggression and Britain obtained assurances from France that even if Algerian troops were to pursue rebels into Morocco no Moroccan territory would be claimed. ‘iyâD bn mûsâ. One of the great personages of the Almoravid period, ‘iyâD bn mûsâ bn ‘iyâD bn ‘amrûn al-yaHSubî al-sabtî al-qâDî (1088-13 October 1149) came from a prominent Ceuta family of Yemeni origin. His grandfather (‘amrûn) left Fès and established the family in Ceuta. There, as a member of an elite family, ‘iyâd bn mûsâ studied with many people and in 1113 went to Spain to complete his studies. He never made a pilgrimage to the East, but by 1122 had been made qâDî in his native Ceuta, and in 1136 he briefly served as qâDî in Granada. He was discharged for being too strict and only regained the post of qâDî, again in Ceuta, in 1145. When the Almohads conquered Ceuta in 1146, he and most elites too strongly linked to the Almoravids were dismissed and most were exiled. ‘iyâD bn mûsâ was sent to the rural Tadla and then to forced residence in Marrakech where he died in 1149. Although qâDî ‘iyâD’s renown was primarily as a mâlikî jurist, he wrote at least one work of great significance to historians. This was his tartîb al-madârik wa-taqrîb al-masâlik bi-ma‘rifat a‘lâm madhhab mâlik. This work is an argued case for the mâlikî legal tradition illustrated with many biographies including biographies of people critical to the Almoravid tradition such as ‘abd allâh bn yasîn al-jazûlî and abû ‘imrân al-ghafjûmî al-fâsî. In his biographical entry on ‘abd allâh bn yasîn, qâDî ‘iyâd also mentions having written a specifically historical work, kitâb al-ta’rîkh, but this is apparently lost (Norris 1971:257).

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-JJamaï, Aboubakr. Born 5 February 1968 in Rabat, Jamaï has been the director of publication and production for Le Journal and Assahifa since 1997. Jamaï studied at Lycée Moulay Youssef (Rabat), Institut supérieur de commerce et d’administrations des entreprises ISCAE (Casablanca) and Oxford University (England). He received a baccalauréat in mathematics, diplôme du cycle Normal (Option Finance), and master of business administration (Option Finance). Jamaï’s professional career started as an attaché de direction WafaBank (1993). He also served as administrateur-fondateur for UPLINE Securities between 1994 and1996, economic and financial consultant to the secrétariat executif of the Sommet Economique du Moyen Orient et de l’Afrique du Nord (1996-1997), and was an associate founder of the Media Trust SARL. al-jaysh. In the Western Sahara, the term jaysh was regularly used, before the French pacification of the region, to refer to a small military band formed to ambush caravans. The term is a common Arabic word for army but, in the context of the Moroccan state, it was primarily used to designate an ethnic group obliged to provide military personnel to the sultan. In this sense it was pronounced (with hard “g”) “gîsh.” Morocco’s military regularly included contingents of jaysh (French: Guich), or tribes, who in return for certain tax exemptions and allocations of resources (land, livestock, salaries, tithes) were obliged to provide a given number of militarily equipped men for the sultan’s army. These jaysh groups were formed, assembled, or induced to provide military recruits for the sultan from the 17th to the 20th century. The inducements varied and in the later period often involved allocations of land obtained by the sultan through eminent domain or evictions of others, which because of their arguably illegal character are rarely discussed in detail by loyal chroniclers. Usually land allotments were in the vicinity of a capital or major city, primarily Marrakech, and gave rise to both military support and potential dissidence when the sultan appeared weak. Thus, quite often one tribe would be replaced by another either because of the latter’s greater expected loyalty or the former’s outright dissidence or because a new powerful tribe needed to be co-opted by a land allotment in order to secure its allegiance to the sultan. jazîrat laylâ (Leila/Tora/Persil). This small island (13.5 hectares) 200 meters off the coast of Ceuta was recently and briefly claimed by Spain despite a long history of control by Morocco and the complete absence of historical claims by Spain to the island. This attempt seems to have been precipitated by the establishment on the island by

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Morocco (11 July 2002) of a small coast-guard contingent to improve security as part of recent antiterrorism efforts. Spain responded (17 July 2002) by sending a force at 4 a.m. to capture the Moroccan guard and officially claim the island for Spain (the six Moroccans were returned to Morocco). A few days later (22 July 2002) a joint communiqué of the Moroccan and Spanish Foreign Ministries stated that the suzerainty of Morocco over the island that had prevailed prior to 2002 would henceforth continue to be respected. al-jaznâ’î, abû al-Hasan ‘alî. The author of an early Marinid chronicle (1365), kitâb zahrat al-âs fî binâ’ madînat fâs (Account of the myrtle flower in the foundation of the city of Fès), al-jaznâ’î’s life is little known. The zahrat al-âs deals primarily with the history of the city of Fès but also devotes attention to technology and fiqh. The historical details begin with the geography of the region, the arrival of the Berbers, and the legal status of Moroccan lands. Next the account describes the foundation of the city by Idris II and the various later additions. Details also include the names of religious functionaries and where they were employed. al-jazûlî, abû ‘abd allâh. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn ‘abd al-raHmân bn abî bakr bn sulaymân al-jazûlî al-samlâlî (c. 1400-1465), perhaps the most famous Moroccan mystic of the 15th or any other century, was the founder of the jazûlîya Tarîqa. A member of the Ait Guezoula and born among the ida u samlâl (c.1400), he studied in Fès, Azemour, and Tit (near Mazagan/El-Jadida) where he was introduced to the mysticism of al-shâdhilî. al-jazûlî then went on a Hajj to Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem that is said to have lasted forty years. On returning to Morocco he first went to Fès and wrote his treatise, dalâ’il al-khayrât (guides to good works), was initiated into the shâdhilîya order, and then went to a retreat to meditate for fourteen years. At the end of this period he settled in Safi and attracted such a large following that the governor had him expelled. al-jazûlî then called on God to punish Safi, and it was soon occupied by the Portuguese. al-jazûlî then settled in âfûghâl in the Chiadma-Haha region (east of Essaouira) where he died and was initially buried. At his death he is said to have had more than 10,000 disciples, but whether this is true or not, his teachings, and the jazûlîya sect, spread quickly, and many of the famous marabouts in the next century (in aqqa and dilâ’ for example) were influenced by his teaching, as was muHammad al-qâ’im, the founder of the Sa‘dian dynasty. Shortly after his death one of his disciples, ‘umar bn sulaymân al-shayaZmî (Chiadmi), known as al-sayyâf, began a rebellion and had al-jazûlî’s body disinterred and carried around with his army. al-sayyâf was killed in 890H (1485/6) and al-jazûlî’s body was reburied in âfûghâl. Seventy-seven years later the body was disinterred again and buried in Marrakech by mawlây abû al-‘abbâs aHmad al-a‘raj where his mausoleum still stands in riyâD al-‘arûs, and he is known as sîdî bn

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slîmân, a patron saint of Marrakech. Most of the current maraboutic traditions in Morocco claim some connection to al-jazûlî’s teachings. The few that do not derive mainly from the qadirîyîn or tîjanîyîn traditions. Jellal, Amal. Born 26 December 1946 in Rabat. After his high school degree from Lycee Moulay Youssef, Jellal attended the Faculté de Droit at Mohammed V University where he got a bachelor’s degree in private law, a master’s degree in business law in 1970, a master’s degree in social law in 1972, and Ph.D. in labor law in 1976. Jellal taught at the Faculté de Droit in Rabat, Ecole Nationale d’Administration in Rabat, the Institut Supérieur de Commerce et d’Administration des Entreprises (ISCAE) in Casablanca, and the military institute in Meknès. In 1977, he was elected head of the department of droit privé at the University of Rabat. In 1979, king Hassan II appointed him dean of the faculty of law and economics in Fès, and also a member of the Conseil des oulemas of Fès (council of scholars). In 1986, he was elected president of the Fès-Saiss Association for cultural, social, and economic development. In 1991, Jellal was appointed president of the Université de Fès, where he led the project of partnering the university with other economic and social players in the region and also internationally. In 1999, King Mohammed VI appointed him governor of the region of FèsBoulemane. Jellal is currently teaching Ph.D. courses at the Faculté de Droit in Rabat. He holds many awards from universities around the world and was knighted (Ordre de Chavalier) by Hassan II and awarded the level of commandant by the president of France. Jellal has published on social security, workers liability insurance, children’s rights, and education. Jettou, Driss [idrîs jaTTû]. Born on 24 May 1945 at El-Jadida, Jettou took his secondary education at Al Khawarizmi Lycée, where he obtained his technical baccalauréat degree in mathematics. In 1964, he joined the Faculté des Sciences in Rabat where he graduated with a diploma in chemistry and physics in 1966. Jettou then earned a degree in business management from Cordwainers College in London (1968). Jettou worked in a variety of private firms. He was the president of the Fédération marocaine des industries du cuir (FEDIC) and vice president of the Association Marocaine des Exportateurs (ASMEX). On 11 November 1993, Jettou was named Ministre de commerce, de l’industrie et de l’artisanat. Jettou maintained this position until 17 July 1994, when his portfolio was expanded to Ministre de commerce, de l’industrie, de l’artisanat et du commerce extérieur. On 27 February 1995, Jettou became Ministre de commerce, de l’industrie, de l’artisanat, and on 13 August 1997, his portfolio became Ministre des finances, du commerce, de l’industrie et de l’artisanat, a position he kept until 14 March 1998. On 2 August 2001, Jettou became the president and director general of the Office Chérifien de Phosphate

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(OCP). On 19 September 2001, Jettou became minister of the interior in the alternating government headed by Abderrahmane Youssoufi, and on 7 September 2002, Jettou became prime minister. Jirari, Abbes. Born 15 February 1937 in Rabat, Jirari is an advisor to King Mohammed VI and a university professor. He studied at the Ecole de Fils de Notables de Rabat, the College Les Orangers de Rabat, Collège Moulay Youssef de Rabat, Université du Caire in Egypt, and La Sorbonne in Paris. He received a licence in literature (ès lettres) in 1961, M.A. in literature in 1965, and a doctorat d’état in literature in 1969. Jirari served as secrétaire des affaires étrangères at the Moroccan Embassy in Cairo in 1962 and as a professor at the Faculté des Lettres in Fès and Rabat since 1966. He was nominated by King Hassan II as a professor at the Collège Royal where he served between 1979 and 2000. Dean of the Faculté des Lettres de Marrakech in 1980, Jirari was khatib at the Mosquée Lalla Soukaina in Rabat between 1989 and December 2000, president of the Conseil Régional des Oulémas de Rabat-Salé between 1994 and December 2000, and chargé de mission au Cabinet Royal since 1 January 1999. Jirari was nominated by Mohammed VI as a royal advisor on 29 March 2000. Jirari has published works on Moroccan literature, cultural patrimony, Arabic and Islamic literature, Andalusian literature, and Moroccan culture. Judaeo-Arabic. In the Maghrib, Jewish populations within a few centuries of the Islamic conquest spoke an Arabic that was little different from that of their Muslim neighbors. It was, however, often written in a set of Hebraic characters somewhat different than those used in classical Hebrew. It is this written form of Arabic, and secondarily, the Arabic dialect spoken by Jews in Arabic-speaking countries, that is referred to as Judaeo-Arabic. Written documents tended to use a “cleaned up” form of the language in which some, but not all, of the mispronunciations of oral variations from classical Arabic were corrected. In addition, after the exodus from Spain at the end of the 15th century, many written documents include commercial and other terminology derived from Spanish. The Judaeo-Arabic documents in the 19th century, at least, also generally use the Hebrew calendar. Historically, it is worth noting that important scholarly works would have been seen as appropriately written in Hebrew only in the last five to six centuries. Prior to this time Judaeo-Arabic in its local form would have been used both for mundane commercial transactions as well as for more literary, religious, or philosophical texts, the works of Maimonides (1135-1204) in Andalusia being perhaps the best known. (See also Religion). Judaeo-Berber. Until recently there were many Berber-speaking Jewish communities in Morocco. It is unclear how far back such communities date, but it could be as much as two millennia. Berber was not only

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spoken but written, in a Hebraic script. Written Judaeo-Berber was used for many purposes including religious texts, biblical translations, and festive songs. With Hebrew, Judaeo-Berber was the language of instruction and culture in many communities, such as those of Tiznit, Ouarzazat, Ufran (Anti-Atlas), and Ilîgh. Jewish communities in the southern periphery of Morocco began to be abandoned in the 19th century and, along with most smaller Jewish communities in Morocco, ceased to exist after the period from 1948 to 1962. At the beginning of the 19th century, trade required local contacts and protectors and this empowered the scattered Jewish communities, but by late in the century the best protection was obtained through acquiring protected status from foreign consuls, and this, and other reasons, led many Jewish merchants to relocate to the coastal cities where Judaeo-Arabic was far more useful than Judaeo-Berber. Julien, Charles André. Born on 2 September 1891 in Caen (Calvados), Julien went to Algeria in 1906 when his father was appointed to Oran and early in his life became a socialist (age 18) and even served briefly as the secretary of Jean Jaurès (a professor of history at Toulouse, politician, ardent socialist, and anticolonialist) before the latter’s assassination (1914). Julien began teaching in Algeria where he became a passionate observer of the colonial process. Despite meeting Lenin and Trotsky as well as many other communist luminaries, Julien decided to leave the communist party in 1926 to devote himself to history. He took a position as professor of history and geography at the Janson-de-Sailly lycée (1926-1932), the Montaigne lycée (1936-1945), and during the occupation also at lycée Condorcet. Julien was given a position as professor of Histoire de la colonisation at the Ecole Nationale de la France d’Outre-mer (1946-1947), the Institut d’Etudes Politiques de Paris (1946-1948), and then at the Ecole Nationale d’Administration. Julien was one of the founders of the Faculté des Lettres in Rabat where he was a Doyen honoraire and also held the position of professeur honoraire at the Faculté des Lettres at the Sorbonne in Paris. During WWII he served as Secrétaire général du Haut Comité Méditerranéen et de l’Afrique du Nord auprès de la présidence du Conseil (1936-1939), and after WWII he was elected, as a member of the socialist party, to the national assembly (1947-1958). Julien played a significant role in Moroccan independence and helped end the exile of Mohammed V. Yet he resigned in October 1961 from his position as Doyen de la faculté des lettres in Rabat in protest against government policies he felt would be deleterious to the future of Moroccan society. Despite this stint as a politician and his personal acquaintance with most of the key figures in North African independence movements (including Mehdi Ben Barka), Julien remained primarily a historian and only secondarily an activist. He directed the collection Pays d’outre-mer for the Presses Universitaires de France (from 1946 on), was a codirector of Jeune Afrique’s collection Les Africains (from

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1977), and published numerous books and articles. His major books include Histoire de l’Afrique du Nord (1931 and revised 1951), Les Constructeurs de la France d’outre-mer (1946, with R. Delavignette), Histoire de l’expansion et de la colonisation française: les voyages de découvertes et les premiers établissements XV-XVI s. (1948), L’Afrique du Nord en marche (3rd edition, 1972), Histoire de l’Algérie contemporaine 1827-1871 (1964), Histoire de l’Afrique blanche (1966), Le Maroc face aux impérialismes 1456-1956 (1978), and Et la Tunisie devint indépendante (1985). In 1984, Julien received the grand prix national (histoire) from the Ministre de la culture. In 1986, Julien gifted his library to CHEAM to establish the fonds Charles-AndréJulien. Julien was unwavering in his support for North African autonomy and provided an ever more sophisticated and insightful analysis of the colonial and postcolonial projects. His clarity of vision was unparalleled. If his wisdom and advice had been followed, the world might have avoided many follies. France’s best historian of the modern Maghrib, Charles André Julien outlived all his contemporaries and died on 19 July 1991 a few weeks short of 100 years of age. Justinard, Colonel Léopold. Born on 14 May 1878 in Nogent-sur-Seine, Justinard graduated from Saint-Cyr in 1899 and was assigned to work in Morocco where he helped Brémond train a modern army for the sultan in Fès. Justinard’s troops were primarily Berbers from the AntiAtlas because the primary purpose of the army was to fight insurrections in the south. Justinard set about learning colloquial Moroccan and Tachelhyt and proved so linguistically capable that he published the first Berber grammar in French, Manuel de berbère marocain (1914). Justinard’s French members of the army were attacked by the Moroccan soldiers in 1912 on the eve of the French occupation, but Justinard was able to survive with the aid of some loyal Moroccan soldiers, and the revolt was crushed as French troops entered Fès. Troubles in the south led General Lamothe to assign Justinard as an advisor to Caid Goundafi, who had been put in charge of holding Tiznit against al-hîba in 1916—WWI dictated the policy of holding the south through the offices of the Grand Caids while French troops were in short supply. Justinard’s stay in Tiznit led to a friendship with Caid Goundafi and a book, Le Caïd Goundafi (1951). In 1926, Justinard was seriously disfigured in a plane that crashed on takeoff, and multiple operations were unsuccessful in restoring a “figure humaine,” but Justinard accepted his disfigurement with good grace and returned to Morocco where he wrote books and articles on Berber politics, biography, history, and ethnology. Léopold Justinard died on 16 February 1959 in the military hospital of Val de Grâce.

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-KKabbab, Mohamed Abdelhadi. Born in 1937 in Fès, Kabbab is a former president of the Union Générale des Etudiants du Maroc (UGEM). Kabbab, who is a university professor and a lawyer, is the president of Ligue Marocaine de la Défense des Droits de l’Homme. He also served as the Bâtonnier des avocats de Rabat and the president of the Associations des avocats du Maroc. In 1993 he was elected to parliament and was elected president of the Commission de l’education nationale in the Chamber of Representatives. Kabbab is also a former president of the Commission du suivi de la charte nationale des droits de l’homme. Kabbab teaches at the Faculté de Droit in Rabat. He is a member of the Comité exécutif of the istiqlâl party. Kabbab has also served as president of the Organization Marocaine des Droits de l’Homme (OMDH). See also Human rights groups. Kabbaj, Mohamed. Born 1946 in Fès, Kabbaj, studied at the Ecole Polytechnique de Paris (1965) and the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (1969). Kabbaj also received a diplôme des études approfondies in econometrics in 1969. Kabbaj served as Ministre de l’équipement (1981, 1984, 1988) and Ministre des finances et des investissements extérieurs in 1995. From 1969 to 1972, his engineering background helped him to head several national public services as director of the delegation on public works in Tétouan (1969-1972), director of the public works circonscription for the north (1972-1973), director of roads and circulation by road in the ministry of public works (1973-1980), and, since 1980, he was put in charge of the plans for a road linkage across the straits of Gibraltar (chargé de mission au cabinet royal, chargé du projet liaison fixe entre l’Europe at l’Afrique à travers le détroit de Gibraltar). Kabbaj has also represented the prefecture of Zouagha Moulay Yacoub, Province of Fès, since 1993. He has also been a member of the political bureau of the Union Constitutionnelle since 1994. Kabbaj is also an active member in several associations: Président du festival des musiques sacrées du monde in Fès (see Music), président de l’Association des anciens éléves de l’Ecole Polytechnique de Paris, and président de l’association Fès-Saiss pour le développement culturel, économique et social since its creation in 1986. Kabbaj presided over a number of economic organizations, e.g., la Cimenterie nouvelle de Casablanca (1994), l’Association des cimenteries du Maroc, and the Comité de vigilance (chargé de la conception et de l’Exécution du programme des Arriérées des entreprises publiques) in 1984. He also coordinated the Comité Interministériel Permanent des Entreprises Publiques (CIPEP) between 1987 and1993. Kabbaj is an advisor to Mohammed VI and président de l’Association Fès-Saiss. In 2005, Kabbaj became governor of Casablanca and wali of the Casablanca region.

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Kabbaj, Omar. Born 15 August 1942 in Rabat, Kabbaj has been the president of the Banque Africaine de Développement (BAD) since 1995. Kabbaj received a diplôme from the Ecole Supérieure de Commerce et d’Administration des Entreprises (ESCAE) in Toulouse in 1963. Kabbaj joined the Direction des participations as an attaché de Direction from 1963 to 1966. He was promoted chef du service de la commercialization des minerais at the Bureau de Recherches et de Participation Minière (BRPM). In 1966, he became financial director of the BNDE (1966-1970). Kabbaj served as director general of the Sucrerie Nationale de Tadla (SUNAT) from 1970 to 1979. In 1974, Kabbaj became director general of the Sucrerie nationale de canne de Sebou (1974-1977). From 1974 to 1977, Kabbaj joined the commerce ministry (du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines, et de la marine marchande) as chargé de mission au cabinet du ministre. From 1977 to 1979, he was nominated director of the finance minister’s cabinet. Between 1993 and 1995, Kabbaj served as Ministre délégué auprés du premier ministre chargé de l’incitation de l’économie. Kabbaj has been a member of many Moroccan financial bilateral and multilateral delegations that have worked with the World Bank and the IMF. Kadiri, Abdellah. Born 20 May 1937 in Berrechid (Settat), Kadiri received his primary education in Berrechid and secondary education in Casablanca. He also completed his higher education in Saint Cyr Coetquidan, France. He received diplomas from Ecole de Cyr, Ecole d’état major (Paris), and graduated as a war materials engineer (ingénieur principal du matériel de guerre). Kadiri joined the royal armée from 1956 to 1973 where he served as chef du corps of many divisions. He also served as director of a school, inspecteur général du materiel des Force Armée Royale (FAR), and Lieutenant Colonel of the FAR. After his military experience, Kadiri became mayor of Berrechid and president of the Conseil provincial of Settat (1982-2000). Between 1983 and 2000, Kadiri also served as a deputy for the Province of Settat and as the secrétaire général of the Parti National Démocrate (PND). Kadiri, Ahmed Fayçal. Born 20 January 1938, Kadiri is a member of the Chamber of Representaatives (1997-2002). He has a maîtrise in economic planning. Kadiri served as the director of the Régie Autonome des Transports en Commun (RATC), as diplomatic representative in many countries, and as representative of the ministry of tourism in Europe. Kadiri is a member of the RNI. He served as the regional president for El-Jadida and was elected to the circonscription of El-Jadida. He also acted as the president of the Conseil communal of El-Jadida. Kadiri is the vice president of the Association régionale Doukkala. al-karâsî. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn ‘abd al-raHmân al-karâsî (c.1469-1524) was little known in his time, but he has left a historical

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work, ‘arûsat al-masâ’il fî mâ li-banî waTTâs min al-faDâ’il (the mate to the questions concerning what was excellent about the banu waTTâs), in verse, which enumerates each of the Wattasid sovereigns. It provides a chronological account of their battles apparently from the perspective of someone who was there and then adds a moral portrait of each sovereign. His account provides important details in particular for military history of the last years of the Wattasid dynasty. Karim Lamrani, Mohammed. Born 1 May 1919, Karim Lamrani is a former prime minister and director of the Groupe Office Chérifien de Phosphates (OCP). On 16 October 1957, Karim Lamrani joined the Office Chérifien de Phosphates as chargé de mission. He was named interim general director on 1 May 1958 and general director of the office, 1 July 1959. In July 1960, he began investing in the private sector and participated in the foundation of the Société nationale d’investissement (SNI), which he headed from 31 December 1966 until 3 May 1971. On 17 May 1967, Hassan II recalled Karim Lamrani to head the Office Chérifien de Phosphates and in 1967 he was named a member of the Conseil économique privé auprès de Hassan II. On 23 April 1971, Hassan II named him finance minister. Karim Lamrani served several times as prime minister (6 August 1971 to 20 November 1972, 19 November 1983 to 30 September 1986, and 11 August 1992 to 26 May 1994). The first period was a particularly critical one, roughly following the 1971 coup attempt (see Coup manqué) up to the aftermath of the 1972 coup attempt. Karim Lamrani continued to hold the post of director of the Groupe Office Chérifien de Phosphates until 31 July 1990. In 1990, he was named advisor to King Hassan II. On 13 January 2000, Karim Lamrani was named a member of the Comité des experts chargé de la promotion des investissements auprès de Mohammed VI. kattânî, ‘abd al-Hayy. Inheriting the leadership of the kattânîya Tarîqa from his uncle in 1909 when the latter (muHammad) was flogged to death by mawlây HâfiZ for treason, ‘abd al-Hayy kattânî (1886-1962), an idrîsî sharîf, became both one of the most renowned scholars and religious figures in Morocco and one of the most bitter enemies of the ‘Alawite dynasty. He consequently sided with the French on issues where they differed from the sultan, and in 1953, along with Thami Glawi, supported the French in their deposition of mawlây Mohammed V (ibn yûsuf) and his replacement by muHammad ibn ‘arafa (the uncle of Mohammed V), who as one of the wealthiest landowners in Morocco was a natural ally of Thami Glawi. When Mohammed V returned at independence, ‘abd al-Hayy kattânî was obliged to reconcile himself with the king and then retired from public life in voluntary exile in France. The private library he left behind in Morocco contained 3,371 manuscripts and more than 5,000 documents, which were given to the Bibliothèque Générale et Archives in Rabat in 1956. The remainder of

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his library, which was taken with him into exile, has since been acquired by the Bibliothèque Hasaniya in Rabat. Kattânî, Ben Hamou. A graduate of the Collège Berbère at Azrou and of the St. Cyr military academy in France, Ben Hamou Kattânî served in WWII and was promoted to the highest rank (brig. general) of any Moroccan. After independence he directed operations to assure the withdrawal of the Spanish from Tarfaya Province (1958-1959) and in 1960-1961 he directed a Moroccan contingent of UN troops in the Congo and was promoted to deputy commander of the UN force. It is reasonable to assume that his family ties (see kattânî, ‘abd al-Hayy) and the distrust they engendered in the ‘Alawite dynasty prevented him from assuming higher rank within the Moroccan armed forces. al-kattânî, muHammad bn ja‘fâr. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn ja‘fâr al-Kattânî was born in Fès in 1275H (1858/9) and died in 1926 after leaving Morocco around 1910 to live first in Medina and then Damascus. muHammad bn ja‘fâr al-kattânî wrote a genealogical treatise about his own family, al-nabdhat al-yasîrat al-nâfi‘at allatî hiya li-akhbâr al-salâlat al-kattânîya jâmi‘a, and a compendium of the exploits of Idris II, al-azhâr al-‘âTirat al-anfâs bi-dhikr ba‘D maHâsin quTb al-maghrib wa-tâj madînat fâs. His most famous work, however, and one that became exceptionally popular was his biographical compendium of the noteworthy personages of Fès, salwat al-anfâs wa-muHâdathat alakyâs bi-man uqbira min al-‘ulamâ’ wa-l-SulaHâ’ bi-fâs (Consolation of minds and the sagacious discourse about the past [buried] ‘ulamâ’ and elites of Fès). The work has three parts: an introduction oriented toward facilitating the pilgrimage to the tombs of saints and scholars, a compendium of the noteworthies of Fès arranged topographically by the quarter in which their tomb is to be found proceeding clockwise in concentric circles, and a final list of noteworthies whose tombs the author was unable to find. The salwat al-anfâs represents an enormous empirical set of research both on foot and in myriads of private libraries covering every thoroughfare and byway in Fès and includes a comprehensive set of references to works used for each entry. kharijism. The kharijite movement dates to the conflict between ‘alî and mu‘âwiya when, originally based on disputes over the succession to the caliphate, ‘alî agreed to arbitration with mu‘âwiya at the battle of Siffîn (657) and a number of his original supporters left (kharaja) in protest over his agreeing to submit to human arbitration. Only a few fundamental doctrinal differences came to characterize kharijism because it developed as a revolutionary doctrine quite variously in different places and times. These few common characteristics included a belief that believers were obligated to proclaim as illegitimate and overthrow unjust rulers, that anyone

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including a black slave could be elected by the believers to be the imâm, and thus that descent from the Prophet was unimportant, and an insistence that faith is justified only by good works—hence the ability to judge the legitimacy of a head of state. Extreme versions of kharijism at times went so far as to consider non-kharijite Muslims as apostates who should be killed along with their families. Somewhat paradoxically, kharijism has been characterized frequently by a liberal acceptance of the legitimacy of Christianity and Judaism along with an intolerance for Muslims who do not follow kharijite doctrines. Its most prominent followers today are the Ibadites, a moderate variant of kharijism, found along the northern and western edges of the Indian Ocean. In North Africa, kharijism played a major role particularly through Berber rebellions such as the Sufrite rebellion in Tanger (739-40) and the conversion of the zanâta Berbers to Ibadist beliefs around mid-8th century. Two major Ibadist states developed in the western sector of North Africa: the Sufrite state of the banû midrar in sijilmâsa and the Rustamid Ibadite state of Tahert (tâhart), located northeast of Tlemcen. The banû midrar settled in the Tafilalt after fleeing from Tanger and soon constructed a new capital, sijilmâsa (757). There they controlled trade and mining from the Draa to the Tafilalt. They based their control on the support of their larger ethnic affiliation with the miknâsa. Tahert controlled the northern end of the main Saharan trade route until it was conquered by the Fatimid general abû ‘abd allâh alshî‘î in 909 and the Ibadites were forced south into the Sahara to the region around Warghla and Mzab. The banû midrar remained in control of sijilmâsa until they were conquered by an Umayyad proxy, the maghrâwa, in 976-977, although sijilmâsa was briefly captured by the Fatimids in 909, 922, and 966. Both kharijite kingdoms had flourishing Jewish communities. Despite the long presence of the sunni Umayyads in Spain, and the brief fluorescence of the Idrisids in Fès, it was not until variants of sunnism were proclaimed by the Almoravids and then subsequently even more sunni Almohads that kharijism gradually became a tiny sect largely confined in North Africa to a few Saharan oases. The domination after the 16th century of sharifan dynasties, who based their claims to legitimacy on descent from the Prophet, effectively put an end to any remaining significant kharijite beliefs in North Africa. Khénifra. (lat. 32º 58' N., long. 5º 51' W.) Khénifra (khanîfra) evolved from a wintering home for the Zayan into a town of strategic importance when mawlây ismâ‘îl (1672-1727) constructed a qasba in it. On the eve of the protectorate the caid of Khénifra, Moha u Hammou, declared jihâd against the French, and although Khénifra was occupied in 1914 it was not until 1921 that the region was subdued. The population of Khénifra surpassed 96,000 in 2004.

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khunâtha. khunâtha bint bakkâr bn ‘alî bn ‘abd allâh al-maghâfirî (d. May/June 1746) was a learned and pious wife of mawlây ismâ‘îl whose advice was highly respected by the sultan. As a scholar she is primarily remembered for a commentary on a work by ibn Hajjâr al-‘asqalânî. Her charitable works including the purchase of a building at bâb al‘umra in Mecca, which she established as waqf for the use of students, and other munificence even gave rise to a laudatory poem written by sharîf abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn ‘alî al-Husaynî al-shâfi‘î alTabarî, the imâm of maqâm ibrâhîm (a small building near the Kaaba [al-ka‘ba] housing the imprints of Abraham’s feet). khunâtha bint bakkâr died in Fès and was buried in the mausoleum of the shurafâ’ in fâs al-jadîd. El Khyari, Thami. Born in 1943 in Taza, El Khyari is a former minister of health. He pursued his primary and secondary education in Taza, Fès and Azrou. He also studied at the Université Mohammed V in Rabat and Université de Grenoble in France as well as at Université Hassan II in Casablanca. El Khyari received a licence, diplôme d’études supérieures, and a doctorat d’état in economics. Since 1976, El Khyari has taught at the Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire (IAV) Hassan II, the Faculté des Sciences Juridiques, Economiques et Sociales in Rabat, and the Institut Supérieur de Journalisme. He also headed the Bureau des Programmes et Etudes Générales de l’Office Régional de la Mise en Valeur Agricole du Haouz. El Khyari is also the secretary of the Front des Forces Démocratiques (FFD) and the director of the newspaper Al Mounaataf. He served as the deputy of Tamellalet, Province El Kelaâ des Sraghna, a member of the Conseil Consultatif des Droits de l’Homme, and the honorary president of the Fédération Nationale des Agriculteurs au Maroc. He was also vice president of the Chamber of Representatives, the Association des Economistes Marocains, and the Union Nationale des Etudiants Marocains (UNEM). El Khyari has been the president of the Centre des Etudes et Recherches Aziz Blal (CERAB). El Khyari is also a member of the Comité central of the Parti de la Liberation et du Socialisme and a member of the bureau politique of the Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme (PPS). From 1998 to 2000, El Khyari was Ministre délégué auprès du Ministre de l’agriculture, du développement rural et de la pêche, chargé de la pêche. He then served as minister of health (2000-2002). His works on the state of agriculture in Morocco include L’agriculture au Maroc, La Banque Mondiale et la Politique Agricole dans le Tiers-Monde, and Edification du Maroc Indépendant. kinza. The Berber concubine of Idris I and mother of Idris II, kinza exercised enormous influence at the Idrisid court. Supposedly it was her advice that led her grandson muHammad to divide the Idrisid state up between himself and six of his brothers.

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Ksar El-Kébir. (lat. 35º 00' N., long. 5º 55' W.) Ksar El-Kébir (al-qaSr alkabîr) is located on the right bank of the river Loukos about thirty-two kilometers south of Larache. The town was also known as qaSr kitâma, after the tribe in whose territory it is located, and qaSr ‘abd al-karîm, most likely after a chief of the kitâma on the eve of the Almoravid conquest of the region. The current town dates from the enlargements of the Almohad sultan ya‘qub al-manSûr, but the earlier settlement dates back to the 8th century when it was founded on an earlier Roman or even Phoenician site. Ksar El-Kébir flourished under the Almohads and the Marinids (after 1223) and was a major trading center in the 16th century when the Portuguese had settlements along the coast and Ksar El-Kebir served as one of the main entrepôts between Muslim and Christian communities. One of its infrequently remarked scholars, muHammad bn ‘abd allâh aziyât (d.1617), studied in Fès and then served as qadi of al-qaSr al-kabîr where he wrote a history of Islam from its foundation to the reign of the Umayyads. In the 17th century, Ksar El-Kébir was captured by caid ghîlân who held it until driven from it first by mawlây al-rashîd (1668) and then finally by mawlây ismâ‘îl (1673). Ksar El-Kébir declined significantly in prosperity in the early 19th century, and the Spanish occupied it in 1912. kutlat al-amâl al-waTanî (or koutla). The kutlat al-amâl al-waTanî (National Action Bloc) or Comité de l’Action Marocaine was formed in the summer of 1933 as a committee of the clandestine national movement, the zâwiya, for the purpose of drafting a reform program. When it seemed appropriate to form a public nationalist party in May 1934 it was given the committee’s name. It was organized in cells, with the Fès cell being the mother cell and having a membership of about twenty-five, which included almost all the key figures. The nine person core directorship consisted of ‘allâl al-fâsî, Mohammed Hassan alOuezzani, Ahmed Balafrej, Mohammed Lyazidi, Omar Abdeljalil, Mohammed Ghazi, Ahmed Mekouar, Hassan Bouayad, and Mohammed Diouri. Some of these went on to play major roles in the independence period, while others such as Mohammed Diouri (d.1953), who was tortured and killed prior to independence, did not.

-LLaânigri, Hamidou [Hamidu la‘nigrî]. Born in Meknès in 1939, Laânigri graduated from the école militaire de Casablanca in 1959. After some years in the army he joined the Gendarmerie Royale in 1962. Participating (1978-1979) as part of the Moroccan military force that went to Zaire at U.S. request to repel an Angolan invasion of Zaire’s mineral-rich Shaba province, Laânigri had a chance to work outside Morocco. After returning he was appointed to the United Arab Emirates where he helped set up a security and information service and

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helped restructure the army. On returning to Morocco in 1989, Laânigri took a position with the Direction Générale d’Etudes et de Documentation (DGED) where he worked with General Abdellah Kadiri to reorganized the “Service de renseignement extérieur.” In September 1999 (two months after Mohammed VI succeeded Hassan II) Laânigri was appointed to head the Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire (DST) where he replaced Driss Basri who had long been in charge of the service. On 25 July 2003 Laânigri was appointed the new Directeur général of the Sûreté Nationale (DGSN) replacing Moulay Hafid Ben Hachem who had been at the head of the agency since 1997. Ahmed Harari, former DST chief of Casablanca, replaced Laânigri at the head of DST. Laânigri’s appointment has been seen as a response to the apparent need to restructure the security apparatus after the terrorists attacks of 16 May 2003 that killed forty-four people including twelve suicide bombers. Laânigri has been criticized by foreign human rights organizations who question his role under Hassan II when the security apparatus was widely accused of human rights abuses. Labor unions. There are currently ten labor unions in Morocco: L’Union Marocaine du Travail (UMT), l’Union Générale des Travailleurs au Maroc (UGTM), la Confédération Démocratique du Travail (CDT), l’Union Nationale des Travailleurs Marocains (UNTM), l’Union des Syndicats Populaires (USP), Forces Ouvrières Marocaines (FOM), l’Union des Syndicats des Travailleurs Libres (USTL), le Syndicat National Populaire (SNP), l’Union des Travailleurs Marocains (UTM), and l’Union des Syndicats Démocratiques (USD), plus the teachers union, the Syndicat National de l’Enseignement Supérieur (SNES). Labor unions have played an important part in shaping the political structure of Morocco, and their diversity reflects the perceived need of many political factions to have an association with a labor union. Laenser, Mohand. Born in 1942 in Imouzzer Marmoucha, Laenser received his primary education in Imouzzer Marmoucha and his seconday education in Sefrou before studying and graduating from ENAP (Ecole Nationale d’Administration Publique). In 1958, Laenser began work with the PTT and then rose to director for the Agadir postal department and responsibility for PTT finances and public affaires. In November 1981, Laenser became secretary-general of the ministry of Postes et Télécommunications, and in November 1983, he became minister for Postes et Télécommunications, a position that was renewed in 1985. In 1986, Laenser became secretary-general of the Mouvement Populaire, and in June 1993 he was elected deputy for the district of Boulemane (Province de Boulemane). In November 1994, he was reelected secretary-general of the Mouvement Populaire. Laenser was reelected to parliament in the legislative elections of 27 September 2002 and was appointed as minister of agriculture and rural development in that government.

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Lahjouji, Abderrahim. Born on 17 May 1941 in Meknès, Lahjouji has headed the political party Forces Citoyennes. He received his education at the Lycée Lyautey and the Ecole Industrielle de Casablanca where he received a diploma as technician. He started his career in his family business Moulay Ali Lahjouji. Lahjouji also served as the president of the Confédération Générale des Entreprises du Maroc (CGEM) until June 2000. Lahjouji was the founding president of the Fédération Nationale du Bâtiment et des Travaux Publics (FNBTP) and the Union des Entrepreneurs Arabes. He has also been the president of the Union des entrepreneurs des pays Islamiques. Lahlimi Alami, Ahmed. Born in Marrakech in 1939, Lahlimi received a diplôme d’études supérieure in economic geography from the University of Bordeaux and then became a professor in the Département de géographie in the Faculté des lettres of the Université Mohammed V in Rabat as well as at the École nationale d’administration. He served briefly as secretary-general of the ministry of planning and regional development, secretary-general of the ministry of tourism, and director of techincal and economic studies for the Caisse nationale du crédit agricole (CNCA). A member of the USFP, Lahlimi is a past vice president of the UNEM and a past member of the Commission centrale and the Secrétariat of the political office of the USFP. Lahlimi has also served as Abderrahim Bouabid’s Directeur de cabinet when Bouabid was Ministre d’état and as director general of the Secrétariat général de l’Union Arabo-Africaine (UAA). In his work for the CNCA, Lahlimi has traveled on projects to Egypt, Tunisia, Niger, Togo, Senegal, Djibouti, Ivory Coast, and Yemen. Lahlimi served in the XXV government as Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires générales and in the XXVI government as Ministre de l’économie sociale, des petites et moyennes entreprises et de l’artisanat, chargé des affaires générales du gouvernement. He is currently Directeur général adjoint of the CNCA. Lahlimi is also president of the Fondation Abderrahim Bouabid pour les Sciences et la Culture. Lalla Salma. Born in 1978 in Fès, daughter of Naïma Bensouda and Haj Abdelhamid Bennani, Lalla Salma’s mother died when she was three and she was raised by her grandmother in Rabat. She studied at Lycée Hassan II in Rabat and received her baccalauréat (Sciences mathématiques-mention Bien) in 1995. She pursued her studies in mathematics at the Lycée Moulay Youssef and then enrolled at the Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Informatique et d’Analyse des Systèmes (ENSIAS). Lalla Salma received an engineering diploma (ingénieur d’état en informatique, option systèmes de gestion et aide à la décision) in 2000. She then took a position with Omnium Nord Africain (ONA) in Casablanca. Having met and captivated Mohammed VI in 1999, Lalla Salma and Mohammed VI were married on 21 March 2002. On 8

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May 2003, Lalla Salma gave birth to a son, Hassan, an heir to the throne of Morocco. Lamrabet, Ali. Born circa 1959, Lamrabet worked in the ministry of foreign affairs before striking out as a journalist. He directed two, now banned, satyrical weeklies, Demain (in French) and Doumane (in Arabic). He was convicted in Rabat of “outrage à la personne du roi” and “atteinte aux institutions monarchiques” on 17 June 2003 for publishing an interview from a Spanish paper (Avui) with a militant antimonarchist/“republican” named Abdallah Zaâza. Lamrabet was sentenced to three years in prison and a 20,000 Dh fine. On 10 December 2003, Lamrabet was awarded the Reporters Without Borders prize, and in January 2004 he was pardoned by King Mohammed VI. Land tenure, traditional. If one were to categorize land in precolonial Morocco under a few terms based on tenure, these would include makhzan (owned by the state), mulk (private tenure), waqf (religious endowment), jamâ‘a nâ’îba (collective rights with obligation to pay a tax: nâ’îba), gîsh (military grants to ethnic groups), and tanfîdha (concessions) comprising three types: a) iqtâ‘ tamlîk (a recent category of concession with full rights, i.e., approximately mulk), b) manfâ‘a (concessions of personal usufruct without right of transmission) and c) intifâ‘ (concession of usufruct with right of transmission) (Amar 1913). Two categories (mulk and iqtâ‘ tamlîk) basically include all rights (though they are of course subject to eminent domain), while the others are clearly defined as more subject to the arbitrary will of the state. These other categories are at some level conditional usufruct: the sultan could change his mind and withdraw those rights. Examples of the withdrawal of each of these types of rights abound in Moroccan history: tribes were conquered and moved around and zâwiyas were destroyed without any charges that this was fundamentally illegal (as opposed to undesirable). Land held in usufruct by a zawiya with a tanfîdha from the sultan might in turn have tenants who had some rights to use of the land (often including transmission to heirs) in return for laboring it and providing the bulk of the produce to the zawiya. By contrast outright theft of true mulk land would be viewed as illegal, even if examples in history are not rare. In this regard, it is important to keep in mind that in Islamic law private tenure itself is based on the recognition of the current community. A fundamental principle of mâlikî law, indirâs, defines private tenure as something essentially evanescent, that unless renewed will be removed by the passage of time, and as subject to the recognition of the current Islamic community. Accordingly, a title to land needs to be maintained either through collection of rent or use of the land. Once abandoned or once someone else uses the land for a given period of time (traditionally ten years) without paying anything or acknowledging another’s ownership the title accrues to the new occupant. Traditionally, the best way of establishing ownership to private land was to have living witnesses

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verify in court or by their signature that a person has indeed used the land as his/her own in an uncontested way for an acceptable period of time. Old titles, quite to the consternation of Europeans in the 19th century, have had no validity on their own, and while they can serve to document history they cannot in mâlikî law establish tenure claims in courts that rely on and require evidence of current ownership (Park 1997). Other precepts such as the legitimacy of conquest by Muslims as a basis for ownership along with the, in Islamic law nonproblematic, illegitimacy of conquest by non-Muslims of Muslim lands as a basis for establishing a similar claim of ownership make historical tenure claims fairly complex. Languages. The primary language of Morocco is colloquial Moroccan Arabic, which differs substantially from the colloquial Arabics spoken in the neighboring states of Mauritania and Algeria. Linguistically speaking, colloquial Arabics across the Islamic world vary as much as Romance languages in Europe, even though modern states tend to make use of modern standard Arabic, a modernization of classical Arabic, in their official documents and most radio or television broadcasts. Just as Mauritanians cannot understand Moroccan Arabic, so Egyptians have major difficulties with even Palestinian Arabic, and illiterate people in most countries cannot readily understand the Arabic used in many television or radio broadcasts in their own countries. Within Morocco, three variants of Berber (tachelhyt: spoken from Essaouira to the south; tamazight: spoken in the Middle Atlas; and dhamazighth: the Berber of the Rif) are also widely spoken yet quite distinct, though recognizably Berber. Berber languages are also spoken in other countries of North Africa. Most educated Moroccans today also speak French, and many, especially in the former territory of the Spanish protectorate, in addition speak Spanish well. One university, Al-Akhawayn, has English as its language of instruction, and many educated Moroccans also speak English. Though Arabic has been the official government language for two decades, French is widely taught in school and is a secondary language for the government so that most interactions with the government can be carried out in French. In 2001, Berber language and culture became officially sanctioned as part of Morocco’s heritage, and with the establishment of the Institut Royal de la Culture Amazighe (IRCAM) the Berber language received official support and is now taught in many schools and institutions of higher learning. Laoust, Emile. Born in Fresnes-sur-Escaut in July of 1876, Laoust graduated from the Ecole Normale de Douai where he also worked for two years before taking a position in Algeria at the Ecole Normale de Bouzarea. There, under the direction of René Basset, he focused on linguistics and in particular the Berber dialects of Algeria. In Morocco, Lyautey founded the Ecole Supérieure de la Langue Arabe et des Dialectes Berbères, which became the Institut des Hautes Etudes

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Marocaines. There Laoust was hired in 1914 and sent to work with Le Glay, a controleur civil administering the Berbers in the Meknès region. Laoust was put in charge of organizing the first Berber schools. Laoust published many articles, and his doctoral dissertation, published in 1920 as Mots et chose berbères: Notes de linguistique et d’ethnographie, Dialectes du Maroc, became one of the classics of the colonial period. Emile Laoust died on 20 September 1952. Larache. (lat. 35º 13' N., long. 6º 10' W.) Founded in 1258 by yûsuf bn ‘alî, its population was decimated by Spaniards in 1269 and the city was burnt. Larache (al-‘arâ’ish) is located near the ancient Punic trading station of Lyx and the Roman colony of Lixux as well as the traditional site of the mythical Garden of Hesperides. The qasba was built in 1491 and the Portuguese captured it in 1504. In 1610, the Spanish finally took the town and further fortified it. mawlây ismâ‘îl recaptured it in 1689. In 1765, the French launched an unsuccessful attack on Larache and suffered serious losses. In recent years, Larache has been beatifully restored and has become a major tourist town. Laraki, Azzeddine [‘azz al-dîn al-‘irâqî]. Born in 1929 in Fès where he received his elementary and high school education, Laraki obtained a doctorate from the Faculty of Medicine in Paris in 1957 and is a member of the Faculty of Medicine in Rabat. Laraki joined the istiqlâl party in 1942 and participated in the struggle for the liberation of Morocco. He worked jointly with ‘allâl al-fâsî and was a member of the Istiqlâl party’s executive committee. On 10 October 1977, Laraki was appointed minister of national education (et de la formation des cadres), a post he kept until he was appointed prime minister in September 1986 (-1992). Laraki represented Morocco at the fifth Islamic Summit Conference in Kuwait in January 1987 and at the meeting of the Summit Bureau in Kuwait in April 1988. He also represented Morocco at the Sixth Islamic Summit Conference in Dakar in 1991. From 1997 to 2000, Laraki served as the secretary-general of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). He also was a key member of the Al-Quds (Holy Land) Committee chaired by Hassan II. Laraki, mawlây Ahmad. A scion of one of the fâsî shurafâ’ families prominent in modern business, Ahmad Laraki (b. 1931) received a medical degree from Paris and then entered the Moroccan diplomatic service in 1957. He was ambassador to Spain (1961-1965), prime minister (6 October 1969-6 August 1971), and then foreign minister (1974-1977). Leftist movements in the 1960s and 1970s. Referred to in Morocco as either Harakât aqSâ al-yaSâr or Harakât al-yaSâr al-jadîd, these movements had members with their roots back in the nationalist movement but most were idealists who supported less elitist and more

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populist forms of government and were inspired by Marxism. While they were critical to the success of the nationalist effort they were initially not very pro-monarchy and pushed a social agenda that often made them unpopular with the palace. In their initial formations in the 1960s, some leftist groups were associated with the USFP. In time, some members of what has been called the blanquist wing (referencing Blanqui’s 1839 conspiracy and abortive coup in France discussed by Engels in 1874) were implicated in the 1970s coup attempts according to recent admissions. The radicalization of the left opposition also owes something to resistance figures whose agenda was not Marxist, such as Ahmed Agouliz. Below are the key influences on and factions in the leftist movements of the 1960s and 1970s. Harakat shaykh al-‘arab. Ahmed Agouliz, alias shaykh al-‘arab, was a resistance fighter who, with a number of supporters, remained in hiding at independence for fear of being targeted by the new Moroccan forces who were hunting the ALN (Armée de Liberation Nationale), an army of liberation that felt the deals struck with the French did not embody true independence. In 1963, Agouliz fled to Algeria but returned to settle in Casablanca with Omar Nasser, alias El Farchi, on 7 April 1964. Hunted by General Oufkir, he was located by Oufkir’s team but escaped after killing three officers. Oufkir ordered the execution of four of shaykh al-‘arab’s supporters who were being held in jail and prioritized the capture of shaykh al-‘arab. On 7 August 1964, Oufkir captured and killed shaykh al-‘arab and a companion. Omar Nasser, who escaped Oufkir’s attentions, received military training in Algeria and Syria and formed a number of secret cells (perhaps five) involving about thirty people. These cells relied on a network of Soussi merchants (Nasser is from Marrakech) who hid their arms and managed the supply and communications systems. Popular uprising of 23 March 1965. A large number of students went on a major antigovernment protest on this date stimulated apparently by a sequence of events that suggested things were not going the way they wanted them to go. This included the 1962 referendum on the first constitution, a rise in the price of sugar, a directive from the ministry of education excluding overage students from enrolling as students, and culminated with the arrests on 16 July 1963 of members of the UNFP. Oufkir brutally repressed the protests, and some suggest over one thousand students were killed. These events and the disappearance and presumed assassination of Ben Barka (October 1965) led many Moroccans to be disaffected with the regime. A number of people (including muHammad al-Habîb al-Tâlib, muSTafa masdâd, and al-Husâyn al-kuwâr) met in 1966 at one of the offices of the UNFP (al-muqâTa‘a 11) in darb al-sulTân to organize. They decided to develop an alliance between students and workers and had members enroll in particular universities for this explicit

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purpose. UNFP splinter groups. Disaffected UNFP members organized in Casablanca, Fès, and Marrakech in the late 1960s. In Casablanca, a related group, al-shabîba al-taqadûmiya al-maghribiya (Jeunesse Progressiste Marocaine), was organized by Ahmed Herzenni, Mohammed Dahbi, mHammad tîrîda, and muHammad al-maHjûbî in Mohammed V high school. In Fès they formed a Marxist-Leninist organization called Halaqat fâs (Fès circle) comprised of members of both the Casablanca and Marrakech groups and including Hamâma bû ‘abîd from the Hizb al-taHarûr wa-l-ishtirâkiya. This group, which included many former members of UNEM, was centered around Halaqat fâs, Herzenni, asidûn, and al-karfâtî. A number of students who returned from France after the 1968 demonstrations began to collaborate with Herzenni and published a report called ruba sharâratîn ahraqat sahlan (one spark can ignite a plain). In 1970 after the Rogers Plan (a Middle East peace proposal involving peace, security, withdrawal and territory for the Palestinians proposed by the U.S. secretary of state on 9 December 1969) was adopted by their party, some members of Hizb al-taHarûr al-ishtirâkiya split off under the leadership of Serfaty and ‘abd al-laTîf al-la‘bî. A similar group in Khénifra called al-najm al-aHmar (the red star) was led by muHammad alkarfâtî, who was in contact with Herzenni, who also approached ‘abd al-salâm al-jablî and Bensaid (1970) to get them to join a clandestine group initially known just as “b.” After a meeting on 23 March 1970 in Casablanca, these basically Marxist-Leninist groups decided to venture into secret armed struggle, and the group referred to initially as “b” later became known as the Harakat 23 mâris. Later the same year a new group, ilâ al-amâm, was formed by Serfaty, ‘abd al-laTîf al-la‘bî, jamâl balakhDar, ‘abd al-laTîf zarwâl, and Hasan bn ‘addî, which became referred to as group “a” (or majmû‘at ilâ al-amâm). The group centered around the Halaqat fâs remained known as group “b” or majmû‘at 23 mâris as well as Harakat 23 mâris. Their initial attempts to organize militarily quickly led to a wave of arrests, and many went into hiding. In 1969, a number of people split off from al-faqîh al-baSrî, and after the arrests in 1970 they, and those fleeing from Morocco, formed a group in Algeria referred to as jîm, which was formed under the leadership of muHammad bn sa‘îd ayt idar (who lived in France) but also included masdâs, al-mrînî, al-Tâlbî, aHmad alHajâmî, Hamâma bû‘abîd (also known as al-KhaTâbî) and muHammad al-maHjûbî (from group “b”). Some members of group “b” formed linakhdom (Harakat li-nakhdum al-sha‘b) in 1972 after Herzenni and others had been arrested. The two failed coups d’état and the constitution of 1972 and the activities of the union nationale des étudiants (al-naqâba al-

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waTaniya li-talâmîd) impacted the 15th congress of UNEM. Those still affiliated with the UNFP and the Hizb al-taqadum wal-ishtirâkiya boycotted the elections, the radical left groups took control, and ‘abd al-‘azîz al-mnabhî of ilâ al-amâm was elected president. Group “a” published a paper called ilâ al-amâm, while group “b” distributed al-munâDil, edited by mHammad tîrîda. Ahmed Herzenni. Born in Guercif in 1948, Herzenni was a key figure in several radical leftist groups, including al-lajna al-siyâsiya (part of UNEM in 1967). He was also part of group “b” (above). He was arrested in 1972 and spent twelve and a half years in prison. After his release he went back to school and received a Ph.D. from the University of Kentucky in 1994 (his dissertation was titled The Cultural Economy of Technical Innovation in Semi-Arid Rural Morocco). He then became a sociologist at the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, director of the majalat al-muzârî almaghribi, and a member of the political bureau of the Parti Gauche Socialiste Unifiée (PGSU). muHammad al-Habîb al-Tâlib (aHmad al-rîfî). Born in 1945, al-Tâlib did his early studies in Rabat but joined the UNFP in Marrakech in 1960 and received a baccalauréat in 1964. Attracted by the claims of the Baath party in Syria, he went to Syria and joined the hizb al-ba’th al-ishtirâkî but returned to Morocco in October 1965. He was one of the founders of the Marxist-Leninist movement in Morocco and a leading member of al-Hizb alishtirâkî al-dimuqrâTî (PSD). muHammad al-mrînî. Born in 1947 in Marrakech, mrîni studied in Marrakech and then Rabat. He joined al-ma‘had al-miSrî in 1962 and in the late 1960s became involved with a splinter groups of the UNFP (majmû‘at 23 mars) and fled to Algeria in 1972 where he joined jîm (see above). He is currently a lawyer in Casablanca and joined the USFP in 2001. al-mushtarî bn al-‘abbâs. Born in 1950 in ulâd sa‘îd (near Settat), he did his primary and secondary schooling in Settat and then went to ‘abd al-karîm laHlû high school in Casablanca, receiving his baccalauréat in July 1968. His first arrest was on 2 March 1967. He then began studying philosophy at the university, getting his diploma in philosophy while in Kénitra prison. In 1970, he became a leader of hizb al-taHarur wa-l-ishtirâkiya and then helped found ilâ al-amâm. In 1972 he went into hiding but was captured and sentenced to life in prison in 1977. He spent thirteen years in prison on this conviction. Currently he teaches philosophy and is a member of the political bureau of the PGSU. mhammad tîrîda. Born in Casablanca (derb ghallaf) in 1946, he enrolled in Lycée mawlây ‘abd allâh in 1960 and then lycée Muhammed V in 1964 where he met Herzenni. He founded, with Herzenni, al-maHjûbî, and Muhammed Dahbi, al-shabîba altaqadumiya l-maghribiya (Jeunnesse Progressive Maghribi or JPM). tîrîda received a baccalaureate in 1967 and enrolled at the

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Faculté des lettres in Rabat with Herzenni while al-maHjûbî enrolled in Casablanca (kuliyat al-Huqûq/law faculty). JPM was closed down while they were at the University. ‘abd al-fatâH fâkhânî. Born in Marrakech in 1949, fâkhânî graduated from the Faculté des lettres in Rabat in 1971 and taught French in Khouribga from 1971-1972. He was a member of Hizb al-taHarur wa-l-ishtirâkiya and was arrested in March 1972 but released in August 1973. On 20 January 1976, fakhânî was arrested as a leader of ilâ al-amâm and remained in jail until 7 May 1989. He worked for the journal al-‘alâm from 1990 to 1994 and is now at AFP. muHammad maHjûbî. Born in 1947 in El-Jadida, maHjûbî attended qur’anic school and then went to state school (abû shu‘ayb aldukkâlî school and Mohammad V lycée in Casablanca). He was a member of Harakat al-talâmîd from 1963-1964 and became one of the leaders of the 23 March 1965 group (Harakat 23 mâris). From 1970 to 1972, maHjûbî was one of the primary people in charge of the armed actions of that group, which resulted in him fleeing to Algeria and then Paris. In 1975, he became a leader of the Harakat ilâ al-amâm in France until he disagreed with others about the Saharan issue. In 1994, he was granted amnesty and allowed to return to Morocco but he still resides in France where he is active in human rights associations and is a representative of the PGSU. Lemsioui, Abderrazak. Born 18 June 1944 in Marrakech, Lemsioui studied at Lycée Ibn Abbad in Marrakech and the Faculté de Droit in Casablanca. He received a baccalauréat in literature and a licence èsDroit. Lemsioui is a former Secrétaire d’Etat and the second vice president of the Chamber of Representatives. Lemsioui served as the president of the commission parlementaire de l’information, de la culture et des affaires islamiques between 1986 and 1992. From 1984 to 1992, he served as the deputy of the commune Ait Ourir, Marrakech. He was reelected from 1993 to 1997. Lemsioui presided over the rural commune of Lazrakten (Ait Ourir) and the Conseil regional of Marrakech Tensift El Haouz between 1996 and 2000. From 1995 to 1997, he served as the secrétaire d’état aux affaires maghrébines. In 1997, he was elected deputy of Touama Province of Al-Haouz and was designated as vice president of the Union Constitutionnelle (UC) in December. Lemsioui is the author of many works including Mémoire d’un député, Les déclarations gouvernementales de 1965 à 1995, and La Région. Leo Africanus. Born in Granada, as al-Hasan ibn muHammad al-wazzân al-fâsî or al-zayyâtî (c.1483/1495-1554), and brought up in Fès, he was known in the West as Leo Africanus. He traveled extensively on diplomatic missions for the Wattasid sultan, as a notary and emissary, including a trip to Tombouctou, up the Nile to Aswan, and possibly a

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trip to Constantinople. On returning from a pilgrimage to Mecca, he was captured by Sicilian corsairs and brought to Rome. There he converted to Christianity (1520) and ended his life teaching Arabic in Rome under the name Johannes Leo de Medicis. He wrote (1550) a famous geographical account of the Maghrib, Della descrittione dell’Africa, based on his extensive travels in North Africa, that remains one of the best sources for political, social, and geographical information about the Maghrib during the first half of the 16th century. The descrittione is divided into nine parts: 1) an introduction to Africa, 2) a description of Marrakech and southwest Morocco, 3) a lengthy coverage of the kingdom of Fès, 4) the kingdom of Tlemcen, 5) description of Bougie and Tunis, 6) a description of the Saharan regions from southern Morocco to Libya, 7) a description of the Sudan or land of the blacks (really the Sahel), 8) a description of Egypt, and 9) a treatise on the physical geography, botany, and fauna of Africa. Le Tourneau, Roger. Born the son of metalsmiths on 2 September 1907 in Paris, Le Tourneau limped slightly throughout his life from a childhood case of polio that nevertheless spared him from military service in WWII. He studied first at Massillon, a Catholic school, then at Lycée Charlemagne before being accepted to the Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENS). There he became friends with André Adam and Lucien Paye. A conservative and admirer of the army, Le Tourneau nevertheless signed a ENS leftist petition to eliminate the draft in 1928 only to sign a letter to his superiors shortly afterwards assuring them he intended no political protest. This political conservatism got him into trouble during WWII when, stationed in Morocco, he too enthusiastically embraced the Vichy government only to have this rebound against him when de Gaulle and the allies took over—though his ENS friends were able eventually to get him acquitted of collaborationist charges. Le Tourneau became Proviseur du Collège Moulay-Idris in Meknès in 1936 where he found the students intelligent and promising yet morally deficient in their eagerness to abandon Islam and embrace western values (Oppetit 2003). Le Tourneau’s Catholicism led him to be both suspicious of state ideologies and education as well as admiring of Islam as another path to religious awareness. In 1945, Robert Montagne invited Le Tourneau to join him at CHEAM (then called the Centre des Hautes Etudes d’Administration Musulmane) where he became a Directeur des études and the Directeur adjoint. In January 1947, Le Tourneau moved to the Faculté d’Alger where he was given a chair in 1950. There he wrote his doctoral dissertation, Fès avant le Protectorat, which was defended at the Sorbonne in 1949 (his committee included among others Evariste Lévi-Provençal). After the outbreak of the Algerian war for independence in 1954, working conditions changed, and in 1957 Le Tourneau left for a chair in Histoire de la civilisation islamique at Aix-en-Provence where he set up a Section d’Etudes Islamiques, recruited scholars, and began

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publishing prolifically. Le Tourneau was in part responsible for the creation of the Annuaire de l’Afrique du Nord, the creation of the Centre de Recherche sur l’Afrique Méditerranéenne (CRAM), and the journal Revue de l’Occident Musulman et de la Méditerranée (ROMM), which soon transformed itself into the Revue d’Etudes du Monde Musulman et de la Méditerranée (REMMM). From 1959, Le Tourneau also taught regular semesters at Princeton University. Roger Le Tourneau died on 7 April 1971. Lévi-Provençal, Evariste. Born 4 January 1894 in Constantine (Algeria) as Makhlouf Evariste Levi, Lévi-Provençal studied at the Lycée in Constantine and received his licence in Arabic under Jérôme Carcopino. Lévi-Provençal was of Jewish origin but did his best to avoid French anti-Semitism by ignoring Jewish sources in his research and excluding this background in his vita. He served in the French army in WWI and was wounded in Dardanelles in 1917. This injury prevented further combat service, and he joined Lyautey’s team in Morocco on leaving the hospital, joining the Institut des Hautes Etudes Marocaines in Rabat in 1922. In 1921, Lévi-Provençal published a catalogue of the Arabic manuscripts in Rabat, which led directly to his taking up the task of completing the notes of Harwig Derenbourg on the manuscripts of the Escurial in Spain and to his research in the history of Islamic Spain. The same work led to his best-known and most used work on Moroccan historiography, Les Historiens du Chorfa, Essai sur la littérature historique et biographique au Maroc, du XVIe au XXe siècle (1922). In 1932, Lévi-Provençal published L’Espagne musulmane au Xe siècle, Institutions et vie sociale and an edited edition of R.R. Dozy’s Histoire des Musulmans d’Espagne. Lévi-Provençal occupied a chair at the Université d’Alger from 1935 until removed under the Vichy regime. This sudden leisure gave him time to begin his three-volume Histoire de l’Espagne musulmane (published between 1944 and 1953). After the war he became a professor at the Sorbonne and director of the Institute pour les Etudes Islamiques and the Institut pour l’Etude du Moyen Orient Contemporain. An organizer of the first and second editions of the Encyclopedia of Islam, Lévi-Provençal also founded the journal Arabica in 1954. Lévi-Provençal published prodigiously; the Bibliothèque National currently lists 189 works associated with his name dealing primarily with the history of Islamic Spain and North Africa. He ranks among the greatest French scholars of Islamic history. His leanings were anticolonialist and his sympathetic discussions of Islamic scholarship are at once critical and full of admiration. Evariste Lévi-Provençal, who brooked mediocrity poorly but was much admired for his erudition and enthusiasm by many who knew him, died on 27 March 1956. Literature. Moroccan literature has flourished in the latter half of the 20th century so this brief note can only refer the reader to a few of its

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luminaries. See also Taoufik, Ahmed. Born in December of 1944 in Fès, Tahar Ben Jelloun spent his childhood in Tanger and studied philosophy in Rabat and received a Ph.D. in social psychiatry in Paris in 1975. Ben Jelloun began publishing in 1972 (a book of poetry) and won the Prix Goncourt in 1987 for his novel La Nuit sacrée. His works deal with myth, legends, Moroccan rituals, and traditions in fictional and imaginative ways that create novels uniquely Moroccan in character. Ben Jelloun has been known for his political outspokenness on international matters, though he has refrained from criticism of the Moroccan state. Mohamed Choukri, born in 1935 in Beni Chiker in the Rif, is perhaps best known as a friend of Paul Bowles and Jean Genet. His family moved to Tanger because of pressing poverty. Mohamed Choukri learned Arabic (at age 20) and studied at the Ecole Normale before becoming a teacher. His first work appeared in 1966, and his controversial biography, Pain Nu (1981), which dealt with homosexuality, was banned in Morocco until 2000. His other works include Jean Genet à Tanger (1993), Le temps des erreurs (1992), Jean Genet, suite et fin (1996), and Paul Bowles et le reclus de Tanger (1997). Mohamed Choukri died 17 November 2003. Driss Chraïbi, born in 1926 in El-Jadida, has been one of the most prolific of Moroccan writers with a series of mysteries (Inspecteur Ali series), as well as novels that are more critical of Moroccan society, beginning with Le Passée simple (1954). Chraïbi was awarded the Prix de l’Afrique méditerranéenne (1973) and the Prix de l’amitié francoarabe (1981). Born in Oujda in 1958, Fouad Laroui was trained as an engineer (Mines, Ponts et Chaussées in Paris) and worked as director of a phosphate mine before going back to France to get a doctorate in economics, which helped him get a job in Amsterdam teaching economics. He published his first novel, Les Dents du Topographe, in 1996, followed by De quel amour blessé (1998), Méfiez-vous des parachutistes (1999), and Le Maboul (2000). Laroui established himself with these novels as one of the best-known critics and satirists of Moroccan society. Perhaps the best known female writer in Morocco is Fatima Mernissi, a sociologist (Ph.D. from Brandeis in 1974) born in Fès in 1940. Mernissi is one of the preeminent feminists of the Muslim world and author of many books, most of which focus on women’s position in Moroccan society. Mernissi’s historical and semi-biographical works ,which explore gender in Morocco, include The forgotten queens of Islam (1993, original 1990), Le monde n’est pas un harem: paroles de femmes du Maroc (1991), La peur modernité: conflit Islam démocratie (1992), Women’s rebellion & Islamic memory (1996), Etes-vous vaccinée contre le harem (1998), and Scheherazade goes west: different cultures, different harems (2001). Abdelhak Serhane (b. 1950 in Sehou) studied at Toulouse and then became a professor at the Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Sociale

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(Kénitra). In 2000, Serhane began splitting his time between Canada, the United States and Morocco. A recipient of the Prix Français du Monde Arabe (1993) and the Prix Francophonie Afrique (1999), Serhane has been known for his more or less explicit social criticism, e.g., Le massacre de la tribu (1997), Les Enfants des rues étroites (1986), and Massaouda (1983) as well as his more imaginative novels such as Les Temps noirs (2002), Les Dunes paradoxales (2001), and Le Deuil des chiens (1998). Lyautey. Born in Nancy on 17 November 1854, Louis Gonzalve Hubert Lyautey served as the first résident général in Morocco from 30 April 1912 until his resignation in October 1925, and died in Thorey (Meurthe-et-Moselle) on 27 July 1934. A graduate of the St. Cyr military academy, Lyautey’s military career culminated with success on the Algerian-Moroccan border near Oujda that placed him in the position of head of the Oran division and made him a possible choice to head the new French protectorate in Morocco in 1912. His policies, inspired most obviously by his experience of Gallieni’s policies in Madagascar (from 1900) and his own experiences in Algeria (from 1907), were based on an explicit blend of political and military strategy in which military action was minimized and served primarily to complement thorough preparatory intelligence and sociopolitical policies aimed at persuading key indigenous figures, and groups, of the advantages of cooperating with the French. Lyautey’s predispositions included most prominently an orientalist passion for the exotic and an antidemocratic admiration for the aristocracy, which expressed themselves, respectively, in policies aimed at both preserving the sultan and Islamic institutions and support of the Grand Caids in southern Morocco, despite the opportunistic basis of their claims to leadership and the continual flow of irrefutable evidence of their stupendous corruption and exploitation of the populace. The caids presented themselves as local aristocrats in areas the French did not have the troops to adequately control, and this took precedence over all evidence of their deleterious impact on most social classes, including, most particularly, the rural poor. Perhaps what most positively characterized Lyautey as résident général was that he possessed enough confidence in his own policies and political skills to resist, at least for a time, a multitude of pressures from French vested interests and yet had the grace to consult seriously both with French experts and the makhzan. Although some major policy emphases initiated under his aegis, la Politique Berbère (see Berber Policy) and indirect rule through the Grand Caids, were particularly misconceived and clearly failed miserably, his overall policy of respect for Moroccan institutions and traditions has endlessly fascinated French scholars and has most probably had positive impacts that help to distinguish later Moroccan history from that of Algeria in ways that Lyautey and his colleagues would not have found surprising. Lyautey characterized his policy as like a “tache d’huile” (drop of

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oil) in which a zone of influence gradually spreads over an entire area. The key was to set up many government centers (judicial, administrative, and educational) that would quickly extend their influence and eliminate the means of significant resistance. This involved the simultaneous support and control/modification of indigenous institutions as well as the establishment of new institutions. Lyautey frequently assumed the apologetic position that the French were primarily in Morocco as educators and should never forget that fundamentally Morocco would be a place for Moroccans rather than Frenchmen. This set him up for conflict with the colonial lobby and corporate interests but contributed, despite its hypocritical qualities in the context of French imperialist policy, some mitigating influence to the shape of the colonial enterprise that followed. There was undoubtedly a continuing recognition that respect for indigenous institutions was critical if the dangerously uprooted characteristics of the Algerian populace were to be avoided (Rivet 1988). Lyautey’s predominant legacy to the colonial period was, however, less positive. He established a pattern of underfinancing the modernization infrastructure intended to benefit average Moroccans, with most protectorate funds aimed at benefiting the colons or elites. His aristocratic leanings firmly entrenched an administrative refusal to acknowledge the enormous social damage caused by exploitation of the rural poor that was fostered and made possible by French support for indigenous elites, who reached levels of corruption, and immunity from popular backlash, only dreamed of before the protectorate. Lyazidi, Ahmad (Muhammad). One of the elder statesmen of the istiqlâl party and a Rabati, Lyazidi helped found in the late 1920s, with ‘allâl al-fâsî, some free schools in Fès to spread salafîya ideas they had been exposed to at the qarawîyîn. The faculty and graduates of these schools provided a core for the future istiqlâl party. In 1944 the French imprisoned Lyazidi along with other members of the newly formed istiqlâl party (‘allâl al-fâsî had been exiled in 1937). In 1946, Labonné, the new ministre résident (30 March 1946-13 May 1947), released Lyazidi and others to promote Franco-Moroccan solidarity. Lyazidi continued activism from the shelter of Tanger and with independence served as minister of commerce and then minister of defense before resigning in 1959. In the latter capacity, he directed the suppression of the Rif Uprising (1957-1959), which was fairly violent in its final stages. After retiring from government service Lyazidi took a position as president of the Banque Nationale de Développement Economique.

-Mmâ al-‘aynîn. Born in the Mauritanian Hodh around 1848 (perhaps 27 sha‘bân 1246H) and growing up in his father’s zâwiya, mâ al-‘aynîn

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Maa-el-Ainine, Mohamed Taquioullah

bn al-shaykh muHammad fâDil al-qalqamî (c.1848-1910) gained influence in the south of Morocco as pressures from European powers on the makhzan increased. From his Saharan perspective, the increased presence of the French via Algeria combined with the continuing loss of prestige of the makhzan as it was bullied, forced to compromise with, and subject to extortion by foreign powers meant that the cause of Islam itself was at stake. A brilliant military strategist as well as religious scholar, mâ al-‘aynîn became known throughout the northwestern Sahara from his bases in the zâwiya of Saguiat alHamra (from 1884) and later in Smara. He received financial and symbolic tributes from far and wide. mawlây HâfiZ even studied with mâ al-‘aynîn when a prince and kept in contact afterwards. At age 28 he went on the Hajj via Tanger and Egypt. While the French were pressing from the north and east, they also were moving into Mauritania and so putting pressure on mâ al-‘aynîn from the south. In 1906, mâ al-‘aynîn appealed to mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz for support against the French in Mauritania, but in general he contented himself with occasional subsidies from the makhzan and made only one significant attempt to become a major political figure in Morocco itself. On that occasion in 1910 he declared himself sultan, after finding that mawlây HâfiZ was just as incapable of standing up to the French as mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz, and marched as far north as the Tadla where his forces were defeated by General Moinier. He then withdrew to Tiznit where he died in October (17 shawwâl 1328). After mâ al-‘aynîn moved his base of operations to Tiznit he was succeeded on his death by a son, aHmad al-hîba, who was both less able and less circumspect. Maa-El-Ainine, Mohamed Taquioullah. Maa-El-Ainine is a member of the Conseil Constitutionnel and a research professor. He received his baccalauréat in mathematics at Las Palmas (Spain), licence in law (droit) from the Université Mohammed V in Rabat, a DES in labor law (droit du travail), DES in civil law, and a doctorat in law. Since 1984, Maa-El-Ainine has taught at the Faculté de Droit, Université Mohammed V and ENAP in Rabat. He also taught at the Institut Supérieur de Journalisme between 1988 and 1995. Maa-El-Ainine served as a deputy and a vice president of the Chamber of Representatives from 1977 to 1993. Maa-El-Ainine is also a member of the Conseil spécial de Sa Majesté le Roi pour les affaires sahariennes. He took part in many conferences and international meetings to defend the integrity of the Moroccan Sahara. Maa-El-Ainine is also a member of many associations. He is the president of the Association de OuedEddahab pour la coopération and the secretary-general of the Association des philosophes et des recherches des pays arabo-africains united at the Assemblée de Casablanca in 1984. Maâninou, Haj Ahmed. Born in Salé in 1896, Maâninou died on 11 May 2003. Educated in theology, he received different diplomas in many

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Arab countries. At the beginning of the 1930s he started the first private school in Salé and in 1933 organized the first ceremony of the Fête de la Throne in Salé. In 1934, with Mohamed Hassar, he organized a demonstration against the colonial occupation and spent two months in jail. In 1936, he was again jailed because of his demands for liberty for the media. In 1937, he toured numerous Arab countries and met with many Pan-Arab leaders. When he returned to Morocco, he was not allowed to return to Salé, so he settled in Tétouan and worked as a preacher and journalist before he joined al-waHda al maghribiya (the Union Marocaine). In 1941, Maâninou settled in Tanger and in 1946 joined the shûra wa-l-istiqlâl party with which he fought for the liberation of the country from colonialism. Maaninou, Mohamed Seddik. Born in 1944 in Tanger, Maaninou has a licence in droit public. He served as the director of Moroccan television between 1978 and 1983 and director of information at the ministry of information between 1984 and 1992. Maaninou was also the secretary-general of the ministry of information (1992-1995), and became the secretary-general of the ministry of communication in 1995. Maaouni, Hassan. Born in 1946, Maaouni is a former secrétaire d’état. He pursued his primary education in Tagzirt and his secondary education in El Ksiba and Casablanca. Maaouni received a baccalauréat (type français), licence in economics, and a Doctorat èsEconomie Gestion des Entreprises. Maaouni taught mathematics at lycées in Casablanca before he became director of auditing at Shell Morocco. Maaouni was a member of the Mouvement Populaire between 1968 and 1971 and a member of its central committee between 1972 and 1985. Maaouni was also a founding member of the Mouvement National Populaire in 1991 and a member of its bureau politique. Between 1998 and 2000, Maaouni served as the secrétaire d’état auprés du ministre de l’industrie, du commerce et de l’artisanat, chargée de l’artisanat. El Maaroufi, Abdallah. Born 1 October 1944 in Casablanca, El Maaroufi, a former ambassador to the United States, pursued his studies at the American University in Beirut (1963-1965), then at Harvard University, and Princeton University in the United States (1967-1969). He received a doctorat in public relations in 1969. El Maaroufi served as président directeur général, président, and vice président of many banking institutions such as the Banque Central Populaire, the Société Marocaine de Dépôt et de Crédit, the Banque Populaire Maroco-centra-africaine, and la Banque Populaire Marocoguinéenne (1990-2000). El Maaroufi also occupied different administrative positions within the World Bank (1969-1998). He has been an active member within various academic and economic organizations and associations such as the Fondation Mohamed V de

224

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Solidarité, Université Al-Akhawayn, Ecole Américaine de Tanger, the Chambre Internationale de Commerce du Maroc and the Association des Economistes Marocains. Madbouh, Gen. Muhammad. One of the two leaders of the Coup manqué, with Lt. Col. Muhammad Ababou, he was known to be scrupulously honest and disdainful of luxury. On his death, it is said the various cash gifts of the king were found labeled and untouched in his house. His motivations for participating in the coup are presumed to have been his abhorrence for what he viewed as the corruption of almost everyone in a position of power. He died, in unclear circumstances, during the coup attempt. The most probable explanation is a disagreement with Muhammad Ababou over the disposition of the king or the various deaths at Skhirat, which may not have been planned by Madbouh, who had, however, no authority over the cadets because they were Ababou’s cadets from the Ahermoumou NCO school. Madrid Conference on Morocco. The Madrid Conference on Morocco (19 May-3 July 1880) produced the Madrid Convention, whose eighteen articles extended the rights of foreigners in Morocco. The conference had been called, at Moroccan and British request, to resolve the serious problems caused by the proliferation of individuals claiming protection status based on either foreign citizenship or having the status of a commercial agent (semsar/broker or mukhallat/rural agent) for a foreign power within Morocco as well as to rationalize the various privileges based on bilateral treaties that a multitude of foreigners and their agents claimed. Despite the best efforts of the British ambassador to Morocco, John Drummond Hay, and the Moroccan foreign minister, Mohammad Bargash, the Madrid Conference made matters much worse for Morocco because it ended up institutionalizing rights that helped many Moroccans and all foreigners operate commercial enterprises largely beyond the control of the Moroccan government. The thirteen governments represented (Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Morocco, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United States) were based on the list of foreign powers who had a representative at Tanger (Parsons 1976:79) and provided the basis (plus Russia) for the list of countries attending the Conference of Algeciras in 1906. Although Germany had been willing to support Britain’s position on the need for reforms, with the advent of Bismarck in Germany the need for reforms in Morocco took a back seat to the pressing need to mollify France. In consequence, Germany’s representative was instructed to vote with France, and any chances there might have been of significant reform disappeared (Parsons 1976:81-82). See also Algeciras, Conference of; Tangier Convention; Tétouan War of 1859-1860; and Protection/ Himâya.

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madyân, abû shu‘ayb. abû shu‘ayb madyân ibn al-Husayn al-andalusî (1126-1197) was a much venerated sufi who made a case for the intercessory power of marabouts and the virtues of piety, abstinence and prayer. He was the originator of a Tarîqa known first as the madanîya when developed in Tlemcen and then, after some modification by ‘alî shâdhilî in Tunis (d.1256), as the shâdhilîya, which became one of the core branches of maraboutic tradition for the Maghrib. At least nine subsequent maraboutic traditions derive directly from the shâdhilîya. maghrâwa dynasty. The maghrâwa confederation of zanâta Berbers supposedly originated in the region of modern Algeria between Tlemcen and Ténès. In 786 the maghrâwa under muHammad bn khâzir conquered Tlemcen but were soon displaced by the Idrisids. Between 925 and 928, the maghrâwa revolted against and killed a Fatimid ally, maSâla of the miknâsa, and then were subsequently defeated by a Fatimid army under abû al-qâsim, the mahdi’s son, who conquered as far as Tlemcen. In 976/7, again allies of the Umayyads in Spain, the maghrâwa tribe conquered sijilmâsa from the banû midrar who had built the city in 757 and had held it since except for a two-year interlude when the shi‘ite Fatimids held it from 909 to 911. The leader at this time of the maghrâwa, a branch of the zanâta tribe, was khazrun bn fulful. Between 930 and 958, when the Fatimid general jawhar subdued much of the Maghrib, the maghrâwa sided actively with the Umayyads against the Fatimids. In 973, when the Umayyad general Ghalib invaded Morocco, the Fatimid influence was eliminated except for a brief period (979-984) when the Zirid general Buluggin conquered parts of eastern Morocco and the maghrâwa in particular. In general, from 973 the zanâta tribes, maghrâwa, banî ifrân, and miknâsa, were left to govern Morocco for the sunni Umayyads. By mid-11th century, the maghrâwa held most of the Sous and Draa, sijilmâsa and Aghmat (40 km southeast of Marrakech), as well as Fès, where they had established themselves by 987. In 996, the Umayyads in whose name they nominally governed were forced to impose an Andalusian governor but zîrî’s son al-mu‘iz was soon restored to power. Toward the end of their control of Fès, the city seems to have prospered commercially due to its ties with the other commercial centers controlled by the maghrâwa. The maghrâwa rule in Fès is also seen as a golden age of Moroccan Judaism though in 1032 the banî ifrân from near Salé attacked Fès where they raped and pillaged, killing 6,000 Jews (Corcos 1976:7). This was a period of warfare and tension between sunni rule in Morocco and kharijite rule (see kharijism) farther east that ended with the destruction of the TlemcenTahert-sijilmâsa corridor, changing it from a thriving commercial region to a less prosperous nomadic region (Laroui 1977:141). By midcentury, the maghrâwa were one of the main obstacles in the way of Almoravid expansion. sijilmâsa fell to ibn yasîn in 1053 and then again in 1056. In 1069, the Almoravids definitively conquered Fès,

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after installing a short-lived governor in 1067, and massacred about 3,000 maghrawa, banî ifran, zanâta, and miknâsa. Mahdiya. (lat. 34º 16' N., long. 6º 39' W.) Located at the mouth of the Sebou river, settlement at this site dates back to an early Phoenician settlement founded by Hanno in the 5th century B.C. referred to as the factory of Thymiateria. In the 10th century Arabic sources refer to the settlement at the mouth of the Sebou by the name of al-ma‘mûra (the populated) and Halq (the mouth), sometimes appending the name of the river to that of the settlement. The Islamic settlement is said to have been founded by the banî ifrân at the end of the 10th century. The first Almohad sultan, ‘abd al-mu’min (1130-1163), built a naval dockyard there, but its later history up to the 16th century is obscure. On 24 June 1515, an 8,000 man Portuguese force occupied the town without resistance and the Portuguese constructed a substantial fort there but were driven out by Muslim forces later that year. By the end of the 16th century ma‘mûra was the base of a band of English pirates who plundered European shipping up and down the coast. In August of 1614, after negotiating with mawlây zidân, Spain captured the town and left a garrison in it of 1,500 men, renaming it San Miguel de Ultramar. The Spanish garrison held onto the town until mawlây ismâ‘îl captured it in 1681 and gave it the name al-mahdîya. Ma‘mura remains the name of the oak forest south of the Sebou river. Current maps reflect a further evolution in use as they refer to Mahdiya-Plage. makhzan. Originally the governmental usage of the term makhzan was to refer to the place where taxes were stored (the main treasury or al-bayt al-mâl) but with the Almoravids, Almohads, and Marinids it began to be used for the decentralized local storage of tax revenues (in kind and currency: e.g., the various treasuries), and this decentralized practice gradually led the term to be applied to the government as a whole. By the time of the Sa‘dians the makhzan began to be the normal term for the Moroccan government in general. The head of state during Morocco’s empire periods claimed the title of sultan, but this was changed to malik or king with the onset of the colonial period and the advent of modern nationalism. The term makhzan is particular to the Maghrib and occurs somewhat later in Andalusia. The term bilâd al-makhzan with its antonym, bilâd al-sîba (see fitna), was used to divide up the territory into those areas currently paying standard taxes and those that were not. The ‘Alawites under mawlây ismâ‘îl built seventy qasbas on the edge of the bilâd almakhzan to maintain and resist the shrinkage of this maximally taxable territory. Many more distant areas regularly received garrisons and sent tribute, but did so, in general, more irregularly or sent smaller proportions of their assessable wealth. Under mawlây al-Hasan I (1873-1894), the makhzan (as government bureaucracy) reached its most developed yet efficient

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form. The equivalent of the Department of the Interior was divided into three regions (from the Bou Regreg north to the Straits of Gibraltar, from the Bou Regreg south to the Sahara, and the Tafilalt) each with a secretary (kâtib) under the jurisdiction of the grand vizier (al-Sadr ala‘Zam). In addition there was a developed system of umanâ’ (sing. amîn) in charge of collecting revenues headed by an amîn al-umanâ’. The umanâ’ were divided into three categories: a) umanâ’ al-marâsiya, or officials of the customs houses in the port cities, b) umanâ’ almustafâdât, or officials responsible for gate taxes, revenues from government properties, and legal impositions (e.g., jizya: a tax on Jews, and al-a‘shâr: a tax on muslims), and c) umanâ’ al-qabâ’il, or officials delegated to collect revenues from the tribes (under mawlây al-Hasan I the rural tax called the tartîb and in earlier periods legal impositions based on rural revenue streams). The bulk of the revenues came, not unexpectedly, from the tribes (which included the vast bulk of the population), but the urban and customs revenue sources were those both most obvious to foreign observers and those for which the current historical record is richest. They were also the revenues that least fit qur’anic prescriptions and thus were the most contentious and variable. A minister of foreign affairs (wazîr al-baHr) was instituted in the reign of sîdî muHammad (1859-1873) and was given a representative in Tanger referred to as the sultan’s representative (nâ’ib al-sulTân). The government also included a minister of war (‘allâf), a secretary for grievances (kâtib al-shikâyât), and the equivalent of a minister of justice, the qadi of qadis (qâDî al-quDât). Within the palace mashwar (compound) there were a series of appointed positions responsible for organizing the day-to-day operations of the palace. These included a caid of the mashwar responsible for order and the various military groups residing in the mashwar as well as the presentation of people to the sultan. Under him were as well the master of the stables (mawlâ/mûl al-ruwâ) and the frâ’ijîya, the person responsible for the royal encampments (al-âfrâj). The mashwar was the public appendage of the palace. Within the palace household itself, matters were run by the Hâjib who controlled the domestic servants (HanâTî al-dakhlîyîn) and the minor officials responsible for various components of the domestic arrangements. The larger world of officialdom included a multitude of military and legal functionaries (caids and qadis) plus an array of accountants, advisors, scholars on minor subsidies, and specialists employed on a permanent but contingent basis. The last category included a range of people from important and influential to minor employees: from elite merchants who traded for the palace to artisans who built and repaired government property. Many of the scholars, despite their minor financial subsidies, comprised the ‘ulamâ’ who confirmed, or rejected, each new sultan and, collectively or individually, issued regular opinions on important legal and religious issues that at times approached the authoritative status of the proclamations made by a

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sultan. The performance of this government bureaucracy has been much derided by foreign observers and French colonial scholar, but on close inspection of government registers a different picture emerges. The 19th century bureaucracy, at least, seems to have managed a particularly difficult period with reasonable efficiency and at times even brilliance. Under mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz, things began to fall apart, yet throughout the first ninety years of the 19th century, difficult issues of currency depreciation and foreign commercial pressure for endless advantages to be confirmed by treaty were brilliantly managed. The makhzan’s revenue streams even from customs were maintained largely exempt from the ravages of depreciating currency despite treaties that continually tried to tie the makhzan to a static customs rate. Expenses were similarly adjusted through the use of an accounting currency (see Currency, accounting) that was continually adjusted to the rate of depreciation (adjusted upwards so that a given amount of accounting funds—in which revenues and all key salaries were calculated—represented increasing amounts of market currency as the latter depreciated). The actual performance of this bureaucracy gives the lie to hegemonic beliefs that, without mother France, Morocco would have collapsed in the early 20th century from incompetence. The significant financial problems Morocco faced at the end of the 19th century were almost entirely linked to European imperialistic behavior, even though mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz undoubtedly contributed a degree of ineptitude to the situation. mâlik bn anas. abû ‘abd allâh mâlik bn anas bn mâlik bn abî ‘âmir bn ‘amr bn al-Hârith bn ghaymân bn khuthayn bn ‘amr bn al-Hârith alaSbaHî, or simply imâm mâlik bn anas, was born around 90-97H (708-716) and died in 179/796 in Madîna where he had taught most of his life. Although fifteen somewhat different recensions of his work, al-kitâb al-muwaTTa’, are known, only two are complete. mâlik bn anas’s major work is characterized by a judicious adoption of an average, or common sense, view on juridical questions and a critical attitude toward Hadîth that has come to completely dominate the western parts of North Africa as well as the Sahel and all of subSaharan Islamic Africa, with the exception of the east coast. The second most important mâliki work, the mudawwana of ‘abd al-salâm bn sa‘îd saHnûn (777-855), was developed primarily under the influence of the scholars in qayrawân (Tunisia). The chronology of this gradual domination of mâlikî doctrines begins with the final withdrawal of the Fatimids to Egypt in 969. The Fatimids effectively reduced kharijism to a minority sect, and their withdrawal to Egypt left shi‘ism without its major supporter in the west. From this point on, malikism spread rapidly in the Maghrib and Andalusia, but it was not until the rule of the Marinids in the 13th and particularly the 14th century that mâlik bn anas’s teachings truly came to be the orthodoxy across the Maghrib. Fès and Tunis were the centers

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from which mâlikism spread throughout the Maghrib (Laroui 1977:214). It now predominates from Libya west and in the sahel from Nigeria to the west. No doubt both ibn yasîn and ibn tûmart were influenced by mâlikism because they were trained in Umayyad Spain or by teachers whose own mentors were in al-qayrawân, but the religious basis on which each founded, respectively, the Almoravid and Almohad empires was far too narrow and rigid to qualify as malikism. This narrowness caused significant problems for the Almohads, who came a century after the Almoravids and had to deal with the continuous critiques of mâliki fuqahâ’ in Islamic Spain and a resultant inability to unite the Islamic states in Spain against the Christian attacks in a lasting way. El Malki, Habib. Born 15 May 1946 in Boujad, El Malki served (1976-1982) as head of the department of economics (Sciences Economiques), Faculté des Sciences Juridiques, Economiques et Sociales of Université Mohammed V in Rabat. El Malki also served as president du GERM (Groupement d’Etudes et de Recherches sur la Méditerranée) and worked for FIDA (Fonds International pour le Développement Agricole) Rome (1982), UNESCO (Division de Philosophie-Division des indicateurs socio-économiques-Division des études et de planification) in Paris (1983-89), and the OMS (Organisation Mondiale de la Santé - Bureau Régional) in Copenhagen (1986). El Malki was a deputy (USFP) for the district of Boujâad (Province de Khouribga) from 1993 to 1997 and was reelected 14 November 1997 to the Chamber of Representatives. Since 1992, El Malki has been a member of l’Académie du Royaume du Maroc. On 14 March 1998, he became minister of agriculture (agriculture, du développement rural et de la pêche), a post he kept until September 2000. Currently he is a professor of economics at the Université Mohammed V in Rabat and minister of education. Mallah (mallâH). Although separate quarters for Jews had become common in Europe in the years following the invention of a ghetto in Italy, it was, according to most authorities, not until 1438 that one was established in Morocco. This first separate urban quarter was created when the tomb of mawlây idrîs was discovered in the old city of Fès and the ‘ulamâ’ declared the town a sacred site and had the Jews removed to a distinct quarter adjacent to fâs al-jadîd. Originally this quarter had been constructed for Christian militia and the royal archers and was called al-HimS (as in the Homs of Syria), but its location on saline ground (mallâHa is a saline spring in Arabic) gave rise to the name mallâH, spelled variously in English as mallah or mellah. Traditions in Sefrou claim that a separate quarter was created for Jews in the 14th century, but this may be part of a competitive legend like Sefrou’s claim to have been founded before Fès. It is important to note that there were frequently adjacent Jewish and Muslim villages and

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that the innovation of a mallah was to limit Jewish residence only to a specific quarter; there had been statistical concentrations of Jewish and Muslim residents long before the 15th century. According to Jewish tradition a scandal caused by an altercation late at night in 1577 between a Muslim and a Jew led to the creation of a separate quarter for Jews in Marrakech. An alternative explanation is that the Sa‘dian sultan aHmad, al-manSûr billâhi “al-dhahabî,” created a new quarter in 1578 to provide a place for the large number of Jews who had hitherto been residing in Aghmat-Ourika about 40 km southeast of Marrakech (Zafrani 1983:13). In 1682, mawlây ismâ‘îl constructed a distinct quarter for Jews outside the walls of Meknès to make room within the traditional city for the Filala he was bringing from Tafilalt. This new area soon became an integral part of the city, and due to its deliberate construction by royal decree it was quite different than the norm elsewhere. The norm was to have Jewish and Muslim residence integrated, though in many small villages and a few cities such as Taroudannt many Jews lived in separate adjoining villages—though these did not have walls nor were there laws mandating segregated residence. It was 122 years before separate quarters for Jews were constructed in any other cities. mawlây sulaymân ordered a mallah constructed in Essaouira in 1804, and in Rabat, Salé, and Tétouan in 1807 (El Mansour 1990:15). mawlây sulaymân’s motivations in this regard seem to have been derived from his general desire to minimize foreign relations and a desire to insulate the Muslim community from the main agents in international trade (Corcos 1976:90, 93). In Essaouira, some elite Jewish families resided outside the mallah in the more posh houses of the qasba. The final official mallah to be constructed was that of Demnate built in 1894 by mawlây al-Hasan to protect Jews from the local persecutions they had suffered since 1864. The term mallah (or mellah) itself, a toponym for the area in which the Fès Jewish quarter was built, seems to have first been used as a generic term for Jewish quarter in 1541 in a Judaeo-Arabic letter and then again in a Hebrew text in 1552, but neither was the common nor preferred term until much later. Most Arabic texts used terms such as hara’t al-yahûd, while most European sources tended to use some variant of the Spanish “Juderia.” The anarchic thirty years up to 1757 saw a massive influx of refugees in the cities, and this transformed the Jewish quarters, which, though they had been comparable or superior in residential standard to the Muslim quarters, soon became both significantly substandard and even, in the eyes of the Jewish community, symbols of misery (Corcos 1976:89). By late in the 19th century the term mallah seems to have been the preferred term. al-malzûzî, ‘abd al-‘azîz. One of the great poets of the Marinid period, abû fâris ‘abd al-‘azîz bn ‘abd al-wâHid bn muHammad al-miknâsî almalzûzî (d.1297-1299) was born in Meknès and largely remained there

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until his death. He witnessed the end of the Almohad dynasty and served in the administration and military of the Marinid dynasty. He was also known as a faqîh and is of most interest historically for his poem of about 2,259 verses, entitled naZm al-sulûk fî al-anbiyâ’ wa-lkhulafâ’ wa-l-mulûk (organization of prophets, caliphs, and kings). This begins with the biblical era and then passes consecutively through the orthodox caliphs, the Umayyad and Abbaside dynasties, the rebellious tribes of the Maghrib, the Almoravids, and the Almohads to end with the Marinids up to the reign of abû ya‘qûb yûsuf. The Marinid period occupies more than half of the poem and includes detailed descriptions of customs, events, and biographical summaries. El Mandjra, Mahdi [al-mahdî al-manjra]. Born 13 March 1933 in Rabat, El Mandjra studied at the Lycée Lyautey in Casablanca (1944-1948), Putney School, Vermont, United States (1948-1950), Cornell University, Ithaca, New York (1950-1954; B.A. Government, 1954), the London School of Economics and Political Science, and the University of London (1954-1957; Ph.D. in Economics 1957). El Mandjra spent a year as an assistant professor at Mohamed V University in Rabat (1957-1958) and then took a position with the United Nations (First Counsellor, Permanent Mission of Morocco to the United Nations, New York; 1958-1959). From 1959 to 1960, Mahdi served as director general of Moroccan Broadcasting and Television. In 1961, he began working for UNESCO as head of the Africa Division (1961-1963), director of the executive office of the director general (1963-1966), and assistant director general for the social sciences, human sciences and culture (1966-1969). In 1970, El Mandjra was a visiting fellow at the Center for International Studies, London School of Economics. He then returned to UNESCO as assistant director general for programming and future studies (1971-1976) and special adviser to the director general (1975-1976). El Mandjra again took positions with the UN from 1980 to 1991 as assistant secretary general, United Nations Programme for Development (UNDP) and coordinator, Conference on Technical Cooperation between African Countries (Nairobi, 1980), as special consultant to the United Nations during the International Year of Disabled Persons (1980-1981), as special advisor to the director general of the Intergovernmental Bureau for Informatics (IBI) (1981-1987), and as advisor to the secretary-general of the United Nations on the programmes of the United Nations system against the abuse of drugs (1990-1991). From 1976 to 1979, El Mandjra returned to teaching as a professor in the Faculté des Sciences Juridiques, Economiques et Sociales at Université Mohammed V. From 1981, El Mandjra has been a professor at Université Mohammed V, though he has also been a visiting professor at the Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo (1998). El Mandjra has received numerous awards including the Prix de la Vie Economique (France, 1981) and the Peace Medal of the

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Albert Einstein International Academy (1995). He is the author of numerous books including Cultural Diversity Key to Survival (1995), Decolonisation Culturelle: Défi majeur du 21e Siècle (1996), The First Civilizational War (1999), and Intifadates (2001). Mansouri, Mustapha. Born 22 August 1953 in Nador, Mansouri received a licence and maîtrise in sciences économiques (1974 and 1976) from the Université de Reims in France. In 1978, he received a diplôme des études approfondies (Université de Nanterre at Paris X), in 1981 he obtained a doctorat de troisième cycle in economics (Université de la Sorbone-Paris), and in 1991 he earned a doctorat d’état in economics from the Université Mohammed V in Rabat. Mansouri has been a university professor (since 1981), deputy (province de Nador), president of the Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI) group in the parliament (1992-1998), and president of the oriental region and of the Conseil municipal of Al Arroui. He has also been a member of the Conseil d’administration de l’agence de la promotion et du développement des préfectures et provinces du nord and on the editorial board of the Revue marocaine d’administration locale et du développement. Mansouri has represented Morocco in international scientific meetings (at the UN, in Canada, and at the European Union). On 14 March 1998, Mansouri became Ministre du transport et de la marine marchande, and on 6 September 2000, he became Ministre de l’industrie, du commerce, de l’énergie et des mines. In the 2002 government, he became Ministre de l’emploi, des affaires sociales et de la solidarité. al-ma‘qil. An Arab tribe that migrated west from Yemen around the same time as the banû hilâl and reached southern Algeria (Touat and Gourara) in numbers in the 13th century. They then rapidly penetrated into eastern and southern parts of al-maghrib al-aqSâ, into the Moulouya valley, the Tafilalt, the Draa, and the Sous around the final years of the Almohad dynasty (c.1250). They soon began to levy tolls and extort funds from the oasis communities and shortly later began to sedentarize. The numbers involved are hard to estimate, though the initial number may have been as few as 200 (tents?). The ma‘qil ended up including a number of distinct nomadic groups. Under the Marinids the ma‘qil controlled many oases and much of the Saharan regions of al-maghrib al-aqSâ. As the Marinids began to decline, the ma‘qil crossed the Atlas and invaded the Haouz of Marrakech at the beginning of the 16th century. At the same time a part of the ma‘qil, the dhawî Hassân, spread into Mauritania where the colloquial Arabic is still referred to as Hassânîya. Other groups of the ma‘qil migrated north through the Tafilalt to Fès and then down the Sebou and Bou Regreg rivers where some settled south of Rabat. Initially the ma‘qil were represented in the Haouz of Marrakech by the Rehamna (alraHâmina), who were brought north in part to answer the military needs of the Sa‘dian dynasty at the beginning of the 16th century. Two

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of the ma‘qil tribes whose names became particularly prominent during the later ‘Alawite period are the jaysh al-udâya and the shabbânât. The former were invited into the central maghrib al-aqSâ by mawlây ismâ‘îl (1672-1727) while the latter controlled Marrakech when mawlây al-rashîd (c. 1664) arrived to conquer it. al-maqqarî. shihâb al-dîn abû al-‘abbâs aHmad bn muHammad bn aHmad bn yaHyâ al-tilimsânî al-fâsî al-mâlikî (1577-1632), known as al-maqqarî, was born in Tlemcen and died in Cairo. One of his ancestors had been chief qadi of Fès, and al-maqqarî received a broad education even before going to Marrakech around 1600. There he studied with aHmad bâba, from whom he received an ijâza. He also began frequenting the dilâ’ zâwiya where his master for Hadîth was maHammad bn abî bakr. al-maqqarî moved to Fès where he was appointed imâm and muftî at the qarawîyîn mosque from 1613-1617. In the following year he went on a pilgrimage leaving his wife and a daughter behind and settling in Cairo. He sent back a letter authorizing his wife to get a divorce and married in Cairo. He traveled to Jerusalem and Damascus as well as Mecca and Medina and died in Cairo just before a planned relocation to Damascus. A noted historian and biographer, al-maqqarî wrote a number of important works. His first major biography written when in Fès was a monograph on qâDî ‘iyâD (1083/8-1149), azhâr al-riyâD fî akhbâr ‘iyâD, which also includes biographical notices on other Moroccan and Andalusian scholars. In 1629, while in Cairo, al-maqqarî wrote a masterpiece on Muslim Spain, nafH al-Tîb min ghuSn al-andalus alraTîb wa-dhikr wazîrihâ lisân al-dîn ibn al-khaTîb, which is a massive compilation of historical materials, most of which have been lost in the original, that is an invaluable source for the period. The nafH is written in two parts; the first deals with the history of Andalusia and the second is a biography of ibn al-khaTîb. A third work, rawDat al-âs al-‘aTirat al-anfâs fî dhikr man laqîtuhu min a‘lâm al-HaDratayn marrâkush wa-fâs, contains biographies of Moroccan scholars and notables as well as other included texts of historical value. al-maqqarî also wrote works in other traditional genres, including a compilation of poetry from various authors, a theological poem in 500 verses, fiqh, and a work on magic. Maraboutic traditions. The Maraboutic traditions in Morocco begin with disciples of such famous mystics as ‘abd al-qâdir jilâlî (1078-1176), who lived near Baghdad and whose teachings were the inspiration for the qâdirîya orders, or al-ghazâlî (1059-1111), whose philosophical and mystical views were viewed as heretical by the Almoravids but taken up by the Almohads, thus giving an official endorsement of sorts to mystical approaches to Islam. Moroccan-based Tarîqa begin in the 12th century and become major actors by the 15th and 16th centuries. Although mysticism in Islam went through considerable development from its first manifestations in the 8th century to the thought of al-

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ghazâlî in the 11th century, mystical thought in Morocco might be said to have really begun to have significance once a compromise between intellectual and populist mysticism had been fashioned in the 12th century. The following list includes the most significant Tarîqa for Morocco: ‘allawîya: the Algerian branch of the darqâwa (Mostaganem-Ben Alioua, since 1919). ‘ammârîya: branch of the qâdirîya in Algeria and Tunisia ended in the 19th c. ‘isawîya: branch of the jazûlîya centered in Meknès founded by sîdî muHammad bn ‘isa al-suyânî al-mukhtârî (1466-1526) originally from the region between Marrakech and Essaouira. ibn ‘isa received an initiation into the jazûlîya order, made a pilgrimage, and settled in Meknès. He left little in the way of writing and was known as an ascetic, not a scholar. He taught renouncement of this world, love of one’s neighbor, and the defense of the oppressed and weak. He was reputed to have accomplished many miracles. His disciples also have recourse to trance, in which they engage in unusual feats, to attain these goals. The muqaddam of the saint’s tomb in Meknès is the normal head of the order. bu‘alîya: branch of the qâdirîya primarily in Algeria and Egypt founded in the 19th century. daghûghîya: an ecstatic order related to the Hamadsha whose founder, sîdî daghûghî, originating among the banî daghûgh of the Doukkala, was a black disciple of sîdî ‘alî Hamdûsh, the founder of the Hamadsha. sîdî daghûghî’s tomb is also on jabal zarhûn. It is said that when the master died the disciple struck his head in anguish with everything he could lay his hands on and that this gave rise to the flagellations of his latter-day disciples. darqâwa: a branch of the jazûlîya in Morocco and Algeria founded by mawlây al-‘arbî bn aHmad darqâwî (1737-1823), who was a disciple of mawlây ‘alî al-jamâl al-‘amrânî al-fâsî, himself a follower of al-shâdhilî. darqâwî’s innovations were oriented toward getting adepts to detach themselves from the base reality they were normally immersed in and to praise God through dance, solitude, fasting, and prayer. The darqâwa became true dervishes in the sufi tradition and spread rapidly throughout Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and the Sahara, even gaining followers in the Arabian peninsula. The center of the order is in Fès. The Tarîqa has various offshoots including the bûzîdîya, kittânîya, Harrâqîya, and ‘allawîya, and numerous zawâya (s. zâwiya) are affiliated with the order. ghâzîya: a branch of the shâdhilîya in southern Morocco (c. 1526). gnawa: an offshoot of the qâdirîya appealing to men and women primarily in or from southern Morocco. Music and dance may take precedence over somber prayer. West African rhythms are clearly discernible in gnawa music. Habîbîya: a branch of the shâdhilîya in Tafilalt (c. 1752).

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haddâwa: an itinerant Moroccan order (Tagzirt, 19th century). Hamâdsha: a branch of the jazûlîya in Morocco founded by sî ‘alî bn Hamdûsh (d. 1720) around the end of the 17th century. It is derived from the sharqâwa localized in the zarhûn with offshoots in Meknès and Salé. The Hamadsha are found throughout Morocco with a concentration at Moulay Idriss. The seventh day of mulûd the Hamadsha have a moussem (festival) at the tomb of their founder on jabal zarhûn (near mawlây idrîs). The Hamadsha are renowned for going into ecstatic trances and mutilating their bodies in their fits of ecstasy, including striking their skulls with cleavers and engaging in a variety of self-flagellations. The Hamadsha’s several derivatives include the daghûghîya, Saddâqîya, riyâHîya, qâsimîya Tarîqa. Hamdawîyîn: founded by sîdî aHmad bn yûsuf al-milyani al-rashîdî who died in Miliani near Tlemcen in 1525. The order was established in Marrakech early in the 19th century by mawlây mujib al-filâlî, whose zâwiya and tomb are in Rehamna. HanSalîya/aHanSalîya: Originally one of Morocco’s earliest religious lodges, the zâwiya was founded by sa‘îd u ‘amur al-aHanSalî in the 12th century in the High Atlas on the banks of the Ahansal river. sa‘îd u ‘amur al-ahansalî was a disciple of abû muHammad salâ and sîdî bû majân. One of the zâwiya’s founder’s descendents founded the Tarîqa in the 17th century. abû ‘uthman sa‘îd u yûsuf al-aHanSalî (d. 1702) studied in Fès, Ksar El-Kebir, and the Tafilalt as well as Medina and Cairo. On returning he studied in Tamgrout with the shaykh of the nâSirîya and was initiated into the jazûlîya tradition. Within a few generations the Tarîqa declined in Morocco in large part because it incurred the wrath of mawlây ismâ‘îl because of its religious and political influence. mawlây ismâ‘îl attacked most of the order’s branches and dispersed their disciples. The order continued to flourish at least for a while in northeastern Morocco and as far as the region of Constantine in Algeria. In southern Morocco (19th century) it was seen as a chleuh branch of the nâSirîya. By the time of the protectorate there were still a few zâwiyas of the aHanSalîya in Morocco, primarily in the Marrakech-Doukkala region. jazûlîya: founded by abû ‘abd allâh al-jazûlî al-samlâlî (c. 1400-1465) as a development from the shâdhilîya. Its branches include darqâwa, Hamâdsha, ‘isawîya, sharqâwa, Taybîya. See also aljazûlî. jilâla: Moroccan branch of the qâdirîya that encourages its disciples to enter trances, originating in Tanger. See also Music. karzâzîya: the Tafilalt branch of the shâdhilîya (19th century). kattânîyin: founded in mid-19th century by the idrîsî sharîf sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd al-kabîr al-kattânî, known as al-kutub (books), the order was based on the darqâwa tradition. It became important in 1890 when the founder was imprisoned by mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz’s regent bâ Hmad. This served to make the order

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more famous, and when at the regent’s death al-kattânî was released, his prestige was so high that he ended up being elected sultan by the fâsî ‘ulamâ’ when ‘abd al-‘azîz abdicated. When mawlây HâfiZ entered Fès, al-kattânî reproached him one too many times for collaboration with the French and was put to death. The Tarîqa has been centered in Fès but has had numerous members as well in Meknès and Marrakech. See also al-kattânî. khâDirîya: a Moroccan order founded by ibn al-dabbâgh (c. 1717), offshoots include the amîrghanîya, idrîsîya, and sanûsîya. madanîya: original name for the shâdhilîya founded in Tlemcen. mashîshîya: founded by ‘abd al-salâm bn mashîsh al-Hasanî (d.1228) and originally joined with the later shâdhilîya, al-shâdhilî is said to have been ibn mashîsh’s student, then separated in the 16th century. nâSirîya: a branch of the shâdhilîya founded at Tamgrout (in the Draa) in the 17th century by sîdî muHammad bn nâSir (1592-1669). See also nâSirîya. qâdirîya: founded in a village, jilân, near Baghdad by ‘abd al-qâdir jilânî (1078-1166). ‘abd al-qâdir jilânî is often viewed as the greatest Islamic saint, quTb al-qTûb, and his doctrines have had enormous influence in North Africa, where they are said to have been introduced around 1196, and in the Sahara as well as in most Islamic lands. ‘abd al-qâdir jilânî taught humility, poverty, charity, sincerity, and self-control. In the Maghrib, offshoots of the qâdirîya include the ‘ammârîya, ‘arûsîya, bû‘alîya, gnawa, and jilâla as well as the raHHâlîya: an order of Moroccan jugglers (see below). raHHalîya: sîdî muHammad bn Hasan, known as sîdî raHHal albûdâlî and as raHHal al-kûsh (couche) al-aswad, was born in Abda and acquired his name raHHal (nomad) because he lived numerous places (among the Rehamna, Mesfioua, and in Marrakech) without being well received anywhere. He was renowned for his piety and poverty as well as his mystical powers. Legend has it that he went to the ends of the earth, where a great serpent encircled a mountain and all the water boiled, and he made the water cool and the serpent disappear. His followers in the 16th century were ardent mujahidîn against the Portuguese. After his death (1527) the wird (mystic sect) proliferated in the Marrakech region south to the Glawa areas. Its practitioners make a habit of taming serpents and drinking boiling water unharmed as well as other feats of skill such as juggling. raHmanîya: Algerian branch of the khalwatîya formed posthumously on death of muHammad bn ‘abd al-raHmân (d.1794) that played a major role resisting the French in the 19th century. rashîdîya: Algerian 19th-century offshoot of the yûsufîya. regraga: From Chiadma near Essaouira, the regraga claim to have sent a mission to visit the Prophet muHammad during his life time and to have then been the first to bring Islam to Morocco.

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shâdhilîya: founded by abû madyan in Tlemcen (d. 1197) and developed by ‘ali al-shâdhilî of Tunis (d. 1256). The Maghrib branches include the ghâzîya, Hâbîbîya, karzâzîya, nâSirîya, shaykhîya, suhaylîya, yûsufîya, zarrûqîya, and ziyânîya. sharqâwa: the sharqawa began as a zâwiya founded in 1536 by mHammad bn abî al-qâsim al-za‘rî al-sharqâwî al-jâbirî who was a disciple of the nâSirîya (Tamgrout) version of the shâdhilîyajazûlîya tradition. The zâwiya was founded in Boujad (1599) and has made the town a major pilgrimage site. See sharqâwa. shaykhîya: branch of the shâdhilîya originating among the Ulad Sidi Shaykh near Oran, Algeria. Tayyibîya: another name for the wazzânîya after its fourth shaykh, mawlây al-Tayyib (d. 1767). Talibîya: small order founded in 19th-century Salé. tîjânîya: founded by aHmad tîjânî (1733-1814). Established first in the Maghrib in Temacin and ‘Ayn Mahdi but disseminated widely elsewhere and in the Sahel. See also tîjânîya. yûsufîya: branch of the shâdhilîya founded in Miliana by sî aHmad bn yûsuf (circa 1525). wazzânîya: founded by the Idrisid sharîf mawlây ‘abd allâh ibn ibrâhîm (d. 1678) in Ouazzane. The order subscribed to shâdhilîya (jazûlîya) principles. See wazzânîya. zarrûqîya: branch of the shâdhilîya founded in Fès (1493). zarrûqîya: branch of the shâdhilîya founded in the Maghrib (19th century). Marinid dynasty. The Marinid state was founded by the banû marîn zanâta Berbers who began around 1214 to conquer eastern Morocco from the Draa to the Rif. After an early defeat at the hands of the Almohads in 1244, the banû marîn returned in 1245 and by the time their leader abû yaHyâ died in 1258 had control of most of eastern and northern Morocco from the Draa and sijilmâsa to Salé, Taza, and Fès. The main obstacles to Marinid conquest, other than the Almohads, were the Hafsids and, closer to them geographically, the zayyânid dynasty of the banû ‘abd al-wad in Tlemcen. The latter, led by yaghmurasan, seem to have been distinctly threatened and so supported the Almohads. abû yaHyâ’s successor abû yûsuf ya‘qûb finally conquered Marrakech in 1269 and then captured and executed the remaining Almohad leaders who had fled to Tinmal in 1275. The northern coast was still ruled by the al-‘azfî dynasty centered in Sebta (Ceuta) and remained largely autonomous. sijilmâsa, which was retaken by the zayyânids in 1263, fell again to the Marinids only in 1274. The balance of power in the western Mediterranean changed dramatically during the Marinid era. In Spain, Aragon and Castille reconciled their differences (1291) and could thus present a united front toward Nasrid Muslim Spain centered around Cordova and Malaga. In the 14th century the Marinids briefly conquered much of

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Algeria (including Tlemcen:1337) and Tunisia (Tunis:1347) but their hold was ephemeral except for parts of Algeria. The probable motivation for the attempt, other than recapturing former glories, was to obtain the profits from the trans-Saharan trade, which had largely moved east with the fall of Ghana and the development of the Empire of Mali in the 14th century. Although several Marinid sultans exercised substantial authority, the Marinid state tended to be decentralized with significant amounts of power in the hands of local governors, at times turning into a nearly completely decentralized set of petty states, with the southern part centered around Marrakech engaging in an almost autonomous political and intellectual life. During the last century of the Marinid era the state was ruled by Wattasid viziers (1420-1458) followed by Wattasid sultans (1471-1550). One of the weaknesses of the Marinid state was that it was not founded on a distinct religious doctrine and its leaders could not claim special religious status to legitimize their rule. They faced rough going in Fès where the local elites considered Marinid claims to rule distinctly inferior claims to legitimacy than their own, Idrisid ancestry. To counteract this local opposition, the Marinids promoted Islamic education (malikism) and a legalistic scholarly approach to religion via a madrasa system in the urban centers. They also, as a zanâta group, were extremely tolerant of Jews, perhaps because the local Muslim elite were so hostile, and the Marinid period is viewed as a golden age by Moroccan Jews. Culture, commerce, and architecture flourished during the Marinid period. This tolerance and inability to claim special religious status hurt their claims to legitimacy and facilitated both the Wattasid takeover, the development of autonomous states such as that of the town of Chefchaouen founded around 1471 by sharîfs, and the subsequent Sa‘dian conquest. At the same time it can be argued that the Marinid cultural openness facilitated the modernization of the Moroccan military, which had begun to fall behind Europe as gunpowder-based artillery changed the tactics of war. The Wattasid success at the battle of ma‘mûra, where Moroccan artillery sank ships and captured a huge number of artillery pieces from an overconfident Portuguese force in 1515, indicated that, long before the Sa‘dians, Moroccan armies had begun to successfully fight the modernizing and newly imperialistic Europeans. This modernization also implied that any Moroccan army wishing to supplant the Wattasids had itself to adopt modern weapons and so established the groundwork for future Sa‘dian successes against European armies (Cook 1994). Marrakech. (lat. 31º 38' N., long. 7º 59' W.) Marrakech (marrâkush) was constructed at the orders of yûsuf bn tashfîn around 1062 as a nomadic base camp for Almoravid armies. It quickly grew to a large settlement but had no wall until the threat of the Almohads forced the construction of ramparts around 1126. When the Almohads conquered

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the Almoravid dynasty and captured Marrakech, the capital, in 1147, they too made it their capital. There they built the kutubîya mosque; the original kutubîya mosque turned out to be wrongly oriented so it was enlarged and reoriented. The name comes from the one hundred booksellers’ shops that used to surround the entrance. Marrakech remained the administrative, and in many ways the cultural, center until the Marinids took over and made Fès their capital. The Almohad period was a period of glory for Marrakech when the greatest intellectuals flocked to the city and the libraries were among the best in the world. During the Marinid period, Marrakech began to develop a distinct cultural and even political life. In the capital, the Marinids were forced to combat the local fâsî elite who tended to look down on the Marinid conquerors for their lack of ancient (glorious) ancestry, such as from Idris II. In the south this cultural dialogue had little resonance, and Marrakech began to develop a fairly distinct historical and cultural tradition. By 1430, Marrakech seems to have become at least de facto independent and did not help to fight the Portuguese until their arrival in Safi (1508) and places south. Yet by the 16th century, the cultural situation in Marrakech declined dramatically and it is said that in the town of the kutubîya mosque there was no longer even a single bookseller, the madrasa built by the Marinids was abandoned, and the Almohad palace had become a poultry house. When the Portuguese arrived in the south, the rulers in Marrakech were Hintâta, a Berber confederation that had played major roles in installing the Almohads and then had been allies of the Marinids. In urbanizing and taking over Marrakech with the fall of the Marinids they had become a strictly local power without even significant control of the surrounding haouz. The hintâta tried, unsuccessfully, to reach a peace agreement with the Portuguese and lived in constant fear of Portuguese raids, which regularly reached the Marrakech region. In 1513, the Sa‘dians arrived north of the Atlas under aHmad al-a‘raj who first was accepted peacefully by the ruler of Marrakech and even married a royal daughter. By 1525, however, the former rulers had been assassinated and the Sa‘dians had taken over Marrakech and made it their capital. The Wattasids in Fès were unable to regain the south and soon were displaced in the north as well. Marrakech may have reached its greatest cultural efflorescence, however, under the reign of the Sa‘dian sultan aHmad al-manSûr (1578-1603). During this period virtually all government functionaries were learned scholars, and Marrakech attracted and retained, voluntarily or involuntarily as in the case of aHmad bâba, notable scholars from all over Islamic Africa. On 31 July 1664, the ‘Alawite sultan mawlây al-rashîd captured Marrakech. From this date until 1746, Marrakech was regularly in rebellion and was repeatedly plundered as the ‘Alawites favored Meknès and various governors of Marrakech rebelled. In 1746, sîdî muHammad, the son of mawlây ‘abd allâh, was sent to Marrakech as governor (khalifa) and Marrakech entered a period of prosperity that lasted until the end of sîdî muHammad’s reign as sultan (1757-1790).

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Beginning with the reign of mawlây ‘abd al-raHmân (1824-1859) Marrakech again entered a period of relative prosperity with only a few interludes of strife, though it was rarely the residence of the sultans in the 19th century. On the eve of the protectorate, Marrakech backed mawlây HafiZ’s brief, but successful, bid to be sultan and was in the vanguard of Moroccan distaste for mawlây ‘abd al-‘azîz’s fraternizing with foreigners and foreign inventions. Today it is a major tourist center and Morocco’s largest southern urban center. The central square, jâmi‘ al-fnâ, takes its name from the ruins of a mosque that aHmad al-manSûr began but failed to complete. It was to have been called jâmi‘ al-hanâ (mosque of prosperity) so its ruins were named by the people jâmi‘ al-fnâ (mosque of the ruin). The square has long been the abode of a multitude of sellers, performers, storytellers, rural and urban shoppers, and tourists. Marzouki, Ahmed. Born in Boujoul near Ghafsai about 120 km NE of Fès in 1947. He studied at the Ecole Ahermoumou and became an officer. He was ordered on what he thought were maneuvers to Benslimane and ended up inculpated in the attempted coup at Skhirat in July 1971. He was condemned to five years in prison in February 1972 but ended up spending eighteen years in the prison of Tazmamart. He was liberated in 1991 (one of twenty-eight prisoners to have survived Tazmamart) and had his passport restored in January 2001, the same month he published his memoirs of Tazmamart, Tazmamart Cellule 10. maSmûda. The maSmûda, along with the SanHâja and zanâta, were the original Berber inhabitants of the Western Maghrib from the Mediterranean in the north, the Atlantic on the west, to the Sous in the south. Classified by ibn khaldûn as barânis or sedentary Berbers, the maSmûda in the early Islamic period included three main groups: the ghumâra in the north (now near Chefchaouen but formerly all the Mediterranean plains and most of the Rif), the barghwâTa in the central plains (from the Sebou to the Oum er-Rbia rivers, an area called tâmisnâ or sûs al-adnâ), and other maSmûda tribes (including the dukkâla) south of the Oum er-Rbia river to the Anti-Atlas. The maSmûda of the southern plains included the dûkkala, banû magîr, hazmîra, ragrâga, and HâHâ. In the High Atlas, maSmûda groups included the glâwa, haylâna, warîka, hazraja, maSfîwa, mâghûs.,dughâgha, hintâta, ghayghâya, gadmîwa, and ganfîsa (saksâwa). In the Sous valley, maSmûda groups included the wâwazgît and saktâna. The maSmûda in the north produced a prophet among the ghumâra, Hâ-mîm, the barghwâTa produced SâliH bn Tarîf, and the maSmûda of the Atlas produced ibn tûmart. The maSmûda were displaced by Arab tribes beginning with the hilalian invasions of the 10th century and followed by the ma‘qilian groups in the 16th century. Today the

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maSmûda remain in the Atlas, and are represented in the north only by the ghumâra and in the plains only by the HâHâ south of Essaouira. Massignon, Louis. Born on 25 July 1883 in Nogent-sur-Marne, Massignon took an early interest in the Middle East and inspired by a trip in 1904 to Morocco wrote Le Maroc dans les premières années du XVIe siècle; Tableau géographique du Maroc dans les quinze premières années du XVIe siècle, d’après Léon l’Africain (1906). Massignon studied at the Ecole des Langues Orientales under Harwig Derenbourg who got him interested in Muslim mystical texts (1907) and advised him to study a 10th-century mystic al-Hallâj. Massignon spent a number of the following years in Cairo attending courses at alazhâr university. Between 1912 and 1913, Massignon taught (in Arabic) courses in the history of Islamic philosophy at the new University of Cairo. In 1910, he published a two-volume Mission en Mésopotamie, and in 1914 he completed his dissertation, a thesis on the mystic al-Hallâj (La Passion d’al-Hallâj, martyr mystique de l’Islam) and the mandatory second thesis (Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane) dedicated to Derenbourg who died in 1908. The dissertation proofs were sent to Louvain in 1914 to be published but were destroyed in bombing and had to be redone, appearing only in 1922. From 1922 to 1923, Massignon investigated the organization of traditional Muslim corporations in Morocco for Lyautey, publishing (1925) Enquête sur les corporations d’artisans et de commerçants au Maroc, d’après les réponses à la circulaire résidentielle du 15 novembre 1923. Massignon went on to become France’s most renowned specialist in Islam focusing his attention on the history of Islamic civilization, contemporary Muslim societies, and Islamic mysticism. His bibliography stretches to at least 600 publications. Massignon became a priest at the age of sixty-six and was influential in pushing Vatican policy toward a full recognition of Islam. Massignon argued that each of the three monotheistic religions had their emphasis: Judaism on hope, Christianity on love, and Islam on faith. Despite his esoteric interest in mysticism, Massignon continued to study and publish on contemporary Muslim social and political thought and toward the end of his life (morally) supported anticolonial Muslim independence movements. Massignon’s relationship to Jewish scholars of Islam was ambiguous but on balance decidedly negative. His teacher, Derenbourg, had been Jewish, as was another of the Islamic scholars (Goldziher) he much admired. Yet the rising flood of anti-Semitism in France seems to have swept him away. Initially, Massignon opposed having more Jewish scholars on the putative grounds that the reactions occurring in Germany would spread to France. Soon, however, he was opposing the hiring of Jewish refugee scholars in Istanbul and in Cairo as well as in France and French territories. Massignon’s anti-Semitism (if so specific an antipathy as this can be called anti-Semitism) caused

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serious problems for many brilliant Jewish scholars and was at great variance with his philosophical support of Islam and Muslim scholars. Massignon was named professor of Sociologie et sociographie de l’Islam at the Collège de France in 1926 and became Directeur d’études at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes-Etudes in 1933. Until his retirement in 1954, Massignon had enormous influence in academic circles in shaping hiring and research agendas. Louis Massignon died in Paris in 1962. mbark, sîdî ‘abd allâh u. sîdî ‘abdallâh u mbark, or abû muHammad ‘abd allâh bn mbarak or sîdî ‘abd allâh bn mbarak bn ‘ali bn al-wali muHammad bn mbarak al-sûsî al-aqqawî was born in 1549 and died in 1606. He is remembered both as the head of the aqqa zâwiya, in the oasis from which the Sa‘dian sultans originated, and as a saint who was always in action on horseback looking after the business affairs of the zâwiya but renowned for his generosity and tolerance of the failings of others. Tradition says that he, along with other southern saints, supported the sultan (al-manSûr), and that it was only with al-manSûr’s death in 1603 that the southern saints began to claim both spiritual and temporal powers in competition with the Sa‘dian sultans. Media. The printed media in Morocco tend to run afoul of censors fairly frequently and as a result have issues seized or are closed down permanently. Article 55 of the Press Code also allows the government to order media to not report or discuss specific events or subjects. Articles 71 and 72 forbid any offenses to, or insults of, the royal family, and other articles allow publications to be prosecuted up to one year from the time of any infraction of the code. Articles 12 and 27 are mutually contradictory; the former says that the owners of all publications must be of Moroccan nationality while the latter allows foreign-owned publications to publish in Morocco if they follow the Press Code. In short the code puts freedom of the press on a precarious basis and encourages self-censorship. The names and editors of publications change to adapt to this precarious environment, and so few publications have a long run. The more critical and adventurous, the shorter the run and the more likely the editors will spend some time in jail. The post-Hassan II period has so far produced fewer restrictions in practice and many new publications have sprung up catering to an eager audience. The most stable Arabic language publications have been the government paper (begun in 1964) al-anbâ’ (The News, though it has gone through several name changes) and al-‘alam (The Flag), which is the premier journal of the istiqlâl party begun in September 1946. Recently one can also read al-ittiHâd al-ishtirâkî (the USFP paper formerly directed by Mohamed Brini), bayân al-yâm (Arabic daily version of Bayan, which began in 1991 and has been critical of the government), al-aHdâth al-maghribiya (daily independent founded in 1998 by Mohamed Brini), al-SaHîfa al-usbû‘iya (weekly owned by

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same group as Le Journal and also briefly banned in December 2000), al-Haraka (paper of the MP), al-Sahrâ’ al-maghribiya (daily), risâlat al-‘umma (paper of the UC), al-mun‘aTaf (paper of the FFD), alSabâH (daily produced by Ecomédia who also produce L’Economiste and directed by Talha Jibriel, a former UPI correspondent), al-tajdîd (daily edited by Raissouni), al-tajamu‘ (paper of the RNI), anwâl (daily of the OADP), al-thakatul al-waTanî (daily of the MNP), and alniDâl (weekly of the PND). Francophone publications have abounded over the years. Le Journal de Tanger, which is of minor journalistic significance, has published general practical information on Saturday morning since 1904, but such durability is the exception. Francophone publications include the various publications of the French Mas group, Le Petit Marocain (begun 1920), La Vigie Marocaine (begun 1908), La Vie Economique (begun 1922), and Maroc Demain (begun c. 1949), as well as the publications of the España group, España (based in Tanger and begun in current form in 1960) and Diario Africa (begun 1945). The istiqlâl party also publishes L’Opinion in French, which took over from the banned La Nation Africaine in 1963. The official French paper of the Moroccan government is the Matin du sahara et du maghreb (daily). Various parties also have their papers, such as Libération (founded in 1964 by the USFP), al-bayân (founded in 1971 by PPS), and al-maghrib (daily of the RNI). Independent papers include Journal Hebdomadaire (founded on 17 November 1997 as Le Journal and banned in December 2000—two directors were fined and given brief prison terms but it was allowed to republish under the new title), Demain magazine (founded in March 2000 by Ali Lamrabet as Demain but banned in October 2000, then allowed to reappear with new title in January 2001 only to be banned again in May 2003 when its editor, Lamrabet, was sentenced to three years in jail), L’économiste (edited by Nadia Salah, it became a daily in October 1998), La Nouvelle Tribune (founded 1995 by Fahd Yata, a pro-government weekly with a focus on economics), La Gazzette du Maroc (founded in 1997 with a focus on society), Maroc Hebdo International (founded in November 1991 by Mohamed Selhami for intellectuals and students), Le Reporter (weekly with focus on politics founded by Bahia Amrani, a former correspondent for the BBC), Maghreb Magazine (weekly published in Marrakech with focus on economic and cultural matters), La Vie économique (founded in 1957 with focus on the economy), Femmes du Maroc (edited by Aïcha Zaïmi Sakhri advocating women’s rights), aujourd’hui le maroc (daily), and Citadine (begun in 1994, monthly expensively printed in Spain and appealing to elites). There are also now a few Berber publications, including Tamazight (begun in January 1999 by Ahmed Adghrini, the founder of Tamynout, a Berber cultural association, in French, Arabic, and Tamazight), al-hawiyya (i.e., identity, weekly in Tamazight and Arabic), and Twiza (monthly in French, Arabic, and Tamazight). In

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addition, the Institut Royal de la Culture Amazighe (IRCAM) publishes its weekly bulletin Inymisen n Usinag. The national television channel is RTM, which had a monopoly until technology allowed people to access a multitude of channels from outside. Morocco also has a privately funded channel, 2M. Radio Méditerranée Internationale (French and Arabic), Beur FM (106.7 FM) with its transmitter in Nador (also heard in France), and Radio Casablanca should also be mentioned. Various foreign journals are also regularly sold on newsstands in Morocco, although occasional issues are banned for including material deemed unacceptable. The government scrutinizes both publications imported into Morocco and many others looking for prohibited material particularly written by its own citizens. Although the rules allow no criticism of the king or his family, no criticism of Morocco’s claim to the former Spanish Sahara, and no editorializing that might be interpreted as disloyal or seditious, most people and projects are fair game except in times of crisis. The rules were similar during the protectorate except that sedition was usually defined as anti-French or pro-nationalist propaganda. During November 1993, the editor of L’Opinion was threatened with imprisonment by the minister of interior for running a series of critiques of the state of democracy in Morocco, but his response was to publish an open letter to the minister criticizing the threat. He was not only not imprisoned, but several other papers published editorial pieces supporting him. In short, it would be as wrong to suggest the press is fully muzzled as to imply it is fully free. The main feed of canned news in Morocco is the Maghreb Arabe Presse, which was founded with the blessings of the throne on 31 May 1959 and nationalized in 1973. It has contracts with UPI, AFP, Reuters, and other international agencies as well as personnel located in many capitals of the world. Press freedoms have increased since 1997, and the Syndicat national de la press marocaine agitates actively for better working conditions for members of the press, but there is some distance yet to travel. See also Bennouna, Mehdi and Fenjiro, Abdellatif. Meknès. (lat. 33º 53' N., long. 5º 32' W.) Located in the valley of the Bou Fekrane river, Meknès (miknâs) evolved from a series of villages into a fortified site when the Almoravids took control of the region in the 11th century. During the Idrisid period there were a few villages at the future site of Meknès but no major settlement. By Almoravid times, there was a prosperous settlement enclosed by a wall. When the Marinids took possession of it in 1276, Meknès began to expand into a major city. The Marinids built madrasas (the madrasa jadîda, the ‘aTTârîn, and filâla), a qasba, and a mosque. In the 15th century Meknès became the home to a proportion of the new maraboutic movements, as several established a zâwiya there. During the Sa‘dian period its population, according to some sources, reached 6,000-8,000

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households, but its period of glory had to await the ‘Alawite dynasty when mawlây ismâ‘îl (1672-1727), who made it his capital, added a lot of monumental architecture and walled it with a 25 km wall. During mawlây ismâ‘îl’s reign Meknès took on enormous proportions as the sultan had a palace built for himself and his women (four wives and perhaps as many as 500 concubines), complete with four mosques and stables for 1,200 horses. A significant proportion of the construction was done by Christian slaves (somewhat less than one thousand) who were allowed to build themselves a church, convent, and infirmary. To the southwest of the palace a section, called madînat al-riyâD, was added for government officials and palace specialists. This area was later destroyed by mawlây ‘abd allâh in 1732/3. During his reign, mawlây ismâ‘îl also stationed half of his special troops, the ‘abîd al-bukhârî, in Meknès. Splendor was, however, mixed with cruelty, as mawlây ismâ‘îl was reported to have had a sick sense of fun including torturing his women, cutting off heads, and killing the animals in his menageries for sport. In the reign of mawlây ‘abd allâh, a waqf was created of the 12,000, volume library mawlây ismâ‘îl had amassed. Under mawlây yazîd the Christian community was persecuted and disappeared. The earthquake of 1755 destroyed all the Christian buildings. In the 19th century up to the reign of mawlây al-Hasan I (1873-1894), most sultans had problems with the Berber tribes in the Meknès area and these remained subdued only until mawlây al-Hasan’s death. On the eve of the protectorate, the ‘ulamâ’ supported, sequentially, each of the claimants. In 1911, General Moinier entered Meknès. Today, mawlây ismâ‘îl’s better traits have been remembered and the city has one of Morocco’s best universities, jâmi‘a mawlây ismâ‘îl. Melilla. (lat. 35º 18' N., long. 2º 54' W.) Melilla (tamlilt: “the white” in Berber) may date back to the Roman Rusadir, but little is known of its early history. In the 10th century the Umayyads captured it from the Fatimids by winning over the miknâsa chief mûsâ bn abî al-‘âfîya, and it remained a miknâsa stronghold until shortly before the Almoravid yûsuf bn tâshfîn captured it in 1080. In al-bakrî’s time (1068), Melilla had a citadel, mosque, Hammâm (Turkish bath), and markets and engaged in a vigorous export trade (including iron, honey, and pearls). The town’s inhabitants also made money by granting protection to merchants in return for a fee. In 1141/2, the Almohads (in pursuit of the Almoravids) captured and sacked Melilla. Similarly, in 1272, the Marinids captured Melilla from the Almohads. After this, trade shifted to the neighboring town of ghassâsa. In 1490, Melilla was abandoned shortly before an attack by the Spanish who thus occupied it without resistance in September 1497. Henceforth, Moroccan commercial activity was moved west to al-HuSayma (El Hoceïma) to distance it from Spanish Melilla. Melilla was besieged countless times but never recaptured. As a Spanish enclave, Melilla also sheltered numerous dissidents and pretenders

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against the makhzan. Before the establishment of the protectorates in Morocco, Melilla was a free port and a major entry point for European merchandise. During the protectorate, Melilla became a dependency of the province of Malaga. Today it is a major commercial town and continues to be a Spanish enclave. See also jazîrat laylâ and Spain. El Merini, Abdelhak. Born in 1934 in Rabat, El Merini is the Directeur du Protocole Royal et de la Chancellerie. El Merini studied at Lycée Moulay Youssef in Rabat, Institut des Hautes Etudes Marocaines, Faculté des Lettres de Rabat, and received a doctorat from the Institut des Hautes Etudes Arabes et Islamiques of the Université de Strasbourg (1973) and Doctorat d’état in literature from the Université Sidi Mohamed ben Abdellah in Fès (1989). El Merini taught Arabic at Lycée Ibn Yassine in Mohammédia and at Lycée Hassan II. He was a professor of civic education at the Institut Royal de la Jeunesse et des Sports (1960-1965). Between 1964 and 1965, he served as chef de cabinet de sous-secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement technique et la formation des cadres. From 1965 to 1972, he joined the chancery and was chargé de mission in the Ministère de la maison royale, du protocole et de la chancellerie (1972-1998). In 1998, he was promoted to director of royal protocol and of the chancery. El Merini’s publications include among others his thesis for his Doctorat d’état, La poésie du Jihad dans la littérature marocaine (2 volumes), and L’Armée marocaine à travers l’histoire (in Arabic). Messari, Mohamed Larbi. Messari was born in Tétouan on 8 July 1936. He had his primary and secondary education in Tétouan, Tanger, and Granada and became a Diplomé of the Institut de Preparation Radiophonique in Cairo in 1959. Messari became a producer for RTM in 1958, then secretary of production services until 1964. He became an editor for the journal Al Alam in January 1964 then editor in chief as well as director in 1982. He was elected to the national council central committee of the istiqlâl party in 1965. Messari has been a member of the executive committee of the istiqlâl party since 1978. He also served as secretary-general of the Union des Ecrivains du Maroc for the mandates of 1964, 1969, and 1972. He is also a founding member of the Association Marocaine de Soutien à la Lutte Palestiniennes and of the Ligue Marocaine de la Defense des Droits de l’Homme, a member of the Union des Journalistes Arabes since 1969, and its vice president in 1996 as well as vice president of the Centre Arabe des Etudes de la Communication in 1993. Messari has published many newspaper articles and books in Arabic, Spanish, and Portuguese, including Contreverse autour des arabes (1973), L’Islam dans l’oeuvre des intellectuels arabes dans les Amériques (1989), Le Maroc au pluriel (1996), Le Maroc et son environnement (2 vols., 1998), and Le Maroc virtuel dans la presse algérienne (2000). Messari also founded two reviews, Al Alam Assiassi (1982) and shu‘ûn maghribîya (1995). Both reviews deal with international relations.

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Messari is also a member of several research groups including the working group for the Rapport Annuel du Maroc, the committee producing the Encyclopedie du Maroc and the Mémorial du Maroc, le Groupe d’Etudes et Recherches sur le Système International (GERSI), and the Groupe d’Etudes et Recherches sur la Méditerranée (GERM). On the political side, Messari has represented the Parti Istiqlâl (PI) in international forums and served as Ambassador to Brazil from October 1985 to July 1991. Messari was elected to parliament in 1984 and led the coalition “Unité et Egalitarisme” and was minister of communication from March 1998 to September 1999. Mezzian, Muhammad. Trained at the Spanish Military Academy in Toledo, Mezzian (1893-1975) was the first non-Spaniard to reach the rank of general in the Spanish army. He served as governor general of the Canary Islands and after Moroccan independence served as inspector-general of the armed forces. He later served as minister of defense (1964) and minister of state (1970). El Midaoui, Ahmed [al-midâwî aHmad]. Born in Taounate in 1948, El Midaoui received a Doctorat d’État in law in 1971. He began his career in the Ministère des Finances as an Inspecteur des finances before being promoted in 1974 to Contrôleur financier auprès des entreprises publiques. El Midaoui served as governor of Mohammédia in 1987 and governor of Tanger in 1992. From April 1993 to May 1997, El Midaoui served as the Directeur général de la Sûreté Nationale (SN). He is viewed as very different from Driss Basri, with whom he had many disagreements while serving as head of the SN, and his appointment on 9 November 1999 as minister of interior, a post he kept until September 2002, was seen as a serious effort to change the image of the ministry of interior. El Midaoui is also a professor at the Faculté des sciences économiques et sociales in Rabat as well as in the Ecole nationale d’administration publique, and the Ecole de perfectionnement des cadres in Kénitra. midrârid dynasty in sijilmâsa. Three generations of banû wûsûl reigned in sijilmâsa after its founding around 757 before the advent of the midrârids around 823 (the date is uncertain). The midrârids were kharijites, like the rulers of Tahert (tâhart: in Algeria), but also had the khuTba (sermon) said in the name of the Abbasid caliph. When ‘ubayd allâh, the future Fatimid ruler, received a prediction that the future mahdi was going to be revealed in sijilmâsa (July 905), he set out for that city and managed to live there unknown for some time. When the midrârid ruler was informed by Baghdad to look for, but not aid, ‘ubayd allâh, he had ‘ubayd allâh imprisoned. The future ruler sent for help and was liberated by an army led by abû ‘abd allâh al-shî‘î who pillaged sijilmâsa and expelled its Jews. The mahdi was proclaimed imam in sijilmâsa and then left to found the Fatimid dynasty. The midrârids later returned and continued to rule sijilmâsa. An account

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from around 951 (ibn Hawqal) suggests that the annual revenues in sijilmâsa from trade were equal to that of half the Maghrib or about 400,000 dinars (about 1,624 kg of gold). This revenue proved dangerous. After pressure from the Fatimids the midrârids acknowledged the suzerainty of the Fatimids, but were soon defeated by the maghrâwa on behalf of the rulers of Cordova; the last midrârid ruler’s head was sent to Spain in 980. al-miknâsî, muHammad ibn ‘uthmân. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn ‘abd al-wahhâb bn ‘uthmân al-miknâsî was born in Meknès around the middle of the 18th century and died of plague in Marrakech in 1799. In the interim he served as royal secretary to sultan muHammad bn ‘abd allâh, then governor of Tétouan and minister. muHammad ibn ‘uthmân al-miknâsî also served as ambassador four times between 1779 and 1791 and wrote a travel account of the first voyage, al-iksîr fî fikâk al-asîr (The elixir in the ransom of captives), which has been published by Université Mohammed V and can also be consulted in the Bibliothèque Générale (Mss. H 52). muHammad ibn ‘uthmân almiknâsî wrote two other travel accounts of his second and third voyages respectively, al-badr al-sâfir li-hidâyat al-musâfir îlâ fikâk alasârâ min yad al-‘aduww al-kâfir, which also deals with the ransom of captives, and iHrâz al-mu‘allâ w-al-raqîb fî Hajj bayt allâh al-Harâm, which deals with a trip as ambassador to Constantinople and a pilgrimage made after the completion of his task as ambassador. M‘jid, Mohamed. Born 14 April 1916 in Safi, M‘jid was imprisoned on eight different occasions between 1937 and 1955 as a nationalist. M‘jid was one of the founders of the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP). In 1963, he again was imprisoned (spending time in Dar El Mokri with al-faqih al-baSri). M‘jid became a parliament deputy in 1981 for the Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI). He was most public, however, as a sportsman (especially tennis), and he founded the Fédération Marocaine de Tennis. M‘jid studied at Collège Moulay Youssef in Rabat and Moulay Idriss in Fès. M‘jid also served as the Directeur-Adjoint d’Artisanat au Maroc (1954-1957) and the director of the American bases from 1959 to 1961. M‘jid had been a delegate to the UN Haut Commissariat aux Réfugiés Politiques since 1968 when the Haut Commisariat received its Nobel Peace Prize in 1981. M‘jid, who has been a lifelong activist for human rights, was declared L’Homme de l’Année 2001 by Maroc-Hebdo (see Media). M‘jid, Najat. Born 10 November 1959 in Casablanca, M‘jid is a pediatric doctor who specializes in neonatology. M‘jid studied at Lycée Charles de Foucauld, Faculté de Médecine in Casablanca and Rabat and Université de Bordeaux II (France). M‘jid received a baccalauréat in 1976, Doctorat ès-Médicine générale (1984), and three specialities in neonatalogy (1987), pediatrics (1987), and pediatric endocrinology (1994). M‘jid practiced internal medicine at Hôpital Sid Soufi in

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Casablanca (1983-1984), was chef de clinique, Hôpital Pellegrin (service de pédiatrie in Bordeaux, 1985-1987), practiced pediatric medicine in Bordeaux (1985-1987), and pediatric medicine at the mentally handicapped center at Macanan in Bordeaux (1985-1987) and has been head of pediatrics, Polyclinique CNSS, Derb Ghallef, in Casablanca since 1987. M‘jid also has written extensively on the rights of children and the sexual exploitation of children. She is an active member in many associations: pédiatre bénévole at the Orphelinat Lalla Hasane (1987-1988), President and pédiatre bénévole at APTE, President and pédiatre bénévole at l’Heure Joyeuse, active member of La Voie de l’Enfant in Paris since 1995, and founding president of Bayti, one of the most successful associations that has helped the street children in Morocco since 1995. Moatassim, Mohamed. Born in 1956 in Settat, Moatassim, currently an advisor to Mohammed VI, pursued his primary and secondary education in Settat and higher education at the Faculté de Droit in Casablanca and Rabat. He received a licence in political science, a certificat d’études supérieurs (CES) in political science, a CES in international relations from the Faculté de Droit in Rabat, and a diplôme d’études supérieurs in Droit public from the Faculté de Droit in Casablanca (1983). Moatassim wrote his doctoral thesis on Evolution traditionaliste du droit constitutionnel marocain in 1988. Moatassim has taught at the Faculté de Droit, Université Mohammed V in Rabat and Université Hassan II in Casablanca since 1983. He is a member of the Conseil Consultatif du Droit de l’Homme (CCDH). In 1993 (-1995), he became a Ministre délégué attached to the prime minister and charged with parliamentary relations. Then, he was given the position of chargé de mission au cabinet royal between 1995 and 1999. Moatassim became an advisor to the late King Hassan II in 1999. Moatassim is also the first vice president of the Association marocaine de droit constitutionnel and is a founding member of the Association marocaine de science politique. His publications include L’expérience parlementaire au Maroc, Le régime politique marocain, La vie politique marocaine, Théorie générale du droit constitutionel et de la science politique, les régimes politiques contemporains. Mohammed VI, 22nd monarch of the Alawite dynasty. Born 21 August 1963, Mohammed VI pursued his primary and secondary studies at the Royal College (graduated 1981) and earned a B.A. in law in 1985 at the Faculté de Droit of Université Mohammed V in Rabat. In July 1988, Mohammed VI received a DES in public law and in October 1993 he earned a Ph.D. with very honorable mention from the Université Nice-Sophia Antipolis for a thesis on EEC-Maghreb Relations. On 11 April 1985, the crown prince became coordinator of the offices and services of the general staff of the royal armed forces and then was promoted to the rank of major general on 12 July 1994. He was also chairman of the Association royale marocaine du cheval

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de selle (ARMCS) since 1996. He has also been Honorary Chairman of the Tafilalt Association and Chairman of the Oudayas Surf Club of Rabat (OSCR). On 23 July 1999, after the demise of Hassan II, Mohammed bn al-Hasan was enthroned as King of Morocco. On July 30 (Throne Day), Mohammed VI delivered a speech in which he pledged to continue the work of his late father and to give priority to improving human rights, women’s rights, and the rights of the handicapped. Mohammed VI’s first international visits as king were to Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Tunisia. Since then he has made many state visits including to France, Italy, Egypt, Tunisia, the United States, Spain, Libya, Bahrain, India, the United Arab Emirates, Senegal, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, China, Jordan, Syria, and Qatar. He has also participated in the Africa-Europe Summit (Cairo, April 2000), the Arab Extraordinary Summit (Cairo, October 2000), the Summit of Heads of State of Africa and France (Yaoundé, January 2001), and the 14th Arab Summit (Beirut, March 2002). Mohammed VI is currently the Supreme Chief and Chief of the General Staff of the Royal Armed Forces of Morocco. Mohammed VI married Lalla Salma on 21 March 2002. Mohammédia. (lat. 33º 43' N., long. 7º 24' W.) Formerly known in French as Fédala, Mohammédia is now a major port specializing in petroleum imports. Located about 25 km northeast of Casablanca, the site was chosen as an industrial port due to its proximity to Casablanca and the existence of a bay suitable for development into a major port. Historically, a town called al-faDâla is mentioned by al-idrîsî (12th century) and it appears to have been a significant anchorage in the 14th and 15th centuries for European merchants. In 1773/4, sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd allâh granted grain export privileges to various European firms from this port, but in the 19th century the port, was abandoned. In 1914 the French constructed a port, which rapidly developed after WWII into a major industrial port. With independence, Fédala continued to grow but was named Mohammédia in remembrance of sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd allâh. Montagne, Robert. Born 13 January 1893 in Mans, Montagne joined the navy in 1911 and travelled along the coast of Africa, the Persian Gulf, and the coast of India. After WWI, he arrived in Morocco in 1918 as a naval officer who worked closely with Lyautey and became a key French expert on rural Morocco. His first study was of the fisherman at the mouth of the Draa river (Sur les marins indigènes de la côte Sud du Maroc). Lyautey invited him to stay in Morocco and made a generous offer to support his study whatever he selected. He became Maître de conférences and Directeur d’études de sociologie musulmane at the Institut des Hautes Etudes Marocaines in Rabat from 1924 to 1930 but spent the bulk of this time doing research in Morocco. In this period he completed a doctoral thesis in political

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anthropology titled Les Berbères et le Makhzen dans le Sud du Maroc (published in 1930), which has become a classic in colonial studies of Morocco embracing both detailed ethnography and political analysis of the relationship between the makhzan and Berbers. Its two foci were the Berbers of the south and those of the Rif including ‘abd al-karîm’s revolt. It was Montagne who went to ‘abd al-karîm’s hideout in 1926 and persuaded him to surrender to the French army (which ‘abd alkarîm did on 27 May). Montagne received a Légion d’Honneur and a Croix de Guerre for his services. He went on to hold many positions in the Bureaux des Affaires Indigènes, became the Directeur (1930-1936) of the Institut des Etudes Arabes de Damas (IFEAD), and the Centre des Hautes Etudes d’Administration Musulmane (CHEAM), which he founded in 1936. From 1939 to 1942, Montagne was again in North Africa while he spent 1943-1944 in Syria and Palestine. In 1945 he returned to Paris to direct CHEAM. Montagne’s general views were well expressed in his 1946 publication La place de l’Afrique du Nord dans l’Union française. In 1948, Montagne took a chair in Histoire de l’expansion de l’Occident at the Collège de France. In 1950, Montagne published his last book, Naissance du prolétariat marocain. Montagne was a scholar (both linguistically and ethnographically) and sympathetic to the people of Morocco, but he had few doubts about the benefits of progress along Western lines or about the short-term benefits of the colonial enterprise. Montagne died 27 November 1954 in Paris just as independence movements were beginning to have a decisive impact on French colonial thought. Moor. In its French form, Maure, the term is used today to refer to the white (Bidan) population of Mauritania. It is a term whose etymological origin is unclear. The term was long used in most European languages to refer to the inhabitants of much of North Africa as well as the Muslims of Muslim Spain. The Greek equivalent, Μαυροιςτιος, appears in Polybius (202-120 B.C.), and after the destruction of Carthage (146 B.C.) the Latin term Mauri appears as a term for the sedentary population between the Atlantic and the Moulouya valley. Moriscos. Moriscos is the term customarily applied in Spain after the fall of Granada (1492) to the Muslims (and former Muslims) who initially were promised religious freedom but were soon heavily pressured to convert to Christianity. Between 1499 and 1526 the pressure escalated. In 1502 the Moriscos of the Granada region were offered the option to convert, to emigrate or to be put to death. Emigration was deliberately made difficult, but many nevertheless emigrated to North Africa. In 1525, a number of Moriscos were forcibly baptized, and this was declared valid by a group of theologians. In 1526, a general conversion decree was issued for all the Muslims of Aragon and Valencia. Possession of Islamic books was soon prohibited, and a new tax was

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created, the farda, to be paid by the new Christians. Numerous revolts broke out that were subdued by force. In 1568, a major revolt broke out in Alpujarras that led to the expulsion of 80,000 Moriscos in 1570. From 1609-1614, the entire population of Moriscos (the proportion already at least nominally converted is unclear) were expelled from Spain. The historical record suggests (Netanyahu 2001) that the ecclesiastical authorities including the Vatican opposed the 17thcentury measure, preferring to continue efforts at conversion, but the measure was approved by the Spanish authorities against ecclesiastical opposition on the grounds of national security but driven by popular anti-Semitism. El Mossadeq, Abderazzak. El Mossadeq was born in Kénitra in 1948. He received a licence en Mathématiques de la Faculté des Sciences de Rabat and a Diplôme des Etudes Approfondies de Mathématiques (Faculté des Sciences de Grenoble-France) as well as a diplôme d’Ingénieur Statisticien Economiste (Ecole Nationale de la Statistique et de l’Administration Economique “ENSAE” Paris-France). El Mossadeq worked briefly (1972-1974) at the Office National de l’Eau Potable (ONEP). From 1974 to 1980, El Mossadeq held the position of Chargé de Mission auprès du Premier Ministre. Then from 1980 to 1983 he became Secrétaire général de l’Office pour le développement industriel. This was followed by eight years (1983-1991) as Directeur in the Ministère du commerce et de l’industrie and a year (1991-1992) as Directeur général de l’Office pour le développement industriel. El Mossadeq’s political career began as Secrétaire général du Ministère du commerce, de l’industrie et de la privatisation (1992-1993), Secrétaire général du Ministère du commerce et de l’industrie (1993-1997), and Secrétaire d’état auprès du Ministre des finances charge du commerce, de l’industrie et de l’artisanat (1997-1998). From 1998 to 2002, El Mossadeq worked in customs (directeur général de l’administration des douanes et impôts indirects) and then in November 2002 on economic affairs in the prime minister’s office (ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques et générales et de la mise à niveau de l’économie). He has also served as secrétaire du Comité de suivi de développement du secteur privé, placé auprès du premier ministre (1994-1998) and as an instructor of probability, statistics, and econometrics at INSEA (Institut National de la Statistique et de l’Economie Appliquée, Rabat). Mottei, Abdelkrim (‘abd al-karîm mûTî‘). Born in 1936, Mottei joined the Moroccan resistance movement in Marrakech in the 1950s and founded the Islamic Youth movement (al-shabîba al islamîya) in 1969. A former activist in the USFP, Mottei was an inspector in the education ministry after independence. The Islamic Youth movement had many factions similar to the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and cultivated linkages with the underground Algerian activist movements. It

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attracted many supporters in Moroccan lycées and universities in the early 1970s. Mottei fled Morocco in 1975, seeking refuge in Teheran, after the assassination of Omar Benjelloun who, it has recently been confirmed, was killed by al-shabiba supporters under orders of Mottei. In 1984, Mottei was sentenced to death in absentia for his alleged role in the January 1984 riots. In September 1985, after discovering arm caches in July at border points with Algeria, twenty-six Islamists were convicted in Casablanca (fourteen sentenced to death including Mottei in absentia for a second time) for plotting to overthrow the monarchy: three admitted membership in al-shabîba (see Islamist groups). Moujahid, Younes. Born in 1956 in Tetouan, Moujahid pursued his primary and secondary education in Tetouan and finished his higher education at the Université Mohammed V in Rabat. Moujahid received a diplôme d’études approfondies ès-Sociologie. Since 1986, Moujahid worked as a journalist at the ittihâd al-ishtirâki. He also worked at the Agence de Presse Espagnole. Moujahid is also a member of the executive committee of the Fédération Internationale des Journalistes and is the secretary-general of the Syndicat National de la Presse Marocaine (SNPM). Moulay Idriss. (lat. 34º 05' N., long. 5º 30' W.) Although legend would have it that the city of Moulay Idriss (mawlây idrîs) located on the slopes of jabal zarhûn near Volubilis was founded by Idris I, in reality it is a town formed near the tomb of Idris I in the 16th century and one that at the end of the 16th century only had perhaps twenty houses. Nearby Volubilis lasted as a Christian town (named walîlî) until Almoravid times and it was there that Idris I first settled and later died. He was buried beyond the walls and quite probably near the site of modern-day Moulay Idriss (a mere five kilometers from Volubilis) where his tomb is still venerated today. For long considered by many the holiest city in Morocco, mawlây idrîs seems to have become more than a small village only with the advent of the ‘Alawite dynasty and in particular the reign of mawlây ismâ‘îl (1672-1727) who made nearby Meknès his capital. The zâwiya and tomb were refurbished by mawlây ismâ‘îl and the pilgrimage site soon gained mosques and a madrasa. The site is so revered that before the protectorate Europeans and Jews were prohibited from staying overnight in the city. Mouvement de 23 Mars. Formed in 1970 the movement took its name from the urban unrest in 1965 that culminated in the riots in Casablanca on 23 March. Its policies were radical in the sense of being antiestablishment and pro-labor but not so far as to be unequivocally in support of revolution. Its adherents were split over whether to support the king’s Saharan policy, and many left to join

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either the USFP or the OADP or to create more radical movements (see Leftist movements). mudawwana or mudawwana al-’usra and formerly mudawwana alaHwâl al-shakhSiya. Literally, in the earlier rendition, the (written) code of personal status, the mudawwana is the national law drafted in Morocco to codify the status and rights of individuals and in particular deals with marriage, inheritance, guardianship of women and children, and alimony. As originally promulgated in 1958, its 297 articles were formulations derived quite directly from Malikite law (i.e., from particular sections of imâm mâlik bn anâs’ compendium of opinions on specific cases, al-muwaTTa, or the mudawwana of saHnûn). Reform of this code based on the classics has been advocated by leftists, particularly women’s groups, for many years because the 1957 formulation legislates inequality between men and women in a number of particularly crucial areas. Proponents of reform argue that law based on judgments about specific examples from Arabian society thirteen centuries ago must be rethought in terms of modern society’s needs, while opponents of reform maintain that no changes are either needed or allowable in a number of key areas—i.e., that interpretation (ijtihâd) is prohibited in those areas and that the reforms are fundamentally a Western imposition and not Islamic. In 1981 a secret project to rewrite the code was completed by the government leading to a new code having 504 articles, which proposed, among other changes, raising the age of marriage for women from 15 to 18 and modifying numerous rights for women, but events in Morocco including the bloody riots in Casablanca in 1981 shelved the project. In 1993, after several failed attempts, the government issued a modified version of the mudawwana that was more liberal in a number of areas. These included: marriage: 1) specifying that a woman’s guardian (wâlî) cannot force her to get married and that a marriage is not legal unless the woman agrees to it and signs a marriage contract, 2) a woman who is not a minor and has no father has the right to marry by herself without need of a guardian, 3) a judge is no longer able to force a woman considered prone to immorality to get married, 4) polygamy was made contingent on the husband informing his spouse(s) that he wishes to take another, on getting a judge’s permission to marry the new wife, and on obtaining a certificate of the absence of infectious diseases for the husband and the new wife, 5) when a marriage is disolved the mother is the primary custodian of children with the father (formerly the primary custodian) next in precedence. passports: dropping the requirement that a wife get her husband’s permission to obtain a passport. paid work: dropping the requirement that a wife obtain her husband’s permission before engaging in paid work. Despite these substantial progressive changes many aspects of the

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1993 code were still considered unacceptable by progressive women and are incompatible with international legislation. Thus the Convention for Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has been signed by Morocco but not published in the government journal (which would make it law) because the government signed it with two key reservations claiming that articles 9 and 16 contravened Islamic law (al-shari‘a). Since the key objections to reform have come from Islamic religious parties, proponents of reform have tried to meet their objections by proposing to reformulate the code in a progressive way by tying the new interpretations tightly to Islamic texts rather than formulating them directly on international or western concepts. Development of a new substantially reformed version of the mudawwana was instigated in 1999 by the new king, Mohammed VI. This version attempts to address most of the key problems noted by Moroccan feminists but to do so with a more Islamic justification and formulation. It is worth noting for example that the code prevailing in many Middle Eastern countries based on the works of Abu Hanifa has long allowed women to marry without forcing them to have a legal guardian. The new code referred to as mudawwana al-’usra (the family code instead of personal status code) was presented to parliament by the king on 10 October 2003. Representatives of conservative, as well as progressive, parties indicated quickly that they saw no major problems with the code given its clear roots in Islamic law—and perhaps also given the lessons of the terrorist attacks in Casablanca in May of 2003. The key innovations of the new code include: marriage: 1) minimum age of marriage for men and women is 18 though a judge can modify this if conditions require it (e.g., earlier pregnancy), 2) Moroccans living abroad may follow marriage laws prevailing where they reside (e.g., cannot insist on the right to more than one wife if it is prohibited), 3) polygamy while not prohibited in Morocco is tightly linked to the Islamic requirement that a husband convince a judge that he can indeed take care of all spouses well and treat them all equally—in addition women can specify in their marriage contract that they will not accept an additional wife and this must be honored, 4) women have the right to divorce for either financial or moral damages and judges must make a decision within six months. inheritance: while not challenging the complex qur’anic prescriptions (defining the fractions of the whole various relatives should get given particular family trees), the new interpretation modifies one aspect: that inheritance on the mother’s side works the same as on the father’s side. In Islamic law children generally inherit a fixed share when one of the parents dies—the surviving spouse does not simply acquire everything. Traditionally in Malikite law, a maternal half sibling would not inherit if there were male heirs (e.g., sons or grandsons or a grandfather related to the husband).

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In the new code, grandchildren related to a deceased or his/her spouse have similar rights—though males receive twice the shares of a female as prescribed in the qur’an. This modification actually deviates from al-muwatta (chapter 27) but agrees directly with sura 4 verses 11-12 of the qur’an, which make no distinction between maternal half siblings and other siblings on the basis of the existence of heirs through males. guardianship (wilâya): the need for a woman who is not a minor to have a guardian in order to marry is abolished—she thus has the right to make the decision by herself just as a man does. In the code, this right is described as a right to choose independently if she so wishes, i.e., she can choose not to have anyone, including her father, as her guardian or can choose to stick with the traditional practice. custody: the code keeps the 1993 order of priority for custody of children after divorce (the children’s mother, their father, their maternal grandmother) but makes some innovations: 1) male and female children can choose at the age of 15 who they wish to have as custodian (i.e., the official order need no longer prevail), 2) the spouse not given custody is defined as the one leaving the domicile and so a husband may either have to move out or obtain comparable lodging for his divorced wife if she has custody of the children, 3) if a divorced woman remarries to live in another area than her husband she loses custody of the children until such time as these conditions are changed, 4) children born out of wedlock can seek to establish paternity and proofs can be submitted to a judge who must make a decision within five years. These modifications have been long in the making and in their earlier incarnations over the years have been heavily opposed to the extent of the ministry of justice encouraging mosques to oppose them and conservative religious groups in Morocco organizing mass street demonstrations against any change in the code. On 12 March 2000 more than sixty women’s NGOs and human rights organizations (especially UAF, the Union de l’Action Féminine, AMDF, the Association Marocaine Pour les Droits de la Femme, ADFM, the Association Démocratique des Femmes du Maroc, and Collectif 95 Maghreb Egalité: an international organization for women from Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia), some government ministers plus more than 300,000 people marched in Rabat in suport of modifications to the code as part of the World March of Women. Protesters noted the precarious situation of women in Morocco, widespread female illiteracy, legalized or condoned violence against women, and the inability of women in this condition to contribute to economic development. At the same time opponents of change to the mudawwana marched in Casablanca attracting at least twice as many supporters. They argued that the proposed modifications were Westernization and anti-Islamic and would destroy the Muslim family. The Casablanca march was organized by al-hay’a al-waTaniyya li-

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Himâya al-’usra al-maghribiya (the national organization for the protection of the Moroccan family). It is clear that the focus on the family as an Islamic institution resonates strongly in Morocco, and this no doubt had something to do with the renaming of the code put before parliament in October 2003 from the code of personal status to the family code (mudawwana al’usra). On 16 January 2004, the new code was passed by both houses of parliament and became law. mûsa bn abî al-‘âfiya. A chief of the miknâsa Berbers, mûsa bn abî al‘âfiya (d. 935) allied himself first with the Fatimids (919-931), then with the Umayyads in Cordova (931-935), and finally was defeated by a Fatimid army under al-qâ’im bi-amr allâh (935). His original alliance with the Fatimids was tied to the enlistment of the miknâsa by the Fatimids in Tunisia to recoup prestige from a conquest of the western Maghrib after their initial defeats in Egypt. The Fatimids were, however, far away and the Umayyads nearby. To make matters more difficult, in his conquest of Fès and Northern Morocco, mûsa bn abî al‘âfiya had gone beyond defeating the Idrisids and had attempted to exterminate them, thus not endearing himself to the population of the region. After his final defeat at Fatimid hands, mûsa bn abî al-‘âfiya’s final months are unclear, but he did apparently escape the main battle, and at least one son, madyan, continued in a position of some power in the areas not succumbing to the Fatimids. mûsâ, sîdî aHmad u. abû al-abbâs aHmad u mûsâ al-jazûlî al-samlâlî or sîdî aHmad u mûsâ (c.1460-1563) was born around 1460 among the ida u samlâl and, some forty years after establishing himself there but refusing to build a zâwiya, died in Tazerwalt where his tomb is still the object of much veneration. aHmad u mûsâ was one of the most renowned and influential saints of the Sous, and the zâwiya that developed after his death through its renowned scholars and its control of much of the western trans-Saharan trade from the 16th to the 19th century was usually independent of the sultans of Morocco and dealt with more often as an ally than as a subject. The spiritual guides of aHmad u mûsâ included both al-jazûlî, with whom he shared a tribal affiliation, and ‘abd al-qâdir al-jilânî. aHmad u mûsâ lived ascetically, refused to have students, and supposedly refused to build a zâwiya because he felt it would not facilitate religious knowledge, suggesting that “no one accomplishes his goals in this world nor attains his desire ... what misfortune to be the slave of this earthly world and of money” (al-tamanarti 1953:95-96). aHmad u mûsâ was reputedly chosen by mawlây ‘abd allâh as his spiritual guide after an official he delegated to survey all the saints and select one for the sultan returned and, although capable of critiquing all the others, about aHmad u mûsâ could only repeat seven times over that he was a saint. According to tradition the sultan came to aHmad u mûsâ at the

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beginning of his reign to beseech his support so he might establish his authority without trouble and aHmad u mûsâ uttered an invocation telling the world in general to accept the sultan’s authority. Later when the Ottomans landed at the Straits of Gibraltar aHmad u mûsâ again admonished them from his seat in the Tazerwalt to cease and desist and they, so tradition says, immediately turned and fled. The many stories of aHmad u mûsâ concur that he never sought worldly power despite his fame and never ceased to support the sultan while refusing to condone any of the excesses to which the sultan was prone (Justinard 1933). He was also said to have been a devoted teacher and is reputed to have died while giving a course to students. A famous group of Moroccan circus acrobats, known as the awlâd sîdî aHmad u mûsâ, were founded by sîdî ‘alî bn nâsir. See also al-mukhtâr al-sûsî. Music. The annual festivals of Essaouira and Fès bring together a broad range of Moroccan and North African music and attract musicians from across North Africa, Moroccan musicians living abroad, and musicians from around the world. The Essaouira music festival highlights Gnaoua music, but Morocco’s extremely rich musical heritage includes a broad range of musical traditions: classical instrumental music with Andalusian roots, Gnaoua music with clear sub-Saharan rhythmic connections, ghiwane, or a traditional practice of commenting on daily life through a blend of chant, theater and poetry, Judeo-Arabic music from Morocco’s Jewish population, Chikhate music from the Middle Atlas—sometimes referred to as Berber Blues, Melhoun, whose origins are in poetry (also known as qasîda zajâl), which is popular among the working class, mystic or sufi chants and dance, and modern music that may be influenced both by foreign music and traditional music. After the fall of Granada (1492), Muslims brought the music that had developed over six centuries of Muslim civilization in Spain to Morocco (in particular to Fès, Tétouan, Rabat, and Oujda) where it has continued to flourish and develop until this day. In Spain the music is said to have originated with a disciple of ishaq al mawâli of Baghdad, ziryâb, who fled to al-andalûs around 822. Much of the structure of Andalusian music seems to have been invented by ziryâb. A basic element of andalusian music is a sequence of songs (san‘ât, classical poetry; shi‘ir, Andalusian popular poetry; azjâl, post-classical poetry; muwashshaHa or barwala) that are chanted in such a way that human and instrumental voices are interwoven. The whole is called a nûba. In the 18th century, a musician in Tétouan named muHammad bn al-Hasan al-Hayik put together a compendium (kunnâsh) of the eleven nûba that had come down to his day along with careful interpretive notes. Each nûba can be played in any of twenty different modes (Tubû‘: viewed as characteristic notes, cadence, or style) but each nûba itself has a name and a particular significance relevant to the circumstances in which it should be played. In addition different schools play the nûba differently in the sense of musical interpretation

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and even which of the five movements of a nûba they may elect to play. Thus while there is a classical repertoire there is also wide leeway for interpretation. The classic instruments used are the ‘ud (a six string lute), the rbab (a hurdy gurdy or viola in which the bow is replaced by a wheel turned by a crank), a tar (tambourin), a darbuka (tambourin shaped like a chalice), and a kamanja (large or small violin). Gnaoua music came with slaves from West Africa at least as early as the 17th century. The patron saint of the Gnaoua is Sidi Bilal, the first black muezzin of Islam, but the founder of the Tarîqa is muHammad bn allâh who is supposed to have lived in Morocco in the 17th century. Gnaoua have both color symbology and view music as fundamentally a therapeutic or even diagnostic technique. Music itself is also thought capable of telling a story and communicating, though the Gnaoua incorporate dance, trance (dardaba), and mime into their all night ceremonies (layla). Gnaoua instruments include the guembri (a low register three-string lute), qrâbab (rattlesnake rattles), and the tbal (a large tambourin). In modern times, Gnaoua music has begun to have influence far beyond Morocco as Moroccan musicians (e.g., Hassan Hamoun) with roots in Gnaoua music were influenced in the 1980s by New York and American rock and jazz musicians. Soon after world music began to have a major influence in Morocco, the current music festival in Essaouira became a festival of world music in which many musical styles are welcome and naturally expected to mutually influence each other. Malhun (malHûn) have their roots in purely literary creations but have become musical performances. Referred to these days also as qasîda zajal they are sung in colloquial Moroccan but pull many elements from Andalusian music including references to classical poetry and the notion of each malHûn having its proper rhythm and modes. Classical authors such as ibn al-darrâj (kitâb al-imtâ‘ wa-lintifâ‘ fi mas’ala samâ‘ al-smâ‘—the book of enjoyment and profit from listening to music—13th c.), al-wansharisi (urjûza fi-l-Tabâ‘i wa-l-Tubû‘ wa-l-usûl—poem on the modes), al-hayik, and ibn alTayyib al-‘alamî (al-anîs al-mutrib) do not mention malHûn or any music using colloquial Arabic. Nevertheless recent research traces the roots of the malHûn back to the Almohad era when along with development of the muwashshaHa there developed a form called the lgriha or Moroccan zajal, which was not bound by classical Arabic grammar. The form was transformed with new rhythms during the Marinid and Wattasid periods. Hmad al-Hamrî (14th c.) created a form called the Harba that included a refrain separating each part of the poem, and during the Sa’dian period the proto malHûn was enriched with many new forms (themes such as maqSûr l-janna—confined to paradise—and regional variants such as from the Sous). These developments were taken further by al-maghrawî (16th-17th c.) and almasmûdi (17th c.) who in the interests of rhythm introduced nonsense syllables (such as dan and mali, respectively) to help singers elaborate the rhythm and have more popular appeal. Sufi poets in the 17th

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century added their own influences, and the first full masters of malHûn are thought to have appeared in the Tafilalt during the 17th century. The basic qasîda usually has an instrumental prelude with its own rhythm and then orchestral accompaniment that echoes the rhythm of the song. The orchestral accompaniment is supposed to discretely follow the singer who exhibits virtuosic rhythmic skills and a combination of wide erudition plus the capacity to provide exegesis of the difficult bits. The singer/poet is center stage and the music itself is explicitly accompaniment. Judeo-Moroccan music is also rooted in Andalusia, whence about half of Morocco’s Jewish population came in the same period as the Andalusian Muslims. This music developed in North Africa (especially Morocco and Algeria) in tandem with Muslim Andalusian music and the two genres shared most of their musical elements but differed in that Judeo-Moroccan music had a significant emphasis on using verses from the Torah. The Judeo-Arabic population also strongly appreciated popular songs in colloquial Moroccan and incorporated them as well into their music. Thus the composite music spread widely as far as Tunisia and in the early part of the 20th century was extremely popular in nightclubs and festivities in the major urban areas. Since the general exodus of the vast majority of Morocco’s Jewish population in the decade after 1948, Judeo-Moroccan music is still highly popular among the diaspora population and recent performances (e.g., by Samy Elmaghribi) have still brought enthusiastic crowds in Rabat and Fès. Chikhate music, which has been little appreciated by the experts until the last decade, is particularly associated with Berbers from the Middle Atlas and urban centers in that region. A typical performance would begin with an instrumental improvisation (taqsîm) on a lute followed by a solo (tamawayt or imaya) by a singer (usually female) followed by a chorus singing a refrain (llgha) accompanied by an orchestra. This is often followed by a transition into melodies designed for dance (tahidust). The songs deal with all the issues of daily life but tend to be highly metaphorical and to understate or even obliquely hint at their meanings. Chikhate music, which has its origins in songs sung by women in the countryside, can be presumed to have a long history, but little is known of the details of its developments until the 20th century. It has, however, become highly acclaimed in the last decade and now is regularly included in music festivals in Morocco and France. The ghiwane tradition is based on a troubadour tradition in which people known for their impeccable character would go from village to village giving performances using poetry, song, and drama to describe and comment on the problems of everyday life and a broad range of social issues. In 1971, a group known as nass al-ghiwane burst on the Moroccan scene with theatrical sets, traditional instruments, and provocative social commentary at the Mohammed V theater in Rabat. They had enthusiastic audience reception and the obvious contrast between their militant commentary and the apparent conventionalism

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of other music brought them immediate reknown. Their use of instruments from a broad range of traditions, especially combining a Gnaoua sound with other sounds, had an enormous impact. The recent Algerian Rai musical tradition has been influenced by nass al-ghiwane, and a revival of ghiwane music had spread through Tunisia to Libya by the 1980s. Morocco has of course a significant elaboration of institutions to teach music and mainstream orchestras with funded musicians as well as the usual countless small groups who perform but primarily support themselves through “real jobs.” Agadir, Fès, Kenitra, Khemisset, Ksar El-Kebir, Larache, Marrakech, Rabat, Tanger, and Tétouan have conservatories of music providing a broad range of areas of study while in addition Casablanca, Chefchouen, Rabat, Meknès, Safi, Taza, and Laayoune have more limited schools of music. Increasingly sophisticated musicians with training in a wide set of traditions have been able to create world music with an authentic Moroccan sound that has broad international and local appeal.

-NNakkouch, Ahmed. Born 19 January 1955 in El-Jadida, Nakkouch received a maîtrise in mathématiques et applications fondamentales from Université Claude Bernard in Lyon (1973-1977) and a diploma from the Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Saint-Etienne in France (1977-1979). In 1979, Nakkouch joined the OCP as ingénieur d’exploitation des mines, chef d’exploitation de la mine de Sidi Daoui, and then chef de la division extraction de la zone de Khouribga. In 1991, he joined the Groupe des Ciments du Maroc where he became the director of the Cimenterie d’Agadir until he joined the Office Nationale de l’Electricité (ONE) in 1994 as the director for development. He was charged with the reorganization of the office and the preparation of the new program of rural electrification. He was also in charge of the technical control of investments and presided over the market commission. In October 1995, he was named financial director of the ONE. In 1998, Nakkouch was promoted to directeur généraladjoint chargé des affaires financières et industrielles. In 2001, Nakkouch was named general director of the ONE. nâSir, aHmad bn. aHmad bn nâSir was born in Tamgrout on 17 October 1647 and died 3 March 1717 in Tamgrout. In the interim he made four pilgrimages to the mashriq and became the head of the nâSirîya zâwiya in Tamgrout in 1674. Although aHmad bn nâSir wrote a number of works, the work of specific interest to historians is his riHla, or account of his voyage to the holy places of Islam in the years 1709-1710, which includes detailed and careful descriptions including his own reactions to events and places.

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This work, al-riHla al-nâSirîya ilâ al-diyâr al-muqaddasa (2 vol. lith. in Fès 1902), has been partially translated by Adrien Berbrugger as Voyages dans le sud de l’Algérie et des Etats Barbaresques de l’Ouest et de l’Est par El-’Aïchi et Moula Ahmed and can be found in Explorations scientifiques de l’Algérie. Sciences historiques et géographiques, t.IX/1846, pp.165ff. The Bibliothèque Hasaniya in Rabat has a copy of the manuscript: cote 7648 and fihris BHR I, 447-449. nâSir, muHammad bn ‘abd al-salâm bn. abû ‘abd allâh MuHammad bn ‘abd al-salâm bn ‘abd allâh bn maHammad al-kabîr bn maHammad bn NâSir al-dar‘î, one of the last great heads of the Tamgrout zâwiya and the shâdhilîya Tarîqa, studied with numerous scholars both in Morocco and in the mashriq and died at an advanced age on 18 October 1823. ibn nâSir made two pilgrimages to Mecca (in 1781 and 1796) in each of which he was entrusted with substantial funds by sultan mawlây sulaymân to give to scholars and institutions in the East. Each of these provided the basis of a travel account, al-riHla al-kubrâ and al-riHla al-Sughrâ (The great and small riHla), that is of considerable historical interest. ibn nâSir describes in minute detail the layout of the towns he passes through, the customs of the inhabitants, the level of development of Islam among the inhabitants, the intellectual issues being discussed at the centers of learning he visits, and critiques at length, as he does, the accounts of other travelers who preceded him. The riHla are written in a clear and pleasant-to-read style. ibn nâSir also wrote works of theology and jurisprudence oriented toward issues of concern at the zâwiya. al-nâSirî, aHmad. abû al-abbâs aHmad bn khâlid bn Hammâd bn muHammad al-kabîr bn aHmad bn muHammad al-Saghîr bn maHammad bn nâSir or aHmad al-nâSirî was born in Salé (hence his European nickname of al-slâwî) on 20 April 1835 and died in the same city on 13 October 1897. From the age of 40, al-nâSirî occupied a series of minor posts in the financial and judicial branches of the makhzan, dealing with imperial expenditures, customs, habous, and the enumeration of mawlây al-Hasan I’s wealth after his death. A descendant of the founder of the nâSirîya order in Tamgrout, one of aHmad al-nâSirî’s lesser known works is a monograph on the nâSirîya order, Tal‘at al-mushtarî fî al-nasab al-ja‘farî (The appearance of Jupiter [the greatest star] in the genealogy of al-ja‘farî), which through a history of the nâSirîya order attempts to answer critiques by fâsî genealogists that the sharifan genealogy of the nâSirî family is faked and involves the substitution of a sharîf (al-ja‘far) for a real ancestor (al-muqdâdî). aHmad al-nâSirî’s major work is his history of the Maghrib titled kitâb al-istiqSâ li-akhbâr duwal al-maghrib al-aqSâ (The book of inquiry into the affairs of the lands of the far west), which runs to ten volumes, is currently available in both French and Arabic, and is

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undoubtedly the most read history of Morocco by a pre-20th century historian. Completed on 15 May 1881, but first published in Arabic in Cairo in 1894, it has since become indispensable to all historians of Morocco. Nevertheless, the bulk of the work is simply copied from earlier works by al-ifrânî, al-qâdirî, akansûs, al-zayyânî and others usually but not always referenced. The most original parts are those dealing with the 19th century and al-nâSirî’s native city of Salé, which has a much greater than usual place in his history. Although in most respects al-nâSirî followed the customary Islamic historical method, he did innovate in one area: he made significant use of two Spanish histories (da Cunha 1864 and Castellanos 1878), translated orally for him, and thus outraged many of his contemporaries for his expression of confidence in non-Muslim sources. An earlier work by al-nâSirî on the Marinids, kashf al-‘arîn fî luyûth banî marîn (Investigating the lions den of the banî marîn lions), is incorporated more or less intact into the appropriate section of his kitâb al-istiqSâ, which, after a brief sketch from the Prophet on, covers the period from the Idrisids to the reign of mawlây al-Hasan I. The kitâb al-istiqSâ has the merit, from a historian’s perspective, of being written in elegant prose with far fewer purely literary insertions than most earlier Moroccan histories. nâSirîya. sîdî muHammad bn muHammad bn yûsuf bn nâSir (1606-1674) founded the nâsirîya Tarîqa at the Tamgrout (tâmkrût) zâwiya, 22 km southeast of Zagora in the Draa, when he took over the Tamgrout zâwiya in 1630. The term Tamgrout refers both to a qSâr and a greater region embracing many qSûr that is generally included within the larger region of the Draa. The nâSirî family trace their ancestors to ja‘far bn abî Tâlib (d. 628), a cousin of muHammad and member of the quraysh tribe. The Tamgrout zâwiya had itself been established in 1575 by abû Hafs ‘umar bn aHmad al-anSârî (d. 1601/2), but the doctrine of the new Tarîqa was no more than a simplification of the shâdhilîya with a critical attitude toward heterodox sufi practices such as saint worship, use of music, and other practices not espoused in the qur’an and Hadîth. aHmad bn muHammad bn nâSir (or aHmad al-khalîf), the son of muHammad bn nâSir, was the great organizer and promoter of the nâsirîya Tarîqa. Perhaps the most famous recent descendant is aHmad al-nâSirî, the author of kitâb al-istiqSâ. In its early years the order was a significant supporter of antiPortuguese sentiment and jihâd. The Tarîqa spread rapidly in the 1800s and maintained generally cordial relations with the makhzan, which progressed into a reliance on the makhzan for aid as the Ait Atta began to take over the Draa in the 19th century. These ties helped the zâwiya become and remain one of the largest landowners in the Draa. The Tamgrout zâwiya continued its pragmatic support for the central government during the French protectorate but switched to support the nationalist movement when it took off. At independence, the library of the zâwiya contained an important manuscript collection (approx-

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imately 4,200 manuscripts) and now contains about 2,000 manuscripts, primarily copies made by the shaykhs of the zâwiya, since the most rare have been moved to the Bibliothèque Générale et Archives in Rabat. The zâwiya also archives a set of sharifan correspondence and dahirs (Zahîr) concerning the zâwiya. During the protectorate the Tarîqa was said to have even more female adherents than male and was seen as espousing the views of the poor and the apolitically pious. Nasri, Zoulikha (frequently spelled Naciri). Born in 1935 in Oujda where she did her primary and secondary education, Nasri is the first woman nominated as an advisor by Mohammed VI. Nasri studied in Rabat at the Faculté de Droit and l’ENAP. She received a doctorat d’état in droit privé from the Institut des assurances de Lyon (Université Jean Moulin in France). She wrote her thesis in 1982 on insurance rights. Nasri started her professional career as a bureaucrat in the finance ministry. Nasri has headed the Direction de la Prévention et de la Protection Sociale (DPAS) since 1994 and served as the secretary of state in charge of welfare (l’entraide sociale) between 1997 and 1998. Since the 1990s, Nasri has campaigned for women’s rights in Morocco and the revision of the mudawwana. Recently, she was a key figure in preparing the draft of the new mudawwana that was presented to parliament in October 2003 and voted into law on 16 January 2004. Natural calamities. Natural calamities were often aggravated by political events, but the causality also ran the other way. The plague was regularly introduced into Morocco by returning pilgrims arriving by boat in northern ports and consequently targeted urban areas, the north, and the coastal plains most prominently. Locusts usually originated in the Sahel and flew north, so they usually devastated the south more than the north. Famines often followed the plague because the population losses ruined people’s abilities to bring in the harvest with calamitous results for the following year. War, excessive taxation, and weak sultans, who had no reserves set aside to help out the population, also regularly weakened the ability of the population to resist natural calamities. In particular, times of insecurity often led to overcrowding in the cities, and this provided an ideal habitat for the spread of the plague if it happened to be introduced. Good years in the 19th century, defined as those without significant calamities of any kind, were barely over half of the years. The following are the most significant of a multitude of recorded natural calamities prior to the establishment of the protectorate. Drought and famine in 873 ravaged Spain and Morocco and was followed by plague and epidemics that killed many. Locusts possibly behind famine in 873, though only reported in Spain as having come from Morocco, but locusts were reported to have caused major damage in Morocco in 971, 987, 991-993, 1018, 1220, 1227, 1281, 1348, 1376, 1435, 1513-1514, 1517, 1541, 1571, 1639, 1726, 1761, 1778-1780, 1799, 1813-1815, 1820,

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1839, 1866, 1878, 1891, 1893, 1896, 1901, and 1905-1906. Famine in 900 killed many and was followed by plague giving rise to mass burials. Famine struck again in 915, 991, 1020, 1052, and 1060-1064 with mortalities in 915 comparable to those of 873. Drought and famine in 1218, 1220, 1227, 1233, 1237, 1284, 1290, 1293-1294, 1311, 1323-1325, 1344 (in the Draa), 1375, 1494, 1519-1521, 1541 (on the coast), 1553 (Fès), 1579 (Sous), 1604, 1607, 1614 (Fès), 1626-1628 (Marrakech), 1652, 1661-1663, 1680, 1719-1724 (Mazagan), 1750, 1776-1782, 1789-1790 with plague or epidemic added in 1233, 1237, 1494 (in the oases), 1604 (Fès), 1750. Plague between 1233-1494 may have carried off a significant proportion of the population of the coastal plains. Plague and famine in 1517-1525 alleviated by early Sa‘dians who gain in prestige thereby. Great plague 1596-1608 wiped out foreign commerce and eliminated the sugar cane production. Famine of 1661-1663 facilitated subsequent northward migration of Saharan tribes. Earthquake (Fès) 1664. Famine of 1737-1738: from Tombouctou to Morocco. Great Plague of 1799-1800: even many high officials succumbed and the majority of the population in many areas, especially crowded urban quarters, died. Locusts in 1812: agricultural prices in 1813 as much as five times normal. Famine of 1817-1818: catastrophic. Plague of 1818-1820: substantial losses but only a fraction of the losses incurred in 1799-1800 plague, spread in part by the army. Cholera epidemics in coastal towns in 1835, 1855, 1868, and 1878. Locusts and drought of 1867-1869: prices for agricultural products rose six-fold. Famine of 1849-1850 and 1878-1879: widespread speculation on grain prices, major rural exodus. Droughts of 1880-1883, 1887, 1890, 1899 (Oujda), 1902-1903, 1906, and 1910: drastically reduced, or even eliminated completely, the harvests. Smallpox epidemic of 1891-1892: killed 25-30 people a day in a number of cities and lasted on average two months per city. Locust devastations of 1878, 1890-1892, 1896, 1901, and 1907-1910 caused massive crop loss particularly in the south. Natural resources and energy. Morocco has modest oil and gas production. The Maghreb-Europe gas pipeline (MEG), which brings natural gas across the straits of Gibraltar to supply Spain and Portugal, has operated since 1 November 1996. Approximately 350 bcf of gas has flowed annually, but this could be doubled. The pipeline is financed

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by gas consumers in Spain and Portugal and primarily transports Algerian gas. Oil exploration in Morocco began in 1929 with production reaching 5,000 tons/year in 1939. Although crude oil production briefly reached 420,000 tons in 1973, it has since averaged around 9,000 tons per year and comes primarily from the Essaouira and Gharb basins. Proven reserves are currently estimated at 1.6 million barrrels of crude oil and 43 billion cubic feet of natural gas plus 160,000 tons of gas condensate. Morocco also has shale deposits in the Atlas mountains that have not so far been developed due to cost constraints. Morocco is currently authorizing oil and gas exploration offshore of the southern provinces (former Western Sahara) despite the United Nations position that this is not legal until the dispute with the Polisario is resolved. Morocco’s known nonrenewable energy resources are overall quite modest compared to those of Algeria or Libya. Almost the entirety of Morocco’s petrol consumption is imported from Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, and Russia. Overall, approximately 85 percent of Morocco’s energy needs are met through importation. Morocco’s hydroelectric capacity is estimated at 5 billion Kwh but only 40 percent of this is currently developed. Some thirty electrical power plants using fuel oil or coal provide about 90 percent of Morocco’s electricity needs. Coal deposits in the northeast, which have been mined since 1932, are estimated to still have approximately 100 million tons of coal—mostly around 600 m below the surface. The great majority of coal used in Morocco is imported (South Africa is the largest importer). In 2000, Morocco built a wind power generation park between Tanger and Tetouan, which currently produces 225 Gwh per year. While the potential for harnessing solar energy for electricity is high, this has not been significantly developed yet. Morocco produces significant quantities of minerals in several areas of the country: Rif (iron, zinc, antimony, and some strategic metals), High Atlas (lead, zinc, copper, iron, manganese), Anti Atlas (copper, manganese, tin, gold, silver, and strategic metals, e.g., cobalt, titanium, wolfram), Oriental (lead, zinc, and coal), and the central zone of Morocco (lead, fluorine, antinomy). In addition, Morocco produces salt, mineral water, and two mineral products exported primarily to the Middle East: argile smectiques (used to clean wool) and ghasûl (a natural cleaner). Morocco’s principal mineral production, however, is phosphate (managed by the Office Chérifien des Phosphates), which comprises 94 percent of Morocco’s nonmetals mineral production and approximately 83.5 percent of its overal mineral production. Morocco (including the southern provinces of the former Western Sahara) has approximately 75 percent of the world’s known phosphate reserves. Morocco is the number one exporter of phosphates (10-12 million tons per year—more than five times as much as the United States, Mexico or Spain, which are the second through fourth largest exporters of phosphates). Morocco is also currently the third largest producer of phosphates.

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Nejjaï, Ahmed Mansour. Born 16 April 1920 in Souk Tlata du Gharb (Province of Kenitra), Nejjaï, a former minister, is the president of the Union Marocaine de l’Agriculture (UMA). Nejjaï studied at Collège Moulay Youssef in Rabat, Lycée Hassan II in Rabat, and the Institut National de l’Agriculture de Maison Carrée (Algiers). Nejjaï received a baccalauréat elementary mathematics and a diplôme as an agricultural engineer. Nejjaï served as minister of agriculture from 1955 to 1956. He was also elected to the first three parliaments and became the president of the UMA in 1958. Nejjaï also served as the president of the Association des producteurs d’agrumes du Maroc (citrus producers). Noury, Hakim. Born 14 April 1952 in Casablanca, Noury studied theater at the Conservatoire National d’Art Dramatique in Casablanca between 1966 and 1970. He received a baccalauréat in Lettres Modernes in 1970. Noury was the president of the chambre marocaine des techniciens de cinéma (1992-1998) and the vice president of the chambre marocaine des producteurs de films (1999). Noury, who works in the customs administration, also directed Sans Parole (1977), Le Facteur (1980), Le Marteau et l’enclume (1990), L’Enfance Volée (1993), Voleur de Rêves (1995), and Simple faits divers (1997). nukûr. A state founded around 809 by SâliH bn manSûr, an Arab immigrant and opponent of the kharijites, in nukûr (near al-Hoceima and Melilla). The state was recognized by al-walîd, the Umayyad emir of Spain. During the reign of ‘abd l-raHmân II (822-852) the Umayyads entered into an alliance with nukûr and the kharijite state of Tahert (tâhart: in Algeria) against the Idrisids. The state lasted at least until 917 when the Fatimids, led by ‘ubayd allâh, conquered it. A few months later it was recaptured by members of the emir’s family who had fled to Spain, but the state seems to have played an insignificant role during the subsequent rivalries in Morocco between the Fatimid and Umayyad conquests that occupied most of the next sixty years.

-OOmary, Nourredine. Born 24 December 1947 in Casablanca, Omary, the président directeur général of the Banque Central Populaire (BCP), received a licence in economics in 1968 and Certificat d’études supérieures in political economy in 1970. Omary started his career within the Inspection Générale des Finances (IGF) in 1968 when he worked as Contrôleur financier of different public services. In 1970, he

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joined the Administration des Douanes et Impôts Indirects (ADII). In 1980, he was named by Hassan II as Directeur des affaires générales, des enquêtes et des contentieux for the customs administration. Omary became Directeur des affaires techniques in 1987. In 1994, he was promoted to Directeur des établissements publics et des participations (DEPP). Then, he was named Directeur par intérim for ADII in 1996. From 1998 to 2001, Omary was secretary-general of the finance ministry (de l’économie et des finances). On 8 February 2001, Mohammed VI named Omary as the président directeur général of the Banque Central Populaire. Omary is also a member of the board of trustees of Al-Akhawayn University. Omary represented the customs administration in many international conferences and has taken part in many national, regional, or bilateral economic and customs negotiations. Organization of African Unity. Founded in 1963 in Addis Ababa, the OAU was an amalgamation of initiatives by two blocks of African states referred to as the Casablanca group and the Monrovia group. Its formation reflected enormous political efforts by many states including Ethiopia, which was instrumental in bringing the two blocks together and in creating a constitution that was acceptable to all members. Morocco was a founding member of the OAU and remained active in the organization until 1984. The development of Morocco’s conflict with the Polisario and Algeria’s backing of the Polisario led to diplomatic efforts by Algeria to get the OAU to give a seat to the governing body of the Polisario (SADR). When these efforts finally succeeded in 1984, Morocco withdrew from the OAU, which gradually became ineffectual in part because its charter had included a clause that the OAU would not support the interference of any state in the affairs of any other state. This noninterference clause had originally been included because some states, such as Togo, which felt Ghana was interfering in its internal affairs, insisted the clause be part of the OAU charter. This clause prohibited the OAU from doing anything about corruption, warfare, or any of the major problems, such as the Sahraoui issue, that over time begain to plague African states. There was debate about modifying the charter of the OAU for this reason, and another clause of the charter (XXXIII) allowed the constitution to be modified provided that the proposed amendment is submitted to all states a year in advance of voting on it and that two thirds of the states approve the amendment. In the end, African states decided to abolish the OAU and create a new organization, the African Union, which was created in Durban, South Africa in July 2002. Osman, Ahmad. Born in Oujda (1930) and educated with mawlây Hassan II at the Collège Impérial, Ahmad Osman went on to the University of Bordeaux and entered the Moroccan Foreign Service in 1957. He served as ambassador to the Federal Republic of Germany (1967-1970), and as prime minister (20 November 1972-1979). He was

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married to Princess Lalla Nezha who died in an automobile crash in 1977. He founded the Rassemblement National des Indépendants in 1977 and still heads the RNI, which led all parties in the local elections of October 1992. El Othmani, Saâd Eddine. Born on 16 January 1956 in Inezgane Agadir, El Othmani succeeded AbdelKrim el Khatib as the head of the Parti de la Justice et du Développement (PJD) at the 5th congress of the party on 11 April 2004 (winning 80.5 percent of the votes). El Othmani attended the Abdellah ibn Yassine lycée in Inezgane, the Faculty of medecine and pharmacy in Casablanca, as well as the Ait Melloul Faculty of shari‘a and dâr al-Hadîth al-Hasaniya in Rabat. At the Centre psychiatrique universitaire in Casablanca he received a Doctorat in medicine in 1986. He also received a licence ès chariaa islamique (1983, Ait Melloul) a certificat des études supérieures in Islamic jurisprudence (1987, dâr al-Hadîth), and a diplôme de specialité in psychiatry (1994). El Othmani worked as a doctor at the hôpital Oued Zem in Khouribga (1987-1990) and at the hôpital psychiatrique Berrechid (1994-1997). He was elected secretary-general of the PJD in 1996 and to the chamber of representatives (from Dchira) in 1997. El Othman supports Islamist positions but so far has been nondogmatic, open to dialogue, firmly opposed to terrorism, and known for his realism, his ability to listen, and his carefully worded non-rhetorical statements. It is clear that some elements of the PJD are far more radical, and it may be that El Othmani, like his eclectically connected predecessor El Khatib, has been selected as a moderate to deflect criticism in the current climate. Oualalou, Fathallah. Born in 1942 in Rabat, Oualalou did his primary and secondary education at the école Guessous and Lycée Moulay Youssef where he received a baccalauréat degree in philosophy in 1961. In 1964, Oualalou received a licence in economics from the Faculté de Droit in Rabat and in 1966 received a DES in economics in Paris. In 1968, Oualalou earned a doctorate in economics in Paris and became a professor at the faculté de Droit in Rabat, the Faculté de Droit in Casablanca, and at the Ecole Nationale d’Administration (ENA). As a student, Oualalou served as president of the Union Nationale des Etudiants Marocains (UNEM), and in 1972, he participated within the ‘Rabat Group’ in the foundation of the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP). In 1989 he became a member of the political bureau of the USFP. In the latest and 2002 parliaments, Oualalou has been the parliamentary leader of the USFP. Oualalou then became finance minister (de l’économie et des finances on 14 March 1998 and des finances et de la privatization in the 2002 parliament). Oualalou kept this final portfolio through the June 2004 cabinet. In 1972, in collaboration with the late economist Abdelaziz Belal, Oualalou created the Association des économistes marocains, of which he has been president since 1982. Oualalou was elected several times

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to the presidency of the union of Arab economists and has published many books and articles in the area of economic theory, finance, and economic relations between the Arab world and Europe. Ouarzazi, Halima. Born on 17 April 1933 in Casablanca, Ouarzazi received a degree in literature from the University of Cairo and became Attachée culturelle in the Moroccan Embassy in Washington from 1959 to 1967. In 1973, Ouarzazi was elected to the UN subcommission for the Lutte contre les mesures discriminatoires as well as to the UN Comité contre l’apartheid et la discrimination raciale. In 1985, Ouarzazi was elected president of the UN working group charged with studying traditional practices affecting the health of women and children. In 1989, she became directeur des organisations internationales au ministère d’état chargé des affaires étrangères et de la coopération. In 1992, Ouarzazi was elected president of the third preparatory session for the World Conference on Human Rights as well as president of the UN working group on new forms of racism. In 1997, she was elected vice president of the 49th session of the subcommission for the Lutte contre les mesures discriminatoires et de la protection des minorités. In 2002, Ouarzazi was named a member of the Conseil Consultatif des Droits de l’Homme (CCDH). Ouazzane/wazzân. (lat. 34º 50' N., long. 5º 30') Only a small town in early Sa‘dian times, the town of Ouazzane, which had a population of 62,900 in 2004, came into prominence after a descendent of mawlây idrîs the younger, mawlây ‘abd allâh, established a zâwiya there in 1627. The zâwiya soon became a major pilgrimage center and its heads played significant roles in Moroccan history on several occasions. Their sharifan ancestry and prestige made them ideal contenders for power on several occasions when factions in Fès became dissatisfied with current dynastic leaders. See also Maraboutic traditions, wazzânîya, Tayyibîya, al-Ouezzani, and Franco-Moroccan Accords of 1901, 1902, 1909-1911. Oudghiri, Khalid. Oudghiri received a diploma from the Ecole Centrale de Paris in 1981. Oudghiri is the president and general director of the Banque Commerciale du Maroc (BCM). He started his career at the Office National de Recherches et d’Exploitations Pétrolières (ONREP). He also pursued his training at the Institut Français du Pétrole. Since 1982 Oudghiri was in charge of the organization of ONREP. He led the Meskala project until its completion in 1987. Oudghiri joined the Companie Financière d’Investissement created by Indosuez and two Moroccan banks. He participated as Directeur des opérations d’acquisition et de restructuration in many projects and in the creation of the holdings Finaboid and Finapap. In 1992 he joined the BMCI after a period in France at the Banque Nationale de Paris to train the agencies in the regions of the north and center and outside Casablanca before he joined the central direction of the bank. Oudghiri took part in

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the restructuring of the institution. In 1997 he became directeur général-adjoint controlling all the departments of the bank. In spring 2002, he became the director of the Proche et Moyen-Orient grooup of BNP Paribas and was also a member of the executive committee of the Pôle Banque de Détail à l’International. In January 2003, he joined the Banque Commerciale du Maroc as the president and general director. Oudghiri is an active member of many associations and organizations: vice president of the GPBM (Groupement Professionnel des Banques du Maroc), administrator in the Chambre de Commerce Franco-Arabe, member of the Centre d’études et de recherche des dirigeants, member of the Conseil National de la Monnaie et de l’Epargne, and founding member and vice president of the Association Maroc 2020, a group devoted to planning and advocating modernization. al-Ouezzani, Mohammed Hassan. Mohammed Hassan al-Ouezzani was an early nationalist, one of the few republican (in the French sense) nationalists, and a member of the core directorate of the kutlat al-amâl al-waTanî (National Action Bloc) or Comité de l’Action Marocaine. In 1937, he broke with the kutlat and formed a new party, al-Hizb alqawmî (the party of the people). He founded the Parti Démocratique de l’Indépendance (Hizb al-shûrâ) on 9 April 1951 and merged it with the Hizb al-maghrib al-Hurr (Party of Free Morocco) in late 1956. On 15 May 1960, Hassan al-Ouezzani, Ahardane, and Bekkai called for the resignation of the Ibrahim government, which corresponded well with the king’s decision to dissolve the government (21 May). In April 1963, Hassan al-Ouezzani and others formed the brief-lived Front pour la Défense des Institutions Constitutionelles (FDIC). In the legislative elections of 1963, Hassan al-Ouezzani won a seat for Ouazzane. Oufkir, General Muhammad. Reputedly born in the Tafilalt in the village of Taouz the son of a caid, Oufkir (c.1920-1972) became a lieutenant in the French army and served in Indochina with other Moroccans with whom he established lasting ties based on shared experiences. In retrospect, it seems obvious that Oufkir assimilated readily all that the French military could teach about oppressing dissidents. A graduate of French military schools in Morocco, Oufkir served in the general staff as a liaison officer with the palace during the 1950s. He was actually one of the officers in charge of guarding Mehdi Ben Barka after the latter’s arrest in 1951. By all accounts a lasting mutual dislike was developed at the time. His liaison position made him the ideal person to work as intermediary between the French and Mohammed V, in exile, as the latter negotiated a return to Morocco at independence. This position facilitated a compatible position of trust in the new independent government. Oufkir was put in charge of suppressing the Rif uprising from 1957-1959 and this earned him a broad reputation for cruelty (whole villages were eliminated) and won him the position of minister of interior in 1961. He reorganized the armed forces and established

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the Sûreté Nationale to control dissidents. On 20 August 1964, Oufkir became minister of interior again. In 1965 Oufkir was in charge of the suppression of riots in Casablanca and was accused and convicted in the Paris abduction, and presumed later death, of Mehdi Ben Barka. This abduction led to a serious break in Franco-Moroccan relations that lasted until de Gaulle’s resignation (1969) and the advent, as minister of economics and finances, of Valery Giscard d’Estaing (1969-72) for whom pragmatic business interests took precedence over insults to national integrity. In the 1971 coup manqué, Oufkir, who was himself at Skhirat with the king, was not accused of complicity, and was responsible for the arrests of the various people implicated in the coup. In the 1972 coup attempt, the pilots implicated Oufkir as the man giving the orders and Oufkir died (officially a suicide) from multiple bullets to the body on 17 August 1972, a week after the coup attempt. Oufkir was buried in ‘ayn al-sha‘îr near Boudnib. One of the most trusted and feared of Hassan II’s ministers, Oufkir’s treachery seems to have combined two recruiting strategies, beliefs about the corrupt morals of the palace (which have long had great popular resonance) and the imminence of a plot by the Left, with probable promises of support from some foreign security services (with whom any anticommunist rhetoric has traditionally had great resonance). Whatever the agenda, the plot failed to account for the baraka of mawlây al-Hasan II. Oujda. (lat. 34º 38' N., long. 1º 55' W.) Oujda (wajda), located on the east bank of the Isly river, was founded in 994 by zîrî bn ‘aTîya who made it the capital of the zanâta kingdom. The Almohads conquered it in 1074 and fortified it in 1206 on the eve of their struggles with the banî marîn who between 1214 and 1217 conquered much of the eastern Rif. The Marinid dynasty finally destroyed Oujda in 1271 and rebuilt it in 1295-1298. In subsequent centuries, Oujda alternated between affiliation to reigning Moroccan dynasties and occasional control by the Ottomans. After the advent of Sa‘dian ‘abd al-malik al-mu‘taSim (1576-1578), Oujda became Morocco’s frontier town; Morocco’s frontier was generally recognized as running just to the east of Oujda. The Battle of Isly, fought nearby and lost by Morocco in 1844, established France’s military predominance over Morocco and presaged the establishment of the French protectorate in Morocco. Oukacha, Mustapha. Born in 1933 in Casablanca, Oukacha is the president of the Chambre des Conseillers. He received a baccalauréat (Section Littérature française) in 1954 and pursued studies in law and business management. Oukacha founded and directed many firms in the field of construction and agriculture and founded and managed many agricultural schemes in the region of Chaouia and participated in the development of agricultural lands. In the fishing sector, he founded

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the Société Marocco-Coréenne des pêches maritimes in 1978, the Société MAC Fishery in 1983, and several associations in the area of Moroccan-Chinese corporations. Oukacha has had an extensive political career. He was a founding member of the Rassemblement National des Indépendants in 1978 and a coordinator of the same party in the region of Chaouia. Oukacha has been a member of the executive committee of the RNI, president of the rural commune of Moualine Louad (Province Benslimane), president of the chambre d’agriculture de Casablanca, Settat and Benslimane, and vice president of the Conseil provincial de Benslimane. Oukacha was elected to the chamber of representatives as a representative of the Province of Benslimane from 1977 to 1983 and from 1984 to 1992. Within parliament, he headed the parliamentary commission in charge of maritime fishing in 1980. He also served as first vice president of the Chambre des Conseillers. At the regional level, he has been a member of the Conseil provincial of Benslimane, the second vice president of the conseil regional de Chaouia Ouardigh, a and president of the Commission juridique et de la coopération du Conseil régional de Chaouia. Oukacha has also been an active member within numerous associations: a founding president of the Association Professionnelle des Amateurs de Pêche Hauturière Marocaine— professional association for amateur deep sea fishing (APAPHAM), vice president of the Fédération des entreprises du Maroc in 1990, member of the conseil national du patronat marocain in 1996, president of the association de bienfaisance (charity) in Benslimane, president of an organization doing social work in Sidi Othmane, and an active member of the Conseil National de la Jeunesse et de l’Avenir. Oukacha has also taken part in numerous parliamentary commissions that negotiated bilateral agreements between Morocco and other countries. Ould Sidi Baba, Dey [al-day wuld sîdî bâbâ]. Born in Atar, Mauritania in 1921 where he was educated studying the qur’an and other sciences under well-known Islamic scholars, sîdî bâbâ also learnt French and modern subjects in French colonial schools. He joined the independence movement against the French and supported union with Morocco. sîdî bâbâ supported the expansion of the territory of Morocco from Tanger to the Senegal river. When Mohammed V signed wathîqat al-istiqlâl, sîdî bâbâ decided to move to Rabat arriving in 1958. He was appointed by the king as an advisor in the Ministère des affaires étrangères. Soon he became head of the African section (1959). In 1961 sîdî bâbâ was appointed ambassador of Morocco to Guinea. In 1963, he was made permanent ambassador to the United Nations. In 1964 he was a representative of Morocco to the security council where he was part of the committee that investigated the events that took place on the borders of Vietnam and Cambodia and was also appointed by the council as a member of the committee that looked at the policies of the apartheid government of South Africa. In 1965, he became the permanent representative of Morocco to the United Nations, and in

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1966, the General Assembly elected him as vice president. sîdî bâbâ returned to Morocco after this and became minister of the royal cabinet until he was appointed ambassador to Saudi Arabia in 1971. In 1972, he returned as director of the royal cabinet. In May 1973, sîdî bâbâ became minister of education, and in 1974 he became ministre des affaires islamiques et des habous. In 1977, he joined the RNI party as a member of its executive committee, an elected member of parliament and then head of parliament, a post which he held for six years. sîdî bâbâ died on 19 September, 1992 and was buried in Rabat.

-PParliament/al-barlamân. The parliament is currently made up of two chambers, the Chamber of Representatives majlis al-nûwâb and the Chamber of Counsellors majlis al-mustashârîn. Members of the chambers hold personal rights to vote that cannot be delegated (article 36). Members of the Chamber of Representatives are elected for a sixyear term by direct universal suffrage. The legal legislative period ends at the opening of the October session in the fifth year following the election of the chamber. For three fifths of its membership, the Chamber of Counsellors consists of members elected in each region by electoral colleges made up of elected members of trade chambers, while the remainder consists of members elected at the national level by an electoral college consisting of wage-earners’ representatives. Members of the Chamber of Counsellors are elected for a nine-year term. One third of this chamber’s membership is renewed every three years. The president of the Chamber of Counsellors and members of the board are elected at the October session during each renewal operation in the chamber. Members of the board are elected in proportion to the size of their respective parties. Moroccan law provides that no member of parliament may be prosecuted, arrested, put into custody, or brought to trial as a result of expressing opinions or casting a vote while exercising parliamentary functions, unless the opinions are deemed to be injurious to the monarchical system or the Islamic religion or derogatory to the king. Further, during parliamentary sessions, no member of parliament may be prosecuted or arrested for criminal charges or felonies, other than those mentioned, without permission from the Chamber unless caught in flagrante delicto. The parliament holds its meetings during two sessions a year. The king presides over the opening of the first session, which begins on the second Friday in October. The second session begins on the second Friday in April. Once the parliament has convened for at least three months in a given session, the session may be adjourned by decree (art. 40). The parliament may also be convened in special session either at the request of the absolute majority of the members of one of the two

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chambers or by decree. Cabinet members have the right to attend the meetings of each chamber and their committees. Fact-finding committees may be established on the king’s initiative or upon the request of the majority of the members of one of the two chambers, but no fact-finding committees are permitted in cases involving prosecutions once the prosecutions are being conducted. Meetings of the chambers of parliament are open to the public, and the proceedings of the debates are published in extenso in the Gazette. Each chamber may hold private meetings if requested by the prime minister or by a third of chamber members (art. 43). Each chamber establishes and votes on its own rules of procedure. These may not, however, go into effect until they are declared to be constitutional by the Constitutional Council (art. 44) (see Constitution and Political parties). Pascon, Paul. Born in Fès on 13 April 1938, Pascon was the son of a second-generation colon and grew up near Fès. After attending lycée in Rabat he received a Zellidja grant, which allowed him to study hydrology and water rights in southern Morocco. After a licence in natural sciences in Rabat, Pascon went to Paris and obtained a licence in sociology with additional work in Arabic. Returning to Morocco, he began work for the ONI (Organisation Nationale d’Irrigation), and when it was disolved he became director of the Office Régional de Mise en Valeur du Haouz. Pascon identified so strongly with Morocco that he decided to take up Moroccan citizenship, which he obtained in 1964. His position as director of the ORMVH led to the writing of his two-volume dissertation, Le Haouz de Marrakech, which ranks simultaneously as one of the best works of geography, history, and ethnology ever produced on Morocco. Pascon became widely known for articles on rural sociology and collections of studies dealing with what was known as “la question agraire,” or how to modernize agriculture while ameliorating land tenure from a progressive perspective. Pascon suffered unimaginable tragedy when a son aged 20 and a daughter aged 18 disappeared on a trip to the far south of Morocco and were never found. Such was his reputation that Jacques Berque asked him to collaborate on a restudy of his classic work on the Seksawa, producing Structures sociales du Haut-Atlas par Jacques Berque, suivi de Retour aux Seksawa par Jacques Berque et Paul Pascon in 1978. While Pascon published many sociological studies, his second major body of research dealt with the house of Iligh in the Tazerwalt. Pascon persuaded the heirs of this once preeminent zâwiya to open their archives and allow him and his team to reconstruct the economic, religious, and social significance of the zâwiya from its own copious internal records. The publications from this project were beginning to pour out in the early 1980s. Major publications on this project included Le cimetière juif d’Iligh (1751-1955): étude des épitaphes comme documents d’histoire sociale (with Daniel Schroeter in 1982) and posthumously in 1988 La Maison d’Iligh (with Mohammad Ennaji)

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plus two articles, Le meurtre de Hâchem, chef de la Maison d’Iligh and Le Makhzen et le sous al-aqsa: la correspondance politique de la maison d’Iligh (1821-1894) with Mohammad Ennaji. Paul Pascon died during a mission studying oases in Mauritania on 22 April 1985 when the car he was in collided with an oncoming vehicle as each exited the road to go around a sand dune. He left behind many unfinished studies that may yet appear. His generosity of spirit, scholarship, and brilliance will long be missed. Political parties. Political parties in Morocco date from the middle years of the protectorate when intellectuals first organized to press for limited reforms and then evolved to demand full independence. Since independence, the monarchy has managed to reserve virtually all key powers for itself with the result that political parties have primarily functioned as patronage systems dependent on the goodwill of the king. Many have, however, managed to push the cause of their supporters into the national debate in a way that has been sufficiently persuasive that it has had some impact on policy and the direction the economy has developed. Unfortunately, the most persuasive voices have been those promoting the causes of the elites, industrialization, and modern agriculture, while land reform and education have never been prioritized enough to develop a significant transformative role. The basic form parliament has taken has changed. Initially it had 138 seats, all based on direct election. With the passing of Morocco’s third constitution (see Constitutions) this changed with a clause that specified that one third of the seats would be elected by an electoral college of local officials whose electees (referred to in tables as ID or indirect) naturally would tend to be pro-royalist. In the 1977 elections, there were thus 264 seats to fill, of which 176 were by direct election (D) and 88 by indirect election. In 1984, the total rose to 306 (divided into 204 and 102, respectively) while in 1993 the total rose to 333 (similarly divided into two sets of 222 and 111). For the 1997 elections the parliament was again reorganized to have two chambers, a Chamber of Representatives and a Chamber of Councellors, with the latter elected indirectly. The major substantive change during the reign of Hassan II was the increased constitutional power of the monarchy, which in the fourth constitution acquired expanded rights to appoint not just ministers (provided in the third constitution) but also secretary-generals and most remaining positions of significance. What was left to parliament included the right to approve bills put to them by the executive branch and propose bills acceptable to the monarchy. This made it possible to both control the budget available to parliament and blame parliament for either not passing measures it cannot finance or for passing measures that fail through lack of funds. The political situation has improved significantly under Mohammed VI in the sense that more initiative is allowed the parliament and there is a serious effort to include the country’s elected

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representatives in significant decision making. Nevertheless, the government is a monarchy with a constitution that both allows considerable space for political discourse within a parliament and disallows any opposition to the key role of the monarchy. The recent openness has led to the formation of many new parties, but a large portion of the Islamist groups still abstain from participation in the political process. It is thus unclear what popular support these have though in some cases they have very considerable popularity. A political movement has always needed approval from the government to be constituted as a political party, and those groups who actually oppose the continued existence of the monarchy are still not allowed to form political parties and hence cannot run candidates in elections. A request to be allowed to form a party requires something like an oath of allegience to the basic government system if it is to be approved, and this right can always be withdrawn at a later date. Various political movements that have not constituted actual political parties can be found under the entries for Leftist movements in the 1960s and 1970s and Islamist groups. The following major groups have been allowed, over the course of years, to form official political parties (though many have been banned at various times): Alliance des libertés (ADL) The Alliance des libertés (ADL) represents, along with the party Forces Citoyennes (FC), a new type of political movement in Morocco deeply entrenched within civil society. ADL promotes modernity, diversity, freedom, and responsibility. Created by ‘ali balhâj in March 2002, ADL’s constitutive assembly was organized on 16 March. Bloc Démocratique (BD). A rubric for a coalition formed in May 1992 by the istiqlâl, the USFP, UNFP, PPS, and the OADP (see below). Its purpose was to coordinate electoral strategy for the upcoming elections. The BD called for a reduction in the minimum age for voting and political candidacy. King Hassan II proposed amendments to the constitution that partially met the BD’s demands. Comité de l’Action Marocaine. Founded in 1934 to protest political and educational inequities between Moroccans and French colons, it grouped among its founders ‘allâl al-fâsî, Muhammad alOuezzani, and Muhammad Al-Fasi. It briefly published a journal, l’Action du Peuple, from 1933 to 1934. The Comité presented a Plan of Reforms to the sultan and Résident-Général Peyrouton in 1936. It split into two political parties, the Parti du Peuple under Ouezzani and the Parti National under ‘allâl al-fâsî, the following year. Although both were quickly repressed, they prepared the way for the istiqlâl. Forces Citoyennes (FC). The party was created in November 2001 by a group of high-profile business men. Headed by ‘abd al-raHmân laHjûjî, former head of CGEM, the party is accused of being elitist. Front des Forces Démocratiques (FFD). Originating as a splinter

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from the PPS after the death of its historical leader ali ya‘ta, the FFD is considered to be a leftist progressive party characterized by political organizational structures that minimize the prerogatives and the term of the secretary-general. The party was able to form two parliamentary groups five months before the elections of November 1997. Its creation was justified as necessitated by the crisis at the social, economic, and cultural levels as well as by the challenges of globalization. The FFD stresses that rapid transformations in the general policies of the country are necessary to modernize the state and society. The party also refuses to strike coalitions with other parties on ideological grounds and opts for alliances based on a well-defined political programs. The party refused to join the Koutla. The secretarygeneral of FFD is Thami al Khyari. Front National. The Front National was the rubric chosen by the istiqlâl and UNFP in 1970 to muster support against Hassan II’s proposed constitutional changes. It was dissolved in the political fallout of the two abortive coup attempts in 1971 and 1972. The umbrella term was taken up again in 1990 by the istiqlâl, the USFP, the UNFP, the PPS, and the OADP to coalesce opposition to social and economic policies. The Bloc Démocratique is a 1992 version of the Front National. Front National Marocain. The Front National Marocain was a brieflived coalition of independence parties in Morocco in the years just before independence. The Front National Marocain drafted a few statements but never had any significant decision-making role and was always dominated by the istiqlâl. Front pour la Défense des Institutions Constitutionnelles (FDIC). Founded by royalist Ahmed Reda Guédira in March 1963, the FDIC was a coalition of the MP, PDC, and Guédira’s Parti des Indépendants Libéraux (founded in 1955). Intended as a counterforce to the istiqlâl, the FDIC precipitated a move by the istiqlâl into a more coherent opposition role even before it won 50 percent of the votes in the July 1963 elections. Guédira formed a new party, the PSD, in 1964 as the MP members began to dominate the FDIC and the latter’s collapse as a coalition was assured. The FDIC, as a royalist coalition, was succeeded by the RNI (Rassemblement National des Indépendants) in 1978. ilâ al-amâm. A leftist break off in 1970 from the PLS, ilâ al-amâm (Forward) supported self-determination for the Western Sahara and was banned. Its leader Abraham Serfaty was imprisoned then later released and stripped of his Moroccan citizenship and exiled. al-iSlâH al-waTanî, Hizb (Party of National Reform). The Hizb aliSlâH al-waTanî of ‘abd al-khalaq Torrès, a party in the Spanish zone, merged with the istiqlâl in late 1956. Originally established in June 1936 the party set up cells, founded youth groups, and financed studies in Egypt for students. At its start it was an outgrowth of the nationalist movements centered around Fès that

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had begun in 1930 (the initial clandestine zâwiya, its broader but still clandestine organization the Taifa, and the subsequent even broader based and publicly known kutlat al-amâl al-waTanî), but Torrès initially moved the new party in a more independent direction. The party tried unsuccessfully to get German financial support for its activities, aimed at ending the protectorate. Later when its links with the increasingly active nationalist movement in the French zone (by this time called the istiqlâl) were apparent, Spanish authorities banned the party and the leaders fled to Tanger. When tensions between France and Spain increased Torrès was received by General Franco (1953) and the party resumed its activities and again provided aid to the istiqlâl until its merger in 1956. al-istiqlâl, Hizb. The istiqlâl is Morocco’s primary independence party. It was formed towards the end of WWII when founding members of the independence movement (dating back to the 1930s), such as ‘allâl al-fâsî, Muhammad Lyazidi, and Ahmed Balafrej met in December 1943 after consulting with the exiled King Mohammed V. The istiqlâl began with a simple manifesto demanding independence and leaving it up to the king to design the form of a postindependence government. Throughout the intervening years until independence major figures in the istiqlâl were exiled, imprisoned, and otherwise castigated by the French, thus gaining a patina of heroism that lent enormous authority to their voices in the early years of independence. The istiqlâl’s deference to the monarchy had major implications in the first decade after independence, which came in 1956. The preponderance of the istiqlâl in political matters and its preference for a traditional status quo led quickly to a realization that more radical forms of government than monarchy and a showcase parliament would have to be sought outside the confines of the istiqlâl. The orientation of the istiqlâl away from any radical questioning of the concept of a constitutional monarchy dates to the period in 1959 when the political commission of the istiqlâl tried and failed to get the king to accept a communiqué limiting the king’s powers and assuring some delegation of real power to the parliament. ‘allâl al-fâsî failed to support Abdullah Ibrahim, Mehdi Ben Barka, and other younger members on this issue and it was allowed to languish and was not forced upon the king. This in effect established the basic form of government that has prevailed since. It also led almost immediately to the formation of the more radical Union Nationale des Forces Populaires in 1960. In 1962 a constitution establishing the preeminent power of the monarchy was approved with istiqlâl support; the die had been cast. In the 1960s the istiqlâl’s support eroded a bit, but it never slipped from the position of one of the preeminent parties with

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considerable influence in national affairs. The istiqlâl opposed the monarchy over a referendum on a new constitution in 1970 (further enhancing the power of the monarchy), but this passed, supposedly by 99 percent. By 1973, when ‘allâl al-fâsî died, the istiqlâl was refusing to cooperate with the king unless some powers were delegated. This proved a mistake when king Hassan’s popularity soared after the Green March in 1975 and the king supplanted the istiqlâl as the country’s determiner of the nationalist agenda. By the 1990s the economic hardships due to a declining economy, the harsh provisions of structural adjustment policies, and the king’s commitment of Moroccan troops to the Gulf War against Iraq boosted the popularity of opposition parties just as it hurt the popularity of the king. A general strike in December 1990 by the UGTM and other labor organizations, which resulted in at least 49 deaths, precipitated a call by the istiqlâl for reform of the monarchy. Despite a continued opposition to any major political change, the istiqlâl’s venerable status as one of the key political actors has really been maintained rather well over the forty years since independence. This has been facilitated by its continuous publication of its two flagship newspapers, l’Opinion and al‘alam, which are much read by its primary clientèle, the urban bourgeoisie. al-maghrib al-Hurr, Hizb. Hizb al-maghrib al-Hurr (The Party of Free Morocco) was a party popular in the Rif that merged with the Parti Démocratique de l’Indépendance (PDI) in late 1956 and then briefly reappeared as a separate party in 1962. Mouvement Démocratique Social (MDS). Established after a splinter with the Mouvement National Populaire (MNP). MDS organized its constitutive congress in 1996. Four years after the formation of the political party of Mahjoubi Ahardane, tensions with the MNP led seventeen members of parliament to create the MDS in October 1995. The party obtained thirty-two seats during the fourteen November 1997 elections. It is headed by Mahmoud Archane. Mouvement National Populaire (MNP). Formed in July 1991 by Mahjoubi Ahardane when he was forced from the leadership of the Mouvement Populaire by Mohand Laenser, the MNP did well in the 1993 elections (twenty-five seats), for a new party, but nevertheless received less than half the votes of the reorganized Mouvement Populaire (fifty-one seats). Mouvement Populaire (MP). Founded by Mahjoubi Ahardane and Dr. ‘abd al-karîm khaTîb, a Casablanca physician, in 1956-1957, the Mouvement Populaire (al-Haraka al-sha‘biya) has proved itself one of the more durable parties. In principle, it stands for rural small holders and urban low-level industrial workers. Its program emphasizes improved social services, agricultural cooperatives, and government-based development equitably distributed between

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rural and urban areas. It has been firmly royalist since inception and this may account for its longevity. In its early years it was in direct competition with the more radical Union Nationale des Forces Populaires, a history that may have been beneficial after the trial of UNFP members in 1963. On 15 May 1960, the leaders of the MP (Ahardane, Bekkai) and the PDC (al-Ouezzani) issued a joint statement of alliance that called for a new government and pledged each to abstain from participating if the other were refused participation. In 1963 the MP joined with the Parti Démocratique Constitutionnelle (PDC) and the Liberal Independents to form the brief-lived Front pour la Défense des Institutions Consti-tutionnelles (FDIC). Mahjoubi Ahardane was removed from the position of leadership in the MP in July 1991 and thereupon formed a new party, the Mouvement Populaire National. The reorganized Mouvement Populaire, under Mohand Laenser (al-‘anSar), increased its share of parliamentary seats in the 1993 elections. The name ‘Mouvement Populaire’ was also used to refer to the Parti de l’Action du Peuple headed by Hassan al-Ouezzani in 1937. Mouvement Populaire, Démocratique et Constitutionnel (MPDC). An offshoot of the Mouvement Populaire founded in February 1967 by Dr. ‘abd al-karîm khaTîb after he was formally ousted from the Mouvement Populaire party on 4 November 1966. The MPDC won three seats in the June 1977 national elections (2.02 percent of the popular vote). Its secretary-general and founder, Dr. ‘abd alkarîm khaTîb, was one of the two founders of the Mouvement Populaire. Under a reconciliation agreement between mawlây Hassan II and the parliament in March 1977, Dr. ‘abd al-karîm khaTîb was one of four people selected to serve as minister without portfolio. The MPDC won no seats in 1984 or 1993. al-nahj al-dimuqrâTi. This is a leftist political movement that follows the political orientation of al-munaZama al-maghribya, ilâ alamâm. The movement is a Maoist organization that separated from the Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme (PPS) in 1970. Its general coordinator is Abdellah El Harif. Organisation d’action démocratique et populaire (OADP). Established in 1983 by Mohammed Bensaïd Ait Idder. Its political organization falls in the Marxist-Leninist movement that advocates revolutionary ideas. It is actually a continuation of the 23 March movement and has an Arabic paper, Anwal. The organization supported the first government of Youssoufi. The OADP won two seats on June 15 1993 and four seats during the legislative elections of 14 November 1997. The party divided during the mid 1990s into two internal movements, one headed by Bensaïd Ait Idder, who remained in the organization, and the other headed by Aissa al Ourdighi, who established the PSD in 1996. In July 2002, the OADP decided to establish an alliance with three leftist parties, Mouvement pour la Démocratie (MPD), Democrats

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Independents, and other independent leftist personalities to form the Parti Gauche Socialiste Unifiée (PGSU) led by Ait Idder who announced he would resign from its leadership as of July 2004. Parti de l’Action (PA). Created in 1974 by Abderrahmane Abdellah Sanhaji, who was an early organizer for the istiqlâl and founder of both the MP and the UNFP. The party advocates social reform and democracy, as well as progress. Its primary support groups were Berber intellectuals and rural Berbers in the Sous and Middle Atlas. It won two seats in the 1977 elections, getting 90,840 votes (1.8 percent of the popular vote) but won no seats in 1984. After the death of its founder in 1986, the party suffered many problems and its political future was in jeopardy. After the 1993 elections, the party was massively restructured. The political bureau was enlarged to include Mohammed El Idrissi, who was put in charge of the party’s finances and its journal. The party also launched a campaign to hire a new secretary-general. Mahmoud Archane was contacted after his expulsion from the MNP but before the party’s third congress in 1996, and the members of the political bureau opposed his nomination because he was thinking of changing the party’s name. Three months after the congress, the Conseil National held its first session and elected members of the political bureau. El Idrissi was discarded from various decisionmaking roles and also thrown out of the party. He went to the court to fight the decision. His action was rejected by the Tribunal de Première Instance and he later took his case to the Cour d’Appel. On 18 January 1998, Mohammed El Idrissi organized the third congress of the part, and was elected as its secretary-general. Parti de l’Action du Peuple. The Parti de l’Action du Peuple was a short-lived organization begun in 1937 by Hassan al-Ouezzani to promote the agenda he felt most critical and that in his view was not being adequately addressed by the Comité de l’Action Marocaine. Ouezzani’s house arrest in 1937 put an end to the party, as the Comité de l’Action Marocaine split into two parts with Hassan al-Ouezzani heading the Parti du Peuple and ‘allâl alfâsî heading the Parti National. Parti al Ahd. Established in March 2002 by some members of the MP and MNP and those who disagreed with the Union Démocratique headed by bû‘azza ikkan. The party is headed by a former unionist and member of parliament, Najib al-Wazzani. Parti de l’Avant-Garde Socialiste (PAGS). A recent small radical party that is allied with the Association Marocaine des Droits de l’Homme (AMDH). It was founded by Abderrahim ben Amor and Ahmed ben Jalloun in 1991 as a splinter group from the USFP. Though in its human rights policy it resembles the istiqlâl, which also has a current association with another human rights group, the Ligue Marocaine pour la Défense des Droits de l’Homme (LMDDH), PAGS’ popular support is far smaller and it has had trouble establishing itself as a significant alternative either to the

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istiqlâl or to more established leftist parties such as the PPS or the OADP. Parti du Centre Social (PCS) offshoot of the Parti de l’Union et de la Solidarité Nationale (PUSN which was established by Mohamed Semmar. The PCS is led by Lahcen Madih. Parti du Congrès National IttiHadi (PCNI). Established in October 2001 on separating from the USFP after a disagreement between El Youssoufi and Noubir Amaoui, the secretary-general of the Confédération Démocratique du Travail (CDT), during the sixth congress of the USFP. Amaoui denounced the current organizational structures of the party and accused the members of the political bureau of USFP of causing all the party’s problems. Amaoui also refused to accept the decisions of the congress and called for a second sixth congress of the USFP. The political bureau refused Amaoui’s demand, and the fractures within the party led to the emergence of the PCNI. The PCNI joined the left and was headed by Abdelmajid Bouzoubâa, a former vice secretary-general of the CDT. The political program of the party was based on three principles: (1) democratization of the state and society; the state should be in the service of society; (2) democratization of the state’s economic structures to achieve equitable economic development; and (3) democratization of the social structures to reduce the gap between the social classes. Parti Démocratique Constitutionnelle (PDC). The PDC was the new name for the Parti Démocratique de l’Indépendance (PDI) in 1959 when some members of the PDI joined the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP). On 15 May 1960, the leaders of the Mouvement Populaire and the PDC (tihâmî wazzâni) issued a joint statement calling for a new government and pledging each to abstain from participating in the government if the other were refused participation. In 1963, the PDC joined with the Mouvement Populaire and the Liberal Independents to form the brief-lived Front pour la Défense des Institutions Constitutionnelles. Although the PDC faded away after the 1960s it returned under its original name (PDI) to win seats in the 1993 elections. Parti Démocratique de l’Indépendance (PDI). The Parti Démocratique de l’Indépendance (Hizb al-shûrâ, literally party of consultation) was founded by Muhammad Hassan al-Ouezzani in 1946 and merged with Hizb al-maghrib al-Hurr (Party of Free Morocco) late in 1956. The PDI lost many supporters to the UNFP in 1959. It then transmuted itself into the PDC in 1960 only to return under its original name and win nine seats in the elections in 1993. Parti de l’Environnement et du Développement (PED). Headed by Ahmed Al Alami, the former minister of health, the party represents the green party in the Moroccan political spectrum. The party was established in April 2002 after a splintering off from the Parti National Démocrate (PND).

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Parti Gauche Socialiste Unifiée (PGSU). See Organisation d’action démocratique et populaire (OADP). Parti d’Initiatives Citoyennes pour le Développement (ICD). Established after splintering from the MNP on 30 March 2002. The party is headed by Mohammed ben Hamou. Parti Justice et Développement (PJD). formerly the Mouvement Populaire Démocratique et Constitutionnel (MPDC), the Parti Justice et Développement (PJD) is a moderate Islamist party. Some members of the Mouvement Unicité et Réforme (MUR), a Moroccan Islamic movement, decided to join the MPDC and when the MPDC failed in May 1992 to be allowed to form a political party (al-tajdîd wa-l-iSlaH) due to its radical Islamist inclinations. Al Khatib allowed many members of the Mouvement Unicité et Réforme (MUR) to join MPDC as individuals but not as an organization. After joining the party there were many attempts to change the name of the party to reflect the new reality, and in 1998 these efforts resulted in a new political organization called the PJD. The current party is closely tied to the tawhîd wa-iSlâH movement. The party refused to join Jettou’s government although it won thirty-eight seats in the 2002 elections. Due to its broad base of support and links to Yassine the party is clearly a major player. El Othmani took over the leadership on 11 April 2004. Parti Marocain Liberal (PML). Established in March 2002 and headed by Mohamad Mazian, the party has a liberal orientation and is popular in the Rif mainly in El Hoceïma and Nador. After being one of its founders, Mohamad ‘Alioua separated from the party and founded al-Hizb al-librali ataSHiHi. Parti Libéral et du Progrès (PLP). Founded in 1974 in Casablanca by Aknoush Ahmadou Belhaj and a group of landowners and wealthy merchants from the Sous. The PLP advocated the strengthening of private enterprise by government. Membership was primarily white collar, but it failed to win any seats in the 1977 elections and seems to have disappeared. Parti de Libération et Socialisme (PLS). The PLS was a brief incarnation of the Moroccan communist party now using the name Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme. The PLS was formed by ‘alî ya‘ta in 1968 in an effort to gain legal status for his movement. The effort was successful but of short duration because the PLS was banned from 1969-1974. In 1974 the PLS was abandoned and replaced with the Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme. The new name clearly was intended to take advantage of royal inclinations toward liberalization of censorships as part of the king’s efforts at reconciliation with parliament, in the knowledge that monarchs are less reluctant to overlook past offenses than to recant publicly earlier condemnations. Parti National Démocrate (PND). Formed in 1981 by Abdelamid Kassimi as an offshoot of the Rassemblement National des

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Indépendants. It gets its primary support from the modern agricultural sector and advocates protectionist policies. The party had quick success and attracted many adherents within parliament including five ministers with portfolio. It is currently led by Arslane El Jadidi who was minister of labor at the time of its formation. In 1983, the formation of the Union Constitutionnelle by Maati Bouabid targeted the same rural areas but without the PND’s focus on the elite agricultural sector. The UC thus took a lot of support away from the PND, which won only fouteen seats in the 1993 elections. Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme (PPS). The communist party has been banned (the last time from 1969-1974 when it was called the Parti de Libération et du Socialisme, a new name in 1968) and then made legal several times since independence. Founded in 1943 by Léon Sultan, it originally was called the Parti Communiste Marocaine. It has consistently advocated nationalization of industries, government control of services, and democracy. Under its current (1994) name, the Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme (begun in 1974), it was for many years headed by ‘alî ya‘Ta who took over after Léon Sultan’s death in 1945 and died on 13 August 1997. The PPS had its first national congress in February 1975, and ‘alî ya‘Ta was elected to congress in 1977. The PPS managed a second seat in 1984. Its percentage of the popular vote has varied from 1 to 3 percent. In the 1993 elections, the PPS obtained seven seats by direct election for a total of twelve seats in parliament and in 2003 it took nine seats. It is now headed by isma‘il al-‘alawî. Parti de la Réforme et du Développement (PRD). Created in June 2001 by former members of RNI, the PRD was twice refused authorization to hold its constitutive assembly. The party is headed by Ahmed El Cohen, who used the Dahir of 1958, which permits the reunion of the Constitutive Assembly in a private place. Among the reasons for breaking off from the RNI were the dictatorship of the secretary-general, the gaps between the principles of the foundation of RNI and its practice, plus the absence of communication with the party’s base. The PRD political program is thought to be similar to the ideas of the istiqlâl party. The party rejects any possibility of participating in a coalition with the RNI. It focuses on social economy and defends the ideas of a just social and territorial redistribution of natural wealth and resources. It also underlines the need for a moral discourse, which is seen as a necessary step to restore relations of trust between the public and the elites. Parti de Reforme Nationale. (See Hizb al-iSlâH al-waTanî). Parti Socialiste Démocratique (PSD). Established by Ahmed Guédira in August 1964 to counterbalance the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP) and to preserve the royalist majority in the lower chamber of the National Assembly. The PSD was

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suspended in 1965 along with other parties under mawlây Hassan II’s state of emergency decree. A reformulated PSD held its first constitutive conference in 1996 after splintering off from the Organisation pour l’Action Démocratique et Populaire (OADP). A crisis developed within the OADP during 1990. The origin of the crisis had to do with questions related to the party’s participation in the 1992 elections, its collaboration with the Koutla, and the adoption of an isolationist attitude in Morocco’s politics. The party is headed by Aissa El Ouardihi. It organized its first national congress from 13-15 July 2001. Parti de l’Union et de la Solidarité Nationale. This small party fielded candidates for the 1984 elections but won no seats and seems to have disappeared. Parti du Renouveau et de l’Equité (PRE). This party was established by Said Achbhar, a Rifian, on 3 April 2002. Parti de l’Unité Marocain (PUM). Formed in 1937 in the Spanish protectorate of Morocco by Mohammed Nadir, the formation of the PUM was an attempt to push the goals of ‘abd al-khalaq Torrès’s Hizb al-iSlâH al-waTanî in a more activist direction. The Spanish authorities initially were less repressive than the French, but when the istiqlâl in the French protectorate began to gain momentum in the early 1950s and seemed dangerous, its strong links with the two Spanish zone parties were enough to get them both banned. The leaders relocated to Tanger. Parti de l’Union et de la Solidarité Nationale. This small party fielded candidates for the 1984 elections but won no seats and seems to have disappeared. Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI). Established by Ahmed Osman, former prime minister, and Hassan II on October 1978. The party is a center-right party allied with the palace and favors industrialization and modernization. It is not irrelevant that fifteen of the twenty-five members of its political bureau are businessmen. During the 1997 elections the party won 8 percent (forty-six seats in the AR parliament). The party took part in the government of Youssoufi (coalition of the Koutla and the center parties). Union Constitutionnelle (UC). Founded in 1983 by Maati Bouabid, former minister of labor (1958-1960) and prime minister (1979), the UC is a pro-royalist center-right party responsive to needs of the younger generation. Maati Bouabid was also instrumental in the formation (1960) of the government’s alternative trade union, the Union Générale des Travailleurs Marocains. The UC finished first among all parties in the local elections of June 1983 and the parliamentary elections of 1984. In the 1992 local elections the UC was second to the Rassemblement National des Indépendants but in the June 1993 parliamentary elections the istiqlâl and Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires took the lead with 41 percent (running common candidates). Since 1986, the UC has had

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diminished royal support due to disagreements over financial policy. Union Démocratique (UD). Created as a splinter from the MNP headed by Ahardane in 2001 during the first congress of MNP. More than 300 delegates attended the MNP congress. However, many members of the political direction boycotted the congress creating a new party. The UD is headed by bû‘azza ikkan. Union des Movements Populaires. This movement which was created in December 2003 groups three key parties (MP, MNP, and UD) to constitute a political force in parliament and was intended to bring greater presence in the cabinet to the parties’ positions. Mohand Laenser and Mahjoubi Ahardane were key figures in the formation of the movement. In the new cabinet of 8 June 2004, Mohand Laenser was in fact given the portfolio for agricuture, rural development, and fisheries. Union Marocaine de Travail (UMT). Originally formed as a trade union on 20 March 1955 and associated loosely with the istiqlâl, the UMT then amalgamated with the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (1960) as the istiqlâl created its own labor union, the Union Générale des Travailleurs Marocains (UGTM). The union began to distance itself from mainline political activity in 1963 under pressure from the government, which provides rent-free locales, and today has no specific party affiliation, although in 1966 the UMT momentarily allied itself again with the istiqlâl. Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP). An offshoot of the istiqlâl (September 1959), the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (al-muqâwama/the resistance) was founded principally by Mehdi Ben Barka, Abderrahim Bouabid, Mahjoub Ben Seddiq, ‘Abdullah Ibrahim, and al-faqîh al-baSrî. The split with the istiqlâl left the fâsî component primarily with the istiqlâl, and the non-fâsî and particularly the southern component in the UNFP. Waterbury (1970:189) has suggested that the composition of the UNFP core can be further delineated as the younger members of the old guard (Ben Barka, Bouabid, Abdullah Ibrahim) who disagreed with the older istiqlâl generation plus the Paris students from the 1950s who felt left out of political opportunities. The UNFP got off to an excellent start but soon ran into trouble between the intrigues of the palace and the animosity of the istiqlâl. Originally allied with the Union Marocaine de Travail (UMT), the Rabat branch of the UNFP split with the Casablanca branch (i.e., the UMT) largely because the latter bowed to government pressure to cease political activities. The government, which provided locales rent-free and paid salaries to permanent staff, pushed the UMT to abandon anything except activism for its represented constituency’s welfare; all other political activity would expose it to a loss of state revenues. Without the UMT, the UNFP became much more vulnerable and its anti-monarchical stance exposed it to the antagonism of the palace.

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In 1963-1964 a series of UNFP leaders and members (eightyfive in all) were accused of treason and put on trial. The arrests came (16 July 1963) shortly after a strong UNFP showing in the June elections and were followed by a month in which the detainees were held incommunicado and quite evidently, as the subsequent trial made clear, subjected to torture. The tenor of the trial and remarks from the palace made it clear that the UNFP itself was on trial. Although in the end all were found guilty and most subsequently had their sentences reduced by the clemency of the king, the UNFP seemed finished as a political force by the trial. Its long association with Mehdi Ben Barka, and his demise presumably at the hands of the state in 1965, dealt another blow to the UNFP as a viable political party. In 1970 the UNFP joined with the istiqlâl to form the Front National Marocain in an unsuccessful attempt to defeat the king’s proposed constitutional changes strengthening the powers of the monarch. By 1973 the UNFP seemed on the verge of a recovery. It was divided into a Casablanca branch (linked to the UMT) and a Rabat branch, which had begun again to grow in strength. On 13 January Mohammed El Yazighy and Omar Benjelloun, two leaders of the Rabat branch of the UNFP, received mail bombs, injuring the former but defused by the latter. On the 2nd of April the Rabat branch’s operations were closed by government decree and 159 members accused of complicity in the terrorist acts of alfaqîh al-baSrî. On 30 August, sixteen were condemned to death, fifteen to life, and fifty-six received lesser sentences. The sixtyfive found innocent were driven that evening from prison to a military camp where they were accused of complicity in an attempt to abduct the crown prince. In the end, thirteen people were retried for the original crime on a technicality (seven already condemned to death and six of those initially sentenced to life) and this resulted in an additional six death sentences. Of the sixtyfive, three years later three had died in prison and three were given fifteen, ten, and four years respectively. Omar Benjelloun was assassinated at his doorstep after being provisionally released on 18 December 1975. The UNFP did not win a single seat in the 1977 elections. The UMT is now not associated with any political party. The UNFP boycotted the 1977 and 1984 elections, and this effectively ended its role as a political party. Its members have either joined small radical parties or the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires. Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP). Founded by Abderrahim Bouabid in 1974, it split from the UNFP over strategic matters including Bouabid’s willingness to support the king’s Saharan policy. Its primary support is among organized labor and youth groups. Its positions are to the left of the istiqlâl and in the tradition of European social democratic parties. In its

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first national congress in 1975, the USFP came out strongly for increased civil liberties and land reform. In the 1977 elections the USFP accused the government of harassment and fraud but did win 14.6 percent of the vote and sixteen seats. Since this time it has maintained its position as one of the major political parties in Morocco, and for a long time was led by Bouabid. Although Bouabid was not elected to parliament in 1977, the USFP, with the help of its associated labor organization the Confédération Démocratique du Travail (CDT), has maintained its position as a major political party capable of balancing adequate cooperation with the monarchy and significant pressure for its key agenda. Abderrahim Bouabid was arrested in 1981 in conjunction with the violence linked to the June 1981 general strike but released the following February. Noubir Amaoui, the head of the CDT and a member of the USFP political committee, was arrested in April 1992, but the USFP did well in the 1993 elections, garnering the most seats (fourty-eight) by direct election of any party. Abderrahim Bouabid died in 1994 and was succeeded as leader of the USFP by Abderrahmane Youssoufi who briefly retired to Nice then returned to Morocco, served as prime minister, and then retired both from parliament (2002) and from the USFP (2003) to be succeeded by Mohammed El Yazighi. al-yasâr al-dimuqrâTî al-muwaHHad. Founded on 6 June 2004 (RGD—rassemblement de la gauche démocratique) this group brings together a number of leftist parties and organizations. The group includes Hizb al-mu’tamar al-waTanî al-ittiHâdî (Parti du congrès national Ittihadi [unique); Hizb al-yasâr al-ishtirâkî almuwaHHad (Parti de la Gauche Socialiste Unifiée), Hizb al-Talî‘a al-dimuqrâTî al-ishtirâkî (Parti de l’Avant Garde Démocratique et Socialiste); Hizb al-nahj al-dimuqrâTî (La Voie Démocratique); and jam‘iyat al wafâ’ al-dimuqrâTiyya (Groupe fidèle à la démocratie). This agreement is the fruit of many regional meetings between the different groups in Tetouan, Fès, Agadir, Rabat, and Casablanca. Moroccan political parties have waxed and waned over the years, and many parties have succeeded in getting on the official ballot, but relatively few have had long durability. Perhaps more important, general societal trends (e.g., the leftist movements in the 1960s and 1970s or the Islamist groups of recent years) have reconfigured the political landscape. Figure 10 shows the key parties (those having attained at least 2 percent of the seats) in one or more elections beginning with the elections of 1983.

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Seats in Parliamentary Elections by Party (having > 2%) Istqlal USFP RNI MP UD MNP PPS UC PND FFD PJD PS 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Seats (%) 2003

1997

1993

1983

Figure 10. Parliamentary Seats by Major Party, 1983-2003. Source: Multiple sources, see bibliography. In addition to the parliamentary elections, which many see as largely symbolic, Moroccans have increasingly embraced communal elections. Figure 11 illustrates the trend since 1960 of an ever more enthusiastic participation in communal elections. If enthusiasm is to be estimated from the numbers of candidates relative to seats being sought, this is an extremely important trend and represents the decisions of people all over Morocco to get involved in politics at the level that seems most accessible. It suggests that increasingly many people are both dissatisfied with the status quo and feel that they are encouraged to try to make a difference. While the historically high voter turnout is usually interpreted by foreign specialists as the result of a mandatory voting policy and hence not indicative of political enthusiasm, running for office is obviously not a requirement, and so the growth in enthusiasm for electoral office is reasonably interpreted as indicative of growth in political participation. While Morocco is fairly centralized, there is considerable room at the local level to make a difference.

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Candidates and Seats in Morroco’s Communal Elections 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 Candidates Seats Year of Elections 1960

1963

1969

1976

1983

1992

1997

2003

Figure 11. Communal Elections: Candidates vs. Seats. Source: Multiple sources, see bibliography.

Table 7 tallies the share of votes captured by the main parties. All parties winning seats are included. Votes shown include those through Direct election (D) and Indirect election (ID) and from 1997 those elected to the chamber of representatives (assemblée des représentants AR) and the chamber of counsellors (assemblée des conseilleurs, AC), who are elected indirectly by a complexly chosen group of electors. The pro-government parties (istiqlâl, RNI, UC, PND, MP) did no better, and in fact worse in the AC elections in 1997 than they did in the AR elections. In all these five parties took 139 of the 270 seats, or 51.48 percent, in the AC election and 178 out of 325, or 54.8 percent, in the AR election. Table 8 provides the name of the head of each party, its date of establishment, and the party’s rather revealing emblem or symbol. In general these symbols exist for most parties but do not exist for the fluctuating amalgamations (e.g., OADP or RGD) of the various parts of the spectrum because the symbols are intended for popular consumption while the amalgamations are focused on parliamentary influence including gaining seats for their own in the government.

292

Political Parties

Table 7. Political Parties in Morocco: Election Results (Seats). Election Years1963 1977 1984 1993

1997

Parties

AR

D

ADL

D

ID T

D

ID

T

D

ID T

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2003 AC

4

FC FDIC

2 69

FFD

9

12

PGSU

10 3

Independents

-

1

1

2

1

0

1

al-istiqlâl

1

41

45

4

49

24

17

41 43

1

2

7

50

MSD

32

21

43

32

33

7

27

25

15

16 5

MP

-

29

15 44

31

16

47 33

18 51

40

MPDC

-

2

1

3

-

-

-

-

-

9

MNP

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

14

11 25

19

OADP

-

-

-

-

1

0

1

2

0

2

4

PA

-

2

0

2

-

-

-

2

0

2

2

13

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3

6

9

1

4

-

PCNI PDI

AR

1 2

PED

2

PJD

38

PML

3

PND

-

-

-

-

15

9

24 14

10 24

PPS

-

1

0

1

2

0

2

-

-

10

21

-

9

PRD

3

PRP PSD

10

-

-

-

-

5

4

6

80

60 140 39

22

61 28

13 41

46

42

38

-

-

-

-

56

27

83 27

27 54

50

28

14

UNFP

28

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

USFP

-

16

0

16

35

1

36 48

4

52

Others

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

CDT

-

-

-

-

0

3

3

0

4

4

UGTM

-

0

1

1

0

2

2

0

2

2

UMT

-

-

6

6

0

5

5

0

3

3

Total

138 176 88 264 204 102 306 222

UC

-

7

5

12

7

-

RNI

-

9

UD

9 -

57

111 333 325

16

45

27

270 295

Political Parties

293

Table 8. Moroccan Political Parties in 2003. Name Founded PI: al-istiqlâl 1944 PDI: Parti Démocratique de l’Indépendence 1946 UNFP: Union Nationale des Forces Populaires1959 MP: Mouvement Populaire 1959 PJD: Parti Justice et Développement, formerly 1967 MPDC: Mouvement Populaire Démocratique et Constitutionnel PPS: Parti du Progres et du Socialisme 1974 PA: Parti de l’Action 1974

Symbol Scales Camel -Dagger Lantern

Leader Abbas El Fassi Abdelwahad Mâch Abdellah Ibrahimi Mohamad al ‘Ansar Saâd Eddine El Othmani

Book Eye

isma‘il al-‘alawî Mohamad al Idrisy

USFP: Union Socialiste des Forces Populaire 1975 RNI: Rassemblement National des 1978 Indépendants PND: Parti National Démocrate 1981 UC: Union Constitutionnelle 1983 PGSU: Parti Gauche Socialiste Unifiée, 1983 formerly OADP: Organisation de d’Action Démocratique et Populaire MNP: Mouvement National Populaire 1991 PADS: Parti de l’Avant-guarde Démocratique 1992 et Social MDS: Mouvement Démocratique Social 1996 PSD: Parti Socialiste Démocratique 1996 FFD: Front des Forces Démocratiques 1997 PCNI: Parti du Congrès National IttiHadi 2001 UD: Union Démocratique 2001 FC: Forces Citoyennes 2001 PRD: Parti de la Réforme et du 2001 Développement PML: Parti Marocain Liberal 2002 ADL: Alliance des Libertés 2002 PAA: Parti Al Ahd 2002 PED: Parti du Environnement et 2002 Développement PRE: Parti du Renouveau et de l’Equité 2002

Rose Dove

Mohammed El Yazighi Ahmad Osman

Key Horse Candles

Abd al Hamid Qadiri Mohammad Abid muHmmad bn sa‘îd ait idar

Sunbula --

mahjûbî aHarDan aHmad benjalûn

ICD: Initiative Citoyennes pour le Développement

2002

Palm Tree maHmûd ‘arshan Hand ‘isâ al-wardîghî Olive Tree tihâmi khiyârî Ship ‘abd al-majîd bûzûha’ Tea Pot bû‘aza ikân House ‘abd raHîm laHjûjî Crescent ‘abd raHmân al-kûhan Lion Clock Car Gazelle

muHammad ziyân ‘alî balHaj najîb al-wazânî aHmad al-‘alamî

Human + shakîr ashbahâr Sun Door muHammad binHamû

294

Political Parties

Table 9. Results of 2003 Communal Elections. Party

Votes

Percent

Seats

Percent

istiqlâl USFP RNI

1.120.834 990.928 783.771

15,68 13,86 10,97

3890 3373 2841

16,96 14,70 12,38

Seats held by women 18 27 7

MP UD MNP PPS UC

627.292 409.056 419.372 377.847 306.117

8,78 5,72 5,87 5,29 4,28

2248 1515 1406 1207 959

9,80 6,60 6,13 5,26 4,18

7 9 8 7 6

PND FFD PJD PSD Al Ahd ADL PGSU MSD

274.359 238.050 320.299 158.954 126.086 135.127 108.628 95.717

3,87 3,33 4,48 2,22 1,76 1,89 1,52 1,34

889 726 593 469 437 429 303 301

3,87 3,16 2,58 2,04 1,90 1,87 1,32 1,31

3 4 10 3 3 2 1 2

PRD PCNI PED PRE PML Independents

83.181 102.693 76.558 58.888 48.363 80.770

1,16 1,44 1,07 0,82 0,68 1,13

253 240 168 125 114 109

1,10 1,05 0,73 0,54 0,50 0,48

0 2 1 1 2 3

PDI

45.009

0,63

96

0,42

0

PID FC

45.477 48.528

0,64 0,68

71 71

0,31 0,31

0 0

PCS PA Total

33.386 31.772 7.147.062

0,47 0,44 100

67 43 22.943

0,29 0,19 100

1 0 123

Table 9 provides the details of the 2003 communal elections. While it may not be the case that communal election success translates later into parliamentary success there is a connection inasmuch as a party’s capacity to organize nationally is reflected at the level of communal elections. Two points are worth remarking: a) the conservative religious party the PJD had the second highest number of female candidates winning seats, b) the major players include a mix of progovernment parties (istiqlâl, RNI, UC, PND, MP) and leftist parties (USFP, PPS, FFD, Al AHD, PGSU, MDS) though new Islamist movements best represented by the PJD have begun to show up in

Protection/Himâya

295

elections even if not at all at the levels of popular support they apparently have. It should be noted that a constitutional monarchy, such as Morocco, would require a parliament with significant powers simply for the sake of international legitimacy even if the majority of the population were not quite ready to participate for the long term and in an informed manner in a democratic process. Algeria’s flirtation with full-scale democracy quickly discovered that the candidates most likely to be elected would have abolished democracy on assuming the reigns of government. The Algerian government has subsequently retreated from any such experiment. Since this time, most Moroccans, not only leftist ones, have been less hasty to push for the abolition of a constitutional monarchy on the grounds that it may be a fully legitimate form of government given the social, historical, and religious circumstances prevailing. The perspective that Islam is incompatible with a fully democratic system is rather obviously something that many Muslim scholars would reject even as they would acknowledge that there are many Muslims who do feel that democracy is a Western invention fundamentally inferior to some form of religious theocracy. The simple view that full participatory democracy can precede both full literacy and economic empowerment is less than persuasive. There are many reasons to think that the social problems deriving from the tendency of the modern global economy to exacerbate economic disparities are aggravated by democratization in the absence of significant social security nets. While eager revolutionaries may view such a heightening of problems as potentially liberatory, most advocates of incremental change would caution against too rapid liberalization without attention to issues of social security. Protection/Himâya. In the classical usage of the term “Himâya,” it referred to the protect,on a tribe might offer travelers or settled peoples in return for some compensation. In Morocco, such arrangements took many forms, including a “protection” scam imposed on the residents of oases by such pastoral groups as the ma‘qilian arabs. The idea was similar to that practiced by mafioso in many Western countries. In return for protecting people (from the potential chaos caused by the likes of themselves) nomads would accept large exactions from the settled populations. Another common traditional form of protection was for an aggrieved individual to go to a powerful person and implore that individual to make the grievance his own. The incentive to accept the obligation usually involved questions of honor; to decline would suggest that the request was beyond one’s means. As European powers began to expand from the age of exploration on, they began to try to arrange protection for their citizens within the various Islamic states. With the Ottomans these agreements came to be called capitulations while in Morocco they were referred to under the rubric of protections. These were negotiated in trade agreements between specific European states and the sharifan empire. Usually soon

296

al-qadîrî, abû bakr

after a particularly advantageous agreement had been granted to one state, from the European point of view, the others would clamor for equal treatment for their citizens. In 19th century Morocco, these agreements reached embarrassingly craven levels; a typical European state would have agents in most port cities of Morocco as well as several interior cities. The agents were in principle of two sorts: a)samSâr or brokers and b)mukhalaT or rural trade representatives. Treaties initially allowed each state to have a few of each, but, during the course of the 19th century, the numbers swelled uncontrollably until every resident European of consequence was an agent of some power, and most of the local elites engaged in trade, or otherwise at risk from the central government, had acquired protected status. Among the settlements reached at the end of WWI was the right of the French, as the aggrieved party, to sequester or take over all German holdings in Morocco. The archives of this sequester (preserved on the second floor of the Archives nationales in Rabat) indicate how bloated the system had become by the time of the establishment of the French protectorate. One of the key arrangements of the protection agreements was that protected individuals could not be prosecuted in the local judicial system and cases involving any such person had to be heard by the appropriate consuls. In consequence, not only did huge numbers of people use the protection system to escape the makhzan’s administrative control but, in addition, substantial amounts of assets were put in the hands of protected individuals to escape confiscation at the hand of either the central government or rapacious local caids. The normal procedure was to place assets in at least joint ownership with a foreign agent and then claim that they were beyond the jurisdiction of local officials. Similarly, most major political figures had protégé status from one or more European states by the turn of the century. The abuses of the system were addressed, but not resolved, in the Tangier Convention and the Conference of Algeciras. The ultimate in forced protection was, of course, to come only from 1912 to 1956 with the protectorate (al-Himâya). See also Madrid and Conference on Morocco. Hispano-Moroccan Commercial Treaty.

-Qal-qadîrî, abû bakr. Born in Salé in 1914, al-qadîrî was a signatory of the wathîqat al-istiqlâl (the founding document of the istiqlâl party calling for independence) in 1944. al-qadîrî studied with shaykh aHmad aljarîrî, zîn al-‘abidîn bn abbûd, mawlay al-sharîf al-qadîrî, and the salafi scholar muHammad bn al-‘arabî al-‘alawî. In 1933, he founded the alnahda al-islâmiyya school (initially called the maktab al-islâmî), which played an important role as an Arabic language school during the protectorate. In 1933, al-qadîrî founded the jam‘iyyat al-muHâfaZa ‘alâ

al-qâdirî, muHammad al-Tayyib

297

al-qur’ân al-karîm, and in 1936 he founded the jam‘iyyat al-sha‘ab almuslim and became an active member of an administrative council (alnâdî al-adabî al-islâmî al-salwî). al-qadîrî was a pioneer in the salafiyya movement in Morocco, which advocated salafiyya ideas as the only route to modernization. al-qadîrî was also a founding member of the three leading political movements opposing the French and the Spanish: kutlat al-‘amal al-waTanî (1934), al-Hizb al-waTanî (1937) and Hizb al-istiqlâl (1944). In 1970, al-qadîrî was elected as the secretary-general of an organization formed in the Maghrib to support the Palestinian cause (al-jam‘iyya al-maghribiyya li-musânadat kifâH al-sha‘ab al-falasTînî). al-qadîrî has also been on the executive committee of the istiqlâl party and was a member of Morocco’s first parliament (al-majlis al-waTanî al-istishârî) in 1956. In 1963, al-qadîrî helped found the majalat al-îmân, a journal that continued in publication for twenty years, and in 1981 he helped found majalat al-risâla al-islâmiyya, a journal that published for the next seven years. al-qadîrî is a member of the Moroccan academy (akâdîmiyyat al-mamlak al-maghribiyya) and the Maghribi qur’ânic school union (ittiHâd kuttâb al-maghrib). al-qadîrî has published many books, including fî sabîl ba‘th islâmî (On the path of Islamic renaissance), fî sabîl wa‘y islâmî (... Islamic nationalism), fî sabîl waHda islâmîyya (.. Islamic unity), al-sunna al-maSdar al-thânî litashri‘ al-islâmî (the sunna as the second source for Islamic legislation), uSûl wa-mabâdi‘ li-tashri‘ al-islâmî (roots and principles for Islamic legislation), difa‘an ‘an al-mar’a al-muslima (In defense of the Muslim woman), and rijâl ‘araftuhum al-muwaqi‘ûn ‘alâ wathîqa al-muTâliba bi-l-istiqlâl (Men we know: the signatories to the document calling for independence—1944). al-qadîrî has long been associated with the Palestinian cause and has been a personal friend and consultant of key figures in Palestine including Yasir Arafat. al-qâdirî, muHammad al-Tayyib. abû muHammad ‘abd al-salâm bn alTayyib al-qâdirî was born 20 September 1648 in Fès and died 19 September 1698 in the city of his birth. He studied with many scholars, wrote at least six works of significant historical interest, and was the grandfather of the author of nashr al-mathânî (al-qâdirî al-Hasanî, muHammad) who in fact viewed that work as the completion of a work barely started by his grandfather. muHammad al-Tayyib al-qâdirî wrote three hagiographies. The first, al-maqSad al-aHmad fî al-ta‘rîf bi-sayyidînâ ibn ‘abd allâh aHmad, dealt with aHmad ibn ‘abd allâh ma‘an al-andalusî. The second, mu‘tamad al-râwîfî manâqib walî allâh sayyidî aHmad alshâwî, dealt with a popular saint (aHmad al-shâwî) buried in the alsiyâj quarter of Fès. The third, nuzhat al-fikr fî manâqib al-shaykhayn sayyidî wa-wâlidihi sayyidî abî bakr, which seems to be lost, dealt with the founder of the dilâ’ zâwiya. His son, muHammad bn al-Tayyib al-qâdirî, also wrote three monographs of shurafâ’ of interest to historians. The first, al-durr al-

298

al-qâdirî al-Hasanî, abû ‘abd allâh muHammad

sanî fî ba‘D man bi-fâs min ahl al-nasab al-Hasanî, was the first prose work on the shurafâ’ of Fès and focused on the Idrisid juTîyûn and dabbâghîyûn, the kattânîyûn, the ‘alamîyûn, the ‘Alawite filâlîyûn, and the qâdirîyûn. This careful work is also noteworthy for leaving out the Sa‘dians despite their claims to sharîf status. The second monograph, al-‘urf al-‘âTir fî man bi-fâs abnâ’ al-shaykh ‘abd al-qâdir, dealt exclusively with the shurafâ’ group to which the author muHammad al-Tayyib al-qâdirî belonged, the qâdirîyîn. The third, maTla‘ al-ishrâq fî al-ashrâf al-wâridîn min al-‘irâq, dealt with shurafâ’ who had immigrated to the Maghrib from Iraq. al-qâdirî al-Hasanî, abû ‘abd allâh muHammad. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad al-‘arabî bn al-Tayyib al-qâdirî al-Hasanî (d. 1695) wrote three significant hagiographical works. The first, al-Turfa fî ikhtiSâr altuHfa (masterpiece in the epitomization of rarity), is a history of the jazûlî and zarrûqî movements. The second, ta‘rîf bi-SulaHâ’ fâs waakhbârihim, deals with the saints of the Rif. The third was a treatise on the descendants of the founder of the qâdirîya Tarîqa. al-qâdirî al-Hasanî, muHammad. muHammad bn al-Tayyib bn ‘abd alsalâm al-qâdirî al-Hasanî was born in Fès on 14 April 1712 and died there on 11 November 1773. muHammad al-qâdirî declined all offers of public office except for a brief stint toward the end of his life when he served as imâm and then khaTîb of the jâmi‘ al-andalus. The rest of his life he worked as a notary and was said to go home to write each day as soon as he had earned a single uqiya from his labors. Although various versions exist, his most important work is his nashr al-mathânî bi-ahl al-qarn al-Hâdî ‘ashar wa-l-thânî (The diffusion of praises of the people of the 11th and 12th centuries). This consists of a biographical dictionary and an historical chronicle. The former consists of entries for monarchs, saints, and scholars characterized by an emphasis on the last and a clear neglect of mystical orders. The historical chronicle (covering the years 1665-1756) is distinguished by its detail and precision, for which it has been assiduously copied by later historians including al-zayyânî, its freedom from flattery, and its clear fâsî perspective; many events are explained primarily in terms of how they affected the people of Fès. Along with annual sociopolitical events, appointments, and economic news, significant details are provided on the destruction of the dilâ’ zâwiya (18 June 1668), the organization of the black slave army, the ‘abîd al-bukhârî, and the chaotic thirty years after the death of mawlây ismâ‘îl (1727-1757). The chronicle section, which is one of the best sources for reliable dates during the period covered, is available in English (Cigar 1981). muHammad al-qâdirî’s other books of historical value include a monograph on saint qâsim al-khaSâsî, titled al-zahr al-bâsim aw al‘urf al-nâsim fî manâqib al-shaykh sayyidî qâsim wa-ma’âthir man

Rabat

299

lahu min al-ashyâkh wa-l-atbâ‘ ahl al-makârim, a monograph on saint aHmad al-shâwî, al-kawkab al-Dâwî fî manâqib al-shaykh aHmad alshâwî, a genealogy of the shurafâ’ ghâlibîyîn, durrat al-Tâlib fî nasab banî ghâlib, and a work on the descendants of al-Husayn, known in Morocco as the saqallîyûn shurafâ’, titled lamHat al-bahjat al-‘âlîya fî ba‘D furû‘ al-shu‘bat al-Husaynîyat al-saqallîya, as well as several variants of his nashr al-mathânî. al-qaSr al-Saghîr. Located on the south bank of the Straits of Gibraltar, twenty-two kilometers west of Ceuta in a sheltered bay, al-qaSr alSaghîr was the site of a Phoenician factory and then the Roman town of Lissa. It was also known as al-qaSr al-majâz (crossing) for its location on the straits. A fortress was built by Muslim armies in 708-709. albakrî reports it as being surrounded by plantations. When North African rulers controlled Spain, al-qaSr al-Saghîr was important, but when Spain slipped out of the control of the Maghrib, al-qaSr al-Saghîr declined. In 1458 King Alfonso V captured the town, and in 1471, mawlây sa‘îd ceded it to the Portuguese. In 1540 the Portuguese abandoned the town, and after 1559 the town was left uninhabited and its harbor silted up. Qotbi, Mehdi (mahdî quTbî). Born 1 January 1951 in Rabat, Qotbi was educated at the Lycée militaire de Kénitra and then at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Rabat and Toulouse where he received a diplôme national des beaux-arts. Qotbi is known among political figures, journalists, and business circles as the preeminent Moroccan lobbyist. Qotbi has traveled extensively to the United States and has lived in Paris for more than thirty years. A painter, Qotbi is also the coauthor of numerous books with different writers and poets. In 1991, he founded the Cercle d’Amitié Franco-Marocain/French-Moroccan Friendship Association, which has included many French ministers such as Renaud Dutreil, Jean-Paul Delevoie (both vice president of the association), and Hubert Védrine. Qotbi has organized conferences to promote the Moroccan economy abroad. In May 2000, he was granted the Chevalier de la Légion d’Honneur by French President Jacques Chirac for his achievements as the head of the French-Moroccan Friendship Association. In November 2001, Qotbi founded the Trait d’Union Maroc-Europe. This association targets Moroccan immigrants who have succeeded professionally in Europe who he feels will well represent Morocco to Europeans.

-RRabat. (lat. 34º 03' N., long. 6º 48' W.) The Roman settlement, Sala Colonia, whose ruins are now called Chella and are located on the bluff overlooking the Sebou river just beyond the walls of the Rabat palace

300

Rabiah, Abdessadek

enclosure, does not seem to have been immediately followed by a significant settlement in the Islamic period. An early settlement was called al-mahdiya, and then, with the advent of ibn tûmart, mahdiyat ibn tûmart. It was not until 1150 that the Almohad ‘abd al-mu’mîn began construction of a citadel and medina at the location of future Rabat. The city was finished by his son, yûsuf bn ‘abd al-mu’min, around 1197-1199 and remained a significant town henceforth. The name, mahdiyat ibn tûmart, soon gave way to the more useful term alrabâT al-fatH (meaning the autonomous citadel), as the town acquired practical autonomy, and this soon became simply al-rabâT. In the 17th century there were periods when as many as 100 Christian ships per year stopped for trade in Rabat-Salé. In 1807, a mallah was constructed in Rabat. Over the course of time, Rabat produced famous intellectuals and major architects of independence including, respectively, both ibn ‘ashîr and muHammad al-Du‘ayyif as well as Ahmed Guédira and Ahmad Lyazidi. In 1912, Rabat became the administrative center of Morocco and it continued in this role after independence in 1956. During the protectorate period, the Lycée Gouraud/Lycée Hassan II educated many of Morocco’s future leaders. Today, Rabat is both the capital of Morocco and one of its major urban and cultural centers. The university (Université Mohammad V), national library, both royal and national archives (Bibliothèque Hasaniya and Bibliothèque Générale et Archives in Rabat), and government offices make it also the intellectual center of Morocco. Rabiah, Abdessadek. Born 5 February 1945 in Marrakech. Rabiah received his primary and secondary education in Marrakech and then studied at the University of Bordeau where he received diplomas in law and political science as well as a Certificat d’aptitude à la profession d’avocat. In 1974, Rabiah was named to the position of directeur d’études législatives au secrétariat général du gouvernement, and in 1979 he became a member of the chambre constitutionnelle. On 11 November 1993, Rabiah became secrétaire général du gouvernement in the government headed by Mohamed Karim Lamrani and retained this position in the governments presided by Abdellatif Filali on 7 June 1994 and 27 February 1995. Rabiah also retained the position in the governments presided over by Abderrahmane Youssoufi on 14 March 1998 and 6 September 2000 as well as that presided over by Driss Jettou of 2002. Radi, Abdelouahed. Born in Sidi Slimane in the Gharb, Radi’s strong attachment to his roots combined with an excellent understanding of European culture have made him a powerful political figure in the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP). Radi began in politics as the head of AEMNA (Association des Etudiants Musulmans NordAfricains), a precursor organization to the Union National d’Etudiants Marocain (UNEM) founded in France by Ben Barka and ‘allâl al-fâsî.

al-raysûnî, aHmad bn muHammad

301

Radi presided over regional congresses of the USFP in Fès (1996) and Casablanca (1997) and served as a charismatic and stabilizing force. He played a significant role in negotiations with the government in 1993 that led to the “alternance consensuelle.” He was elected on 6 January 1997 as president of the Chamber of Representatives, defeating Mohand Laensar (184 to 133 votes) and replacing Mohamed Jalal Essaid. He was the first socialist to head the chamber since Ben Barka. Radi has been extremely active in politicizing and politically informing the people in his home region. Raissouni, Ahmed [aHmad al-raysûnî]. Born in Ksar El-Kébir in 1952, Raissouni began as a clerk in the tribunal of Souk Larbaâ in 1973 and then went back to school in Fès, receiving a licence in shari‘a from alqarawîyîn (1978) followed by a DES, option Islamic Studies (1989), and a doctorat in Islamic Sciences (1992). While in school, Raissouni began to acquire a reputation as a rising figure in Moroccan Islamic movements and was associated with the Association Islamique in Ksar El-Kébir, the Alliance de l’Avenir Islamique, the Association des Lauréats des Etudes Islamiques, the Rabita des Oulémas, the Institut Mondial de la Pensée Islamique, and al-tawHîd wa-l-iSlâH (unity and reform). Raissouni used to head the Rabita but distanced himself from shabîba islâmiya (headed by Abdelkrim Mottei) in 1981 and organized a group of moderate Islamists who were less hostile to the government. The new organization came about as a fusion (April 1996) of al-islaH wa-l-tajdîd (Reform and Renewal), headed by Mohamed Yatim, and rabiTat al-mustakbal al-islâmî (League for the Future of Islam), directed by Raissouni. Currently a teacher in the Faculté des Lettres in Rabat, Raissouni edits the journal al-tajdîd, which assumes a moralizing tone categorically dividing the world into good and bad. al-raysûnî, aHmad bn muHammad. Born in 1866/7, al-raysûnî was a sharîf and descendant of mawlây idrîs who was imprisoned for five years in Mogador prison by mawlây al-Hasan and came to national and international attention when he had the Times correspondent, Walter Harris, and Ian Perdicaris, a Greek-born American citizen and the richest foreigner in Tanger, kidnapped (in 1903 and 1904 respectively) and held for ransom. The makhzan was pressured into paying 70,000 douros ransom, and Perdicaris also managed to get al-raysûnî the governorship of Tanger. In 1907 al-raysûnî kidnapped “Caid” McLean, a former British officer working as a military advisor to the sultan, and received 20,000 pounds sterling for his audacity plus the status of a British protégé. alraysûnî’s successes clearly outline the complex set of interrelationships between the various powers represented in Tanger. Pragmatism prevailed, though the balance of power forced Morocco to respect its agreements and led European powers to hold onto any potential source of influence in Morocco even when it was as unambiguously untrustworthy a source as al-raysûnî. During the Spanish protectorate,

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al-raysûnî continued as a powerful figure, receiving a hefty monthly stipend from the Spanish as governor of Asilah, was respected by some due to his sharîf status, and despised by others due to his collaboration with the Spanish or his venality, until, after repeatedly spurning ‘abd al-karîm’s overtures, his troops were defeated and his house occupied by ‘abd al-karîm’s forces. An exceedingly sick alraysûnî was brought back to see ‘abd al-karîm in the Aith Waryaghar area where, after interrogation about his reluctance to join the rebellion, he was imprisoned. He died in prison on 3 April 1925 of natural causes (Hart 1976:392). See also Spain. Regionalism [al-jihawiya]. Regionalism is articulated in the 1997 constitution in several places. Article 38 states that three fifths of the membership of the House of Counsellors shall consist of members elected in each region by electoral colleges made up of elected members of trade chambers as well as members elected at the national level by an electoral college consisting of wage-earners’ representatives. Article 98 specifies that a Regional Audit Court shall be responsible for checking the accounts and assessing the management of local governments and their groups. Article 100 states that the local government of the kingdom shall consist of regions, prefectures, provinces, and communes. No other form of local government may be established except by law. Article 101 declares that local assemblies shall be elected to be responsible for the conduct of their affairs on the basis of democratic principles and that governors shall carry out decisions by provincial, prefectoral, and regional assemblies in accordance with the conditions set by the law. al-jiha is thus a constitutional concept that translates Morocco’s decentralization policies after independence and plays an administrative, representational, and developmental role linking the central government and the local (communal) government through regional administrations. The principle was first enunciated by the Dahir of June 16, 1971 under the name ‘al-manTaqa al-iqtiSâdiya’ [the economic region]. aljihawiya [regionalism] is still in part a division of the national territory into units that are easy to administer due to economic, ecological, or social homogeneities. Initially, this led to the division of Morocco into seven regions each having a regional council made up of deputies of the provinces and prefectures and representatives of the professional assemblies (table 10). These councils had an advisory role as well as a role in disseminating news regarding land reform and development programs. Administratively, the regions were under the supervision (for separate issues) of three units of the central administration: a) the administrative committee for the preparation of the national soil (allajna al-idâriya li-tahyî’ al-turâb al-waTanî), b) the division for implementation and regional development (qism al-takhTîT wa-ltanmiya al-jihawiya), and c) the national committee for regional development (al-lajna al-waTaniya li-l-tanmiya al-jihawiya).

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303

Table 10. Regional Demarcation on 16 June 1971. Region: al-jiha

Regional center:

Provinces and Prefectures:

1. Sud: al-janûb 2. Tensift: tansîft 3. Central: al-wasaT

al-markaz al-jihawî Agadir Marrakesh Casablanca Rabat

al-aqâlîm wa-l-‘amâlât Agadir, Ouarzazate, Tarfaya Marrakesh, Safi Casablanca, El-Jadida, Settat, Khouribga, Beni Mellal Rabat, Kénitra, Tetouan, Tanger

Fès

Fès, Taza, El-Hoceima

Oujda Meknes

wujda, al-nâDûr Meknès, Ksar El Souk

4. Nord Ouest: al-shamâl al-gharbî 5. Nord Central: al-wasaT al-shamâlî 6. Est: al-sharq 7. Sud Central: al-wasaT al-janûbî

The limitation of the regional structures led to amendments in the revised constitutions of 1992 and 1996 that promoted al-jiha to the level of local commune [al-jamâ‘a al-maHalîya] such that it had a more significant budget and more that advisory and disseminatory roles. A new law reorganizing the regions was issued on 2 April 1997 and was followed by another law on 17 August 1997 that specified the number of regions, their names, center, and the number of advisors to be elected according to each province, prefecture, local commune, and elected body. Regions and their provinces and prefectures in 1997. The key achievements of the new regionalism (al-jihawiya) enacted between October 1996 and August 1997 have been to make the sixteen regions more comparable in size and to move the governing apparatus from a consultative and publicity role into a true representative government with management and administrative functions. The new regions also have some historical, ethnic, and economic homogeneity and thus cultural coherence. Goals that were also important in their formation were population size, urban networks, resources, and level of infrastructure. The new administrative organization divides Morocco into sixteen regions and a multitude of provinces and communes (see table 12). The general characteristics of the regions may be seen in table 11.

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Table 11. Characteristics of the Regions in 1997. Region: al-jiha

Area [1000 km2]

Number of Communes

50,088

Number of Urbain Number of Communes Rural Communes 2 11

1. Oued Dhahab 2. Laâyoune 3. Goulimine 4. Sous 5. Gharb 6. Chaouia 7. Orientale

139,480 133,730 70,880 8,805 16,760 82,820

4 11 27 12 15 25

10 49 212 61 105 91

14 60 239 73 120 116

8. Rabat 9. Dukkala

9,580 13,285

17 12

40 77

57 89

9 25 14 15 29 13 18

73 111 48 118 7 87 198

82 136 62 133 36 100 216

10. Tadla 17,125 11. Meknes 79,210 12. Fès 19,795 13. Taza 24,155 14. Grand Casablanca 1,615 15. Tanger 11,570 16. Marrakech 31,160 Source: Encylopédie du Maroc.

13

It is worth noting in table 11 that the first three regions cover what was once the Spanish Sahara and what in some views is still the Western Sahara. The greater regional autonomy and administrative powers seem to be tailored both to the enlarged size of the country and to the distinct regional needs. Rather than increase the centralization of the country it would seem that the Moroccan government has decided to move more toward local influence in the direction of local affairs. It is a reasonable assumption that the politics surrounding the former Spanish Sahara and the Sahraoui independence movements may be related to this choice. The importance to Morocco of establishing a full administrative apparatus in the former Spanish Sahara cannot be overstated, for the government has no intention of giving up the new areas that it claims were stripped off of the state in the colonial period. The new regions are also a mixture of urban megopolises and rural ecozones whose boundaries seem to be primarily dictated by economics and demography.

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Table 12. Regional Demarcation on 17 August 1997. Région: al-jiha 1. Oued Dhahab, Lagouira 2. Laâyoune, Boujdour, Sakia El Hamra 3. Goulimine, Smara 4. Sous, Massa, Draa

Centre Regional: almarkaz al-jihawî Dakhla

Provinces and Préfectures: wilâyât wa al-‘amâlât Oued Dhahab

Laâyoune

Laâyoune, Boujdour

Goulimine

Goulimine, Smara, Tata, Assa, al-Zag, Tan-Tan

Agadir

5. Gharb Chararida - Beni Hasan 6. Chaouia, Ouardigha 7. Orientale

Kénitra

Ait Melloul, Chtouka, Ait Baha, Taroudant, Tiznit, Ouarzazate, Zagora, Agadir Ida ou Tanant Kénitra, Sidi Kacem

Settat

Settat, Khouribga, Beni Slimane

Oujda-Angad

8. Rabat, Salé Zemmour -Zaër 9. Dukkala, Abda 10. Tadla, Azilal 11. Meknes, Tafilalt 12. Fes, Boulemane 13. Taza, El Hoceima 14. Grand Casablanca

Rabat

Oujda-Angad, Berkane, Jerada, Taourirt, Figuig, Nador Rabat, Skhirat, Tamara, Salé, Khemisset

15. Tanger, Tetouan 16. Marrakech, Tensift, El Haouz

Tanger, Asilah

Safi Beni Mellal Meknes Fes Jdid-Dar Dabibagh El Hoceima Casablanca

Marrakech el Menara

Safi, El-Jadida Beni Mellal, Azilal Meknes, Ismailiya, El Hajeb, Ifrane, Khenifra, Ar-Rachidia Fes Jdid-Dar Dabibagh, Fes Medina, Zawagha, Moulay Yaqub, Sefrou, Boulemane El Hoceima, Taza, Taounate Casablanca, Anfaa, Ayn Sba, Hayy Muhammadi, Ayn al-Shuk, Hayy al-Hasani, Ben msik, Sidi Uthman, Fida dard al-sultan, Mechouar Casablanca, Sidi Bernusi-Zanata, alMuhammadia Tanger, Asilah, Tetouan, Chefchaouen, FahssBni Makada, Larache Marrakech el Menara, Marrakech el Medina, Sidi Yusuf bn Ali, Haouz, Chichaoua, El Kalaa des Srarhna, Essaouira

Note: The government is not consistent in the way it numbers the regions. See map 31 for another ordering of the regions from a different government source.

Religion. Within a few centuries of the Islamic conquest, the Maghrib still had a fair-sized Jewish population, but the great majority of the population was at least nominally Muslim. At the time of the French

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protectorate scholars found that the practice of Islam in Morocco incorporated local customary (‘urf) practices for the same reasons that Catholicism, a slightly older religion, was divergent in its practice around the globe. This said, it is appropriate to note that Islam, like Catholicism, developed both a core set of principles and a scholarly tradition to implement those principles. Islam in the Maghrib fairly soon began to have a concensus around a particular school of jurisprudence associated with ibn ‘abd al-mâlik. The core texts in this school are the qur’ân and al-bukhâri’s compendium of Hadîth as well as the muwaTTa` of ibn mâlik. A key Hadîth summarizes the essence of Islam as involving five pillars: shahâda (professing ones faith: there is no god but Allah and muHammad is his prophet), salâh (prayer five times a day at daybreak, at noon, in the mid-afternoon, after sunset, and in the early part of the night), zakât (the giving of alms), Hâjj (pilgrimage at least once in one’s lifetime to Mecca, if possible), and sawm (fasting during Ramadan from the time in the morning when a red thread can be distinguished from a black one until the time in the evening when this distinction is no longer possible). The qur’ân develops the concept of zakât by specifically urging the charitable support of family and relatives, orphans, the poor, the traveling homeless, the needy, and the freeing of slaves. Another important Islamic principle is a prohibition against usury which has legally been interpreted as an admonition to clearly specify all risks incurred by each partner in commercial transactions and to ensure that the risks are proportionate to the respective contributions of the partners. Thus legally risk-free profit (interest) is prohibited. Many ways around the prohibition (Hîla or tricks), such as lending in a silver currency and being repaid in gold coin at an advantageous rate of exchange, have historically been practiced throughout the Islamic world by the less scrupulous. Islam also prohibits, among other things, eating pork, drinking alcohol, and having sex outside of marriage, though the latter prohibition in particular was rendered difficult by an acceptance of slavery and the temptations inherent in male absolute control over female slaves and female subordination in general. Slavery has now long been prohibited, and the 2004 family code (mudawwana) addresses most of the issues of gender inequity. Like other religions based on core texts, Islam developed an elaborate system of scholarship to deal with the inevitable need to interpret the texts to apply them to a changing world. While many young people are blissfully ignorant of any value in scholarship, and consequently happy with simple received dogma, people with a scholarly bent have long sought justifications for religious beliefs. The Islamic tradition developed a series of principles to aid in the interpretation of the qur’ân. Scholars noted apparent contradictions between verses and collectively decided which abrogated which (those doing the abrogating were called al-nâsikh and those that were abrogated were referred to as al-mansûkh). Scholars agreed that some

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principles of the qur’ân were improved upon in later verses, some ambiguities were clarified and early parts were suspended by later ones. Scholars went further and defined what was clear and what was ambiguous or undecidable (aHkâm or mutahâbihât) by human judgment. They also carefully defined what was applicable to all people, what applied to a subset of people, what was bound (i.e., circumscribed and applicable only in certain situations), and what were the literal meanings and the implied meanings of particular passages. The science of tafsîr was the science of knowing these things, as well as many other issues such as the historical context of the revelation (asbâb al-nuzûl). This scientific approach precluded the ill informed from simple-minded, literal interpretations of pieces of scripture. It thus kept authoritative interpretation in the hands of the learned. Similar issues arose in the interpretation of the Hadîth, but the latter had a separate problem, which was that since they were stories about what muHammad said and did in certain circumstances they had to be validated before they could be used. Scholars (‘ulamâ’) developed a basic validation technique based on the chain of transmission (isnâd) in which each link of the chain was examined to see if the person who claimed to hear the Hadîth from someone could in fact have done so—i.e., did he or she live in the same place at the same time or could they have met in some plausible circumstances. Hadîth were then evaluated as SaHîH (true), Hasan (good), and Da‘îf (weak or implausible but possible if missing links had existed). These ideas were solidified with a notion of consensus (ijma‘), which in effect said that the consensus of the learned was binding on others. Because there were a very large number of issues always needing to be addressed, consensus would be reached for only a fraction of the questions and for the others a learned opinion would suffice. Historically, one of the principles used by scholars to interpret and apply scripture was analogy (qiyâs), but this was a powerful tool and in practice was kept from excess by the notion of heresy or innovation (bid‘a). The concensus of the learned was called upon to decide which new interpretations were legitimate. The interpretor was called a mujtahid and (legitimate) interpretations were called ijtihâd. Historically, in sunni areas such as the Maghrib only a few renowned scholars would venture a new interpretation or application of a text and the rest would limit themselves to the study and application of the scholarship of past generations. The study of core texts and the deliberations of scholars produced an ethical system that consisted at its most basic level of a classification of behavior into a series of five categories. These were a) obligatory duties (e.g., the five pillars), b) recommended acts and behavior (e.g., additional prayer and charitable activity), c) permitted actions toward which Islam is neutral, d) acts that are discouraged and reprehensible but not forbidden (jurists differed considerably on what fit into this category), and e) activities that are explicitly forbidden (e.g. murder, adultery, blasphemy, theft, intoxication).

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In the Maghrib, this base of sunni Islam was enriched by less textually based cultural traditions, which focused on individual mystic (sufi) spirituality. This found its expression in a multiplicity of maraboutic traditions and the idea that both descendants of the prophet (shurafâ’) and religious individuals could acquire grace (baraka) that would give them both wisdom and spiritual powers beyond the ordinary. Some of these individuals acquired the reputation of being saints such that even their tombs or relics held spiritual power (burhân or baraka) that could cure illness or even restore fertility. Many of the maraboutic traditions held out the promise to their members that through the practice of particular prayers and spiritual exercises they could attain wisdom and, at the limit, even themselves accede to mystic insights (Tarîqa, zâwiya). In addition, esoteric knowledge of various branches if Islamic magic and divination were widespread in the Maghrib, and many people still claim extensive knowledge in these areas. Jewish religious practice in the Maghrib was based by the 10th century on similar texts and scholarly traditions to those found in Europe. The key Judaic texts include the Hebrew Bible (Tanak), the Torah (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible), Neviim (the prophetic books of the Bible), the Ketuvim (writings, i.e., Psalms, Proverbs, Esther etc.), and the Talmud (a sixth-century compendium of Babylonian rabbinic texts. In addition, the general term Halakhah, the way or Jewish law, though it is primarily based on the Torah includes its many associated interpretations, including those of the Talmud and those of other famous scholars, most notably for North Africa and Spain those of Moses Maimonides. These texts and their interpretations gave rise to commandments (mitzvot) that Jews are to follow. In Maimonides’ compilation there were 613 commandments implied by the Halakhah. Of these, Maimonides listed thirteen key principles or foundations of Judaism. These were 1) belief in the existence of a supreme God/Creator (HaShem) on whom the existence of everything else depends, 2) the unity of the creator, 3) belief that the Creator does not have a physical form, 4) belief that the Creator is first before all else in existence and eternal, 5) belief that it is proper to serve the Creator and only Him, 6) belief that there are some individuals who due to their attachment to the Creator can achieve an exalted state, communicate with God and produce prophecy, 7) belief that Moses was the father of all the prophets and both those before and after him were below his level, 8) belief that the Torah is from heaven and thus that Jews must believe the entire Torah, 9) belief that the Torah was transcribed from the Creator and that no one may add to it or subtract from it, 10) belief that God knows the actions of mankind at all times (is omniscient and provident), 11) belief that God rewards those who obey His commandments and punishes those who violate them, 12) belief that the Messiah will come and that no king of the Jewish people will come from any but the House of David, and 13) belief in the resurrection of

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the dead—that is to say that the righteous will be resurrected. The Maimonidean tradition emphasized the importance of rational thought as well as the special character of the Torah. The Halakhah, or the way, has been traditionally interpreted not just as a set of beliefs and prohibitions but also broadly that to follow in the way of God includes, most obviously, to also follow the positive prescriptions such as the maxim “to love thy neighbor as thyself,” and, in Maimonides’ view, the most important commandments are to follow a path of kindness, charity, justice, and righteousness in imitation of God. These basic perspectives of Judaism were enriched, much as the Islamic tradition was, with mystic practices as well as by local traditions of saint veneration. In the Maghrib, some of this Jewish folk mysticism associated with the veneration of saints was very similar in expectations and practice to the local saint veneration by the Muslim population. There have been many tombs of Jewish saints which both Jews and Muslims have regarded as having special power and some tombs to which Jews still make regular pilgrimage. Rhozali Nejma, Thay Thay. Born on 15 November 1960 in Zellidja Boubeker (Oujda). Rhozali received a baccalauréat in Lettres modernes in 1979, a licence from Université Mohammed I in Oujda, followed by a DEA in Ethno-Sémiotique from the Sorbonne in 1984. She received her doctorat in Ethno-Sémiotique from the Sorbonne in 1991. Rhozali is a research professor at the Faculté des lettres et des sciences humaines at Ibn Zohr University in Agadir where she is in charge of the “option ethno-sémiotique, littérature orale, traditions et savoir-vivre marocains.” She has also directed doctoral dissertations at Charles de Gaulle university in Lille as well as at Ibn Zohr in Agadir. Rhozali has been a member of the bureau exécutif of the Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI) and president of its Commission des affaires sociales at the national level and of its Commission de la femme at her regional level. In September 2002, Rhozali was put in charge of illiteracy and informal education (secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’éducation nationale et de la jeunesse, chargée de l’alphabétisme et de l’éducation non formelle). Rif uprising (1957-1959). From 1957 to 1959, a number of ethnic groups in the Rif (especially Ait ‘Ammarth and Ait Waryaghar) rose up to protest various matters. Initially the uprising was probably stimulated by the closing of the Algerian border (due to the war raging there) and the subsequent lack of jobs plus the exceptionally poor infrastructure and corrupt administration in the region. By 1958, the uprising seems to have taken on the form of an independence movement (from Morocco) in the spirit of ‘abd al-karîm’s earlier movement. It was consequently much more brutally repressed in the last year of its existence than in the first year. The uprising was facilitated by the participation of many of the people in the Rif who had been in the

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Spanish Army and then later the Army of Liberation. Armaments for the uprising are said to have come from Egypt where ‘abd al-karîm lent at least moral support to the movement. The harsh repression of the uprising may help explain why ‘abd al-karîm never returned to Morocco after its independence. riHla. The obligation to perform the Hajj led many devout Muslims to travel long distances to Mecca and then home again, and their travels proved indispensable in making Islamic culture the cosmopolitan culture that it became. Many travelers wrote accounts of their experiences, and this literature (the riHla) became a staple reading in urban areas where copies could be found most readily. Many Moroccans spent years on their travels, and some stayed to teach or study for lengthy periods in foreign lands. The most famous Moroccan traveller was ibn baTTûTa, but the riHla literature includes works that, focus on the geography, Muslim culture, intellectual disputes, pious figures, or even oddities of non-Muslim lands. Some are readily available in translation, but most are available in a few scattered Arabic manuscript copies in the libraries and archives of the Islamic lands (for a review of the riHla literature for the Marinid period see al-shâhadî 1990). In English perhaps the most readily accessible is the account of the Embassy of ‘abd al-qâdir ‘ash ‘âsh to Paris in 1845-1846 as recounted by his secretary al-Saffâr (Miller 1991). al-ru‘aynî, muHammad. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn sa‘îd bn muHammad bn ‘uthmân al-andalusî al-fâsî (1286/7-1375/6), known as al-ru‘aynî, was born in Fès and died there at the age of almost 90. He was known for his simple, even austere, lifestyle. After a pilgrimage and period of study in the East, he returned to Fès where he spent his life as a teacher. He wrote primarily works of fiqh and Hadîth but also wrote a biographical work, al-mughrib fî jumla min SulaHâ’ almashriq wa-l-maghrib (the furthest along of all of the virtuous of the East and the West), and a riHla. Unfortunately, none of his works appear to have survived. al-rûdânî, muHammad bn sulaymân. abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn muHammad bn sulaymân bn al-fâsî bn Tâhir al-sûsî al-maghribî alrûdânî al-murrâkishî al-makkî was born in 1037H (1627/8) in Taroudannt and died in Damascus in 1094H (1684). He was a scholar versed in many fields who had extraordinary skills in the fabrication of delicate scientific instruments. He made astronomical instruments, including an instrument reputed to combine and substitute for all the known astronomical tools in a form readily comprehensible to its users. He left a manuscript intended as a guide to its use entitled al-nâfi‘a ‘alâ l-âla al-jâmi‘a (Mss 168 in the Hamzâwîya zâwiya; 60 km from Midelt on road to Errachidia). al-rûdânî wrote a number of studies of Hadîth, including his best known, al-jam‘ bayn al-kutub al-khamsa wa-lmuwaTTa’, a work on grammar, and some works of poetry. His

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knowledge of Hadîth brought him an appointment in Mecca in 1082H (1671/2) as mufti of the Haramayn (the dual form referring to two holy places Mecca and Medina), which he held until 1093H (1682) when the governor of Mecca died.

-SSaâdi, Mohamed Saïd [muHammad sa‘îd al-sa‘dî]. Born in Derb Soltane, Saâdi graduated from the Lycée Mohammed V in Casablanca and earned a licence en sciences économiques in 1970 at the Faculté de Droit in Rabat. In 1972, he earned a Doctorat de troisième cycle in business administration with a major in financial administration from the Université of Tunis, and in 1976, a DES in economics on the basis of a memoir on the process of industrialization through import substitution. Saâdi earned a doctorat d’état in business administration from Université Paris-Dauphine based on a thesis dealing with financial concentration and the formation of private Moroccan economic groups. Saâdi is a professor in the Faculté de Droit in Casablanca and at the Institut supérieur de commerce et d’administration des entreprises (ISCAE). He has also spent time at the University of Texas in Austin (1993) and at Princeton University (1997-1998). Saâdi has been active in the Parti du Libération et Socialisme (PLS) and Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme (PPS) and from 1986-1992 was vice president of the commune of Méchouar. He is renowned for pushing at all opportunites for women’s rights (plan d’intégration de la femme) and the need to empower women educationally and professionally. He has been able to promote this as Secrétaire d’état chargé de la protection sociale, de la famille et de l’enfance (beginning in 1998). This effort has met with harsh criticism from the Islamist groups and parties, in particular the Parti de la justice et du développement (PJD). His best-known publication is Les groupes économiques et financiers au Maroc (1989) ,which won the Grand Prix du Maroc du livre. Saaf, Abdallah. Born 19 September 1949 in Kénitra, Saaf was named by Mohammed VI as Ministre de l’education nationale on 6 September 2000. Saaf received a doctorat in Droit and has been working as professor since 1974 at the Faculté de Droit in Rabat and head of the department of Droit public. In 1997, he was named dean of the Faculté des Sciences juridiques, économiques et sociales in Mohammédia. Saaf is the the president of the Association marocaine des Sciences politiques (AMSP). Saaf has published numerous articles in scientific and academic journals. Sa‘dian dynasty. In the twilight of the Marinid/Wattasid era, the problems of legitimacy were easily associated with the successes of

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infidels such as the Portuguese along the coast of Morocco, and one solution having great appeal at the time was to found a truly legitimate Islamic state. By the 16th century, this had come ideally to mean a state led either by people of sharifan descent or by those with widely acknowledged reputations as saints having an intuitive and learned grasp of religious matters that made them legitimate leaders in the eyes of the populace. muHammad al-qâ’im, the first leader of the Sa‘dians of historical importance, after receiving the imprimatur of the head of the jazûlîya zâwiya at aqqa (sîdî mubârak) to lead a jihad against the Portuguese, moved his base of operations from the village of Tagmadart in the Draa first to Tidsî near Taroudannt and then, after an initial failure to conquer Santa Cruz (Agadir) in 1511, to Afughal (1513), the village in the Haha where the famous saint al-jazûlî was buried and a region with a history of both major Portuguese operations and significant resistance to both the Portuguese and the Moroccan sultan. The two sons of muHammad al-qâ’im who were to found the Sa‘dian empire were sent on a Hajj and returned around 1514 at which point muHammad al-qâ’im relocated to Taroudannt and assuming control of the Sous began to levy taxes, extract allegiances, and consolidate support. The Sa‘dian claim of sharifan descent was initially accepted in the south but never found acceptance among the ‘ulamâ’ of Fès who in addition were far more likely to support the qâdirî Tarîqa than the jazûlî (see Maraboutic traditions). The term Sa‘dian itself is an after-the-fact designation implying that rather than being shurafâ’ the Sa‘dians were merely descendants of the banû sa‘d Hawazîn. After MuHammad al-qâ’im’s death in 1517, the eldest of his two sons, aHmad al-a‘raj, received the bay‘a with the younger brother muHammad al-shaykh, the designated next in line. Their initial successes were almost exclusively against fellow Muslims, yet these successes and their attacks against Portuguese sites that had been established along the coast beginning in 1449 stimulated a migration of ma‘qilian tribes in the Western Sahara northwards to support the jihad. These new populations, the weakness of the nominally Marinid hintâta rulers in Marrakech, their sharifan status, a devastating plague and famine between 1517 and 1522 in which the Sa‘dians distributed massive amounts of charity, and a fairly rapid mastery of the strategy and technology of 16th century warfare led to steady Sa‘dian success against both the representatives of the Moroccan state and recalcitrant tribes. The zâwiya of mdaghra (Tafilalt), tagmaddart (Draa), tidsî (near Taroudannt), and aqqa (on the Saharan frontier) cooperated to encourage resistance to the Portuguese and in the end to promote a sharifan dynasty to defeat the foreigners. The defeat by aHmad al-a‘raj (brother of muHammad al-shaykh) of Portuguese ally yaHya bn ta‘fuft in 1521 may have been the turning point (hajji 49). Marrakech was captured by aHmad al-a‘raj in 1525 and was followed by the battle of wâdî ‘abîd in which the Wattasid sultan was roundly defeated, his ally the king of Granada killed, and Sa‘dian

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independence established. Yet, it was aHmad’s brother, muHammad al-shaykh, who scored the first success against the Portuguese, capturing Santa Cruz (Agadir) in 1541 through the use of an artillery barrage that lasted thirty-two days and repelled all attempts at rescue or reinforcement by sea. This defeat and the continuing growth of Sa‘dian power helped persuade the Portuguese to withdraw most of their forces from Morocco’s coastal towns; Safi and Azemour were evacuated within the year, though Mazagan (El-Jadida) was maintained. The success, along with aHmad al-a‘raj’s defeat in 1540 by the Wattasids and subsequent failure early in 1541 to conquer Azemour, provided the momentum for muHammad al-shaykh to take over as dynastic head. Fès fell to muHammad al-shaykh in 1548, but the next fifteen years were years of warfare primarily against the Ottomans or their proxies. muHammad al-shaykh was assassinated in 1557, and it was not until the advent of aHmad al-manSûr (1578-1603) that the first lasting peace in a hundred years was achieved. From 1576 to 1578 the Sa‘dian sultan ‘abd al-malik oriented Morocco toward the Ottomans. aHmad al-manSûr inherited the throne at the Battle of Three Kings, or wâdî al-makhâzin (4 August 1578), where King Sebastian of Portugal along with a former (muHammad al-mutawakkil) and current sultan (‘abd al-malik) died. aHmad al-manSûr proceeded to modernize the army and revamp the administration and in the process established firm control over a Maghrib that Europeans and the Sublime Porte now feared to attack and a source of tribute in the Sahel through his conquest of the Empire of Songhay in 1590-1591. On the economic front, the Sa‘dians greatly enhanced Morocco’s finances through al-manSûr’s conquest of Songhay. This provided access to sub-Saharan products that might otherwise have exited via the coast and European shipping. al-manSûr also wasted no time establishing large-scale industrial sugar production in Morocco (a key facility was located in Chechaoua between Marrakech and the coast), which provided merchants a transportable commodity that could be readily traded in the Sahel for slaves and gold. On the societal front, Sa‘dian Morocco assimilated elements of language, architecture, and law from the Andalous (after Philip III of Spain expelled the Moriscos in 1609). Subsequent rapid urban growth attracted scholars from all over North and West Africa as well as from farther away whose influence far outlasted the dynasty itself. Although the Sa‘dian state degenerated into a series of competing pieces on aHmad al-manSûr’s death, its legacy, from a modernized army and effective central administation, was a lasting international respect for Morocco that kept foreign powers largely at bay until 1844. Safi. (lat. 32º 18' N., long. 9º 15' W.) A fortified settlement of some sort existed at the current site of Safi (âsafî) by the 14th century, but its importance dates from 1508 when the Portuguese, based on a concession dating to 1506, took possession of the site and built a proper fort. Safi became a base of raiding operations that extended

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almost to Marrakech. These operations caused such animosity that the Portuguese were forced to withdraw in 1541. Safi remained one of the most important ports of Morocco until the construction of Essaouira in 1765 decreased its role as international entrepôt for the Marrakech region. Since the 20th century, Safi’s better natural harbor has been enlarged and it has taken the place of Essaouira as the port for the Marrakech region. Sahel, Al Mustapha. Born on 5 May 1946 at Ouled Frej (El-Jadida), Sahel received his baccalaureate in 1964, a licence in law (droit public) from the Faculté de Droit de l’Université Mohammed V in Rabat (1967), and a DES in droit public in Paris. In 1968, he passed the exam for “inspection générale des finances.” Sahel served in many administrative posts: as contrôleur financier, as chef de la division du budget d’équipement, as directeur du budget, as chargé du secrétariat général du ministère des Finances, and as directeur général du Fonds d’équipement communal (FEC). In addition, he served as Commissaire du gouvernement for the Al Maghrib Bank, as member of the Conseil d’administration du Fonds arabe pour le développement économique et social in Kuwait, and as a member of the board of trustees of Al Akhawayn University. In 1995, Sahel was appointed fishing minister (de pêches maritimes et de la marine marchande). On 27 July 2001 Sahel became wali for the region of Rabat-Salé-Zemmour-Zaër, and on 7 September 2002 he was made minister of the interior. Saïd, Mohammed Jalal. Born 1 March 1938 in Oued Zem, Saïd has been president of the Chamber of Counsellors and president of the Chamber of Representatives. Saïd received a doctorat d’Etat in law, an agrégation in law (droit privé et sciences criminelles) (1969), and a diploma from the Institut de Criminologie from the Université de Paris. Saïd served as a president of the Commune Rurale d’Ouled Fennane, president of the region Ouerdigha-Chaouia, and minister of tourism (1974-1977). Sail, Noureddine. Born in 1947 in Tanger, Sail was nominated by Mohammed VI as Directeur général du Centre Cinématographique Marocain. Sail completed his secondary education at Lycée Ibn alKhatib and obtained a DES in philosophy from the Faculté des Lettres in Rabat. He taught philosophy at Lycée Moulay Youssef in Rabat. In 1973, he founded the Fédération Nationale des Ciné-Clubs du Maroc and remained its president until 1983. He was also a cinema critic for many newspapers and on national radio and television for many years. Between 1975 and 1984, Sail was an inspector general of philosophy instruction. Sail then became program director of Télévision Marocaine (TVM) from 1984 to 1986 and an audio-visual consultant at ONA from 1989 to 1990. Between 1990 and 2000, he worked as program director and director general of Canal Horizons. Since April 2000, Sail has served as director general of the Moroccan Television Channel 2M.

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Sail is also a novelist and a writer of scenarios. He wrote Le Grand Voyage (1981), Badis (1990), and Lalla Hobbi (1996), which were produced as films by Mohamed Abderrahman Tazi. He also wrote the novel, A l’Ombre du Chroniquer. Salah, Nadia. Born 23 February 1954 in France, Salah is the editor in chief of L’Economiste. She received a licence in economics (option économie européenne) from Grenoble in 1976, and a maîtrise in economics (section monnaie-finances internationals) from Grenoble in 1977, where she also studied political science in Grenoble (section économie financière) without earning a diploma. Salah started her career as a journalist for the newspaper L’Opinion, Rabat-Maroc (1978-1979). She also worked for the Société générale de presse (groupe Berrard Quellin-Le Siècle, Paris) in charge of stories dealing with energy and Europe. In L’Opinion, she was responsible for economic issues from 1981 to 1989. From March 1989 to June 1991, she became editor in chief of La Vie Economique. Starting in 1991, Salah cofounded L’Economiste Hebdomadaire spécialisé and also served as its editor in chief. Salah was also a correspondent in Morocco for the Group français de presse Le Moniteur des travaux publics (Companie européenne de presse) (1981-1992) and the British group MEED (1983-1994). Salah has also served as consultant for the ministry of public works (1984-1991) and as finance minister in the cabinet of Berrada Mohammed (1986-1991). Salé. (lat. 34º 03' N., long. 6º 48' W.) Taking its name from the Roman Sala Colonia (itself located on a Phoenician site), whose ruins in Rabat are now called Chella, Salé (salâ) is mentioned in the 9th century during the Idrisid period, but it is unclear what sort of settlement was involved. By 1030, the town seems to have been formed, and by the 12th century it was a significant city with markets and an international harbor. The Almohads conquered it in 1132, and in 1251 the Marinids first occupied it only to have to retake it from the Spanish in 1260, which led them to fortify it. It was during Marinid times that ibn ‘ashîr became famed as the saint of Salé. For centuries Salé was the most important Atlantic port, and from 1610-1641 it developed into a virtually independent pirate state whose depredations were infamous throughout western Europe. In subsequent centuries, Salé continued a tradition of learning and again became the home of noted scholars, madrasas, and mosques. In the 19th century learning and scholarship could almost be said to have became an industry in Salé. One of the century’s great historical works, kitâb al-istiqSâ, was written by al-nâSirî, a slâwî (inhabitant of Salé). The rich history of Salé has meant that there has been both a certain cosmopolitanism as well as a developed religious culture. For centuries there was a sizable Jewish community, which was given a separate quarter (mallah) in 1807. Today, the urban agglomeration of RabatSalé spans both sides of the Bou Regreg river, and many of Salé’s

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residential areas are really suburbs of Rabat, even though central Salé retains much of its distinctive character. SanHâja. One of the three major groups of Berbers, with the maSmûda and the zanâta, the SanHâja at the time of the Islamic conquest occupied lands from the Mediterranean south to the Western Sahara. Their principal tribes at this time lived in sijilmâsa, the Draa, the Sous, and the Western Sahara. The subgroups of the SanHâja that played major historical roles included the jazûla (south of the High Atlas), haskûra (upper valleys of the Tensift), zanâga (Middle Atlas), lamTa (south of the Anti-Atlas), and the SanHâja of the Western Sahara, the gudâla, and the lamTûna. The southern SanHâja (jazûla, lamTa, lamTûna, and gudâla) provided the core of the Almoravid movement, which conquered and ruled the Maghrib in the mid-11th to mid-12th centuries. The founder of the movement, ibn yasîn, was from the jazûla (Ait Guezoula). Another great religious figure, al-jazûlî, who became a famous saint in the 15th century, also came from the Ait Guezoula. al-sarrâj. abû zakariyâ’ yaHyâ bn aHmad bn muHammad bn Hasan alnafzî al-Himyarî al-rundî al-fâsî al-sarrâj (d.1402/3) was born in Fès and became a renowned scholar in the field of Hadîth studies (see Religion). He traveled extensively for the specific purpose of crosschecking scholarship in this field. His primary work is a fahrasa that provides, after two initial sections on the importance and science of Hadîth, detailed biographical information on forty-eight scholars with whom al-sarrâj had studied. Each biography includes a summary of the scholar’s life, studies, and moral characteristics, further details on the scholar’s teachers and the books they taught, and finally the teaching given by the scholar including courses and diplomas as well as the chain of authorities (isnâd) that brought them their knowledge of Hadîth. The focus throughout is on the ways of assessing Hadîth both theoretically and through the detailed biographical examples provided. The penultimate section of the book examines al-sarrâj’s own case and a final section takes a look at some asnâd for specific Hadîth. sayyida al-Hurra. From 1515 to 1542, sayyida al-Hurra bint ‘alî ibn rashîd governed Tétouan and, with her associate the Ottoman pirate Barbarossa, launched raids against the Spanish and Portuguese. Andalusians returning to Morocco in the late 15th century, as the Muslim control of even Granada slipped away, rebuilt Tétouan. Although sources disagree about whether al-Hurra’s husband was ‘alî al-mandrî, the founder of the rebuilt Tétouan, or if perhaps her husband was his son (another al-mandrî), they agree that from 1510 al-Hurra and her husband ruled Tétouan, she initially as prefect and he as governor, and that on his death in 1515 she assumed the title of governor. Spanish and Portuguese sources agree that it was with alHurra that their governments negotiated for the release of prisoners and

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that she was both the ultimate authority in Tétouan and behind the raids on their shipping. In the late 15th century, al-Hurra’s Andalusian family (banû rashîd) settled in Chefchaouen, and it was there that she married al-mandrî, who belonged to an elite Andalusian family in Tétouan. After almandrî’s death al-Hurra married the Wattasid sultan of Morocco, aHmad bn muHamad al-burtughâlî, who took the unprecedented step of leaving Fès to go to Tétouan for the marriage ceremony. Although remarried, al-Hurra continued to rule in Tétouan. The unusual degree of acceptance of al-Hurra as a ruler may have benefited from Andalusian familiarity with powerful female monarchs in Spain such as Isabelle of Castille (1474-1504). Sbai, Abderrahman. Born in 1940 in Fès, Sbai pursued his primary and secondary education in El-Jadida and Rabat (Lycée Moulay Youssef),and his higher education in Paris (Ecole Nationale des Sciences Géographiques): diploma d’ingénieur des travaux géographiques de l’Etat in 1961 and diploma d’ingénieur géographe in 1967. From 1963 to 1965 Sbai worked as chef du service topographique et du cadastre d’El-Jadida and then moved to Rabat. There he was in charge of general topographical studies in the Direction de la conservation foncière et des travaux topographiques in Rabat (1967-1970), as chef du service central du cadastre (1971), and as chef de la division du cadastre (1972-1979). From 1980 to 1983, Sbai was Directeur des affaires administratives in the ministry of agriculture (et de la réforme agraire) and from December 1983 to 1986 he was appointed directeur-conseiller auprès du premier minister followed by conseiller du premier ministre beginning in January 1987. In August 1992, Sbai became secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre, chargé des affaires générales, in the government of Mohamed Karim Lamrani. Then in the governments of November 1993, June 1994, and February 1995 Sbai became ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre. In August 1997, his portfolio was changed to ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de l’administration de la défense nationale—a position he held through the government of June 2004. Sefrou. (33º 50' N., long. 4º 50' W.) Located 29 kilometers southeast of Fès at an altitude of 2,880 feet, Sefrou (Sifrû) has an ancient history of Jewish residence dating back to before the Islamic era that has left its mark in the local toponymy. From the 6th to the 9th century, Jewish, pagan, and Christian populations in the Sefrou area are mentioned in the historical accounts. Local legend claims that Sefrou, the town, was built before Fès (i.e., in the 8th century) but this is not confirmed in any reliable sources. It is, however, likely that it was founded in the same era as Fès (i.e., very late 8th-early 9th century) and it was apparently a settlement worth capturing by 836-848 when ‘alî bn idrîs bn idrîs used it as a base for an attack on Fès (see Idrisid dynasty). Sefrou was a

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walled town of some importance by the 11th century. Tradition in Sefrou claims that a separate quarter was reserved for Jews by the Marinid ‘abd al-Haqq in the 14th century. If this is correct, it would have been the first such separate quarter for Jews in Morocco, but it is unlikely that a legal prohibition on residence elsewhere in Sefrou, essential for the quarter to be a true mallah, was enacted as early as the 14th century. Sefrou became a walled city with distinct quarters (bazaar, mallah, and qasba and an adjacent market-garden residential area) comparatively early. Sefrou’s prosperity depended throughout the centuries at least in part on the caravan trade with the Tafilalt, and when that was diverted to the east, rather than passing through Sefrou en route to Fès, Sefrou’s fortunes declined. Around 1905, Sefrou was reported to be a town of about 6,000 with a population split evenly between Jews and Muslims. The current city has been expanded in all directions beyond the traditional walls and includes modern residential and commercial sectors as well as an industrial quarter. Most of the Jewish population has left, and the current city is in large part populated by arrivals from the rural hinterland who were pushed into the city by protectorate and sharifan economic policies that have neglected the Sefrou region. Sefrou has been extensively studied in the 20th century (Geertz et al. 1979). Seqat, Mohamed. Born 7 July 1942 in Fès, Seqat served as the governor of Bank Al-maghrib beginning in October 1989 until replaced by Abdellatif Jouahri in 2003. Seqat studied at Lycée Moulay Idriss in Fès and the Faculté de Droit in Rabat where he obtained a a licence in economics. In 1966, Seqat passed the “concours” of the Inspection générale des finances. He joined the budget office as a chargé d’études. In 1969, he became member of the cabinet of the finance ministry, charged with introducing economic and functional classifications into the state budget. Between 1970 and 1974, he served as sous-directeur and chef du service for the operational budget. In 1974, Hassan II named Seqat directeur du budget (1974-1983). Seqat also served as director general of customs (Administration des Douanes et Impôts Indirects or ADII) from 1983 to 1986, secrétaire d’état in the ministry of foreign affairs, chargé des relations with the EEC (1986), and the secretary-general of the Union du Maghreb Arabe (1989). Seqat has also been a member of the board of trustees of Al Akhawayn University. Serfaty, Abraham. Born in Casablanca in 1926 in a Jewish family originally from Tanger, Serfaty was one of the best-known leaders of the Moroccan opposition during the reign of King Hassan II. Serfaty received a diploma from the École Nationale Supérieure des Mines in Paris in 1949, but his political career began in February 1944 when he joined Jeunesse communistes marocaines and then, on his return to France in 1945, the French communist party. In 1949, he joined the

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Parti communiste marocain. Due to his opposition activities, Serfaty was exiled by the colonial government in 1952 with his sister, Evelyne, to house arrest in France until 1956. The nominal pretext was that he was not a Moroccan and was instead a Brazilian citizen. Serfaty’s father had lived in Brazil for seventeen years before returning to Morocco in 1923. After independence he served in many important posts: chargé de mission auprès du ministre de l’économie (1957-1960) and director of Recherche-Développement in the Office Chérifien des Phosphates (OCP) from 1960 to 1968, but he was fired from this position because of solidarity with the miners’ strike of 1968-1972. Serfaty taught at the École d’ingénieurs de Mohammedia at the same time as he worked for Souffles Revue directed by Abdellatif Laâbi. Serfaty’s political positions have been anti-Zionist, in favor of abolishing the “law of return” and for the creation of a Palestinian state in coexistence with the Israeli state. In 1970, Serfaty left the communist party and helped found the leftist organization ilâ al-amâm (forwards). In January 1972, Serfaty was arrested for the first time and tortured, but student demonstrations pushed the authorities to free him. He soon went into hiding and was helped by a French teacher, Christine Daure, and finally arrested again in March 1972. In October 1977, after a long trial in Casablanca, Serfaty was among five people condemned to life imprisonment for ‘complot contre la sûreté de l’État’ (plotting against the state), though some have suggested that the real reason was for his position against the annexation of the Moroccan Sahara, although this does not figure in the official charges. Serfaty spent seventeen years in the prison of Kénitra during which time he married Christine Daure. International pressure led to his liberation on 13 September 1991. He was immediately thrown out of the country, again on the pretext that he was not Moroccan, and sought asylum in France with his wife Christine Daure-Serfaty. From 1992 to 1995, Serfaty taught at the Université de Paris-VIII (department of political science) on the theme of ‘Identités et démocratie dans le monde arabe.’ Serfaty returned to Morocco in September 2000 and his Moroccan passport was given back to him. He settled in Mohammédia with his wife and now receives a monthly retirement pension. In September 2000, Serfaty was named conseiller auprès de l’Office national marocain de recherche et d’exploitation pétrolière (ONAREP). The ban of many newspapers in 2000 led Abraham Serfaty to call, in December 2000, for the resignation of Prime Minister Abderrahmane Youssoufi. al-shâdhilî. abû al-Hasan al-shâdhilî nûr al-dîn ‘alî bn ‘abd al-raHmân bn ‘abd al-jabâr al-ghamârî al-zarwîlî al-idrîsî (1187-1258) was born in the ghumâra region near present-day Chefchaouen but spent his productive life in Algeria, Tunisia, and Egypt. On his first trip east to Baghdad he was told by an Iraqi sufi to go back to the Maghrib because

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the true quTb (religious authority, pole of religion, transmitter of the Prophet’s baraka) was there in the form of ibn mashîsh. al-shâdhilî thus returned to study with ibn mashîsh who was in Tunisia. Shortly after study with ibn mashîsh, al-shâdhilî moved to Tunis and taught that while contemplation and absolute love of God were essential, action in the world was just as important an outcome of contemplation. His teachings were seen as on the side of the poor and oppressed and he attracted a lot of followers. His move to Egypt (Alexandria) brought him even more followers. He made numerous pilgrimages and died returning from a pilgrimage without designating a spiritual heir or founding a maraboutic tradition. He was buried at Humaythara near present-day Aswan. After his death, his followers passed down his teachings until the third shaykh of the order, aHmad ibn ‘aTâ’ allâh al-iskandarî (d.1309), systematized the teachings and produced a series of 252 aphorisms collected together (kitâb al-Hikam) that greatly facilitated the spread of shâdhilî ideas. The teachings of al-shâdhilî are readily available in English through a recent translation of ibn al-Sabbâgh’s (1887) durrat al-asrâr wa-tuHfat al-abrâr (Pearl of mysteries and the rarity of the reverent) in an edition by E.H. Douglas titled The Mystical Teachings of al-Shadhili (1993). In French the best introduction is Nwyia’s (1972) ibn ‘aTâ’ allâh et la naissance de la confrèrie shâdhilite, which provides both an introduction and an annotated translation of the aphorisms. The teachings of al-shâdhilî have been classified as pragmatic (Schimmel 1975:251) inasmuch as they did not take a radical stance against wealth. Thus one remembered position was “Sustenance is divinely apportioned. It is not the piety of the pious man that increases it. Nor is it the impiety of the impious that diminishes it” (ibn alSabbagh 1993:182). Nevertheless, al-shâdhilî also included poverty as his third (of four) components of the sufi way: “The third is poverty (faqr) the basis of which is thankfulness and the fruit of which is an increase of it.” The other three components were remembrance (dhikr) leading to righteous works and illumination, meditation (tafakkur) giving rise to perseverance, and love of God (Hubb) based on asceticism from all worldly things (ibn al-Sabbâgh 1993:109). sharqâwa. The city of Boujad began as a zâwiya founded in 1536 by mHammad bn abî al-qâsim al-za‘rî al-sharqâwî al-jâbirî who was a disciple of the nâSirîya (Tamgrout) version of the shâdhilîya-jazûlîya tradition. The sharqâwa zâwiya became a pilgrimage site after the founder’s death and came to have considerable influence in the region. The family claims descent from a companion of the prophet, ‘umar ibn al-khaTTab, but this claim has been disputed (al-qâdirî, al-tuHfa I:8). When the dilâ’ zâwiya was destroyed in 1668 the sharqâwa zâwiya rose to prominence. Its primary role in the 18th and 19th century was as an intermediary and buffer between the Berbers of the Middle Atlas and the makhzan, and its leaders tended to protect their mountain

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clients from the rapaciousness of the makhzan as well as shield the makhzan from direct attacks by the Middle Atlas Berbers. By taking action against the zâwiya in 1808, mawlây sulaymân weakened it and suffered the consequences in his defeat at the hands of Middle Atlas tribes in 1819. One of the disciples of the sharqâwa, muHammad bn abd allâh ‘alî bn Hamdûsh, founded the Hamadsha Tarîqa. The zâwiya’s library now has classified its holdings of manuscripts, dahirs (Zawâhîr), and correspondence, and the collection includes numerous ledgers and ijâzât of historical importance as well. Various members of the family in Boujad also have important collections of comparable materials. There is, however, no catalogue. Detailed studies of the zâwiya are available in English by Dale F. Eickelman. shaykh al-‘arab. Also Ahmed (Hmad) Ben Mohamed Ben Brahim Bouchlaken shaykh al-‘arab was born in Agouliz, a village near Tata, southeast Morocco, in 1927. As a descendant of the tribe of Issafen, at the age of 10 he left his village for Rabat where he met his father, a fqih who was a merchant. Bouchlaken went to help his father in his trade and joined the Guessouss school as a cook before becoming the surveillant général of the school after being noticed as a resistance fighter. The Guessouss school was founded in 1943 by Ahmed Balafrej. Bouchlaken (who became known as Agouliz) joined the resistance fighters under the istiqlâl party banner. Between 1944 and 1955, Agouliz was noticed by the colonial authorities for his resistance activities. Agouliz was arrested in 1951 and condemned to walk to his village handcuffed. He gained a reputation not as an intellectual but as a courageous nationalist known as “un homme de terrain.” Within the nationalist movement Agouliz met Mohammed V and fought in 1953 against the nomination of Ben Arafa. From this period he created a network of the former resistance fighters of Issafen and Sous that helped him emerge as a leader up to his death in 1964. In 1954, he was again arrested by the French colonial authorities and put in the Kénitra prison. At court, he refused the lawyer designated by the French authorities, Ahmed Réda Guedira. At the prison of Kénitra he protested the discriminatory food policies and was seen as so inflexible among his followers that he was named the shaykh. His attachment to the five prayers added the adjective al-islam. Bouchlaken did not like this name and his followers changed it to shaykh al-‘arab. In prison he continued to contest his charges knowing that independence was close. At the end of 1955, the first wave of prisoner releases took place. shaykh al-‘arab did not benefit from this, as it included prisoners from Fès, Meknès, and Rabat but not those from the south or rural areas. shaykh al-‘arab took advantage of the period of transition between the colonial authority and the national new independent prison authorities and staged an escape from prison on May 1956 in the company of other associates including Abderrahmane Hjira, a member of the istiqlâl party in Oujda whose son has served in various cabinet

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positions in the government. In 1956, Morocco was independent, yet shaykh al-‘arab was living in hiding. He noticed that many resistance fighters from the Armée de Libération Nationale were excluded from the negotiation table. He also maintained that what he called colonial collaborators infiltrated the army, the secret police, and many other key state administrative offices. He went back to his village and started to reorganize his followers to control the southern provinces. At the time, Morocco was still in a period of siba. He accused his former friends from the istiqlâl party of giving in to the palace and the French occupiers and accepting a crippled independence while amnestying and even rewarding yesterday’s traitors and collaborators. In 1959, shaykh al-‘arab was charged with the death of two state officers in Sous. A large search for him started, and the tribunal of Taroundannt condemned him in perpetuity. He left for Algeria, which was known at the time for its support for resistance to the new postcolonial authorities, but he maintained his contacts with his followers and other resistance fighters especially Moumen Diouri and Saïd Bunaîlat. (See also Leftist movements.) During the reorganization of the national police and the creation of Cab 1 (Cabinet 1, Morocco’s counter espionage unit) in 1960, shaykh al-‘arab emerged as a priority for the security forces. In 1962, while the 1963 leftist coup was being prepared shaykh al-‘arab established contacts with Mehdi Ben Barka through Moumen Diouri. In 1963, as the “guerre des sables” with Algeria was about to begin, the planned coup was discovered and its presumed instigators were arrested. Basri, Diouri, Omar Benjelloun, Youssoufi, and others were imprisoned. Ben Barka was already in exile. shaykh al-‘arab formed cells in Casablanca and Safi, and after the signature of the friendly agreement between Ben Bella, the president of Algeria, and Hassan II, shaykh al‘arab returned to Morocco afraid that the Algerian authorities would hand him over to Moroccan authorities. In June 1964, Cab 1, after arresting many followers of shaykh al-‘arab, succeeded in locating him in a house in the Hermitage quartier in Casablanca. shaykh al-‘arab managed to escape unharmed while killing three police officers and so became enemy number one. General Oufkir, the head of Cab 1, took all measures to capture shaykh al-‘arab. Two months after the Hermitage incident, his presence in the district of Sidi Othmane in Casablanca became known to security forces. On the morning of 7 August 1964, a large number of security officers surrounded the district where he was located and shaykh al-‘arab and his companions died during the operation. al-shaykh, muHammad. shaykh muHammad bn brâhîm of Tamanarte was born around 1483 in Imi n Ougadir des Tahala of the Ammeln tribe in the Tafraoute region and died in 1563. After acquiring a high level of erudition from teachers in the Anti-Atlas and Draa he moved to the Wad Tamanarte where he became imam of one of the mosques

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and acquired a vast reputation for learning and attracted many students. His reputation as a mystic equaled his reputation as jurist both in the popular eye and in the opinion of his few peers in the south (such as aHmad u mûsâ), but he and his successors remained loyal to the sultans of Morocco and lent assistance when asked. muHammad bn brâhîm constructed a school with lodgings for students in his chosen site, Aguerd on the river Tamanarte, but established rules that forbade giving shelter to any murderers, escaped slaves, or fugitives from the sultan, thus largely obviating the tradition of asylum common to such centers of learning (Justinard 1933; al-tamanarti 1953). sîdî yaHya. Known primarily as abû zakarîya, sîdî yaHya, or sîdî yaHya u ‘abd allâh, abû zakarîya yaHya bn sâ‘îd bn ‘abd al-mûnâ‘im took over the zâwiya of zûddagha in the western High Atlas in 1603 and was residing in Taroudannt when mawlây zidân was briefly dethroned (May 1612-November 1613) by the pretender abû maHallî. The sultan appealed to sîdî yaHya for help and was restored to power (1614) after the saint led an army to Marrakech and captured it from the pretender, killing abû maHallî (30 November 1613) in the process. The already great prestige of sîdî yaHya, which was further enhanced by the dependency of the Sa‘dian sultans, led sîdî yaHya in 1614 to take control of Taroudannt and its province from sîdî ‘alî. This, in turn, led to a series of wars between the two, which lasted until sîdî yaHya’s death, reputedly by poisoning at the instigation of mawlây zidân on 4 March 1626. Two years earlier, sîdî yaHya had captured Agadir from mawlây zidân in order to gain access to European arms, but his premature death prevented him from using this new access to significant advantage against his rivals. The animosity between mawlây zidân and sîdî yaHya dated from 1614 when, shortly after restoring mawlây zidân to power, sîdî yaHya seems to have regretted his aid and turned against the sultan presumably in the hopes of taking mawlây zidân’s place. sijilmâsa. The ruins of sijilmâsa in the Ziz valley of the Tafilalt, next to Rissani, stretch for kilometers under the silt. sijilmâsa was originally constructed around 757 by the miknâsa or banû wâsûl, under the leadership of abû al-qâsim samku bn wâsûl, who had fled to the region after an abortive rebellion in Tanger in 739-740. The banû wâsûl were followed by the midrâr. Sources differ irreconcilably about the date of the first midrâr, but a reasonable time for the start of the dynasty would be 823. During the Middle Ages sijilmâsa became the linchpin of the Western Saharan trade as alternative routes farther east began to become unsafe from the 11th century to the 14th century. Gold was transported north to sijilmâsa and then west to Fès or north and east, often financed by Middle Easterners. sijilmâsa even had a mint in its centuries of prosperity, which issued its first coins in 947/8. By the 15th century power shifted west and east as the sijilmâsa corridor itself

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became unreliable and caravans became so subject to pillage from unallied tribes that fewer and fewer valuable cargos were routed through the region. By the 16th century the Tafilalt region declined as caravans in the Western Sahara used the Draa valley and continued from there to Marrakech and thence to Fès or went as far west as Oued Noun and then proceeded up the coast. At the same time, internal conflicts in sijilmâsa and the external threats of new ma‘qilian Arab tribes led to the collapse of sijilmâsa (by 1511), whose residents dispersed into the surrounding qSûr. These were in subsequent years referred to collectively as qSabî sijilmâsîya (metropolis of sijilmâsa) or in some sources as simply sijilmâsa, even though the original town had ceased to exist. Sinaceur, Mohammed Allal. Born 5 January 1941 in Oujda, Sinaceur has been an advisor to Mohammed VI, a member of the Académie du Royaume du Maroc, and a former minister. He pursued his education at the Collège Abdelmoumen in Oujda (1956-1958), Lycée Moulay Youssef in Rabat (1958-1959), Lycée Henri IV (1959-1960), Institut des Hautes Etudes Marocaines (1957-1958), Ecole Normale supérieure de Saint-Cloud, studied Arabic and philosophy at the Sorbonne (1960-1966), and spent brief periods at Fribourg and Göttingen (1969-1973), Université de Paris V (1973), and Oxford (1977). Sinaceur has a diplôme d’Arabe Classique (1957-1958), a diplôme d’études supérieures in philosophy focused on A.A. Comnot (1964), and an Agrégation de philosophie (1966). His doctorat de 3ème cycle thesis in philosophy was on La critique du psychologisme chez Frege: sur les rapports entre logique et psychologie. Sinaceur’s academic employment includes: professor at Lycée de Jeunes Filles de SaintCloud (1966-1967), chargé de cours de logique mathématique et d’épistémologie at the Sorbonne (1967-1968), attaché de recherche at the Centre National de Recherche Scientifique (CNRS; 1969-1977), and professor of sociology of development at Université Hassan II, Faculté des Sciences juridiques, économiques et sociales in Casablanca (1975-1977). Sinaceur taught Mohammed VI while he was prince héritier at the Collège Royal (1978-1979) and served as director of the Division Philosophie et Sciences Humaines of UNESCO (1977-1991). Sinaceur was then named minister of cultural affairs (1992-1995). Between 1995 and 1999, he became advisor to king Hassan II and then King Mohammed VI. Sinaceur has also been a “correspondant” for the Institut d’Egypt (1989) and the Académie du Royaume de Belgique (1991) and a member of the Bureau de l’Union académique internationale (1991-1996). His academic writings include works on philosophy, epistemology, and the history of sciences. He has also written on human rights and questions of ethics. Skalli, Badia. Born in El-Jadida in 1944, Skalli enrolled at the Casablanca branch of Mohammed V University (Rabat) in 1962. There she quickly joined Union Nationale des Etudiants Marocains

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(UNEM) and was active in the leftist Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP) party. When, in 1975, the UNFP reorganized, Skalli joined the supporters of the “option démocratique” to create the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP). In 1976, Skalli ran but was not elected in the municipal elections, the first elections after the state of emergency of 1965 that had resulted in the virtual elimination of UNEM (key people were drafted into the army to restrain its activities in response to student rioting). Skalli became the head of the USFP’s women’s organization founded in 1975, but lost a bid for a parliamentary seat. In 1983, she finally won a municipal election as a member of the USFP. In 1993, Skalli (and one other female candidate—Latifa Bennani Smires for the istiqlâl) won seats in parliament. Skalli was reelected in 1997 (as was Bennani). At the same time, the leftist parties took control of parliament (with Youssoufi as prime minister). In 1998, parliament began to consider reforming the mudawwana, the code that basically legalized unequal treatment of men and women. This initially met with major opposition from religious conservatives such as ‘abd al-kabîr al-mdaghrî al-‘alawi, the religious affairs minister, but a new law was passed in 2004. See also Belarbi, Aïcha; Taha, Chaïbia; and Women. Sous. The Sous (sûs) refers to the region west of the Draa, north of the Sahara, south of the Atlas, and bordered on the west by the Atlantic. Ancient texts often referred to this region as sûs al-aqSâ while calling the rest of Morocco by the term sûs al-adnâ. Islam spread to the Sous quite early, with some sources even suggesting that ‘uqba bn nâfî‘ reached the Sous in 682. During the Sa‘dian period, Islamic sciences flourished as the region was rewarded for its aid in the Sa‘dian conquest of Morocco. See also aqqa, Iligh, and al-sûsî. Spain. The severing of the Andalusian connection in the 15th century (alandalûs), which still colors some of Morocco’s relationship with Spain, was followed by further acts of hostility by Spain such as the Tetouan war (1860) and the subsequent more than twenty years of payments made by Morocco for the temerity of opposing Spanish occupation of parts of Morocco. Spain still occupies Ceuta and Melilla on the Moroccan shore and in 2002 engaged in a well-publicized dispute over a tiny island off the coast of Ceuta (jazirat layla) to which it had never before laid claim. Morocco and Spain briefly broke diplomatic ties over the dispute, but Spain quickly backed down. This aggressive stance, which has continued long after the abolition of the Spanish protectorate in Northern Morocco, was mitigated somewhat by the abandonment of the Spanish Sahara by Franco before his death (initially Morocco took the northern half and Mauritania took the southern half). Morocco’s subsequent success in occupying (Green March) this far more significant piece of territory went some way toward addressing in the Moroccan mind past territorial theft by colonial powers. Nevertheless, of the fifteen key EU countries Spain is

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the only one to strongly support the Polisario claim. Since 11 September 2001, the attentions of both Morocco and Spain have been focused on the search for terrorist cells largely comprised of Moroccans but active in both countries. This in turn has put the spotlight on migrant communities within Spain and the need to balance human rights, security issues, and immigration between the two countries. The distance between the two countries on these issues is considerable and is reflected in the gulf between the way the media in each country discuss the issue of Moroccan immigrants in Spain and Spanish territories in Morocco. The great friendship between the two monarchs bodes well, however, for improvements in their traditionally somewhat strained relationship, and new laws to give illegal immigrants citizenship (2004) seem to confirm this trend. Spanish Sahara, the former. This region is referred to by many countries as the Western Sahara and by Morocco as the Moroccan Sahara. On the assumption of an eventual independence, the former Spanish Sahara was divided between Morocco (northern two thirds) and Mauritania by the tripartite agreement between Spain, Morocco, and Mauritania of 14 November 1975. Under pressure from the Polisario, Mauritania backed out of its claim to the southern third in August 1979 and Morocco took over administration of the whole territory (see Green March). As of 1994 Morocco has listed the area as an integral part of Morocco comprising three of Morocco’s sixteen regions: 1. Oued Ed-DahabLagouira: two provinces (Aousserd; Oued Ed-Dahab); 2. LaâyouneBoujdour-Sakia El Hamra: one prefecture (Laâyoune) and one province (Boujdour); 3. Guelmim-Es Semara: five provinces: (AssaZag; Es-Semara; Guelmim; Tan-Tan; Tata). The region became a Spanish protectorate called the Rio del Oro in 1884. The northern third became the Spanish Sahara, also a Spanish protectorate, when the French and Spanish protectorates were set up for Morocco (1912), while the southern two thirds was still referred to as the Rio del Oro. By 1950 the whole region seems to have appeared on maps again as the Rio del Oro. When Morocco became independent and the region did not (1956) it began to be referred to in its entirety as the Spanish Sahara. Technically the southern two thirds was the Rio del Oro and the northern third was the Saguiat al-Hamra. Armed struggle over the area began on 20 May 1973, ten days after the creation of the Front Polisario by Mustapha Ouali and other Polisario nationalists. The initial action was the capture of the Spanish post at El-Khanga. When the region was given to Morocco and Mauritania, Algeria became a major backer of the Polisario. Pressure from Algeria got the Polisario government in exile, the République Arabe Sahraouie Démocratique (RASD), seated by the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1984. The construction of five massive desert walls during the early 1980s and significant military aid from the United States led to serious military setbacks for the Polisario just as they were beginning to win major international recognition. Support

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for the Polisario has been weakened by a subsequent rapprochement between Morocco and Algeria beginning with mutual acceptance, in principle, of the 1988 UN peace plan for the Sahara. This developed into a regional Union du Maghreb Arabe entered into by Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Tunisia, and Libya on 17 February 1989 in Marrakech. Morocco has accepted the principle of a referendum to decide the fate of the former Spanish Sahara since 1981 but said referendum has not yet occurred due primarily to disagreements about who should have a vote, indigenous residents, pastoralists who used to pasture their flocks in Morocco, Algeria, and the Spanish Sahara, or all current residents including traditional Moroccan nationals. In 1985, the UN secretary-general, in cooperation with the Organization of African Unity, initiated a mission leading to settlement proposals, which were accepted on 30 August 1988 by Morocco and the Frente POLISARIO. In 1990, the Security Council approved the secretary-general’s report (S/21360) containing the full text of the settlement proposals and the outline of the secretarygeneral’s plan for implementing them. On 29 April 1991, the Security Council, in its resolution 690 (1991), decided to establish the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) in accordance with the secretary-general’s report (S/22464) which further detailed the implementation plan. MINURSO’s mandate includes monitoring a ceasefire, verifying the reduction of Moroccan troops in the area, overseeing the exchange of prisoners of war, identifying and registering qualified voters, and the organization of a free and fair referendum. UN resolution 1495 of 31 July 2003 extended MINURSO’s mandate through the end of October 2003 and resolutions 1523 and 1541 extended it to the end of October 2004. MINURSO maintains an international group of about 250 uniformed personnel in the area. Morocco began discussing regional autonomy in 2005. Sultan. See makhzan. al-sûsi, muHammad al-mukhtâr. Born in June 1900 (Safar 1318) in the village of Iligh in the Tazerwalt to a family of scholars, Mukhtar alSousi became the greatest historian of the Moroccan south. His works include the multivolume work al-ma‘sûl (twenty volumes) and the more synthetical ilîgh qadîmân wa-Hadîthân. This last work, which was published posthumously, includes a detailed biography of the author. These works provide rich biographical details on a great variety of figures associated with the affairs of the zâwiya in Iligh. They also recount important historical events from the perspective of the people of the Sous from the 17th to 20th centuries. muHammad al-mukhtâr alsûsi died in Rabat on 17 November 1963 (29 jumâdî al-thânî 1383).

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-TTafilalt. With the advent of the 17th century, and particularly by the 1630s, the Tafilalt (Berber: tâfilâlt or Arabic: tâfilâlat) began to prosper (again, despite the collapse of sijilmâsa) as it became a critical point on the primary trade route for the Western Sahara. European incursions down the coast of Africa diverted and intercepted much of the trade, which had been proceeding north along the coast or up through the Tazerwalt and the Draa valley. This made the Tafilalt, once again, the place to control and, even as the early founders of the ‘Alawite (filâlî) dynasty were trying to organize support, the head of the Tazerwalt, in the southwest, and the dilâ’ zâwiya at the normal Moroccan terminus of the Tafilalt trade routes (the Fès-Meknès region), began to devote resources to controlling the region. It in the 17th century, with the decline of Sa‘dian power, that events in the Tafilalt had perhaps their greatest impact on the rest of Morocco. As the birthplace of the ‘Alawite dynasty and the prize fought over by both the dilâ’ites and abû-Hassûn (see sîdî ‘alî of Tazerwalt) the region’s commercial wealth clearly made it the new economic force of the time. In 1606 mawlây zidân took refuge in the Tafilalt and, using the gold he found there, raised an army and managed to recapture Marrakech. Yet, by 1610, the pretender, abû maHallî, had raised an army in the Tafilalt and by 1612 had even taken Marrakech. This first Tafilalt-financed conquest lasted only until sîdî yaHya, the saint of Taroudannt in the Sous, liberated Marrakech for the sultan and killed the pretender in the process. Ten years later the Tafilalt was still rebellious and had to be repressed by mawlây zidân, a process that took four months (Mezzine 1987:290). By 1630, commerce with the sudan (black Africa) was becoming highly profitable and the shurafâ’ began to unite under mawlây alsharîf. Initially they were too weak to oppose the dilâ’ites, whose links to both the tamazight speakers of central Morocco and the eastern slopes of the Atlas mountains gave them a natural local backing for their interest in controlling some of the trade, and so they called on the aid of abû Hassûn. The latter came readily with an army but decided to occupy the region rather than merely assist the nascent ‘Alawite dynasty. sîdî ‘alî’s forces were finally chased out of the region in 1640. Members of the ‘Alawite family had begun to make fortunes in the trans-Saharan trade by relocating to Tombouctou, Touat, and other sahelian points. The wealth that flowed north was in significant measure controlled by one of the southernmost qSûr in the Tafilalt oasis, Tabu‘samt, which was an ally of the dilâ’ites. This gave the dilâ’ites a key position in the Tafilalt until they abandoned Tabu‘samt in 1646. It was this qSar that refused to ally itself with mawlây alsharîf when he was proclaimed sultan by the others. It has been

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speculated that the easy success of abû Hassûn in the Tafilalt may have been linked to an alliance with the Ait Atta (ayt ‘aTTa) Berber confederation that had developed in the 16th century, and that the dilâ’ites may as well be linked with the development of the Ait Yafalman (ayt yaf al-mân) confederation, which allied Berber groups of the eastern Atlas against the Ait ‘Atta (L. Mezzine 1987:307). The eventual triumph of the ‘Alawites leading to the capture of Marrakech in 1669 was more than simple initiative. It can be seen as both a reflection of the economic significance of the Tafilalt during the 17th century and in part due to the opportunities provided by Sa‘dian weakness and the disputes between the two other powers of the time. With this success, the Tafilalt replaced the Draa as the area in Morocco from which the ruling dynasty claimed to originate. In later centuries, the trade through the Tafilalt became less critical to Morocco’s economy as the ‘Alawite dynasty established a far more effective taxation system. In the 19th century with the occupation of Algeria by France, the Tafilalt and eastern Morocco in general became a critical frontier exposed to European markets and military encroachments earlier and more intensively than the more central parts of Morocco. The great Berber alliances such as the Ait Atta managed to turn this new set of opportunities to their advantage in ways little different than they had in earlier centuries. In recent years the development of modern dams and irrigation structures plus significant outmigration have transformed social and ecological structures in the Tafilalt. The indigenous Haratine, who for centuries were treated as little better than slaves, have begun to own land and even be elected to political and administrative office, and the old Berber and Arab elites have lost their monopoly of power and wealth (Ilahiane 1998). Taghouane, Bouamour. Born in 1957, Taghouane received his baccalauréat in mathematics from Lycée Moulay Youssef in Rabat. He obtained a diplôme d’ingénieur EHTP (civil engineering), a diplôme d’ingénieur INSA from Lyon in civil engineering and urbanism, and a diplôme du cycle supérieur in management reserved for higher officers of the Ministère des travaux publics. Taghouane also received training in the United States on modern technical methods of managment. Since 1979, he has been in charge of the division technique de la direction des routes in Rabat, responsible for studies and management of projects, and head of the service des bâtiments in the eastern (oriental) regional office of public works (direction des équipements publics), provincial director of public works in Figuig-Bouarfa, provincial director of public works in Khemisset, head of the division responsible for management of roads in Rabat and head of the Direction de l’entretien du réseau routier national (road maintenance) for the Direction des routes in Rabat. Taghouane has been a member of the istiqlâl party since 1981. He was elected member of the Conseil communal d’Ezhiliga and president of the Conseil provincial de

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Khemisset. Taghouane was also a member of the Conseil régional of Rabat-Salé-Zemmour-Zaer before his election as a deputy for the circonscription of Rommani to the Chamber of Representatives. On 14 March 1998, King Hassan II named Taghouane ministre de l’équipement. Taha, Chaïbia. Born in 1949 in Casablanca. Taha studied law in the 1960s and trained under the guidance of major lawyers including Abderrahmane Jaï Hokeïmi, Benzakine, Benzakan, and Benjelloun. She became an attachée at the Banque Centrale Populaire (BCP) in 1975. Taha has specialized in real estate law dealing with family disputes since 1990. Taha is the only Moroccan female lawyer who has specialized in the extradition of foreign criminals and pleaded cases before the supreme court. Taha was elected as a deputy for the Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI) in the rural commune of Bouskoura. Taha has been active in women’s rights in Morocco. She also writes for Al Bayane newspaper. An active member of the Association Solidarité Féminine and the Union nationale des femmes marocaines (UNFM), she has contributed, with Aïcha Ech-Chenna, to the modifications made to the mudawwana. See also Belarbi, Aïcha; Skalli, Badia; and Women. al-tamanartî. abûzîd sîdî ‘abd al-raHmân bn muHammad al-jazûlî altamanartî al-marhafrî was the head qadi of Taroudannt during the three sultanates beginning after the death of al-manSûr; in other words, most likely for more than twenty years beginning in 1603. al-tamanartî is best known for his quasi-history, fawâ’id al-jamma bi isnâdi ‘ulûmî al-‘umma (The abundant benefits in the sources of Islamic knowledge), which was written in the first half of the 17th century at a time when in the south of Morocco few people were literate in Arabic, and so altamanartî had to write from oral tradition due to the lack of any written sources. The expressed goal of the work was to document the past in terms of its religious figures and traditions, but the work falls short of a serious history. The fawâ’id al-jamma has four sections: the first deals with the author’s spiritual teachers and their lives, the second discusses authentic chains of transmission and authentic traditions, the third recounts what the author has found most astonishing and marvelous, and the fourth examines the dreams by which God makes known his will to his creatures (Jacques-Meunié 1982:461-462). Tanger. (lat. 35º 48' N., long. 5º 47' W.) Beginning as a Phoenician trading center in the 6th century B.C., then occupied by the Carthaginians, Tanger (Tanja, Tangier), as Tingi, became the capital of the Roman province of Mauritania Tingitana. It fell to the Vandals in 429, the Byzantines in 541, the Visigoths in 621, and the first Arab conquerors under ‘uqba bn nâfi‘ in 682. In 707, the Arabs established a major garrison in Tanger. The Umayyads and Idrisids disputed over Tanger, the Almoravids took it in 1077, the Almohads in 1149, and

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the Marinids in 1274. The Portuguese captured it in 1471 to lose it to the Spanish from 1581 to 1643, and then after regaining it the Portuguese gave it to Charles II of England as part of the dowry of his Portuguese wife in 1661. The English evacuated it in 1684 and mawlây ismâ‘îl repopulated it. During the first years of the protectorate, Tanger, as a result of a series of international agreements the last of which was in 1928, became an international zone until, in 1940, Spain unilaterally seized it, to relinquish it with the rest of the Spanish protectorate in 1956. Tangier Convention/Convention Béclard. The problem of untrammeled growth in the numbers of foreign commercial agents (censaux/semsar/ samSar) was not resolved by the Anglo and French commercial arrangements of 1856. In 1863, an attempt was made to control their numbers by agreeing, in Tanger (19 August), to a local règlement between France and Morocco (taking the name of the French diplomat, Béclard, who initiated the agreement) that each commercial house could only have two semsar. This provision was seriously undermined by the addition of a second type of agent, the mukhalat, or rural agent. These were in principle to have fewer rights and were not simply to be arrested without notification of the appropriate consuls. In practice, they assumed the full rights of the semsar and so claimed to be outside the legal jurisdiction of Moroccan authorities. Further, since virtually all foreigners laid claim to represent commercial houses, the Convention Béclard failed to resolve the problem. Abuses involved fabrication of false documents on a massive scale and fraudulent claims against the Moroccan state for purported theft of goods in distant places. Fortunes were regularly made in this way by the unscrupulous foreign elements though the major commercial houses seem to have generally been honest in this regard vis-à-vis the Moroccan state (Parsons 1976:66). This low-level agreement between the local representatives was subsequently promoted by the French, in various diplomatic discussions, to the status of a convention or even treaty. Between 1877 and 1879, the various foreign diplomatic missions discussed the issue of protection on several occasions in Tanger but were unable to agree on any significant controls over its abuse. The British, who controlled the bulk of foreign trade with Morocco, pushed for controls but the other legations were not willing to accept any infringements of their “rights” in part at least out of jealousy of Britain and, more particularly, of the influence of Britain’s representative, Sir John Drummond Hay, at the Moroccan court (Parsons 1976: 70-79). See also Madrid, Conference on Morocco; Algeciras, Conference of; Tétouan War of 1859-1860; and Protection/Himâya. Taoufik, Ahmed [aHmad tawfîq]. Born in 1943 in the High Atlas mountains, Taoufik is one of Morocco’s better known historians and novelists. He completed his primary and secondary studies in

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Marrakech and then completed his studies at the Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences in Rabat, including a licence in history (1968), a certificat in archaeology, and a doctorat in history with a dissertation titled almujtama‘ al-maghribî fî-l-qarn al-tâsi‘ ‘ashr: inûltân (1850-1912)— “Moroccan society in the 19th century: Inoultane (1850-1912).” At the Faculté des lettres de Rabat, Taoufik became vice-doyen (1976-1978) and professor of history (1976). From 1989 to 1995, Taoufik served as Directeur de l’Institut des Etudes Africaines and in 1995 became Directeur of the Bibliothèque Générale. He has written several novels: Le Temps des soufis (1995), jarat abî mussâ’—“The neighbor of Abi Mussa” (1997), Assayl—“The torrent” (1998), and L’Arbre et la lune (2002). Taoufik won the Grand prix de literature in 1999 and became ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques in September 2002. Taroudannt. (lat. 30º 30' N., long. 8º 54' W.) A settlement known as Vala may correspond to the later settlement of Taroudannt (târûdânt). As the capital of the Sous, Taroudannt was captured by the Almoravids in 1030 and then by each later dynasty, but each time, with the exception of the period in which it served as the capital for the early Sa‘dian dynasty, it quickly regained its independence. In the 17th century, Taroudannt was the residence of sîdî yaHyâ u ‘abd allâh, who rescued the sultan mawlây zidân from the pretender abû maHallî when the latter captured Marrakech. The closure of the port of Agadir in 1760 brought on economic decline and allowed mawlây al-Hasan I (1873-1894) to establish firm control over it. On the eve of the protectorate the area went into dissidence and was restored to calm by Caid Taïeb al-Goundafi (1903) only to have al-hîba, on the eve of the protectorate, make Taroudannt his capital in his brief effort to resist the French. Taroudannt finally fell to the French in 1917. al-tasûlî, ‘abd al-salâm. ‘alî bn ‘abd al-salâm al-tasûlî (d.1842), called madîdîsh, was qâDî al-jamâ‘a in Fès and professor at the qarawîyîn during the reign of mawlây ‘abd al-raHmân. He is most known for the lengthy response he wrote to ‘abd al-qâdir at the behest of mawlây ‘abd al-raHmân. ‘abd al-qâdir had written to the sultan asking for advice, and answers to a series of questions, about setting up a state in Algeria and what rights the head of state had to exact help from the populace (against the infidel) as well as what sanctions might justly be applied to those who declined assistance. The gist of al-tasûlî’s response was that tribes were collectively responsible for any negligence in their duties to support a jihad just as they were responsible to pay proper tithes (e.g., zakat). An Islamic head of state was therefore justified in the use of force to promote God’s purposes and various sanctions could and should properly be imposed to further the jihad against the French (Rollman 1983:505ff.). See also Religion; and Isly, Battle of; and ‘Alawite (filâlî) dynasty.

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Taza. (lat. 34º 13' N., long. 4º 04' W.) The site of Taza appears to have been occupied in Roman times, though the details are unclear. The name “Taza” derives from the Berber for passage (tîzî). By the 8th century, Taza was an important town, and when the Idrisid empire was split up Taza apparently fell to dâwûd bn idrîs. In the 12th century the Almohad sultan ‘abd al-mu’min added a citadel and resided for a time in Taza. The Marinids constructed a great mosque and madrasa. A scholar having resided in Taza near the end of the Sa‘dian period, al-shaykh zannûf al-Tâzî, wrote a humorous study of the life of students in his time, surveying their distractions, way of life, and stratagems, which he titled mukhtaSar al-afârîd. Taza’s strategic importance in the gap between the Rif and the Atlas, which serves as the main west-east route in North Africa, has long made it an important military post both for those who would defend Morocco and those intent on conquering it. In 1902, bû Hmâra was proclaimed sultan in Taza and was only put down after a major military effort. Warfare between 1903 and 1905 destroyed much of the town, including the mallah, whose inhabitants fled to other cities. Since the establishment of the protectorate, Taza has prospered as a regional commercial and administrative center. Tazi, Abdelhadi. Born 15 June 1921 in Fès, Tazi pursued his studies at al-qarawiyyîn University and Mohammed V University as well as in Egypt and Iraq. He obtained a Diploma in Etudes Théologiques in 1947, a brevet from the Institut Marocain des Etudes Supérieures (1953), diplôme des études supérieures in History (1963), diploma in English from the languages institute in Baghdad (1966), and a doctorat d’état ès-Lettres (History) from the University of Alexandria (1971). Tazi started his career as a professor at al-qarawiyyîn in Fès (1948). In 1957, he was nominated Directeur de la section culturelle at the ministry of education. He also served as an ambassador to Iraq and Libya (1967-1968) and to Iraq and the Gulf Emirates (1968-1972). In 1973, he became the director of the Institut Universitaire de la Recherche Scientifique. In 1979, Tazi became an ambassador to the Islamic Republic of Iran and chargé de mission au Cabinet Royal. Tazi was the founding president of the Club des Diplomates Marocains. Tazi has been an active member of many academic associations, including the Iraqi Academy of Science (since 1966), Academy of the Arabic Language of Cairo (since 1976), Institut Arabo-Argentin (since 1978), Academy Ahl al-bayt, the Academy of the Arabic Language of Jordan (since 1980), Academy of the Arabic Language of Damascas (since 1980), and the Fondation du patrimoine Islamique in London (since 1991). Tazi, Alami. Born 3 March 1930 in Meknès, Tazi pursued his primary and secondary education in Meknès. He also attended the Institut du Textile de Rouboix (France). Tazi is a former minister (de l’industrie, du commerce et de l’artisanat, 1998-2000). He started his career in

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business administration where he presided over several companies. Tazi also served as the president of the commune Ait Ouallal (Province Meknès-Ismailia) and president of the Chambre du commerce, d’industrie et des services for the wilaya of Meknès and the Province of Ifrane (1968-1997). As a member of parliament he has been an active member of the bureau exécutif of the Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI). Tazi also served at the Assemblée Régionale de la Région de Meknès-Tafilalt. He was elected to the Chambre des Conseillers where he served as president of the Commission de l’Agriculture et des Affaires Economiques. From 1968 to 1983, Tazi served as a member of the Assemblée provinciale de Meknès. As a representative in the Chamber of Representatives (1970-1972, 1977-1983, 1984-1992, 1993-1997), he served as president of the Commission des affaires économiques and president of the Commission du commerce, de l’industrie, de l’energie, des mines et du travail. Tazi has represented Morocco in many international economic conferences. Terrab, Mostafa. Born in Fès in 1955, Terrab graduated with a master’s degree from the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées de Paris in 1979 and obtained a Ph.D. from MIT in 1990. Terrab has worked for the Cabinet Royal since 1992 and has also served as Morocco’s secrétaire général to the executive secretariat at the economic summit for the Middle East and North Africa. In February 1998, Terrab was put in charge of the Agence nationale de réglementation des télécommunications (ANRT), which is an agency directly overseen by the prime minister. The ANRT is primarily charged with regulating telecommunications and with assuring a competitive market for the provision of services. It thus enforces laws, prepares studies, and is audited by the state. Terrab has also been part of the team in charge of studying the possibilities of establishing a permanent connection across the Straits of Gibraltar. Terrorist attacks of 16 May 2003. On this date there were five terrorist suicide bombings in Casablanca, which killed forty-two people (including twelve terrorists) and injured many. The targets were the Spanish consulate, the Casa España Club, offices of the Alliance Israélite, a Jewish cemetery, and a hotel (Hotel Farah) at the heart of the tourist industry. It was a Friday during the celebrations of the birth of Hassan III and, perhaps coincidentally, the anniversary of the creation of the Sécurité Nationale. About 5,000 Moroccans were arrested and interrogated in subsequent days, and in the end eightyseven were accused of complicity. Of these, four were sentenced to death (Mohamed El Omari, Rachid Jalil, Yassine Lahnech and Hassan Taousi) and the others received sentences varying from ten months to life in prison. The terrorists were in their twenties and came from bidonvilles of Casablanca (Thomas, Esuela, Tchétchénie, Tkalia, Rhamna, Tacharouk) located in the general area of Sidi Moumen. They

Tétouan War of 1859-1860

335

all appeared to have ties to al-salafiya al-jihâdiya or al-sirâT almustaqîm (see Islamist groups). It is probable that the loosening of government controls by Mohammed VI, for example ignoring a report from security services in 2000 suggesting that wahhâbiya movements were a security danger, concomitantly with his pushing of modern reforms, had at least a small part to play in these events. Yet, Osama Bin Laden had long targeted Morocco as a state that was under American hegemony, and Islamist movements had long been eager to take over the “heroic” role of resistance to the monarchy from the leftists who had failed in their attempts at revolution during the 1960s and 1970s. Both groups inherited an ideology that glorifies violence and minimizes the immorality of killing innocent people from the Marxist-Leninist movements of the 1950s and 1960s. This ideology of violence is sufficiently attractive to those in search of glory that it renders both the dubious Islamic character of the later movements and the failures of the earlier leftist movements quite inconsequential. Tétouan. (lat. 35º 35' N., long. 5º 20' W.) Although the nearby site of Tamuda dates to Roman times, Tétouan (tiTwân) dates to the 9th century and, apparently, became a fortified settlement before the 11th century. In 1310, the Marinid abû thâbit ‘amr built an enlarged town near the qasba, which survived until 1400 when the Spanish razed it to the ground as a reprisal against piracy. The current city dates from new construction in 1492 by Muslims expelled from Granada. From 1515 to 1542, Tétouan had the distinction of being ruled by a woman, sayyida al-Hurra bint ‘alî rashîd. It has prospered since, although the Spanish, in the culmination of the Tétouan War, occupied it for two years in 1860 in order to extort a heavy ransom for Morocco’s hubris in being offended when Spain decided to erect some fortifications in Moroccan territory. The extortion amounted to half of Morocco’s custom duties in port cities from 1862 to 1884. Tétouan War of 1859-1860. In August 1859, the Spanish in Ceuta decided to replace a wooden structure serving as a frontier post with a stone fortification, and the local Anjara, who felt this was an incipient expansion into Moroccan territory, requested that the new fortification be torn down and replaced with the original, more temporary structure. When the Spanish refused, the Anjara took matters into their own hands and destroyed the fort, capturing a Spanish flag in the process. This occurred at the moment of sultan mawlây ‘abd al-raHmân’s death (28 August 1859), and the Spanish decided to seize the moment of weakness and insist on reparations. The Spanish kept escalating demands, and despite the good offices of the British representative, Sir John Drummond Hay, no diplomatic settlement could be reached despite the willingness of the new sultan to follow British advice on the matter. Thus on 3 February 1860 Spanish troops attacked Tétouan,

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capturing it on the 6th. This action was intended to indicate their insistence on receiving the reparations due them but served as a justification for enormous demands from the Moroccan state. The net cost to Morocco was stupendous. Morocco was forced to pay an indemnity of 20 million douros, to accept the enlargement of the enclaves at Ceuta and Melilla, to cede to Spain a fishing outpost far to the south on the Atlantic coast called Santa Cruz de Mar Pequeña (subsequently never adequately identified or in fact occupied by Spain), to negotiate a trade treaty with Spain, and to authorize the installation of a Spanish consul in Fès. Spain was to occupy Tétouan until the payment of the indemnity. But since Morocco could not come up with such a sum in the immediate future a compromise was worked out. Spain would evacuate Tétouan in return for 3 million douros and then receive the rest in the form of a half share of customs duties at Morocco’s port cities until the full amount was paid. The initial 3 million douros was obtained as a loan from Great Britain made on 2 May 1862. Spanish officials (recandadores) were thus established in Moroccan ports from 30 October 1861 through 1884 (when the last payments were made). A commercial treaty on the lines of the 1856 treaty with Great Britain was signed on 20 November 1861. The duration of the payments may have been significantly influenced by corruption since port records in Essaouira suggest that, during the period in which Spanish and Moroccan officials kept records, between 30 and 60 percent of the duties were siphoned off each year. Since both sets of officials signed and would have had to approve the ledgers it is reasonable to assume that the take was divided between the two sets of officials. Whatever the full truth might be, the Tétouan War was an extraordinary piece of extortion on Spain’s part and gave rise to a serious drain on Morocco’s finances for more than twenty years. Tijani, Lahoucine. Born 14 September 1940 in Ouaouizarth (Azilal), Tijani pursued his studies at the Ecole d’ingénieurs des travaux publics in Paris (France) and the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées in Paris. He obtained a diplôme d’ingénieur from the Ecole d’ingénieurs des travaux publics in 1963 and a diplôme d’ingénieur from ENPC in 1972. Tijani was in charge of housing (chef de la subdivision de l’habitat) in Agadir (1963-1964) and in Nador (1965), in charge of the maritime matters (chef de la subdivision maritime du Port) in Agadir (1965-1968), in charge of public works (chef de l’arrondissement des travaux publics) in Fès (1971-1972) and Agadir, and director of the shipping administration (Régie d’Acconage du Port) in Agadir (1972-1980). Tijani was secrétaire d’état for the environment between 1997 and 1998 but served as the director general of the Office national de l’eau potable from 1980 to 2001. Tijani is a member of the Association amicale des ingénieurs des ponts chaussées and the Association marocaine de l’eau potable et de l’assainissement.

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337

tîjânîya. aHmad al-tijânî (d.1815) followed various Tarîqa (wazzânîya, darqawîya, and nâSirîya) before founding his own in Ain Madi (near Larghouat in Algeria). Claiming that his own (referred to by him as the muHammadîya) was directly inspired by the Prophet, al-tîjânî proclaimed two new principles. The first, a principle of exclusivity, was that his followers could not also follow other Tarîqa or even abandon the tîjânîya Tarîqa for another. The second was a similar but more orthodox idea, perhaps derived from the nâSirîya prohibition on saint worship, that followers could not visit other saints or affiliate with any other Tarîqa. These basic principles are summarized in a document dictated by the founder and referred to subsequently simply as alkunnâsh (the notebook). aHmad al-tîjânî did not adopt the darqâwîya (see Maraboutic traditions) valuation of poverty and humility and lived instead in high style and acquired the reputation for his Tarîqa of being able to provide wealth for people both in this world and the next. Consequently he attracted many elites to his zâwiya. Because he was not a sharîf and because he claimed direct inspiration from the Prophet and so did not follow the prevailing shâdhilîya/jazûlîya traditions in Morocco his Tarîqa met with some outright hostility when it was established in Fès in 1798. In accordance with Moroccan tradition, mawlây sulaymân gave aHmad al-tîjânî political asylum when he fled Ottoman persecution, but aHmad altîjânî’s Tarîqa met with little local popular support and attracted primarily nonsharîf elites or elites of rural origin who due to their origins were excluded from high status in Fès. The zâwiya’s primary influence has been in Mauritania and Senegal where it acquired enormous influence. In the context of general local resistance to French colonization in the sahel, the tîjânîya was consistently a supporter of the French enterprise. In 1870 the founder’s grandson, sîdî aHmad albashîr tîjânî, rallied quickly to the French and even married a French woman, Aurélie Picard. Hâjj Thami (tuhâmî) Glawi was a follower of the tîjânîya. The order has three main zâwiyas at Ain Madi, Fès, and Tamâsîn (on the river Ghir), with its leader in Ain Madi bearing the title of khalîfa. Tobacco. Tobacco (Berber: tabagha, classical Arabic: tibgh, colloquial Arabic: taba[c]), as a product to be smoked, was introduced into Sahelian Africa (Tombouctou) toward the end of the 16th century through contacts with Europeans (who had brought it back from the new world). From there it reached Marrakech around 1597-1598 and Fès by 1599. From North Africa it spread to Egypt and the central Middle East. The Arabic pharmacopeia had known the plant as a medicinal product used in India and, Persia but prior to the European voyages of discovery to the Americas, North Africa had no knowledge of smoking tobacco. Its importation into Morocco, and its rapid popularity, aroused immediate legal concern. Most northern scholars declared it illicit while a number of southern scholars such as bâba

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aHmad and aHmad ibn abû maHallî, who were avid smokers, judged it a licit product. Judgments quickly multiplied and legal opinions from as far as Egypt were soon integral to the North African debate. In the aftermath of the death of aHmad al-manSûr (1578-1603), tobacco spread rapidly, and by the time an orderly legal system again prevailed it was too widespread to eliminate (Hajji 1976:290-317). Touri, Abdelaziz. Born in 1949 in Azrou, Touri, the Secrétaire général du Ministère des affaires culturelles since May 2000, studied at Lycée Tarik Ibn Zyad in Azrou, Faculté des Lettres in Rabat (1968-1972), Ecole Normale supérieure (ENS) in Rabat, and Université Paris IV Sorbonne (1977-1980). Touri obtained a licence in Lettres (1972), diplôme de l’ENS (1972), Doctorat de 3ème cycle (1980), and Doctorat d’état (1987). Touri first taught in high school (1973-1976). He served as Directeur-adjoint at the Institut National des Sciences archéologiques et du patrimoine (1986-1987) and then became Directeur du patrimoine culturel (1988-2000). Touri published many works on the archeology and history of Islamic art in both Arabic and French. He is a member of the Société marocaine d’archéologie et du patrimoine and founding president of ICOM-Maroc. He is also a member of Association d’histoire du Maroc and Association marocaine des publications et du livre and was president of the Comité du patrimoine mondial (UNESCO) from 1999 to 2000. Tourism. Morocco’s proximity to Europe, European fascination with the “exotic,” Morocco’s natural and cultural diversity, and the current potential economic benefits to the country from the tourist trade have combined to make tourism a major industry in Morocco. There are four main poles of this industry: beaches, mountains, the architecture of historic cities, and the traditional markets of local crafts and art, with lesser foci such as the desert itself or oasis communities. Tourism is increasingly organized both on the financial level and the thematic level. Thus groups come to Morocco as part of guided tours to examine everything from textiles to architecture, urban slums to village life, or cultural events such as music festivals and traditional performances. The huge increases in tourists and the funds spent on tourism have led to increasing concern both in Morocco and within the international tourism industry about the potential negative impacts of tourism. On the one hand, Moroccan culture has increasingly been co-opted to serve the tourist trade, thus risking its authenticity, and on the other hand local craftsmen, artists, musicians, and merchants can make a better living in their selected professions than would otherwise be the case. The influx of tourists inevitably also impacts the daily lives of normal Moroccans and the modern tendency to search for the authentic, more authentic that is than what is available on television, has driven the demand for ecotourism and tourism that brings the tourist a “real” experience of the exotic. The local counterpart of this is that tourists increasingly drive, hike, and wander everywhere well outside the

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traditional foci of tourism. The valleys, mountains, and deserts of Morocco are now regularly invaded by both foreign and local tourists. One of the growth areas in Moroccan tourism is that of music, though Morocco’s music has a rich history of influencing Western musicians. The current festival in Essaouira builds on local traditions that have directly influenced such figures as Jim Hendrix and Brian Jones (of the Rolling Stones) who spent time there in the 1960s and 1970s. Now festivals around the country attract a large international participation and greatly enhance Morocco’s reputation both as a tourist destination and as an international center of world culture. Similarly, while the market for Moroccan textiles and crafts has expanded enormously, Moroccan craft shops now carry goods from all over the Sahara and North Africa. Many of the products coming from as far away as Niger can be found alongside Moroccan crafts with little indication of their place of origin. Approximately 80 percent of foreign tourists visiting Morocco in recent years have been European while the remainder have been split about one sixth from the other Maghrib countries, one sixth from the Middle East (especially Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Kuwait) and two thirds from the United States, Canada, Japan, Russia, or sub-Saharan Africa. Overall, tourist numbers grew 50.8 percent in the five years up to 2000: from 1,632,730 tourists in 1996 to 2,462,933 tourists in 2000. Trade. Morocco has habitually run a substantial trade deficit and as a result has been induced to pursue a structural adjustment program since 1982. Morocco has made strenuous efforts since this time to align its economy with those of its major trading partners. While this has had positive impacts in several areas including currency stability and, more recently, human rights issues, table 13 makes it clear that following SAP guidelines has not yet produced a trade balance or anything approximating one. The United States and Spain stand out as the two countries whose imports to Morocco most outstrip Morocco’s exports to them, but overall the value of Morocco’s exports in recent years has fallen more than 40 percent behind its imports. As table 14 suggests the two most prominent sectors behind these deficits are industrial equipment and semi-finished products, which include chemicals, cement, paper, plastics, and various construction materials. By contrast, Morocco’s exports keep up with its imports in a few sectors (Food, Raw materials, minerals, and Finished consumer products). See also Economy; European Union; France; Protection/ Himaya; United Kingdom; and Arab Maghrib Union.

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Table 13. Morocco’s Imports and Exports to Top Ten Trading Partners, 1998-2000, in millions of DH. France Spain United Kingdom Germany Italy United States Japan Saudi Arabia Belgium Netherlands All trading partners Deficit

1998 25,956 10,160 5,340 6,699 5,870 6,182 1,964 3,251 2,035 2,219 98,676

Imports 1999 27,275 11,771 5,722 6,401 5,634 6,930 2,360 3,433 1,867 1,893 105,931

2000 29,439 12,093 7,559 5,978 5,810 6,836 2,069 6,088 1,952 2,068 122,527

1998 23,839 7,026 6,517 4,145 5,870 1,889 2,641 581 2,108 1,384 68,607

Exports 1999 26,309 7,867 6,527 4,187 3,728 2,512 2,680 678 1,980 1,420 73,616

2000 26,392 10,220 7,560 3,917 5,616 2,693 3,010 637 2,223 1,316 78,826

1998 = 30,069 1999 = 32,315 2000 = 43,701 2003 = 25,260*

Source: Annuaire Statistique du Maroc 2001:612, *http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/ Daily/Day/040207/2004020715.html (2/27/24).

Table 14. Morocco’s Imports and Exports by Category, 1998-2000, in millions of DH. Imports Categories Food, drink, and tobacco

1998

1999

Exports 2000

1998

1999

2000

11,438

11,541

14,210 14,256 14,853 16,751

Energy and lubricants

8,859

13,000

21,657

1,002

1,990

2,882

Raw materials, animal and vegetable

5,676

5,583

5,803

1,370

1,838

1,803

2,322

6,143

6,005

5,799

Raw materials, mineral

2,020

1,920

Semi-finished products

22,805

21,789

Agricultural equipment

24,295 12,496 13,685 17,029

869

749

724

9

14

11

Industrial equipment

23,782

27,026

24,694

5,250

6,776

4,798

Finished consumer products

23,227

24,323

28,872 28,081 28,455 29,753

Total

98,676 105,931 122,527 68,607 73,616 78,826

Source: Annuaire Statistique du Maroc 2001:606-608.

Treaty of Fès. On 24 March 1912, the French minister at Tanger arrived in Fès from Paris with the protectorate treaty and immediately met with sultan ‘abd al-HâfiZ who signed the treaty without modification. This

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ended Morocco’s independence and placed most significant decision making in the hands of a French administration. The sultan lost all rights to negotiate the status of the northern zone and Tanger, all power to collect taxes or conclude financial agreements, and gave the French the power to dispatch troops anywhere in Morocco without the sultan’s consent. The treaty was patterned after the Treaty of Bardo, which had established a Tunisian protectorate in 1886, and though a treaty of protectorate was expected, the sultan had apparently hoped for one patterned after the British arrangements in Egypt, which left internal administration and the system of justice largely intact. When the news of the treaty leaked out to the population mawlây HâfiZ was widely seen as having sold the country to infidels. One of the most visible signs of the new French role was the reorganization of the Moroccan army under French instructors who were thoroughly insensitive to local culture and alienated many of the Moroccan soldiers, local townspeople, and the ‘ulamâ of Fès. By 17 April discontent had reached the explosive point and a mutiny and riots broke out lasting until 19 April. The German consul, Phillip Vassel, suggested that the mutiny and riots were engineered by the Fès nativeaffairs bureau to discredit the French head of mission, Henri Regnault. Despite an apparent lack of any evidence for this charge in the available historical record, the net result was a discrediting of Regnault and a decision that a military general would be needed as the first governor general (as it turned out, General Lyautey) rather than the obvious choice the diplomat Regnault (Burke 1976:186). The Fès mutiny encouraged those who still hoped to repel the French from Morocco, and within forty-eight hours of Lyautey’s arrival in Fès the city was attacked by well-organized troops who on several occasions managed to break through the walls before being repulsed. Resistance continued in the form of attacks on other French outposts for most of the summer. Lyautey’s dispatches during the summer attested to the organization, skill, and dedication of the resistance. The news of the resistance in Fès spread throughout Morocco and inspired many including al-hîba in Tiznit far to the south. al-tujîbî. abû al-qâsim bn yûsuf bn muHammad bn ‘alî bn al-qâsim altujîbî al-sabtî (1267/8-1329/30) was born in Sebta (Ceuta) and spent most of his life in that city, where his family had considerable prestige. His passion as a scholar was for Hadîth studies, and in time he acquired a reputation as one of the greatest scholars in this field. After a pilgrimage and period of study in the east he taught in Ceuta except for a brief period when he accepted an invitation to Fès from the Marinid sultan abû sa‘îd ‘uthmân who wanted to benefit directly from his scholarship. al-tujîbî is known to have written three works. The first is a brief work on Hadîth dealing with “jihâd” dedicated to abû sa‘îd ‘uthmân, which is considered lost. The second is a barnâmaj or presentation of what he, al-tujîbî, learned from various sources and is

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rare (Escorial, 142). The third, a massive riHla, is largely lost, but some 203 pages have survived. The riHla is distinguished on the one hand by its sketchy details on the subjects most riHla cover in detail and on the other by the enormously rich detail on the intellectual life of each place visited. His biographies of the scholars he encountered are enriched by detailed observations both about their personalities and their intellectual activities. tujjâr al-sulTân. Some merchants were given official loans and privileges by the sultan of Morocco to purchase commodities on the makhzan’s behalf, and of those a number were also sent as envoys to European countries. The majority, but not all, of the official international merchants of the sultan were Jewish. Similarly, the role of official envoy to a European power and official international merchant for the sultan’s account were frequently, but not necessarily, joined. The sultan viewed Moroccan Jews as dependents who were easy to control and because they could be dispossessed by the sultan at any time, without objection by the Muslim elites, were likely to be energetic in their activities for the state. They often also had excellent international connections. Few Moroccans in earlier centuries even imagined a clear separation between private enterprise and state function or service, so being made one of the tujjâr al-sulTan had obvious advantages for Jews as well. Several merchants in each period held official appointments from the sultan who had particular needs for international goods. Historians have better knowledge for the 19th century than for earlier centuries and while it cannot be assumed that state policy was identical in the 19th century to that of earlier periods, there were many continuities. In the 19th century, the city of Essaouira was a key international port and the base of a number of Jewish merchants (such as Abraham and Jacob Corcos, Joseph bn Amran Elmaleh, and several members of the Afriat family) who were official tujjâr al-sulTan. Although it is difficult to piece together all the Jews who served as envoys of the Moroccan government in Europe, at least some may be mentioned. Samuel Palache was sent by the sultan of Morocco as an envoy to the Netherlands in 1591 and stayed on as consul and became an influential member of court society. While in the Netherlands, Palache pushed the cause of the Maranos (recently expelled from Spain) and helped settle many in Amsterdam, though he failed in an ambitious plan to have Middleberg in Zeeland turned into an asylum for Maranos. He died at the Hague in 1616 and his funeral was attended by Prince Maurice of Orange. In the meantime, the sultan of Morocco, mawlay zaydan, sent another Jewish envoy, Belias, to Maurice of Nassau, the governor general of the Netherlands and in a 1608 letter testified that Belias was “ministrum Regiæ nostræ sublimis, qui negotiis ejus diligenter incumbit, resque ejus curat” implying that he was the representative of the sultan that the British court should trust above any others (Gotheil and Kayserling 2003). The best known example, however, is that of the Macnins

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(Schroeter 2002b) who arrived from Marrakech in the new port of Essaouira in the 1770s to trade for the sultan. In 1799, Meir Cohen Macnin (1760-1835) went to England as consul and continued to trade for the makhzan. He was recognized as a government representative by mawlay sulaymân and by mawlay ‘abd al-raHmân. Macnin served as envoy to England until about 1818 and then again in 1827 (he was appointed ambassador in 1826). In the period from 1818 to 1826, Macnin was in Morocco on various assignments for the sultan, such as managing customs in Tanger, but apparently this also facilitated his escaping the debts he had accumulated in England. Between 1799 and 1835, the House Macnin (Meir, his brothers and relatives) operated both in Morocco and England. A letter from mawlay ‘abd al-raHmân in 1823 made Meir Macnin the sultan’s consul and ambassador to all the Christian nations. Another envoy filled in during Macnin’s stay in Morocco. Samuel Yulee (or Yuly), of Essaouira, was apparently sent as the sultan’s envoy to England in 1820 after which, though he kept ties to the Moroccan government, he remained in England until his death in Portsea in January 1872.

-U‘ukkâzîya. Known by several names, the ‘ukkâzîya was viewed as a heretical sect subscribing to at least six different heretical beliefs. Some scholars say it took its name from the well-known habit of ibn tûmart to bring with him on his voyages only a staff (‘ukkâz) and a water skin. As a sect, it dated to a disciple of shaykh aHmad bn yûsuf al-râshidî almalyânî (d.1521) by the name of aHmad bn ‘abd allâh al-manzûlî who, losing faith in his teacher reputedly through a dream in which the teacher seemed to take the side of Satan, became a heretic. The heresies attributed to the ‘ukkâzîya included lack of belief in the prophecy of Muhammad, a claim to have a substitute holy book in the place of the qur’an, denial of the need to fast, freedom to eat meat that had not been correctly killed, the practice of adultery, and the right to kill or rob Muslims (Hajji 1976:280-284). Numerous legal opinions condemned the sect but, in retrospect, it is difficult to disentangle the reality of the sect from the universal disapprobation it aroused. al-‘umarî, ibn faDl allâh. A scholar and administrator who served the Mamluks in Cairo and Damascus, shihâb al-dîn aHmad ibn faDl allâh al-‘umarî (12 June 1301-1 March 1349) is of significance for Moroccan historians primarily because of his work masâlik al-abSâr fî mamâlik al-amSâr. This work is a compendium of administration, history, geography, law, literature, and political geography that includes material of real value for the understanding of the Marinid period in North Africa. One special concern of al-‘umarî was the administrative detail of the relationship between the Mamluk central bureaucracy and

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both provincial and foreign administrations. An outspoken nature brought al-‘umarî many enemies and lost him his job as head of the chancery on two occasions. During the last seven years of his life, while in retirement in Damascus where he was born, al-‘umarî was unemployed, and it is thought that this is when he wrote his major works, which included several other studies of less immediate value to historians of North Africa. UNEM (Union Nationale des Etudiants Marocains, al-ittihâd al-waTanî li-Talabât al-maghrib). Created by Mehdi Ben Barka and other members of the istiqlâl Party, UNEM was established in Rabat after independence (December 1956-January 1957) to unify various earlier student associations, Many early protesters against the colonial system were students and the first collective student protest was the strike by students of Moulay Idriss Lycée in Fès in 1945. Before independence students organized in France largely to protest colonialism. Two major organizations were the jam‘iyat-al-Tâlib al-maghrib (Association of Moroccan Students) established in 1948 and the ittihâd al-Talaba almaghariba (Union of Maghrib Students) established in 1950. The establishment of UNEM was broadly supported by the political parties, and the crown prince, mawlay Hassan II, was the honorary president of the founding conference. The initial demands put forth by UNEM were for the Moroccanization of the administration, the departure of French and American forces, the Arabization of education ,and the establishment of a modern and independent Moroccan university. At its July conference in Azrou (1961), UNEM initiated demands for a broad democratization of the political structure. In the same year the conservative wing of UNEM established its own organization, al-ittiHâd al-‘âm li-Talabat al-maghrib (L’Union Générale des Etudiants Marocains—UGEM). UNEM itself soon became a leftist student organization and was associated early on with the UNFP when this party split off from the istiqlâl. A student strike in 1963 involved 135,000 secondary and university students, but this level of participation proved threatening and conservative forces combined first to redefine UNEM’s clientele as only university students, of whom there were few in the 1960s, and later in 1967 to close the offices of the union, ban its eleventh conference, and imprison some of its leaders. UNEM was banned by the state in January 1974 but allowed to operate again in 1976. By the early 1970s many UNEM members considered the rise of Islamist groups to be threatening, and some argued fairly persuasively that the new movements were a government supported attempt to weaken the left. The decline of the union had ramifications throughout society at the level of the politicization of students (now Islamist and not leftist) and the flagging support for parties that had been linked to the union. UNEM continues under the “gouvernement d’alternance” along with its rival the Union Générale des Etudiants Marocains.

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United Kingdom. The first recorded official contacts between a king of England and a Moroccan state were purportedly between King John and the Almohad ruler muHammad al-nâSir, in 1213 A.D. (P.G. Rogers n.d.). This involved an ignominious plea for an alliance from king John that was rejected by muHammad al-nâsir on the grounds that from what he could tell King John was a wretched tyrant and apostate and so unworthy of being an ally. In the 16th century, more extensive trade developed as trade routes along the African coast were developed (first by the Portuguese and then by others). When Portugal separated from Spain in 1640, it retained Tanger but found it so much trouble that John IV (the Portuguese king) made a wedding gift of Tanger to the king of England, Charles II, on his marriage to Catherine of Breganza in 1661. The British occupied Tanger until 1684 when they handed it over to mawlay ismâ‘il. In the 19th century, the only foreign country that actually favored a strong independent Morocco was Great Britain, as represented by its long serving ambassador John Drummond Hay, who served for forty-one years in Morocco and visited and lived in Morocco from 1833 to 1886. The national archives of France, Spain, Germany, and Italy make it absolutely clear that the other major powers were concerned exclusively and invidiously with their own interests in Morocco. English archives make it clear that Great Britain was interested in Egypt as a colonial project but had little to no interest in colonizing Morocco and saw its maintenance as an independent state to be in its own best interests. This general perspective allowed Drummond Hay, who spoke fluent colloquial Arabic, to advise the sultan on the best way to preserve his independence. Unfortunately, when the Treaty of Madrid was called in 1880 to resolve some of Morocco’s long-term problems such as the proliferation of protegé, the other participants colluded to prevent any positive outcome and in fact set out to resolve the Morocco Question—e.g., how and when to carve up Morocco. By 1904, Great Britain was persuaded to concede its claims in Morocco (see Entente Cordiale) in return for a free hand in Egypt. This perfidy or real politik, so common among the Great Powers, was followed on the French side by colonization in 1912 while Great Britain, henceforth, confined its political relations with Morocco primarily to the furtherance of its private merchants’ interests. While the United Kingdom remains a significant trading partner (see trade) it retains only a residual consultative role as counterpart to the French position and has on occasion, with the United States, been asked to help with security issues, but the time of its being Morocco’s principle and reliable European ally is long past. United Nations. While many Moroccans serve on important committees for the UN, Morocco has had major differences with the United Nations over its position on the former Spanish Sahara or as the UN and the Polisario and many other countries deem it, the Western Sahara. The UN for many years took the position that Morocco’s

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occupation was illegal and funded an attempt to negotiate a solution to the problem. In June of 2003, the UN issued a statement that it considered Morocco the Western Sahara’s administrative power. This has been hailed as a major change, and Morocco has used this to claim that it is legally able to do what it has been doing for some time, namely, accept bids for offshore fishing and oil exploration in the region. The UN seems hesitant to accept this interpretation and claims that it still expects the territory to be granted independence in some short-term future if a referendum justifies this. Morocco, which seems unlikely to ever accept this outcome, thus still has major obstacles to overcome but seems to have made a modest step forward in its relationship with the UN. From the UN perspective, the Western Sahara is a case of decolonization and its original inhabitants have the right to selfdetermination. From Morocco’s perspective, the land, like much of current Algeria, was stolen from Morocco by colonial powers and should revert to Morocco. A UN commission to set up a referendum (MINURSO) has been trying to negotiate a compromise but has had no success. In April 2004, the UN Security Council adopted a resolution urging the two parties to accept the UN-backed peace plan, and the Polisario agreed to do so, but Morocco refused because the plan envisaged eventual sovereignty for the territory. The UN has long maintained a sizeable peace-keeping mission in the territory; beginning in April 1991 in 2004 it included 230 peace keepers. It has expended $600 million on this task since the cessation of outright hostilities in 1991. The final version of the “Baker” plan to resolve the conflict envisaged a referendum over autodetermination voted on by those who could demonstrate continued residence in the territory since 31 December 1999 or who appear on the UN list of those to be repatriated made up on 31 October 2000. The plan also envisaged a complex sharing of power between the government of Morocco and an authority for the Western Sahara (Autorité du Sahara Occidental) until such time as the referendum is completed and an appropriate legal government is established. James A. Baker III who had headed the UN commission to resolve the dispute resigned in June 2004, and current prospects for a resolution along these lines seem distant. United States. Morocco decided to establish diplomatic ties with the United States under sidi muHammad bn ‘abdallah in 1777. U.S. diplomats were much preoccupied at the time, though American shipping had lost the protection on the Barbary coast that it had enjoyed earlier when it sailed under British protection. United States representatives were galvanized by the capture of the brig the Betsy and finally made it to Morocco in 1786 when with the help of letters from the Spanish crown they negotiated a treaty in Marrakech, which was concluded on June 28 and signed by Thomas Jefferson in Paris (1 January 1787) and John Adams in London (25 January 1787). The

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treaty was to hold for fifty years. The United States established its first consulate in Morocco in Tanger in 1797. In 1821 mawlay sulaymân gave the United States a building in Tanger for its consulate that remained the offices of the United States’ chief diplomatic representative until 1956. In 1835, President Andrew Jackson sent an envoy, James R. Leib, to sultan ‘abd al-raHmân to renew the treaty. This was easily accomplished and the treaty remains in effect to this day. In 1880, at the Conference of Madrid, the United States along with Great Britain argued in support of maintaining Moroccan sovereignty though they were outvoted by the European powers. In 1942, the United States landed troops in Morocco to prevent an invasion by the Axis powers but made it clear that they had no intention of occupying Morocco and went further in asserting to Mohammed V that they favored Moroccan independence from France. In the period since independence, Moroccan-American relations have been cordial, and the value of mutual trade now puts the United States at roughly Morocco’s sixth most important trading partner. The United States has recently been a key ally in Morocco’s struggle with the Polisario and has provided significant financial and military aid to Morocco to help it retain the territory. After 11 September 2001, Morocco introduced new security legislation modeled after the U.S. Patriot Act, but this was stalled in parliament until the crisis brought on by the terrorist attacks of 16 May 2003 led to its quick passage and promotion into law. Universities. The following list of modern universities provides college names in Arabic but some glosses may be useful for non-Arabic speakers: âdâb (literature), asâtidha (teachers), ifrîqiyya (Africa), ijtimâ‘iya (social), ‘ilmî (scientific), iqtiSâdiya (economic), kahrabâ’ wa-l-mîkânîk (electricity and mechanics), muhandisîn (engineers), nuZum (computer science), qânuniya (legal), Saydala (pharmacy), ta‘rîb (Arabization), tiknûlûjiya (technology), tiqniyât (technical), tasyîr (management), Tib (medicine), Tib al-asnân (dentistry), tijâra (business), ‘ulûm (sciences). Each university is run by a president supported by a secretarygeneral. The assembly of the university runs the affairs of the institution and includes the president of the university and the deans of each school as well as professors who are elected. After independence, the state started a policy of decentralization of education and universities. The majority of students receive grants and benefit from the university restaurants and housing. Most universities have seen a rise in the student population, especially in al-âdâb, al-ulûm and alqânûn, which most students attend without any entrance exams or competitive grades other than their baccalaureate. Recently, some schools started to rely on grades in high school in order to accept only the more competitive students. The universities suffer from high levels of unemployment among

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graduates. This has been interpreted as implying a need to reexamine programs to prepare students for the market. Enrollment in applied studies and business administration as well as technology and engineering is on the rise. al-qarawîyîn is the oldest university in Morocco. It was founded as a mosque in Fès in the middle of the ninth century. It has been a destination for students and scholars of Islamic sciences and Arabic studies throughout the history of Morocco. There were also other religious schools like the madras of ibn yusuf and other schools in the sûs. This system of basic education called al-ta‘lîm al-aSîl was funded by the sultans of Morocco and many famous traditional families. After independence, al-qarawîyîn maintained its reputation, but it seemed important to transform it into a university that would prepare graduates for a modern country while maintaining an emphasis on Islamic studies. Hence, alqarawîyîn university was founded in February 1963 and, while the dean’s residence was kept in Fès, the new university initially had four colleges located in major regions of the country known for their religious influences and madrasas. These colleges were kuliyat al-shari‘a in Fès, kuliyat uSûl al-dîn in Tétouan, kuliyat al-lugha al-‘arabiya in Marrakech (all founded in 1963), and kuliyat al-shari‘a in Ait Melloul near Agadir, which was founded in 1979. muHammad al-khâmis was the first modern university in Morocco and was founded after independence in 1957 initially under the name of Rabat University. It took over many higher education institutions created during the protectorate. The university started with three colleges: al-âdâb wa-l-‘ulûm al-insâniya, founded with the dahir of 21 July 1959, al-‘ulûm, and al-‘ulûm al-qânuniya, wa-l-iqtiSâdiya wa-l-ijtimâ‘iya. Other branches were later added to these institutions. Université Mohammed V played a major role after independence especially in training and developing the scientific and cultural educational experience in Morocco. In 1992, muHammad al-khâmis was divided into two universities: muHammad al-khâmis, agdâl and muHammad al-khâmis, al-swîsî. muHammad al-khâmis, in the Agdal suburb of Rabat, is composed of kuliyat al-âdâb wa-l-‘ulûm al-insâniya; al-‘ulûm and al-‘ulûm alqânuniya, wa-l-iqtiSâdiya wa-l-ijtimâ‘iya, agdâl; al-madrasa almuHamadiya l-il muhandisîn, al-madrasa al-‘ulyâ li-tiknûlûjia, Salé; and al-ma‘had al-‘âlî li-l-baHth al-‘ilmî. muHammad al-khâmis, in the Souissi suburb of Rabat, is composed of kuliyat al-Tib wa-l-Saydala; kuliyat Tib al-asnân; kuliyat ‘ulûm al-tarbiya; kuliyat al-‘ulûm al-qânuniya, wa-l-iqtiSâdiya wa-lijtimâ‘iya, al-swîsî; al-madrasa al-waTaniya al-‘ulyâ li-lma‘lûmiyât wa-taHlîl al-nuZum; al-ma‘had al-jâmi‘î li-l-baHth al-‘ilmî; ma‘had al-dirâsât wa-l-abHâth li-ta‘rîb and ma‘had aldirâsât al-ifrîqiyya.

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jâmi‘at al-Hasan al-thânî, in Casablanca, was founded in 1975 from institutions that were related to Mohammed V in Rabat. It had a branch in Mohammédia. In 1989 it was divided into al-Hasan althânî, ‘ayn al-shuq and al-Hasan al-thânî, al-muHammadiya. al-Hasan al-thânî, in ‘ayn al-shuq, founded in 1989, includes kuliyat al-âdâb (‘ayn shuq); kuliyat al-‘ulûm; al-‘ulûm al-qânuniya, wa-liqtiSâdiya wa-l-ijtimâ‘iya; kuliyat al-Tib wa-l-Saydala; kuliyat Tib al-asnân; al-madrasa al-‘ulyâ li-l-kahrabâ’ wa-l-mîkânîk; and al-madrasa al-‘ulyâ li-tiknûlûjiya. al-Hasan al-thânî, in Mohammédia, was founded in 1989 and includes kuliyat al-âdâb (ibn msîk); kuliyat al-âdâb (Mohammédia); kuliyat al-‘ulûm (ibn msîk); kuliyat al-‘ulûm alqânuniya, wa-l-iqtiSâdiya wa-l-ijtimâ‘iya (Mohammédia); and kuliyat al-‘ulûm wa-l-tiqniyât (Mohammédia). jâmi‘a muHammad bn ‘abd allâh, in Fès, was founded in 1975, though earlier the facilities were used as a branch of Mohammed V in Rabat. It now has several colleges: kuliyat al-âdâb (dâr almahrâz wa-sâyas), kuliyat al-‘ulûm, kuliyat al-‘ulûm wa-ltiqniyât; kuliyat al-‘ulûm al-qânuniya, wa-l-iqtiSâdiya wa-lijtimâ‘iya, and al-madrasa al-‘ulyâ li-tiknûlûjiya. jâmi‘a muHammad al-awwal, wajda was founded in 1978 from a branch of the University of Mohammed ben Abdellah in Fès and now has kuliyat al-âdâb; kuliyat al-‘ulûm, kuliyat al-‘ulûm wa-ltiqniyât; kuliyat al-‘ulûm al-qânuniya, wa-l-iqtiSâdiya wa-lijtimâ‘iya, and al-madrasa al-‘ulyâ li-tiknûlûjiya. jâmi‘at al-qâdî ‘ayyâD, in Marrakech, was founded in 1978. It includes kuliyat al-âdâb (Marrakech); kuliyat al-âdâb (Beni Mellal); kuliyat al-ulûm wa-l-tiqniyât (Marrakech); kuliyat alulûm wa-l-tiqniyât (Beni Mellal); and al-madrasa al-‘ulyâ li-lasâtidha. jâmi‘a mawlây ismâ‘îl, maknâs was founded as a branch of the University of Fès in 1982 and included kuliyat al-âdâb and kuliyat al-‘ulûm. In 1989, it became independent and added several extra colleges: kuliyat al-‘ulûm al-qânuniya, wa-l-iqtiSâdiya wa-lijtimâ‘iya; al-madrasa al-‘ulyâ li-tiknûlûjiya; and kuliyat al-‘ulûm wa-l-tiqniyât in al-râshidiya. jâmi‘a ‘abd al-mâlik al-sa‘dî, tiTwân was founded as a branch of the University of Fès in 1982. In 1989, it became independent and added several extra colleges: kuliyat al-âdâb and kuliyat al-‘ulûm in Tétouan; and in Tanger: madras at al-malik fahd al-‘ulyâ litarjama; al-madrasa al-waTaniya li-tijâra wa-l-tasyîr; and kuliyat al-‘ulûm wa-l-tiqniyât. jâmi‘a shu‘âyb al-dukkâlî, in El-Jadida was founded in 1986 as part of the University of Casablanca and included kuliyat al-âdâb and kuliyat al-‘ulûm. The university became an independent entity in 1989. In 1991, two more colleges were added: al-madrasa alwaTaniya li tijâra wa-l-tasyîr and kuliyat al-‘ulûm wa-l-tiqniyât. jâmi‘a ibn Tufayl, in Kénitra, was founded on two colleges, kuliyat al-

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âdâb and kuliyat al-‘ulûm, that were part of Mohammed V. It became independent in 1989. jami‘at ibn zuhr, in Agadir, was founded in 1986. It includes two colleges: kuliyat al-âdâb and kuliyat al-‘ulûm. jami‘at al-akhawayn, in Ifrane, was officially inaugurated on 16 January 1995. It was conceived on 29 August 1993 by Hassan II as a modern institution of tolerance, research, and education in all languages to expand beyond Morocco. The funding, 50 million dollars, used in the building of this university, which houses one of the most modern technological facilities in the country, was a donation given by King Fahd of Saudia Arabia to Morocco to clean its coasts during a natural catastrophe that resulted from the spill of oil from a foreign commercial ship. Fortunately, the winds drove the nap of oil away from the Moroccan coasts and the king decided to use the donations to build the university, which he named after King Fahd and himself. The university has three schools: Humanities and Social Sciences, Engineering, and Business Administration. The teaching is done in English although the university offers other languages including Arabic, French, Spanish, and Tamazight. The university maintains exchange programs with other universities in Europe, the United States, and Japan. The administration includes a board of trustees, a president, vice presidents of finance, student affairs, and academics, and deans as well directors. The library is thought to be one of the most modern libraries in the country.

-VVolubilis. (lat. 34º 06' N., long. 5º 31' W.) Located five kilometers northwest of Moulay Idriss, Volubilis was a tribal center before the defeat of Carthage (146 B.C.) allowed Rome to extend its control west. Rome established a regional capital in Tanger for Roman Mauretania Tangitana and later, some sources suggest, used Volubilis as an alternate capital. Volubilis most likely dates from the reign of Juba II (d. 18 A.D.). The extensive ruins indicate a substantial settlement with most of the amenities of Italy. After the departure of the Romans early in the 4th century A.D., archaeology shows that it continued to be settled for a number of centuries, and historical records suggest that it was a substantial settlement when Idris I arrived at the end of the 8th century. Some scholars, on the basis of a few late Christian inscriptions, feel it was ruled in the early Islamic period, when Idris I arrived, by a council of Christian chiefs. Whatever its government, it seems to have welcomed Idris I and provided a key support for his establishment of the Idrisid dynasty. Idris I was buried beyond the walls of the town presumably at the site of his current tomb in Moulay Idriss. When the Almohads conquered Northern Morocco they seem to

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have caused Volubilis, or walîlî as it was called by this time (post 1146), to be abandoned.

-Wal-wansharîsî. abû al-‘abbâs aHmad bn yaHyâ bn muHammad bn ‘abd alwâHid bn ‘alî al-wâHid bn ‘alî al-wansharîsî (1430-1508) was born in Tlemcen but fled that city for political reasons (1469/70) and took up residence in Fès, which remained his home until his death. alwansharîsî studied further at the qarawîyîn and acquired a reputation as a great specialist in fiqh (jurisprudence), teaching both uSûl (principles) and furû‘ (applications). He was strictly orthodox (maliki) and was an eminent and popular teacher at the al-sharrâTin mosque. al-wansharîsî produced a substantial corpus of written work, but his most important work without question is his collection of consultations with the fuqahâ’ (specialists in jurisprudence) of the Maghrib (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia) and Andalusia, al-mi‘yâr al-mu‘rib wa-l-jâmi‘ al-mughrib ‘an fatâwî ifriqîya wa-l-andalus wa-l-maghrib. This collection runs to twelve large volumes of which bits and pieces have been translated and edited by various scholars (Amar 1908; Bruno and Demombynes 1937; Idris 1973, al-wansharîsî 1995). The extraordinary value of this collection resides in the comprehensive list of subjects around which the consultations are organized. These subjects include a host of everyday activities, and the collection thus provides an enormous amount of detail on agriculture, artisanal production, commerce, ethnicity, industry, nomadism, waqf, and professions including that of professor, as well as law relevant to marriage, local customs, religious feasts, and even diet. Scholars agree that this work provides the most detailed source of information on everyday life during the Marinid and Wattasid periods. al-wansharîsî’s other works have a decidedly narrower potential audience. They consist, with minor exceptions, of original theoretical works or commentaries on works by others. The minor exceptions include an autobiography, wafayât al-wansharîsî (the decease of alwansharîsî), which as the title suggests has been subsequently edited by another (Benchekroun 1974:400), and a fahrasa discussing alwansharîsî’s professors. waqf. The waqf (pl. awqâf) system in Morocco is similar to that found elsewhere in the Middle East. Also known as Habous (Hubs or Hubus, pl. aHbâs), this is an institution that combines a religious endowment with options for a legacy for one’s family. The basic idea is to leave property to a religious institution such as a zâwiya, but the rules allow one to add conditions, which can be quite complex, including that the property be used for the maintenance of one’s descendents as long as any should survive. The advantages of such an arrangement can be

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considerable because the prestige of the religious institution protects the property from depredation by other political and economic figures while the life span of the institution is potentially measured in centuries, not decades. The institution managers know as well that the odds are good that the lands will fairly soon revert to the institution and in the interim they can enjoy a management fee. Most shops in traditional urban centers in Morocco were part of a waqf system and were leased out at nominal rates fixed long in the past, leading some scholars to view them as obstacles to economic growth. The argument would be that low rents allow uncompetitive enterprises to continue and reduce opportunities for more competitive businesses to expand or even establish themselves. This argument is not immediately persuasive because the waqf system incorporated a number of additional tricks (Hîla, pl. Hiyâl) to avoid prohibitions on interest. At the death of a lessee, shops were put up for bid—not in terms of what rent occupants might be willing to pay (this was fixed) but in terms of an entrance fee (haqq al-miftâH) occupants were willing to pay in order to be allowed to rent the shop. These prices fully reflected the market value of a property and grew over time. Hence the waqf properties are, in terms of their economic impact, more akin to purchased property than rented property—except that the purchase is only for life and can not be bestowed on an heir. Another twist is that people who have such properties can not only sublease but can often use them to obtain capital. Someone with a lump sum of capital can loan it to the person with the key right to the waqf property and obtain use of the property in return. The key right holder can then use the capital to make money (buying and selling) and pay it back at the end of the designated period: the use of the property substitutes for interest (which is illegal) and the capital is recovered in its entirety at the end of the period of occupation. In Essaouira, such practices are common and not confined to waqf properties. Records of the waqf system, however, tend to only report the nominal rent; the key right price is a matter between the bidder and the director (nâZir) of the waqf properties. Without access to records of such negotiations it is difficult to gauge the full economic significance of the waqf system in past centuries, but it seems to be better adapted to economic change than market-priced sales since turnover in key rights is likely to be quicker. Wattasid dynasty. The Wattasids (waTTâsid) served first as regents for the Marinid sultans in Fès (1420-1458) and then took over as sultans (1505-1550). Although they in the end were conquered by the Sa‘dians, they had important military victories over the Portuguese during their brief reign. The battle of ma‘mura in which a large Portuguese land and naval force was destroyed by Moroccan artillery and cavalry indicated to all that Morocco was modernizing its military as well. The Marinid weakness vis-à-vis the elites of Fès, that they were not themselves shurafâ’, was shared by the Berber Wattasids and

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proved just as fatal in the end. Like the Marinids, the Wattasids also encouraged education and culture (see also ibn ghâzî, sayyida alHurra, and al-wansharîsî). wazzânîya [also Tayyibîya]. Idrisid sharîf mawlây ‘abd allâh ibn ibrâhîm (d.1678) founded a zâwiya along shâdhilîya (jazûlîya) principles in Ouazzane. The zâwiya took the name dâr Damâna (house of responsibility) and was supported by the early ‘Alawites in return for its support of the new dynasty. In doctrinal terms the wazzânîya differed only insignificantly from the sharqâwa zâwiya in Boujad, and like that zâwiya it was located on the foothills of the mountains (in this case the Rif not the Middle Atlas). By mid-18th century and the era of the fourth shaykh, mawlây al-Tayyib (d.1767), his successors and heirs had spread the economic and political influence of the zâwiya as far as Touat and western Algeria. This wide appeal has been maintained in the 20th century. The zâwiya acquired enormous wealth in land and cash, and under sîdî ‘alî ibn aHmad, who took over in 1782, the zâwiya encouraged Jewish craftsmen to settle in Ouazzane. As a consequence, Ouazzane also contains the shrine and pilgrimage center of Rabbi Amrane, a Jewish saint. At this time, the zâwiya also acquired an arsenal of weapons scarcely inferior to that of the makhzan. At the death of sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd allâh (1790) the zâwiya took an active part in supporting a claimant for the throne, mawlây maslama, but stopped short of putting serious money to support his claim, which consequently collapsed for all practical purposes in 1792. mawlây sulaymân (1792-1822), the eventual victor, consequently made some attempts to curtail the zâwiya’s power including taking back some concessions that sîdî muHammad bn ‘abd allâh had granted. When sîdî ‘alî ibn aHmad died in 1811, mawlây sulaymân tried to take advantage of a succession dispute between brothers to significantly reduce the power of the zâwiya. Although it was not until 1840 that the zâwiya was united under one shaykh (sîdî al-‘arbî, the brother not supported by the makhzan and perhaps not coincidentally the brother most popular to the zâwiyas rank and file), the antagonism with the makhzan strengthened rather than hurt the reputation of the zâwiya, and it remained an important factor in 19th century politics, eventually engaging in intrigues with foreign powers as the 20th century approached. The wazzânîya also has a major zâwiya in Marrakech in the qSûr quarter as well as the tomb of one of their leaders, sîdî muHammad shammât al-wazzânî in the derb al-barûd of the same city. Weights and measures (19th century). In Europe and North Africa long before globalization became a buzzword, international trade flourished despite an enormous variety of weights and measures. Typically, different measures were used in different places and for different products but often, within a country or group of trading countries, using similar terms for disparate amounts. As was typical in Europe

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even in the 19th century, measures of volume varied dramatically because containers could vary in size but keep the same name and could be heaped, leveled off (stricken), or even compressed by transport so that prices pre- or post-transport might involve different quantities of product (see Kula 1976). In 19th-century Morocco (much of the following discussion is based on Jannesch 1887), cereals were often measured by volume using a term, fanega, which was a Spanish-Castilian term that originally referenced two different volumes: the stricken (leveled) fanega of 55.501 liters and the heaped fanega of 72-74 liters. Within Morocco, however, there were geographic differences in the volume of the fanega, though the variance was not enormous; a fanega of 51.5 liters, for example, was reported in 1868. There were other Arabic measures of volume such as the mudd, and the sa‘a defined as 4 mudd, which varied more considerably. Geographic variation was the norm in volumetric measures, thus, for example, in 1868 the mudd was 29 liters in Tanger, 31 liters in Larache, 79.75 liters in Rabat, 25.25 liters in Casablanca and Mazagan, while in Salé the mudd was reported to be 185 liters (3 1/3 Spanish-Castillian fanegas). Oils were typically measured by weight in qulla, which varied like the mudd from region to region ranging from 9 to 18 kg. The qulla is reported in 1887 as being viewed as equal to 22 raTal (in the northern area—see below—these 22 raTal would weigh 11.2 kg). Thus European merchants recorded qulla at 18 kg in Tanger in 1828 and 17.5 kg in Marrakech in 1867, but 9.1 kg in Fès in 1898 and 24 kg in the same city in 1905 and various other weights in various places throughout the 19th century (Michel 1997). In southern coastal ports such as Essaouira, cereals were typically traded by weight using a term derived from Spanish-Castillian Arruba but called kharûba, in Morocco. Originally the measure weighed 11.5023 kg. A smaller kharûba was also in use in Spain for barley (7.189 kg or 5/8 of the larger kharûba). Different weights were the norm in Morocco. A report from Essaouira in 1868 emphasized the correspondance between 159 liters and one kharûba and in 1875 a consular report gave a correspondence in the market of 100 kg for a kharûba of wheat, 92 kg for a kharûba of corn, and 71 kg for a kharûba of barley. Typical measures of weight also included the raTal (a term used in much of the Middle East), which was a pound of 14 ounces (uqiya) or 508 grams used in the northern part of the country (Rabat, Larache, Tanger, and Tétouan). In the south (Essaouira, Safi, Casablanca, and Mazagan), the raTal weighed between 537 and 540 grams. In the south the raTal was calculated as the weight of 20 old spanish piastres, which would in principle have weighed 540 grams. When shopping for food in the Essaouira market in 1868, the raTal is reliably reported as weighing 810 grams (or the equivalent of 30 old spanish piastres). In a similar year (1864), European imports were sold measured in a standard raTal of 500 g in the Tafilalt while local products were

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weighed in terms of the local raTal of 1,500 grams. The system behind this variance in the raTal was that various raTal were linked to a scale based on old Spanish piastres or rial (of which 20 weighed 540 grams). Thus the various nominal raTal each had a correspondence in terms of weight of rial. These were as follows: raTal ‘aTTârî (for spices and aromatics) equal to 20 rial, raTal baqqârî (for livestock) equal to 30-32 rial, raTal djâjî (for chickens) equal to 30-32.8 rial, raTal qashshâshî (for fodder) equal to 30-33 rial, raTal gazzârî (for meat) equal to 40-42 rial, and raTal khaDârî (for vegetables) equal to 40-41 rial in weight (Michel 1997). In practice, geographic location added variance to this basic system as no doubt did other factors in particular circumstances. Exports often used a another common Middle Eastern measure of weight, the qinTâr, with a typical kharûba corresponding to two normal qinTâr, each weighing 100 raTal (i.e., 54 kg) making a 108 kg kharûba for cereal. Measures in Essaouira for wax, oil, and eggs were nominally the same but in fact used a qinTâr of 150 raTal (i.e., 81 kg) rather than 100 raTal. Exports had to be loaded onto ships, and this required careful calculation of weights, which imposed some standardization. In all, there were the following qinTâr: a) in the North there was a “100 raTal” qinTâr equal to an English hundredweight (cwt) or 112 pounds (50.8 kg) while in the southern areas the qinTâr also had 100 raTal but weighed 54 kg; b) a large qinTâr, for oil, soap, butter, meat, and fruit, of 150 raTal, which was also divided into northern and southern variants based on the different weight of the raTal in those areas; c) a qintâr al-a‘rub, or Arab qinTâr, meaning rural qinTâr of 75 raTal, which also had its northern and southern variants, and d) an ancient qinTâr, used for early oils, wool, and metals such as lead and copper, of 45 1/3 kg (the weight of 1680 old Spanish silver piastres). These examples exemplify the premodern approach to measures, which was to use familiar terms but adapt them to the circumstances. Thus product, transport costs, harvest levels, prosperity, poverty, quality of product, market type, and respective power of buyer and seller could all enter into the equation. It was generally felt to be easier to vary the measure than the price. In recent times, moderns have opted for wild fluctuations in price to respond to the same exigencies while trying to insist on standardized measures. This was not at all the norm in Europe or North Africa until some time in the 20th century. The norm in North Africa was also to make calculations using fractions or multiples of some known base, in this case an old piastre such as the Spanish rial (called in Morocco “bû madfa‘a”) of 1797 with two columns on the verso (mistaken for cannons) and weighing 27 grams. Westermarck, Edward. Born 20 November 1862 in Helsinki, Finland, Westermarck died on 3 September 1939 in Lapinlahti, Finland. Westermarck lectured in sociology at the University of Helsinki from

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1890 to 1906. He then taught moral philosophy at the same university from 1906 to 1918. From 1918 to 1930, he taught philosophy and then became rector at the Abo Akademi University. Westermarck was also a professor of sociology at the University of London from 1907 to 1930. His dual positions provided him a basis for critiquing the thendominant German culture history tradition so prominent in continental European universities, which at its worst seemed to support arguments about cultural uniqueness and even superiority. Westermarck was an idealist who believed in the universality of humanity and consequently did not feel Moroccans were in any essentials different than Finns. His approach to sociology was to focus on cultural elements, in the tradition of a cultural chrestomathy, without applying any functionalism or essentialism to the culture as a whole. As a native Swedish speaker in Finland, Westermarck was critical of Finnish nationalism and so of all essentialist cultural arguments. As a result, Westermarck does not fit the Orientalism model defined by Edward Said. Westermarck’s many publications on the history of marriage (in general) thoroughly demolished early 19th-century ideas about an ancient period of promiscuity and moved the discourse into discussions of exogamy and incest taboos. In his works on morals, Westermarck made a strong case for ethical relativity but also tried to combine this with a Darwinian explanation for the origin of moral systems. Westermarck was one of the earliest anthropologists to work extensively in Morocco. In 1898, Westermarck made his first trip to Morocco. His intention was to continue to East Asia, but he became interested in Morocco and, including this visit, he ended up spending almost a decade in Morocco. His approach to the sociology of Morocco resulted in works full of cultural details, such as Marriage ceremonies in Morocco (1914), Ritual and Belief in Morocco (1926), Wit and Wisdom in Morocco: A study of Native Proverbs (1930), and Pagan Survivals in Mohammedan Civilization (1933), but the works included little elaboration of his theoretical positions. Western Sahara. See Spanish Sahara, the former. al-wifâq al-waTanî/Entente Nationale. The Entente Nationale is a parliamentary coalition of the Union Constitutionelle, Parti National Démocrate, Mouvement Populaire National, and the Mouvement Populaire formed in early 1993 to counterbalance the Rassemblement National des Indépendants which was seen as supported by the monarchy, and the Bloc Démocratique, a coalition formed in May 1992 that included the istiqlâl. Women. Many issues of particular concern to women have traditionally not been part of public discourse in Morocco, and this has shaped the history of the women’s movement within Morocco. Gendered decisionmaking powers with regard to divorce, polygamy, domestic violence,

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and political participation have had a strong tendency to be glossed over as natural, Islamic, or even intrinsically just. These issues have now been officially problematized and to a large degree resolved (by the latest personal status code of 25 January 2004—see mudâwwana). Moroccan women’s organizations (a list of twenty-seven women’s organizations can be found at: www.euronet.nl/~fullmoon/womlist/ countries/morroco.html) have campaigned vigorously and successfully to improve the legal status of women in Morocco. In March 1999, they produced a national Plan of Action (to prepare for International Women’s Day on 29 January 2000), which argued for gender equality and the need to conform to provisions in international conventions on women and the family. Conservative Islamist groups viewed these efforts as an externally inspired undermining of the Muslim family and strongly opposed the movement. The 2004 version of the mudâwwana was a long time coming and reflects a landmark agreement between conservative and progressive forces: a reworking of the old code within the framework of Islamic law but under the clear influence of inputs from Morocco’s women’s organizations and female leaders. Legal status is only part of the issue for rights, have little meaning without real empowerment and women are significantly less educated and less financially secure than men in Morocco. They are also more frequently harmed by cultural prejudice, women who become pregnant out of wedlock face major obstacles that men who impregnate out of wedlock do not, and women in general are far less free in terms of mobility and job opportunities, and, like women in most countries, Moroccan women face discrimination even with regard to promotion within a career. Girls from poor families still regularly seek jobs as live-in maids where they are at risk for sexual, as well as physical, abuse and may subsequently have to live an even more poverty-stricken life as a dishonored woman or even migrate into prostitution. It is also still quite normal for a woman to be automatically blamed if the marriage is barren and to suffer divorce and poverty as a result. Nevertheless, the new mudâwwana is indicative of major progress being made, and there is every reason to believe that more progress toward improving the lives of women will be forthcoming.

-Yya‘qûb, sîdî muHammad u. sîdî muHammad u ya‘qûb established what was most likely the first zâwiya, imi n tattelt, on the south slopes of the eastern Anti-Atlas among the Sektana in a place devoid of all but the tiniest water sources and incapable of supporting grains. Yet he was reputed to be able to feed all visitors in abundance four times a day throughout his life. Renowned for his generosity and mystical powers throughout the south, he died in 1563, leaving aHmad u mûsâ to be his official heir.

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al-ya‘qûbî, aHmad bn abî. aHmad bn abî ya‘qubî (d. 897) was a shi‘ite historian and geographer who traveled through India and the Maghrib and is known primarily for his 9th-century account of the latter journey, kitâb al-buldân (Book of the countries), in which he provides some of the earliest detailed information about the western Maghrib including descriptions of the Sous. Yassine, Cheikh Abdeslam [shaykh ‘abd al-salâm yâsîn]. Born in September 1928, Yassine received his primary education in a school founded in Marrakech by muHamad mukhtar al-sûsî and then at age 15 entered Ibn Youssef University where he studied for four years. In 1947, he attended the teacher training institute in Rabat and then in 1948 began teaching in El-Jadida followed by two years at the Kasbah school in Marrakech. From 1952-1925 he taught Arabic in the Lycée Mohammed V in Marrakech and did well on the school inspector exam and became a school inspector in Casablanca in October 1955. In subsequent years he held similar appointments in Beni Mellal and Marrakech but also pursued various additional teacher training opportunities in Morocco and abroad (France, Tunisia, Algeria, and the United States). In 1974 Yassine published a letter to Hassan II, in which he called on him to give up his corrupt ways and return to a true practice of Islam. The letter earned him three years and six months in prison without trial. In March 1978, he was freed but forbidden from giving sermons in any mosque. Yassine has been the figurehead and philosophical force behind one of Morocco’s largest Islamist groups, the ‘adl wa-l-iHsân (Justice and Charity), which is banned as a political party due to its opposition to the monarchy but is nevertheless a major social force. In February 1979, Yassine collaborated on the publication of the first issue of majalat al jamâ‘a, which was censored on the 5th, 10th, and 16th of the month and then was banned. In December 1983, Yassine was imprisoned because of the content of the first issue of al-SubH and was sentenced, after three months in prison without trial, to two years and fined 5,000 dirhams. In December 1985, Yassine was freed from jail, but on 30 December 1989 he was placed under house arrest. This arrest lasted until 10 May 2000 when the minister of interior informed the Chamber of Representatives that Yassine’s house arrest had been lifted and that he was free go out and associate with others. On the 9 of May 2000 (Friday), Yassine left his house and prayed in the ben sa‘îd mosque. Yassine’s house arrest provided him plenty of time for writing, and his reputation is now well established as an Islamic thinker who advocates an Islamic state and takes a critical (caustic) stance toward the Western system. His movement, ‘adl wa-l-iHsân, may be less misogynistic than other Islamist movements, but it takes a very hard line against the legitimacy of the current political structure. His numerous books make his case in detail: al-islâm bayna al-da‘wa wa-ldawla—“Islam between the Convocation and the State” (1971), al-

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islam ghadan—“Islam Tomorrow” (1972), al-islâm ’aw al-Tûfân— “Islam or the Deluge” (1974), La révolution à l’heure de l’islam (1980), Pour un dialogue islamique avec l’élite occidentalisée (1980), al-minhaj al-nabawî tarbiya wa-tanZîmân wa-zahfan—“The Prophet’s Program: Education and Organization and Advance” (1982), al-islâm wa-taHadî al-mârksiya al-lînînîya—“Islam and the Marxist-Leninist Turn” (1987), muqadimât fî-l-minhâj—“Introduction to the Program” (1989), al-islâm wa-l qawmiya al-’ilmâniya—“Islam and the Layman’s Nation” (1989), naZarât fî-l-fiqh wa-târîkh—“Reflections on Jurisprudence and History” (1990), shadharât—poetry (1992), miHnat al-‘aql al-muslim bayna siyadat al-wahî wa-sayTarat al-hawâ— “Vocation of the Muslim Mind between the Grip of Inspiration and the Dominion of Passion” (1994), Hiwâr ma‘â al-fuDalâ’ aldimuqrâtîyîn—“Conversations with the Learned Democrats” (1994), risâlat tadhkîr—“Memento Letters” (1995) (the first from a series of rasâ’il al-iHsân—“Charitable letters”). ya‘Ta, ‘alî. Once a student of Abdellah Guennoun, ‘alî ya‘Ta became the leader of the Moroccan communist party. ‘alî ya‘Ta was so much in disfavor at one point that an interview with him published in the daily Maroc-Informations (24-25 April 1966) was sufficient to get the paper closed down permanently on the following day. In an editorial on 29 March 1963 (in the party paper al-mukâfiH) ‘alî ya‘Ta lamented that Morocco would be likely to remain party to military efforts directed against the independence of other peoples. The measure thus of Moroccan attachment to the territory of the former Spanish Sahara is perhaps that in 1973 it was ‘alî ya‘ta who set in march, through a much discussed letter to mawlây al-Hasan II, a Moroccan diplomatic offensive to respond to the formation of the Front Polisario by pushing Morocco’s claims to the area. In 1996, ‘alî ya‘ta still headed the communist party in Morocco, under its current incarnation, the Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme (PPS). Widely respected for his patriotism, willingness to negotiate, and wisdom, ‘alî ya‘Ta (sometimes referred to simply as sî ‘alî) died on 13 August 1997 at the age of 76. Yata, Fahd. Born 10 July 1952 in Paris, Yata is an influential newspaper director and editor as well as a university professor. Yata pursued his studies at Lycée Lyautey in Casablanca and in Paris. He earned a licence in law, a maîtrise in political science, diplôme d’études approfondies (DEA) in political science, and a doctorate in international relations from Université de Paris I Panthéon La Sorbonne (1978-1979). Yata edited (as rédacteur-editorialiste) alBayane (1979-1985), and then became editor in chief of Tijavis-CIDC (1986-1988), editor in chief of Enjeux (1989-1991), information director for 2M (1991-1992), and editor in chief of La vie Economique (1992-1995). He has been the director of La Nouvelle Tribune since 1994. Yata is also a professor and researcher at the Université Hassan II, Faculté de Droit.

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El Yazghi, Mohamed. Born 28 September 1935 in Fès, El Yazghi pursued his primary and secondary education in Fès and Rabat and received his baccalauréat from Collège Moulay Youssef and Lycée Goureaud in Rabat. El Yazghi studied at the Ecole Nationale d’Administration in Paris and received a licence in law from the Faculté de Droit in Rabat. He served as head of the Bureau du budget de l’équipement in the finance ministry. From 1975 to 981 El Yazghi was director of the Arab daily newspaper Al Mouharrer, and from 1977 to 1993 he was secretary-general of the Syndicat national de la presse marocaine and director of the French newspaper Libération. El Yazghi was elected as deputy for Kénitra (1977-1983 and 1984-1992) and was the Conseiller municipal of Rabat from 1983 to 1992. He was elected deputy for Rabat in 1993 and reelected in 1997. El Yazghi also worked for the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP) as a member of the Conseil national (1962-1972) and the Commission administrative nationale (1972-1975). He was elected to the political bureau in 1975 and became premier secrétaire-adjoint of the political bureau in 1992. On 14 March 1998, El Yazghi joined the cabinet with an environment portfolio (ministre chargé de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’environnement et de l’urbanisme, which changed in 2002 to ministre de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’eau et de l’environnement). When El Youssoufi resigned in November 2003, El Yazghi became secretary-general of the USFP. Youssoufi, Abderrahmane. Born in 1924, Youssoufi was a companion of Mehdi Ben Barka and a member of the early leftist resistance to the reinstatement of the monarchy. Youssoufi was a founding member of the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (UNFP) and was imprisoned in 1963 for “atteinte à la sûreté de l’Etat” and then exiled in France. There he worked with the resistance and once (1973) characterized the monarchy as an absolutist power aggravated by the pseudo-function of representing God on earth (Le Monde 30.10.03). Youssoufi returned to Morocco in the 1980s and was elected to lead the Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP) in 1992, a position he held until 2003. When Hassan II initially tried to set up a government of “alternance consensuelle,” which would bring the opposition into a more supporting role, Youssoufi went to France in protest. Yet he returned to Morocco, in what must be seen as a conversion from idealism to pragmatism, and accepted the position of prime minister in March 1998 (committing to support the monarch and work with him in the country’s interest) thus assuring a peaceful transition when Hassan II was succeeded by Mohammed VI. Youssoufi continued as prime minister in the government of September 2000 and was followed as prime minister by Driss Jettou (beginning in September 2002). Abderrahmane Youssoufi retired both from parliament and from the leadership of the USFP (see El Yazghi) in October 2003.

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al-yûsî, al-Hasan. abû ‘alî al-Hasan bn mas‘ûd bn muHammad bn ‘alî bn yûsuf bn dâwûd bn yadrâsan al-bûHaddîwî or al-Hasan al-yûsî is said to have been perhaps the greatest Moroccan scholar (Lakhdar 1971:95), and, rather unusually for a scholar, since his death he has been widely venerated as a saint. Born in 1040H (1630/1) in the Ait Yusi tribe south of Fès, he studied in sijilmâsa, the Draa, the Sous, and Marrakech and ended up teaching in the dilâ’ zâwiya from around 1650 until it was destroyed by mawlây al-rashîd (18 June 1668). Thereupon he became a teacher at the qarawîyîn for five years. He then left to teach briefly in Marrakech at the mosque of the shurafâ’ and then spent the rest of his life in various pilgrimages to the mashriq (Middle East), dying in Morocco on his return from a pilgrimage on 10 September 1691. His tomb in Tamazzazt near Sefrou is itself a noted pilgrimage site. al-yûsî wrote numerous books (at least forty-eight), some of which have been lost, but one of considerable historical interest is his muHâdarât (discussions), which takes the form of notes on various subjects and people (scholars and saints). It includes extensive discussion of 17th-century intellectual quarrels and observations of all sorts about 17th-century society. al-yûsî also wrote literature, poetry, legal commentaries, a work on logic, and theological commentaries, all of which are considered to be of great merit. A biography is available in French (Berque 1958c) as well as discussions of his ideas in Arabic (e.g., al-mudaghrî 1989).

-Zal-zabâdî, ‘abd al-majîd. abû muHammad ‘abd al-majîd bn ‘alî bn maHammad bn ‘alî al-manâlî al-zabâdî al-Hasanî al-Sûfî al-fâsî died in Fès on 16 July 1750 of plague. A poet and physician, he was initiated into both the qâsîmîya zâwiya of the saint aHmad al-sûsî and the ‘îsâwîya zâwiya of saint maHammad ibn ‘îsâ. His most significant work for historians is his lengthy and detailed account of his travels, bulûgh al-marâm bi-l-riHla ilâ bayt allâh al-Harâm (The attainment of aspirations in travel to the sacred house of God), which provides a detailed guide to pilgrims hoping to make the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina from geographical information to juridical, historical, biographical, and lexicographic information. His second work of value to historians is his biography of saint ibn ‘abbâd, ifâdat al-murâd bi-lta‘rîf bi-l-shaykh ibn ‘abbâd (The intended utility of knowledge about shaykh ibn ‘abbâd). See also Maraboutic traditions. Zafrani, Haïm. Born in Essaouira in 1922, Haïm Zafrani, an emiritus professor at the Université de Paris VIII, died in Paris after a long illness on 31 March 2004 and was buried in the Montparnasse cemetery. Haïm Zafrani was a teacher and Arabic language inspector in Morocco until he became professor of Hebrew at the Ecole des

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Langues Orientales in Paris (1962) as well as subsequently at the CNRS and the Université de Paris VIII. Haïm Zafrani received a diploma in classical Arabic (Université de Rabat), a diploma in Hebrew Languages (University of Jerusalem), and a doctorat in Etudes orientales, specializing in law and economics (Université de Rabat). At the Université de Paris VIII, Haïm Zafrani headed the Department of Hebrew Language and Jewish Civilization as well as two research groups. Haïm Zafrani influenced many through his teaching and publication and became known both for his prodigious scholarship and his eloquent advocacy of cultural pluralism rooted in profound intercultural linkages. Haïm Zafrani directed many theses on North African languages and culture but he was also an ardent activist who worked for peace in the Middle East and cultural pluralism in Morocco. This activism went back as far as 1941 when in a press release Haïm Zafrani supported Mohammed V’s position, in opposition to the Vichy regime, that the Jews of Morocco were under the sultan’s protection. Haïm Zafrani was also active in the Union Marocaine du Travail (UMT) after independence. Haïm Zafrani published sixteen books and more than 200 articles in an illustrious career that established him as France and Morocco’s foremost scholar of the language, law, literature, poetry, religion, and culture of North African Jews. His many publications (in French, Arabic, and Spanish) were distinguished both by their acute cultural insights and by their extraordinarily rich cultural and historical detail. Haïm Zafrani received the Neuman Distinguished Scholar Award (1982-3), the Yad Ishak Ben-Zvi Prize (1985), the Prix Grand Atlas de la Création (1999), and the Prix du Maghreb (2001). He was a member of the Académie du Royaume du Maroc and a fellow of the Institut for Advanced Studies of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. Zahidi Alaoui, Moulay Zine. Born in 1935 in Marrakech, Zahidi Alaoui was president and director general of Crédit Immobilier et Hôtelier (CIH) (1994-1998). Zahidi Alaoui finished his studies at the Grandes Ecoles de Toulouse (1957-1958) and the Ecole nationale supérieure des industries agricoles et alimentaires in Paris (1959-1962). He received a diploma in engineering. Zahidi Alaoui also served as director general of Sucrerie des Doukkala (1969-1973) and director general of COSUMAR in 1980. In 1983, he was named minister for employment (de l’emploi et de la promotion nationale). He also served as miniter of economic affairs (1985-1991) and commerce minister (du commerce de l’industrie et de la privatisation) from 1992 to 1993. Zahidi Alaoui was also president of the Fédération des secteurs bancaires et financiers and of the Confédération générale des entreprises marocaines. zanâta. On the eve of the Islamic conquest, the zanâta Berber confederation was a major force in the plateau region from Tripolitania to the Moulouya valley, where its homeland was said to be. Some zanâta groups were also to be found in the Marrakech region and the

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Sous. From the 8th to the 11th century a zanâta tribe, the maghrâwa, played an important role controlling the triangle from Fès to Tlemcen to sijilmâsa, except for various interludes when they were displaced by the Idrisids and the Fatimids. The Almoravids, a SanHâja Berber movement, finally supplanted them in northeastern Morocco. In the 13th century another zanâta tribe, the banû marîn, founded the Marinid dynasty, which, despite (or perhaps in compensation for) its lack of sharifan lineage, was to foster one of the cultural high points in Moroccan history from its capital in Fès. Today most of the Rif Berber groups are said to be of zanâta affiliation. al-zarhûnî, jîlâlî bn drîss al-yûsfî. See bû Hmâra. zarrûq. abû al-‘abbâs aHmad bn aHmad bn muHammad bn ‘îsâ albarnûsî, known as zarrûq (b.1442/3), was born in Fès and lost his parents within a few days of his birth. His father, a seller of vegetables, left him nothing, and zarrûq began life as a shoemaker. He acquired a rigorous education in fiqh (jurisprudence) and taSawwuf (sufism) somewhat later than might otherwise have been the case, but his early life undoubtedly explains his passion for justice. He devoted himself to teaching, and through the institution of the pilgrimage, which he completed many times, he regularly paused a while in the mashriq (Middle East) to teach. His courses at the al-Azhar mosque in Cairo were said to have been attended by 600 students. The focus of his dual interest in jurisprudence and sufism was to decry the excesses of extremists in each specialty, literalists and religious zealots, and argue for justice and against all forms of corruption. He made a vigorous lifelong argument for orthodox law (sharî‘a) at both the political and social levels. zarrûq’s extant written work is abundant (some forty works) and varied. The bulk is of historical interest only to specialists in fiqh and taSawwuf, but a number of works are of more general interest. The first of these is a kunnâsh (notebook) that amounts to an autobiography by zarrûq and provides substantial details on zarrûq’s travels, life, education, and social milieu. A major work of general interest is zarrûq’s al-nuSH al-anfa‘ wa-l-junna bi-man i‘taSam min al-bida‘ bisunna (useful council and protection from whomever resorts to innovation in the sunna). This treatise deals with heresies and heretical practices (collectively viewed as innovations) and as such provides specific details that are of real value in understanding the period. A somewhat narrower work is his kitâb al-naSîHa (book of advice), which treats various subjects, including several chapters devoted to the relations between wives and their husbands, in sufficient detail to significantly illuminate many social customs of the time. Another work of some historical importance is his waSîya (advice), which consists of a set of instructions to neophyte sufis admonishing them in effect to not blindly believe everything their shaykh tells them and instead to realize that human beings are never infallible. The same message is sent in

364

zâwiya

more specific form in another work, al-uSûl wa-l-fuSûl al-badî‘a wa-lmabâni al-rafî‘a (legal principles, the infallible judgement of the creator, and the foundations of legal cases). zâwiya. A census in 1975 indicated that the nâSirîya zawiya of Tamgrout had 1,200 irrigated hectares and 35,000 date palms included in its habous lands. Most of these presumably were acquired in the 17th to 18th centuries and correspond to about 5 percent of the locally irrigable lands (Michel 1997:351). Pascon suggests that at its height the zâwiya in Tamesloht (west of Marrakech) had about 2,500 irrigated hectares representing about 3.6 percent of the locally available irrigable lands (Pascon 1983 and Michel 1997:351). These fairly representative numbers for larger zâwiyas generally correspond to the number of people linked to the zâwiyas as well. Zâwiyas held lands as habous (waqf) and typically worked the lands with a mixture of sharecroppers (khammâs), slaves, and people who though free had few rights of their own. The former, generally referred to as ‘azzâba (singular: ‘azib), were tied to the land (often they or their ancestors were given to the zawiya) and did not have the right to leave but retained the right to pass on usufruct of land to their heirs. In this sense they resembled tenants in many parts of Europe, particularly on ecclesiastical estates. In return for working the land, they retained a portion of the harvest (typically a fifth). Strangers (afâqiyîn) and refugees (mzâwig) from harsh conditions or persecution elsewhere, i.e., non-locals, also worked the zâwiya lands and generally held a status in practice, if not name, of something close to slaves. They had even fewer rights, including no general right to pass on land to their descendants. They might in practice do the same agricultural work as ‘azzâba or they might work as servants. The sharîf held the land either in his own right or, in more centralized areas, as a grant from the sultan. Thus, leaving without permission was an offense, first, against the saint and then often, second, against the sultan (Michel 1997:357ff). al-zayyânî, abû l-qâsim bn aHmad. abû l-qâsim bn aHmad bn ‘ali bn ibrâhim al-zayyânî was born in Fès in 1147H (1734/5) and died in the same city roughly a century later on 17 November 1833 where he was buried in the nâSirîya zâwiya of the al-siyâj quarter. al-zayyânî was an adept of the occult sciences (magic, divination, alchemy) who traveled extensively throughout his life and who in retrospect may have been the greatest premodern Moroccan historian. He frequently met with bad luck in his travels and was repeatedly imprisoned by mawlây yazîd but spent much of his long life in high public office as imperial secretary, negotiator vis-à-vis Berber tribes in revolt, ambassador to the Ottoman court, governor of sijilmâsa, vizier and chamberlain. In his later years he still traveled and wrote incessantly despite having accumulated many possessions, including a personal harem of black concubines.

zaynab al-nafzâwiya

365

Half of his twenty works dealt with history or geography. His historical opus ran to seven works. The most famous is a general history from the creation of the world to the 19th century, al-turjumân al-mu‘rib ‘an duwal al-mashriq wa-l-maghrib (The lucid interpreter of the worlds of the orient and maghrib), the latter part of which (1631-1812) has been translated into French by Octave Houdas (alzayyânî 1969). This chronicle borrows some of its precision from muHammad al-qâdirî’s nashr al-mathânî but includes data from many other sources as well including many firsthand accounts of the longlived and well-placed al-zayyânî himself. His other historical works are less well known. These encompass a history of the ‘Alawite dynasty, al-bustân al-Zarîf fî dawlat awlâd mawlây ‘alî al-sharîf, also titled al-rawDa al-sulaymânîya fî mulûk aldawla al-ismâ‘îlîya wa-man taqaddamahâ min al-duwal al-islâmîya, a genealogy of the shurafâ’ in the Maghrib, tuHfat al-Hâdî al-muTrib fî raf‘ nasab shurafâ’ al-maghrib, two works dealing with conspirators against mawlây sulaymân (c.1821), tuHfat al-nubahâ’ fi-tafriqa bayn al-fuqahâ’ and maqâma fî dhamm al-rijâl..., a history of the reign of mawlây sulaymân, al-tâj wa-l-iklîl fî ma’âthir al-sulTân al-jalîl sulaymân bn muHammad bn ‘abd allâh bn ismâ‘îl, and an addendum to his al-turjumân bringing it up to date, takmîl al-turjumân fî khilâfat mawlânâ ‘abd al-raHmân. al-zayyânî also wrote three geographical works of clear interest to historians. The first, riHlat al-Hudhdhâq li-mushâhadat al-buldân wal-âfâq, was a critical general geographical survey. The second, alturjumâna al-kubrâ allatî jama‘at akhbâr mudun al-‘âlam barran wabahran, relates his three voyages outside of Morocco. The third, ibâhat al-udabâ’ wa-l-nuHât li-l-jam‘ bayn al-akhwât al-thalâth, focuses on his third voyage. Of interest as well is a treatise on politics intended for the usage of heads of state, risâlat al-sulûk fî mâ yajibu ‘alâ-l-mulûk. zaynab al-nafzâwiya. When the Berber Almoravids entered on the conquest of Morocco, the kingdom of Aghmât, between the Sous and Marrakech, had a wide influence. After Taroudannt was captured, Aghmât was taken and its king killed. In most accounts only the name of his queen is remembered, zaynab al-nafzâwiya, who was as renowned for her beauty and intelligence as for her magic. She married first abû bakr, the conquering commander, and then when he went south to fight off rebels in the Sahara she obtained a divorce and married yûsuf bn tâshafîn whom she helped to become and remain the conqueror of Morocco. When abû bakr returned intending to resume command, at zaynab’s advice, he was fobbed off with gifts and sent back to the Sahara. The debt owed by the greatest Almoravid commander to his extraordinary wife would be difficult to overestimate.

366

Zenined, Abdeslam

Zenined, Abdeslam. Born in Ouezzane in 1934, Zenined received a degree in literature from the University of Bordeau and a diploma from the Institut des études internationales de Genève. Joining the ministry of foreign affairs in 1959, he has served as Moroccan Ambassador to Iraq, to the United Kingdom, and to Russia. He was directeur de cabinet for M’hamed Zghari (Ministre d’état) from 1965 to 1967, secretary-general in the ministry of information from 1967 to 1972, secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre, chargé des affaires générales (1974-1979), and minister of tourism (1979 to February 1980). Zenined was elected as a deputy for the Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI) in 1977 and 1980. He then became secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des affaires maghrébines et arabes (1998-2000) and minister of transportation (et de la marine marchande) from September 2000 to November 2002. Zeroual, Abdelkebir. Born in 1945 in Tiflet, Zeroual received his primary education at Sidi Allal Bahraoui (1957-1959) and Abou Chouaïb Addoukkali in El-Jadida (1959-1961) and his secondary education at Collège Mohamed Rafy in El-Jadida (1961-1962), Collège Abou Chouaïb Addoukkali in El-Jadida (1962-1964), and Lycée Ibn Khaldun in El-Jadida (1964-1967). Zeroual also studied at the Faculté des Sciences juridiques, économiques et sociales de Rabat and Université Jean Moulin de Lyon III (France). He received a baccalauréat in 1967, licence in law in 1970, diplôme d’études supérieures in law (droit privé) in 1975, and a doctorat d’Etat in law in 1985. Zeroual started his career as the chef de bureau at the Companie Générale Immobilière (CGI), a branch of the Caisse de Dépôt et de Gestion (CDG) (1970-1971). From 1972 to 1973, he joined the Office Chérifien des Phosphates (OCP) as chargé des études at the Département Documentation Juridique. Zeroual also started teaching as an assistant professor at the Faculté des Sciences Juridiques, Economiques et Sociales in Rabat, Académie Royale Militaire in Meknès (1974-1994), and many other institutions such as ENA and the ministry of interior’s Ecole de Perfectionnement des Cadres. He was also a director in charge of preparing human rights cases at the ministry for human rights (1994-1997). Zeroual is a founding member of the Organisation Marocaine des Droits de l’Homme (OMDH) and a member of the Centre Marocain des Etudes Juridiques (CMEJ). He has published a number of works such as Les augmentations de capital dans les sociétés anonyms (1974) and La distribution au Maroc, adéquation ou inadéquation au développement (1990). Zerouali, Ouariti Najib. Born 15 May 1950 in Fès, Zerouali received a doctorat in medicine in Rabat (1975), a certificat in general surgery in Nancy (1979), and a diploma (réparation juridique du dommage corporel) from the Institut Médico-Légal de Nancy (1981). He began work at the Faculté de Médecine de Casablanca, becoming maîtreassistant of surgery (1979), professeur agrégé of surgery (1985), head

Zhiri, Kacem

367

of the anatomy laboratory (1986), head of emergency surgery (viscérales et brûlés) and head of emergency services (1986), vicedoyen de la faculté (1989), and doyen de la faculté (1992). Zerouali has also served as vice president of the Fondation marocaine de recherche médicale, and président of the Conférence des doyens et des directeurs des instituts et facultés de médecine du Maghreb. On 14 March 1998, Zerouali became minister of higher education (as well as de la formation des cadres et de la recherche scientifique) and was renewed in this post in 2000 and 2002. Zerouali has been a member of the Rassemblement National des Indépendants (RNI). Zhiri, Kacem. Born in 1920 in Salé, Zhiri studied at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes in Rabat. He participated in the nationalist movement and was arrested by the colonial authorities and exiled to the southern part of the country. During his fight against colonialism he emerged in the national scene through his journalistic contributions and became editor in chief of the newspaper Al-Maghreb. Zhiri was among the nationalists who signed the manifesto of independence in 1944. he became the secretary of the Doukkala section of the istiqlâl party and founded a private school in El-Jadida. In 1949, he became the editor in chief of the newspaper Al-Alam, an active member of the istiqlâl party, and member of its executive committee. After independence, Zhiri became director of Al-Alam. Zhiri was also nominated ambassador to Senegal (1961), Yugoslavia (1962), Algeria (1964), and was a permanent delegate to the Ligue des Etats Arabes at the European Geneva Office of the United Nations (1966). In 1968, he became minister of secondary and technical education and then ministre au Cabinet Royal. In 1970, he became ambassador to Mauritania. During 1972-1976, he served as ambassador to China before being elected secrétaire général-adjoint of the Organization of the Islamic Conference in Jeddah.

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Appendix Dynasties and Governments 1. Ruling Dynasties during the Islamic Era Idrisid Dynasty (788-959) midrârids of sijilmâsa (823-977) maghrâwa of Fès (987-1069) Almoravids (1073-1147) Almohads (1130-1269) Marinids in Fès (1258-1420) Wattasids in Fès (1420-1550) Sa‘dian Dynasty (1548-1659) ‘Alawite Dynasty (1664-present)

371 371 372 373 373 374 375 376 376 378

2. Major Pretenders

380

3. Spanish Protectorate High Commissioners (1913-1956)

380

4. French Protectorate Governor Generals

381

5. Governments since Independence Government I: 7 December 1955-25 October 1956 Government II: 28 October 1956-16 April 1958 Government III: 12 May 1958-3 December 1958 Government IV: 24 May 1958-21 May 1960 Government V: 26 May 1960-26 February 1961 Government VI: 26 February 1961-2 June 1961 Government VII: 2 June 1961-5 January 1963 Government VIII: 5 January 1963-13 November 1963 Government IX: 13 November 1963-8 June 1965 Government X: 8 June 1965-6 July 1967 Government XI: 6 July 1967-4 August 1971 Government XII: 6 August 1971-5 April 1972 Government XIII: 12 April 1972-20 November 1972 Government XIV: 20 November 1972-10 October 1977 Government XV: 10 October 1977-27 March 1979 Government XVI: 27 March 1979-5 November 1979 Government XVII: 5 November 1981-30 November 1983

381 382 382 383 383 384 384 385 385 387 389 392 393 394 396 396 397

369

370

Appendix

Government XVIII: 30 November 1983-11 April 1985 Government XIX: 11 April 1985-11 August 1992 Government XX: 11 August 1992-11 November 1993 Government XXI: 11 November 1993-25 May 1994 Government XXII: 7 June 1994-31 January 1995 Government XXIII: 27 February 1995-13 August 1997 Government XXIV: August 13 1997-March 1998 Government XXV: 14 March 1998-6 September 2000 Government XXVI: 6 September 2000-7 November 2002 Government XXVII: 7 September 2002-7 June 2004 Government XXVIII: 8 June 20046. Index of Government Officials since Independence

398 399 400 401 402 402 404 404 405 406 407 408

Appendix

371

Dynasties and Governments This appendix summarizes the governments in Morocco from the late 8th century to the early 21st century. We include a basic genealogy for each governing dynasty as well as a succession list. For the protectorate period we have included lists of the Spanish high commissioners and the French governor generals. From Independence (1956) on, our coverage is more thorough: we list each government with its key officials. We have included as full a list of key offficials as we have been able, but it seems clear that records are more complete for later governments than for earlier ones. It is not simply the case that administrations have inflated over the years. The final sections provides an alphabetized list of the ofiicials in the postcolonial governments and a guide to administrative divisions.

Ruling Dynasties during the Islamic Era Key: R: reign begins, reign ends (when different from start of new reign) D: dies in office or dies later but same year reign ends d: date of death when details of reign unclear N.B. Occasionally a new city proclaims a sultan so a new more inclusive reign begins at a second date.

Idrisid Dynasty (788-959)

Idrisid (788-959)

1 2 3 4

‘umar 5 6

7

al-qâsim idrîs 9

8

muHammad 10

11 12

1. idrîs I b. ‘abd allah

R. 172H/788

13

372

Appendix

2. idrîs II R. 188/803 3. muHammad 4. ‘alî (Hadara) 5. yaHyâ I 6. yaHyâ II 7. ‘alî b. ‘umar b. idrîs II 8. yaHyâ III b. al-qâsim b.idrîs II al-‘addam 9. yaHyâ IV b. idrîs b. ‘umar b. idrîs II

R. 177/793 R. 213/828 R. 221/836 R. 234/848

D. 292/904-5 R. 292/904-5-309/921

10. Hasan b. muHammad b. al-qâsim b. idrîs II, al-Hajjâm 11. al-qâsim, jannûn 12. aHmad, abû l-‘aysh 13. al-Hasan bn qanûn

R. 310/922 D. 337/948 R. 337/948-348/959

midrârids of sijilmâsa (823-977)

midrârid (823-977) 1 2 3

sârû

4 5 10

6

7 8 9,11 12

1. abû mâlik al-muntaSir b. al-yasa‘ 2. maymûn b. thaqîya, al-amîr 3. muHammad b. maymûn 4. al-yasa‘ b. al-muntaSir b. al-yasa‘ 5. wâsûl, al-fatH 6. aHmad b. maymûn b. thaqîya 7. muHammd b. sârû al-mu‘tazz 8. abû-l-muntaSir b. al-mu‘tazz 9. al-muntaSir samgû b. muHammad 10. ibn wâsûl, regent 11. al-muntaSir samgû b. muHammad 12. muHammad b. al-fatH wâsûl b. maymûn al-amîr

(d. 867) (d. 876/7) (d. 884) (d. 909) (d. 913) (d. 921) (d. 933/4) (d. 942/3) (942/3: a child) (942-958) (d. 963) (d. 976/7)

Appendix

maghrâwa of Fès (987-1069)

maghrâwa (987-1069) ‘aTiyya 1

al-mu ’iz

2

3

mu‘ansar

4

Hammâd

5a

5b

6 7

One lineage with two branches: I. muHammad b. khazar ‘abd allah ‘aTiyya 1. zîri b. ‘aTiyya 2. al-mu‘iz (b. zîrî) b.‘aTiyya mu‘anSar Hammâd b. al-mu’iz b. ‘aTiyya 6. mu‘anSar b. Hammâd b. mu‘anSar b. al-mu‘iz b. ‘aTiyya 7. tamîm II. muHammad b. khazar ‘abd allah ‘aTiyya al-mu‘iz 3. Hamâma b. al-mu‘iz b. ‘aTiyya 4. dûnâs b. Hamâma 5. fatûh b. dûnâs 5. ‘ajîza b. dûnas

R. 377H/987 D. 391/1001 R. 391/1001 D. 417/1026 (435/1043) R. 455/1063 D. 460/1067 R. 460/1067 D. 462/1069

R. 417/1026 D. 424/1032 R. 429/1037-8 D. 440/1049 R. 440/1049 D. 452/1060 R. 452 / 1060 D. 454/1062 R. 452 / 1062 D. 455/1063

Almoravids (1073-1147) 1. yûsuf b. tâshfîn 2. ‘alî b. yûsuf 3. tâshfîn b. ‘alî

R. 465H/1073 or 1069 R. 500/1106 R. 537/1142 D. 1145

373

374

Appendix

4. ibrâhîm b. tâshfîn 5. isHâq b. ‘alî

R. 541/1146-7

Almoravid (1073-1147) tâshafîn yûsuf 2 3

4

5

Almohads (1130-1269) Almohad (1130-1269)

1 2

isHaq

‘umar 3 ‘abd almu'min

12

1. ‘abd al-mu’mîn b. ‘alî 2. yûsuf I, abû ya‘qûb 3. ya‘qûb, abû yûsuf al-manSûr 4. muHammad, al-nâSir 5. yûsuf II, al-muntaSir 6. ‘abd al-wâHid b. yûsuf I al makhlû‘ 7. ‘abd allâh b. al-manSûr al-‘âdil 8. yaHyâ b. al-nâSir al-mu‘taSim 9. idrîs b. al-manSûr al-mâmûn 10. ‘abd al-wâHid al-rashîd 11. ‘alî as-sa‘îd 12. ‘umar b. isHâq b. yûsuf I al-murtaDâ 13. idrîs b. muHammad b. ‘umar b. ‘abd al-mu’min abû dabbûs

13

4 8

6 7

5

9 10

11

R. 524/1130 D. 558/1163 R. 558/1163 D. 580/1184 R. 580/1184 D. 595/1199 R. 595/1199 D. 610/1213 R. 610/1213 D. 620/1223 R. 620/1223 D. 620/1224 R. 620/1224 D. 624/1227 R. 624/1227 D. 624/1227 R. 624/1227 D. 630/1232 R. 630/1232 D. 640/1242 R. 640/1242 D. 646/1248 R. 646/1248 D. 665/1266 R. 665/1266 D. 668/1269 (d. 674/1276)

Appendix

Marinids in Fès (1258-1420)

Marinid (1258-1420)

1 2 3

5 4

6 10

13

15

14

11

7

12

18 8

9

16

19 17

20

1. ya‘qûb, abû yûsuf; al-manSûr 2. yûsuf, abû ya‘qûb; al-nâSir 3. ‘amir b. ‘abd allah b. yûsuf; abû thâbit 4. sulaymân, abû rabî‘ 5. ‘uthmân II b. ya‘qûb, abû sa‘îd 6. ‘alî, abû l-Hasan 7. fâris, abû ‘inân 8. muhammad, abû zayyân I 9. abû bakr, al-sa‘îd I 10. ibrâhîm b. ‘alî, abû sâlim 11. tâshfîn, abû ‘umar 12. muHammad b. ya‘qûb b. ‘alî, abû zayyân; al-munTaSir 13. ‘abd al-‘azîz I b. ‘alî, abû fâris 14. muHammad abû zayyân; al-sa‘îd II 15. aHmad b. ibrâhîm abû l-‘abbâs; al-mustanSir 16. mûsâ b. fâris abû fâris; al-mutawakkil 17. muHammad b. aHmad abû zayyân al-muntaSir 18. muHammad b. abî l-fadl b. ‘alî abû zayyân; al-wâthiq 19. aHmad b. ibrâhîm abû l-‘abbâs; al-mustanSir 20. ‘abd al-‘azîz II b. aHmad abû fâris 21. ‘abd allah abû ‘âmir 22. ‘uthmân III abû sa‘îd

21

22

R. 656/1258 R. 685/1286 R. 706/1307 R. 708/1308 R. 710/1310 R. 731/1331 R. 749/1348 R. 759/1358 R. 759/1358 R. 760/1359 R. 762/1361 R. 763/1361 R. 767/1366 R. 774/1372 R. 775/1373 R. 786/1384 R. 788/1386 R. 788/1386 R. 789/1387 R. 796/1393 R. 799/1396 R. 800/1398 D. 823/1420

375

376

Appendix

Wattasids in Fès (1420-1550)

Wattasids in Fes (1420-1550) 1 a

3

4

muHammad al-nâsir

Regents yaHyâ I b. zayyân, ‘alî b. yûsuf b. manSûr b. zayyân yaHyâ II b. yaHyâ I

823/1420-863/1458 863/1458 D. 863/1458

Sultans muHammad ash-shaykh muHammad al-burtughâlî ‘alî bû Hassûn aHmad b. muHammad al-burtughâlî

R. 876/1471 D. 911/1505 R. 911/1505 D. 931/1524 R. 931/1524 D. 961/1554 R. 931/1524 D. 955/1548 R. 955/1548 D. 957/1550

Sa‘dian Dynasty (1548-1659) aHmad, “al-a‘arj” Sous Marrakech 1. muHammad, ash-shaykh al-mahdî 2. ‘abdallah,al-ghâlib billâhi 3. muHammad, al-mutawakil ‘ala allah al-maslûkh

918H/3.1512-1513 923H/1517-1518 D. 951H/1544-1545 951H/1544-1545 R. 955/1548 D. 27.9.981H/20.10.1557, Fès R. 29.12.964/20.10.1557 D. 27.9.981/21.1.1574 R. 29.9.981/23.1.1574 - end 983/2.3.1576 D. 30.5.986/4.8.1578, Makhazin

Appendix 4. ‘abd al-mâlik, al-mu‘taSim billâhi al-ghâzi fî sabilillâhi

R. end 983/2.3.1576 D. 30.5.986/4.8.1578, Makhazin

5. aHmad, al-manSûr billâhi ‘al-dhahabî

R. 30.5.986/4.8.1578 D. 12.3.1012/20.8.1603, Makhazin

6. ‘abdallâh, abû fâris al-wâtiq billâhi

R. 13.3.1012 /21.8.1603, Marrakech

7. muHammad, al-shaykh al-mâmûn

R. 1012/1603-1604, Fès R. 1015/1606-1607, Marrakech R. 27.10.1015/25.2.1607, Marrakech 20.10.1017/27.1.1609, Fès D. 15.1.1037/26.9.1627 R. end 1.1037/end 9.1627 D. 6.8.1040/10.3.1631, Marrakech R. mid 8. 1040/mid 3.1631 D. 14.9.1045/21.2.1636

8. zidân, abû ma‘alî

9. ‘abd al-mâlik 10. al-wâlid b.naSir zidân 11. muHammad, al-shaykh al-aSghâr

R. 15.9.1045/22.2.1636 D. 27.3.1065/31.1.1655 R. 27.3.1065/31.1.1655, Marrakech D. 9.3.1070/24.11.1659, Marrakech

12. aHmad, al-‘abbâs

muHammad al-qâ’im aHmad "al-a‘raj"

Sa‘dian (1548-1659)

1 2 3

4

5 6

‘abd allah ‘abd al-mâlik

7

8 9

10

11 12

377

378

Appendix

‘Alawite Dynasty (1664-present) 1. rashîd b. al-sharîf

R. 9.1.1075/2.8.1664, Taza 1.4.1075/22.10.1664, Fès 30.3.1079/7.9.1668, Marrakech D. 12.10.1082/8.4.1672, Marrakech R. 15.10.1082/11.4.1672, Meknès-Fès D. 29.7.1139/22.3.1727, Meknès

2. ismâ‘îl b. al-sharîf

mawlay al-sharîf

‘Alawite (1664- )

1 9

2 8

7

6

5

4

10 11

12

13

14 15 16 17

18

19 20 21 22

3. aHmad, al-dhahabî

4. ‘abd al-mâlik b. ismâ‘îl

R. 29.7.1139 /22.3.1727, Meknès 8.1140/3-4.1728, Oued Beht D. 5.8.1141 / 5.3.1729 R. by 7.9.1139 / by 26.6.1727, Meknès 12.1140 / 7.1728 D. 1.8.1141 / 2.3.1729

3

Appendix 5. ‘abdallâh b. ismâ‘îl 6. ‘ali, abû al-Hasan, “al-a‘arj” 7. muHammad b.ismâ‘îl 8. al-mustaDî b.ismâ‘îl 9. zayn al-‘abidîn b.ismâ‘îl 10. muHammad b. ‘abdallâh, sîdî

11. yazîd b. muHammad Mouley b. Selham 12. hishâm b. muHammad

13. sulaymân b. muHammad 14. ‘abd al-raHmân b. hishâm

15. muHammad b. ‘abd al-raHmân

16. al-Hasan b. muHammad, “Hasan al-awwul”

17. ‘abd al-‘azîz b. al-Hasan 18. ‘abd al-Hafîdh b. al-Hasan

19. yûsuf b. al-Hasan 20. muHammad b. yûsuf, “muHammad al-khâmis” 21. al-Hasan b. muHammad, “al-Hasan al-thânî” 22. muHammad b. al-Hasan MuHammad VI

R. 8.1141/3.1729, five times D. 27.2.1171/10.11.1757, dethroned R. 4.1147 / 9.1734, Fès D. end 12.1149/end 4.1737, Fès R. 10.5.1150/5.9.1737, Fès 24.2.1151/13.6.1738, Fès R. 25.2.1151/13.6.1738 mid.11.1152/mid.2.1740, Meknès R. 3.1154 / 5-6.1741, Meknès 15.9.1154 / 25.11.1741 R. 27.2.1171/10.11.1757, Marrakech 1.3.1171/13.11.1757, Meknès D. 24.7.1204/9.4.1790, Rabat R. 24.7.1204/9.4.1790 D. 29.6.1206/23.2.1792, Marrakech R. 29.6.1206/23.2.1792, Marrakech 8.6.1212/29.11.1797, Safi D. 17.2.1214/11.8.1799, Marrakech R. beg.7.1206/end 2.1792, Moulay Idriss, Fès D. 13.3.1238/28.11.1822 R. 26.3.1238/11.12.1822, Marrakech D. 29.1.1276/28.8.1859, Meknès R. 3.2.1276/1.9.1859, Marrakech D. 18.7.1290/11.9.1873, Marrakech R. 27.7.1290/16.9.1873, Marrakech D. 3.12.1311/7.6.1894, Sraghna R. 5.12.1311/9.6.1896, Fès 14.7.1326/12.8.1908, Fès R. 7.7.1325/16.8.1907, Marrakech 14.7.1326/12.8.1908, Fès 28.8.1330/12.8.1912, Fès R. 28.8.1330/12.8.1912, Fès D. 23.5.1346/18.11.1927, Fès R. 23.5.1346/18.11.1927, Fès D. 15.9.1380/3.5.1961, Rabat R. 15.9.1380/3.5.1961, Rabat D. 23.7.1999 R. 23.7.1999 -

379

380

Appendix

Major Pretenders bû Hmâra, jilâlî al-isfî al-zarhûnî

R.7.1320/10.1902, Taza 7.1326/8.1909, Rif D. 13.08.1326/10.9.1909, Fès

mâ’ al-‘aynîn, muHammad R? 4.1328/5.1910, Tiznit D. 24.10.1328/29.10.1910, Tiznit al-hiba, aHmad R. 24.10.1328/29.10.1910, Tiznit D. 1.5.1336/12.2.1918, Kerdous murabbî rabbû, muHammad R.1.05.1336/12.02.1918, Kerdous D. Tafoudart muHammad b. ‘arafa al-‘alawi R. 4.12.1372/15.08.1953, Marrakech 10.12.1372/21.08.1953, Rabat 13.03.1375/30.10.1955, Rabat D. 21.07.1396/18.07.1976, Nice

Spanish Protectorate High Commissioners/Altos Comisarios of the Spanish Protectorate, 1913-1956 I. “Pacification” Period (1913-1927) Alfau, Gen. Felipe April 1913-August 1913 Marina y Vega, Gen. José August 1913-May 1915 Gómez Jordana, Gen. Manuel May 1915-November 1918 Berenguer Fuste, Gen. Damaso November 1918-July 1922 Burguete, Gen. Ricardo July 1922-February 1923 Silvela, Luis (civilian) February 1923-September 1923 Aizpuru, Gen. September 1923-October 1924 Primo de Ribera y Saenz de Heredia, Gen. Miguel October 1924-November 1925 Sanjurjo Sacanell, Gen José November 1925-June 1931 II. Period of the Spanish Republic (1931-1936) Lopez Ferrer, Luciano June 1931-Jan. 1933 Moles, S. January 1933-January 1934 Rico Avello, Manuel January 1934-May 1936 Alvarez Buylla, Arturo May 1936-July 1936 Post Vacant July 1936-December 1936 III. Period of Generalissimo Francisco Franco (1936-1956) Beigbeder Atienza, Gen. Juan December 1936-August 1939 Orgaz Y Yoldi, Gen. Luis August 1939-March 1945 Varela Iglesias, Gen José Enrique March 1945-March 1951 García-Valiño y Marcén, Lt. Gen Rafael March 1951-April 1956

Appendix

381

French Protectorate Governor Generals Ministres Résidents of the French Protectorate, 1912-1956: Lyautey, Gen. Alphonse-Hubert Gonsalve 28 April 1912-26 Sept. 1925 (General Gouraud 12 December 1916-15 March 1917 Steeg, Theodore 27 Sept. 1925-30 Dec. 1928 Saint, Lucien 1 Jan. 1929-July 1933 Ponsot, Henri July 1933-21 March 1936 Peyrouton, Marcel 21 March 1936-17 Sept.1936 Noguès, Gen. Henri 17 Sept. 1936-4 June1943 Puaux, Gabriel 7 June 1943-15 March. 1946 Labonné, Eirik 30 March 1946-13 May 1947 Juin, Gen. Alphonse 14 May 1947-28 August 1951 Guillaume, Gen. Augustin 28 August 1951-20 May 1954 Lacoste, François 20 May 1954-20 June 1955 Grandval, Gilbert 20 June 1955-30 August 1955 Latour, Gen. Pierre Boyer de 30 August 1955-11 November 1955 Dubois, André 11 November 1955-2 March 1956

Governments since Independence Government I: 7 December 1955-25 October 1956 Président du conseil: El Bakkaï Ben M’Barek El Hbil Vice-président du conseil: M’Hammed Zeghari Ministres d’état: Driss M’Hammedi Abderrahim Bouabid Mohammed Cherkaoui Ahmed Reda Guédira Ministre de la justice: El Hadj Abdelkrim Benjelloun Touimi Ministre de l’intérieur: Caïd Lahcen El Youssi Ministre des finances: Abdelkader Benjelloun Ministre des habous: Mohamed Mokhtar Soussi Ministre de l’instruction publique et des beaux arts: Mohamed Ben Abdeslem El Fassi Ministre des travaux publics: M’Hammed Douiri Ministre de l’agriculture: Ahmed Ben Mansour Njaï Ministre du commerce, de l’artisanat, du tourisme et de la marine marchande: Ahmed El Yazidi Ministre de la production industrielle et des mines: Thami El Ouazzani Ministre du travail et des questions sociales: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Ministre de la santé publique: Abdelmalek Fraj Ministre de l’urbanisme et de l’habitat: M’Hammed Ben Bouchaïb Secrétaire d’état à l’information attaché à la présidence du Conseil: Abdallah Ibrahim Secrétaire d’état à la jeunesse et aux sports: Ahmed Bensouda Changes: Nominations: 10 December 1955: Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini 22 March 1956: Creation of ministère de la défense nationale 26 April 1956: Creation of ministère des affaires étrangères 5 May 1956: Ministre d’état chargé provisoire-ment des fonctions de ministre de l’intérieur: Driss

382

Appendix M’Hammedi 25 October 1956: Government resigned to King muHammad V, who accepted it and asked El Bakkaï to constitute another government

Government II: 28 October 1956-16 April 1958 Président du conseil: El Bakkaï Ben M’Barek El Hbil Ministre des affaires étrangères: El Hadj Ahmed Balafrej Ministre d’état chargé de la fonction publique: Mohamed Rachid Mouline Ministre de l’intérieur: Driss M’Hammedi Ministre de la justice: El Hadj Abdelkrim Benjelloun Touimi Ministre de la défense nationale: M’Hammed Zeghari Ministre de l’économie nationale: Abderrahim Bouabid Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Mohamed Ben Abdeslem El Fassi Ministre des travaux publics: M’Hammed Douiri Ministre de l’agriculture: El Hadj Omar Ben Abdeljelil Ministre de l’information et du tourisme: Ahmed Reda Guedira Ministre du travail et des questions sociales: Abdallah Ibrahim Ministre de la santé publique: Abdelmalek Fraj Ministre des postes, télégraphes et du téléphones: Benzaquen Sous-secrétaire d’état au ministère de l’économie nationale, commerce et industrie: Ahmed El Yazidi Sous-secrétaire d’état au ministère de l’économie nationale et aux finances: Charif Abdallah Chechaouni Changes: Nominations: 11 September 1957: Ministre de la défense nationale: Ahmed El Yazidi Dismissals: 11 September 1957: Sous-secrétaire d’état au ministère de l’économie nationale, commerce et industrie: Ahmed El Yazidi 11 September 1957: Ministre de la défense nationale: Mohammed Zeghari

Government III: 12 May 1958-3 December 1958 Président du conseil et ministre des affaires étrangères: El Hadj Ahmed Balafrej Vice-président du conseil, ministre de l’économie nationale et ministre de l’agriculture: Abderrahim Bouabid Ministre de l’intérieur: Messaoud Chiguer Ministre de la justice: El Hadj Abdelkrim Benjelloun Touimi Ministre de la défense nationale: Ahmed El Yazidi Ministre de l’éducation nationale: El Hadj Omar Ben Abdeljelil Taârji Ministre travaux publics: M’Hammed Douiri Ministre du travail et des questions sociales: El Bachir Ben El Abbes Ministre de la santé publique: Abdelmalek Fraj Ministre des postes, télégraphes et du téléphones: Mohammed Aouad Changes: Nominations: 3 July 1958: The following sous-secrétaires d’état were appointed: Affaires sociales: M’Hammed Boucetta Finances: Charif Abdallah Chefchaouni Commerce, industrie, artisanat et la marine marchande: Ahmed Benkirane Production industrielle et mines: Mohamed El Mehdi Abdeljalil Agriculture: Abdelhafid El Kadiri

Appendix

383

Intérieur: Driss Slaoui Éducation nationale: Mohamed Tahiri

Government IV: 24 May 1958-21 May 1960 Président du conseil et ministre des affaires étrangères: Abdallah Ibrahim Vice-président du conseil, ministre de l’économie nationale et des finances: Abderrahim Bouabid Ministre de la justice et secrétaire général du gouvernement: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini Ministre de l’intérieur: Driss M’Hammedi Ministre de la défense nationale: Mohammed Aouad Ministre de l’éducation nationale: El Hadj Abdelkrim Benjelloun Touimi Ministre de l’agriculture: Thami Ammar Ministre des travaux publics: Abderrahmane Ben Abdelali Ministre du travail et questions sociales: Mohamed Maâti Bouabid Ministre de la santé publique: Youssef Ben El Abbès Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Mohamed El Medbouh Changes: Nominations: 26 March 1959: Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie, à l’artisanat et à la marine marchande: Driss Slaoui Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur chargé des affaires municipales et communales: Hassan Zemmouri 31 August 1959: Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Mohamed Aouad Dismissals: 31 August 1959: Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Mohamed El Medbouh (resigned)

Government V: 26 May 1960-26 February 1961 Président du conseil: Mohammed V Vice-président du conseil et ministre de la défense nationale: Prince Heritier Moulay Hassan Ministre de la justice et secrétaire général du gouvernement: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini Ministre des affaires étrangères: Driss M’Hammedi Ministre de l’économie nationale et des finances: M’Hammed Douiri Ministre de l’éducation nationale: El Hadj Abdelkrim Benjelloun Ministre de l’intérieur: El Bakkaï Ben M’Barek El Hbil Ministre de la fonction publique et de la réforme administrative: M’Hammed Boucetta Ministre des travaux publics: Abderrahmane ben Abdelali Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines, de l’artisanat et de la marine marchande: Driss Slaoui Ministre du travail et des questions sociales: Abdelkrim El Khatib Ministre de l’information et du tourisme: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre de l’agriculture: Hassan Zemmouri Ministre de la santé publique: Youssef Ben El Abbes Taârjî Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Mohammed Cherkaoui Changes: Nominations: 1 September 1960: Ministre de la justice: Abdelkhaleq Torres 4 November 1960: Ministre d’état: Emir Fal Ould Omeir Dismissals: 4 January 1961: Ministre de l’agriculture: Hassan Zemmouri

384

Appendix

Government VI: 26 February 1961-2 June 1961 Président du conseil: Hassan II Ministre de la défense nationale et de l’agriculture: under the authority of Hassan II Ministre affaires étrangères: Driss M’Hammedi Ministre de l’intérieur: El Bakkaï Ben M’Barek El Hbil Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Abdelkrim Benjelloun Ministre de la fonction publique et de la réforme administrative: M’Hammed Boucetta Ministre des travaux publics: Abderrahmane Ben Abdelali Ministre de commerce, de l’industrie, des mines, de l’artisanat et de la marine marchande: Driss Slaoui Ministre du travail et des questions sociales: Abdelkrim El Khatib Ministre de l’information et du tourisme: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre de la santé publique: Youssef Ben El Abbes Taârji Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Mohammed Cherkaoui Ministre de la justice: Abdelkhaleq Torres Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini

Government VII: 2 June 1961-5 January 1963 Président du conseil: Hassan II Ministère des affaires étrangères: Under the direct authority of Roi Hassan II Ministre d’état chargé des affaires de la mauritanie et du Sahara marocain: Fal Ould Omeir Ministre d’état chargé des questions islamiques: Allal El Fassi Ministre d’état: Mohamed Ben El Hassan El Ouazzani Ministre d’état chargé des affaires africaines: Abdelkrim El Khatib Ministre de l’intérieur et ministre de l’agriculture: Ahmed Reda Guedira Ministre de la justice: M’Hammed Boucetta Ministre de la santé publique: Youssef Ben El Abbes Taârji Ministre de l’économie nationale et des finances: M’Hammed Douiri Ministre de la défense nationale: Mahjoubi Ahardane Ministre délégué au travail et aux affaires sociales: Abdelkader Benjelloun Ministre d’état chargé de l’éducation nationale: Mohamed Rachid Mouline Ministre des travaux publics: Mohamed Benhima Ministre de commerce, de l’industrie, des mines, de l’artisanat et de la marine marchande: Ahmed El Joundi Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des Téléphones: Mohamed Ben Abdeslem El Fassi Changes: Nomination: 6 June 1961: Sous-secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Mohammed Larbi Alami 15 June 1961: Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Youssef Ben El Abbes 18 September 1962: Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines, de l’artisanat et de la marine marchande: Mohamed Benhima Ministre des des travaux publics: Driss Slaoui Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur: M’fedel Cherkaoui Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’industrie et aux mines: Ahmed Osman 18 October 1962: Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Youssef ben El Abbès 18 October 1962: Ministre de la santé publique: Abdelkrim El Khatib 1 November 1962: Secrétaire d’état à l’information: Abdelhadi Boutaleb 1 November 1962: Ministre de l’information, du tourisme, et des beaux arts: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Dismissals:

Appendix

385

21 December 1961: Sous-secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Mohammed Larbi Alami 18 September 1962: Ministre des travaux publics: Mohamed Benhima. 21 September 1962: Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines, de l’artisanat et de la marine marchande: Ahmed El Joundi 18 October 1962: Ministre de la santé publique: Youssef ben El Abbès 18 October 1962: Ministre d’état chargé des affaires africaines: Abdelkrim El Khatib

Government VIII: 5 January 1963-13 November 1963 Président du conseil: Hassan II Représentant personnel de Hassan II, Ministre des affaires étrangères: Al Hadj Ahmed Balafrej Ministre d’état chargé des affaires de la mauritanie et du sahara marocain: Fal Ould Omeir Ministre d’état chargé des affaires africaines et ministre de la santé publique: Abdelkrim El Khatib Ministre de l’intérieur et ministre de l’agriculture: Ahmed Reda Guedira Ministre de la justice: Ahmed Bahnini Ministre des finances: Driss Slaoui Ministre de la défense nationale: Mahjoubi Ahardane Ministre délégué au travail et aux affaires sociales: Abdelkader Benjelloun Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Youssef Ben El Abbes Ministre des travaux publics: Ben Salem Guessouss Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines, de l’artisanat et de la marine marchande: Mohamed Benhima Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des Téléphones: Mohamed Ben Abdeslem El Fassi Ministre du tourisme, de l’artisanat et des beaux arts: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre des habous, chargé du ministère des affaires islamiques: Hadj Ahmed Bargach Secrétaire d’état à l’information, à la jeunesse, et aux sports: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Changes: Nomination: 5 June 1963: Ministre de l’intérieur: Ahmed Hamiani Ministre des travaux publics: Mohamed Benhima Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie des mines et de la marine marchande: Driss Debbagh Ministre de l’information, de la jeunesse et des sports: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Dismissal: 5 June 1963: Ministre des travaux publics: Ben Salem Guessouss

Government IX: 13 November 1963-8 June 1965 Premier ministre: Ahmed Bahnini Ministre d’état chargé des affaires de la mauritanie et du sahara marocain: Fal Ould Omeir Ministre des affaires étrangères: Ahmed Reda Guedira Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Ministre de la justice: Abdelkader Benjelloun Ministre de l’intérieur: Abderrahmane El Khatib Ministre des affaires économiques, des finances et de l’agriculture: Driss Slaoui Ministre de la défense nationale: Mahjoubi Ahardane Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Youssef Ben El Abbes Taârji

386

Appendix Ministre de la santé publique: Al Arbi Chraibi Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Mohamed Ben Abdeslam El Fassi Ministre de l’information, du tourisme, des beaux arts, et de l’artisanat: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre du travail des affaires sociales: Thami Al Wazzani Ministre des habous chargé du ministère des affaires islamiques: Hadj Ahmed Bargach Ministre des travaux publics: Mohamed Benhima Sous-secrétaire d’état aux finances: Mamoun Tahiri Sous-secrétaire d’état au Commerce, à l’industrie, aux mines et à la marine marchande: Ahmed Bennani Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’agriculture: Noureddine El Ghorfi Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur: Mohamed Haddou Chiguer Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’information, au tourisme, aux beaux arts et à l’artisanat: Abderrahmane El Kouhen Changes: Nominations: 15 August 1964: Ministre des affaires étrangères: Ahmed Reda Guedira 17 August 1964: Ministre des affaires étrangères: Ahmed Taibi Benhima 20 August 1964: Premier ministre: Ahmed Bahnini Ministre de la justice: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Ministre des affaires étrangères: Ahmed Taibi Benhima Ministre des affaires économiques et des finances: Mohamed Cherkaoui Ministre de la défense nationale: Général Améziane Mohamed Zahraoui Ministre de l’intérieur: Général Mohamed Oufkir Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Youssef ben El Abbes Taârji Ministre des travaux publics: Mohamed Benhima Ministre de l’information, du tourisme, des beaux arts et de l’artisanat: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre de la santé publique: El Arbi Chraibi Ministre des habous chargé du des affaires islamiques: Hadj Ahmed Bargach Ministre de la fonction publique et de la réforme administrative: Thami El Ouazzani Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Abderrahmane El Khatib Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales: Mohamed Amour Ministre des affaires de la mauritanie et du sahara marocain: delegated to the premier ministre Sous-secrétaire d’état aux finances: Mamoun Tahiri Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie, aux mines et à la marine marchande: Ahmed Bennani Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement technique, à la formation professionnelle et des cadres: Mohamed Tadili Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur: Abdelahfid Boutaleb Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’information, au tourisme, et aux beaux arts: Abderrahmane El Kouhen Dismissals: 7 August 1964: Ministre de la justice: Abdelkader Benjelloun 24 November 1964: Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie et aux mines: Ahmed Bennani Further Changes: 19 September 1964: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement primaire: Larbi Messaoudi 1 October 1964: Sous-secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Abdellah Chorfi

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387

12 November 1964: Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie et aux mines: Badreddine Senoussi 20 November 1964: Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Mohamed Benhima 20 November 1964: Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie et aux mines: Ahmed Bennani 24 November 1964: Sous-secrétaire d’état à la défense. nationale chargé des affaires des résistants, des anciens membres de l’armée de libération et des anciens combattants: Abdeslam Benïssa 7 January 1965: Ministre des affaires de Mauritanie et du Sahara marocain: Moulay Hassan ben Driss Alaoui 1 March 1965: Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Hadj Ahmed Bargach

Government X: 8 June 1965-6 July 1967 Président du conseil: Roi Hassan II Vice-premier ministre: M’Hammed Zeghari Ministre des affaires de la mauritanie et du sahara marocain: Moulay Hassan Ben Driss Ministre de la justice: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Ministre des affaires étrangères: Ahmed Taïbi Benhima Ministre du développement: Mohammed Cherkaoui Ministre de la défense nationale: Général Mohamed Ameziane Zahraoui Ministre de l’intérieur: Général Mohamed Oufkir Ministre des affaires administratives et secrétaire général du gouvernement: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini Ministre de l’éducation nationale, des beaux arts, de la jeunesse et des sports: Mohamed Benhima Ministre des finances: Mamoun Tahiri Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Mahjoubi Ahardane Ministre de l’industrie, des mines, du tourisme et de l’artisanat: Mohammed Laghzaoui Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Ahmed Lasky Ministre du commerce: Abdelhamid Zemmouri Ministre de la santé publique: El Arbi Chraibi Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Hadj Ahmed Bargach Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales: Abdelhafid Boutaleb Ministre de l’information: Ahmed Majid Benjelloun Sous-secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Abdellah Chorfi Sous-secrétaire d’état aux affaires administratives: Badreddine Senoussi Sous-secrétaire d’état au tourisme et à l’artisanat: Abderrahmane El Kouhen Changes: Nominations: 10 July 1965: Ministre de l’industrie et des mines: Yahia Ben Slimane Ministre du commerce et de l’artisanat: Abdelhamid Zemouri Ministre du tourisme: Hassan Ababou Secrétaire d’état chargé des affaires des résistants, des anciens membres de l’armée de libération, et des anciens combattants: Benaissa Abdeslam. 1 January 1966: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur: Mohamed Ben El Alem Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’éducation nationale, aux beaux arts, à la jeunesse et aux sports: Nacer El Fassi 23 February 1966: Ministre d’état chargé de la défense nationale: Mahjoubi Ahardane Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Badreddine Senoussi

388

Appendix Sous-secrétaire d’état à la jeunesse et aux sports: Mehdi Ben Bouchta 24 February 1966: Vice-premier ministre, chargé du ministère du développement: M’Hammed Zeghari Ministre des affaires étrangères: Mohammed Cherkaoui Ministre de l’industrie et des mines: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui 2 May 1966: Ministre du développement, chargé de la promotion nationale et du plan: M’Hammed Bargach 25 May 1966: Sous-secrétaire d’état à la promotion nationale: Mohamed Tadili Sous-secrétaire d’état à la formation des cadres: Mohamed Imani Sous-secrétaire d’état auprès du vice-premier ministre: Taieb Zaâmoun 2 November 1966: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre: Ahmed Bennani 11 March 1967: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire, chargé des affaires économiques: M’hammed Zeghari Ministre de la défense nationale: Mohamed Cherkaoui Ministre des affaires étrangères: Ahmed Laraki Ministre du commerce, de l’artisanat, de l’industrie et des mines: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Secrétaire d’état à la formation des cadres auprès du premier ministre: Mohamed Imani Sous-secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre: Taieb Zaâmoun Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce: Abdelwahab Laraki 13 April 1967: Secrétaire d’état à la jeunesse et aux sports auprès du premier ministre: Mehdi Benbouchta 13 May 1967: Ministre de la justice: Ali Benjelloun Ministre de l’éducation nationale et des beaux arts: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Mohamed Benhima Dismissals: 10 July 1965: Ministre de l’industrie, des mines, du tourisme et de l’artisanat: Mohamed Laghzaoui 23 February 1966: Ministre des affaires étrangères: Ahmed Taïbi Benhima 24 February 1966: Ministre de l’industrie et des mines: Yahia Ben Slimane 2 May 1966: Ministre du développement: M’Hammed Zeghari 11 March 1967: Vice-premier ministre: M’Hammed Zeghari Ministre des affaires étrangères: Mohammed Charkaoui Ministre du développement chargé de la promotion nationale et du plan: M’Hammed Bargach Ministre d’état, chargé de la défense nationale: Mahjoubi Ahardane Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre du commerce et de l’artisanat: Abdelhamid Zemmouri Sous-secrétaire d’état auprès du vice premier ministre: Taieb Zaâmoun Sous-secrétaire d’état à la formation des cadres auprès du ministre du développement, chargé de la promotion nationale et du plan: Mohamed Imani Sous-secrétaire d’état à la promotion nationale: Mohamed Tadili 12 May 1967: Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Ahmed Lasky 13 May 1967: Ministre de la justice et ministre de l’information par intérim: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Ministre de l’éducation nationale et des beaux arts: Mohamed Benhima

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Government XI: 6 July 1967-4 August 1971 Premier ministre: Mohamed Benhima Ministre des affaires de la mauritanie et du sahara marocain: Moulay Hassan Ben Driss Ministre de l’éducation nationale et des beaux arts: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Ministre de la justice: Ali Benjelloun Ministre des affaires étrangères: Ahmed Laraki Ministre de l’intérieur: Général Mohamed Oufkir Ministre des affaires administratives et secrétaire général du gouvernement: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini Ministre des finances: Mamoun Tahiri Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Hadj Ahmed Bargach Ministre des sciences, de l’éducation et des beaux arts: Mohamed El Fassi Ministre de la défense nationale: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre du commerce, de l’artisanat, de l’industrie et des Mines: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire chargé de la promotion nationale: M’Hammed Bargach Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Yahia Chefchaouni Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales: Abdelhafid Boutaleb Ministre de la santé publique: El Arbi Chraibi Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et du téléphones: Badreddine Senoussi Ministre du tourisme: Hassan Ababou Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires des anciens résistants, membres de l’armée de libération et anciens combattants: Abdeslam Benaissa Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques: Ahmed Bennani Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan et de la formation des cadres: Mohamed Imani Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de la jeunesse et des sports: Mehdi Ben Bouchta Sous-secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Abdellah Chorfi Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur: Mohamed Ben El Alem Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’agriculture et à la réforme agraire: Taieb Zaamoun Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce: Abdelwahab Laraki Changes: Nominations: 12 July 1967: Ministre chargé de la coordination des forces du royaume: Général Mohamed Ameziane Zahraoui. 1 September 1967: Sous-secrétaire d’état au ministère des affaires administratives, secrétariat, général du gouvernement et secrétaire général adjoint du gouvernement: Abbes El Kissi 18 January 1968: Ministre de la justice: Driss Slaoui Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Abdelhafid Boutaleb Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales: Abdeslam Benaissa Ministre du toursime: Thami El Ouazzani Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre: Abdelwahab Laraki Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce à l’industrie et aux mines: Ahmed Benkirane 9 May 1968: Ministre chargé des affaires économiques du plan, et de la formation des cadres auprès du premier ministre: Mohamed Imani Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Mehdi Ben Bouchta 17 June 1968: Ministre d’état: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Ministre de la défense nationale: Général Mohamed Ameziane Zahraoui Ministre de l’enseignement primaire: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur: Abdellatif Filali Ministre de l’enseignement secondaire et technique: Kacem Zhiri

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Appendix 9 July 1968: Ministre d’état chargé des affaires culturelles et de l’enseignement originel: Mohamed El Fassi Fihri 13 August 1968: Ministre d’état chargé du tourisme et de l’artisanat: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande: Jawad Ben Brahim 7 February 1969: Ministre d’état chargé du plan et de la formation des cadres: Ahmed Reda Guedira Ministre de la justice: Abdelhafid Boutaleb Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Mohamed Imani 10 April 1969 Ministre du travail de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle: Mehdi Ben Bouchta Ministre de la jeunesse, des sports et des affaires sociales: Omar Boucetta Sous-secrétaire d’état à la défense nationale: Larbi Rmili 7 August 1969: Ministre d’état chargé de l’enseignement secondaire, technique, supérieur et de la formation des cadres: Ahmed Reda Guedira Secrétaire d’état chargé du plan auprès du premier ministre: Mustapha Faris 7 October 1969: Premier ministre: Ahmed Laraki Ministre d’état: Moulay Hassan Ben Driss Ministre d’état chargé de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Mohamed Benhima Ministre des affaires étrangères: Abdelhadi Boutaleb 21 October 1969: Ministre d’état chargé de la promotion nationale et de l’artisanat: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande: Mohamed Jaidi Ministre du tourisme: Abdelkrim Lazrak 26 February 1970: Secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement secondaire, technique, supérieur et à la formation des cadres auprès du premier ministre: Mohamed Ben Ali Chafik 6 May 1970: Dirécteur général du Cabinet royal: Driss Slaoui Ministre représentant personnel du Roi: Hadj Mohamed Balafrej Ministre de la maison royale du protocole et de la chancellerie: Mohamed Maameri Zouaoui Premier ministre: Ahmed Laraki Ministre d’état: Moulay Hassan Ben Driss Ministre d’état chargé de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Mohamed Benhima Ministre d’état chargé des affaires culturelles et de l’enseignement originel: Mohamed El Fassi Fihri Ministre d’état chargé de la promotion nationale et de l’artisanat: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre de la justice: Abdelhafid Boutaleb Ministre des affaires étrangères: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Ministre de la défense nationale: Général Mohamed Ameziane Zahraoui Ministre de l’intérieur, de l’urbanisme et de l’habitat, chargé des affaires des anciens résistants, combattants et membres de l’armée de libération: Général Mohamed Oufkir Ministre des affaires administratives, secrétaire général du gouvernement: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini Ministre de l’enseignement secondaire, technique, supérieur et de la formation des cadres: Mamoun Tahiri Ministre des finances: Abdelkrim Lazrak Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Mohamed Imani Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande: Mohamed Jaidi Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Hadj Ahmed Bargach

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Ministre de l’enseignement primaire: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre des postes, des télegraphes et des téléphones: Général Driss Ben Omar Alami Ministre de la jeunesse, des sports et des affaires sociales: Badreddine Senoussi Ministre du travail, de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle: Mehdi Ben Bouchta Ministre de l’information: Ahmed Senoussi Ministre du tourisme: Adbelhamid Kriem Ministre de la santé publique: Abdelmajid Bel Mahi Ministre chargé de veiller à l’éducation et à l’instruction de leurs Altesses Royales le Prince Héritier, les Princes et les princesses: Mohamed Aouad Ministre de la Cour Royale: Ahmed Ben Messaoud Ministre au Cabinet Royal: Ahmed Magid Benjelloun Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan: Mustapha Faris Sous-secrétaire d’état à la défense nationale: Larbi Rmili Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur: Mohamed Bel Alem Sous-secrétaire d’état aux affaires administratives, secrétaire adjoint du gouvernement: Abbes El Fassi Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement secondaire, technique, supérieur et à la formation des cadres: Mohamed Ben Ali Chafik 7 August 1970: Premier ministre, chargé de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Ahmed Laraki Ministre de l’intérieur chargé des travaux publics et des communications: Général Mohamed Oufkir 10 August 1970: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Ahmed Lasky Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Hassan Chami 17 September 1970: Ministre de la justice: Ahmed Ben Bouchta Ministre du travail, de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle: Abdelhafid Boutaleb 3 October 1970: Ministre d’état: Général Mohamed Ameziane Zahraoui Ministre de la défense nationale: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini 12 October 1970: Ministre des affaires étrangères: Youssef Ben El Abbes Taârji Dismissals: 18 January 1968: Ministre des travaux publics: Yahia Chefchaouni Ministre du tourisme: Hassan Ababou Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales: Abdelhafid Boutaleb Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires des anciens résistants, membres de l’armée de libération et anciens combattants: Abdeslam Benaissa 9 May 1968: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre: Abdelwahab Laraki Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques: Ahmed Bennani Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan et de la formation des cadres: Mohamed Imani Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de la jeunesse et des sports: Mehdi Ben Bouchta 17 June 1968: Ministre de l’éducation nationale et des beaux arts: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Ministre de la défense nationale: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre de la coordination des forces du royaume: Général Mohamed Ameziane Zahraoui 13 August 1968: Ministre du commerce, de l’artisanat, de l’industrie et des mines: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre du tourisme: Thami El Ouazzani Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie et aux mines: Ahmed Benkirane

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Appendix 7 February 1969: Ministre de la justice: Driss Slaoui Ministre des travaux publics et de communications: Abdelhafid Boutaleb Ministre des affaires économiques, du plan et de la formation des cadres auprès du premier ministre: Mohamed Imani 10 April 1969: Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales: Abdeslam Benaissa Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Mehdi Ben Bouchta 7 August 1969: Ministre d’état chargé du plan et de la formation des cadres: Ahmed Reda Guedira Ministre de l’enseignement secondaire et technique: Abdellatif Filali 7 October 1969: Premier ministre: Mohamed Benhima Ministre d’état: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Ministre des affaires étrangères: Ahmed Laraki Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire chargé de la promotion nationale: M’Hammed Bargach 21 October 1969: Ministre d’état chargé du toursime et de l’artisanat: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre de la santé publique: El Arbi Chraibi Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande: Jaouad Ben Brahim 25 March 1970: Ministre de l’enseignement secondaire, technique, supérieur et de la formation des cadres: Mamoun Tahiri Ministre des finances: Abdelkrim Lazrak Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Général Driss Ben Omar El Alami Ministre de la jeunesse, des sports et des affaires sociales: Badreddine Senoussi Ministre du tourisme: Abdelhamid Kriem Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement secondaire, technique, supérieur et à la formation des cadres: Mohamed Chafik 30 April 1970: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’agriculture et à la réforme agraire: Taieb Zaamoun 7 August 1970: Ministre d’état chargé de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Mohamed Benhima Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Mohamed Imani 10 August 1970: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Ahmed Laraki Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Général Mohamed Oufkir 17 September 1970: Ministre de la justice: Abdelhafid Boutaleb Ministre du travail, de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle: Mehdi Ben Bouchta 3 October 1970: Ministre de la défense nationale: Général Mohamed Ameziane Zahraoui Ministre des affaires administratives: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini 12 October 1970: Ministre des affaires étrangères: Abdelhadi Boutaleb

Government XII: 6 August 1971-5 April 1972 Premier ministre: Mohammed Karim Lamrani Ministre de la justice et secrétaire général du gouvenement: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini Ministre de la défense nationale, major général des forces armées royales: Général Mohamed Oufki Ministre de l’intérieur, chargé de l’artisanat, l’habitat et de l’urbanisme: Ahmed Ben Bouchta Ministre des affaires étrangères: Abdellatif Filali Ministre de l’enseignemnt primaire: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Hadj Ahmed Bargach

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Ministre de la culture, de l’enseignement supérieur, secondaire et originel et de la formation des cadres: Ahmed Lasky Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Général Driss Ben Omar Alami Ministre des affaires administratives: Ahmed Majid Benjelloun Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Maâti Jorio Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Mohamed Bernoussi Ministre de la santé publique: Abdelmajid Belmahi Ministre du travail, des affaires sociales, de la jeunesse et des sports: Arsalane El Jadidi Ministre de l’information: Abdelkader Sahraoui Sous-secrétaire d’état à la culture, à l’enseignement supérieur, secondaire et originel et à la formation des cadres: Mohamed Chafik Changes: Nominations: 11 August 1971: Sous-secrétaire d’état aux finances: Mohamed El M’daghri Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie, aux mines et à la marine marchande: Abdelaziz Benjelloun Sous-secrétaire d’état au tourisme: Abdelkamel Rherhaye 4 September 1971: Secrétaire d’état aux finances: Mustapha Faris

Government XIII: 12 April 1972-20 November 1972 Premier ministre: Mohammed Karim Lamrani Vice-premier ministre, ministre de la justice et secrétaire général du gouvernement: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini Ministre de la défense nationale major général des forces armées royales: Mohamed Oufkir Ministre de l’interieur: Mohamed Benhima Ministre des affaires étrangères: Abdellatif Filali Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Hadj Ahmed Bargach Ministre de l’enseignement primaire: Mohmed Haddou Echiguer Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Général Driss Ben Omar Alami Ministre des affaires administratives: Ahmed Majid Benjelloun Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Maâti Jorio Ministre des finances: Mustapha Faris Ministre de la culture et de l’enseignement secondaire, supérieur et originel: El Habib El Fihri Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande: Abdelaziz Benjelloun Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Abdellatif Ghissassi Ministre de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat et de l’environnement: Hassan Zemmouri Ministre du travail, des affaires sociales, de la jeunesse et des sports: Arsalane El Jadidi Ministre de l’information: Abdelkader Sahraoui Ministre de la santé publique: Abderrahman Touhami Ministre du tourisme: Abderrahmane El Kouhen Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre: Mohamed Chafik Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan, du développement régional et de la formation des cadres: Abdellatif Imani Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques et de la coopération: Abdellah El Fassi Fihri Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de la promotion nationale, de l’entraide nationale et de l’artisanat: Abdellah Gharnit Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur: Abbes El Kissi Changes: Nominations: 23 May 1972: Ministre des affaires étrangères: Ahmed Taïbi Benhima Dismissals:

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Appendix 23 May 1972: Ministre des affaires étrangères: Abdellatif Filali

Government XIV: 20 November 1972-10 October 1977 Premier ministre: Ahmed Osman Ministre d’état: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini Ministre de la justice: Bachir Ben El Abbes Taârji Ministre de l’intérieur: Mohamed Benhima Ministre des affaires étrangères: Ahmed Taïbi Benhima Ministre des finances: Bensalem Guessouss Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Général Driss Ben Omar Alami Ministre de l’information: Ahmed Magid Benjelloun Ministre de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat et de l’environnement: Hassan Zemmouri Ministre du travail, des affaires sociales, de la jeunesse et des sports: Mohamed Arsalane El Jadidi Ministre de la santé publique: Abderrahman Touhami Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Mohamed Mekki Naciri Ministre du tourisme: Abderrahmane El Kouhen Ministre des affaires administratives et secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abbes El Kissi Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Abdeslem Berrada Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande: Abdelkader Ben Slimane Ministre des travaux publics et des communications: Salah M’zili Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan, du développement régional et de la formation des cadres: Abdellatif Imani Sous-secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de la promotion nationale, de l’entraide nationale et de l’artisanat: Abdellah Gharnit Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement supérieur: Abdelkrim Halim Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement primaire et secondaire: Mohamed Bouamoud Sous-secrétaire d’état à la jeunesse et aux sports: Mounir Doukkali Changes: Nominations: 11 May 1973: Ministre de l’intérieur: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer 11 May 1973: Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Dey Ould Sidi Baba 14 May 1973: Ministre des affaires administratives, secrétaire général du gouvernement: M’Hammed Benyakhlef 31 May 1973: Ministre d’état chargé de la coopération et de la formation des cadres: Mohamed Benhima Dismissals: 11 May 1973: Ministre de l’intérieur: Mohamed Benhima 14 May 1973: Ministre des affaires administratives, secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abbes El Kissi 6 June 1973: Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Broad Government Change: 25 April 1974: Premier ministre: Ahmed Osman Ministre d’état chargé des affaires culturelles: Hadj M’hammed Bahnini Ministre d’état chargé de la coopération et de la formation des cadres: Mohamed

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Benhima Ministre d’état chargé des affaires étrangères: Ahmed Laraki Ministre d’état chargé de l’information: Ahmed Taïbi Benhima Ministre de la justice: Abbes El Kissi Ministre de l’intérieur: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre des affaires islamiques et des habous: Dey Ould Sidi Baba Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones: Général Dris Ben Omar Alami Ministre des finances: Abdelkader Ben Slimane Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Salah M’zili Ministre de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat, du toursime, et de l’environnement: Hassan Zemmouri Ministre des affaires administratives et secrétaire général du gouvernement: M’hammed Benyakhlef Ministre de la santé publique: Ahmed Ramzi Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande: Abdellatif Ghissassi Minitsre des travaux publics et des communications: Ahmed Tazi Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur: Abdellatif Ben Abdeljelil Ministre de l’enseignement primaire et secondaire: Mohamed Bouamoud Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales: Mohamed Larbi El Khattabi Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de l’entraide nationale et de l’artisanat: Abdellah Gharnit Secrétaire d’état aux finances: Abdelkamel Rherhaye Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires générales: Abdeslem Zenined Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques: Mohamed Belkhayat Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan et du développement régional: Tayeb Bencheikh Secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur: Driss Basri Secrétaire d’état à l’urbanisme, à l’habitat, au tourisme et à l’environnement: Jalal Saïd Secrétaire d’état à l’information: Mohamed Mahjoubi Secrétaire d’état aux affaires islamiques et aux habous: Hassan Lukasch Secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie, aux mines et à la marine marchande: Moussa Saadi Changes: Nominations: 27 May 1974: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de la jeunesse et des sports: Mohamed Tahiri Jouti 24 August 1974: Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Moulay Ahmed Cherkaoui 13 September 1974: Ministre chargé auprès du premier ministre des affaires sahariennes: Abdeslem Zenined 23 April 1975: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires générales et sahariennes: Abdeslem Zenined Dismissals: 25 April 1974: Ministre de la justice: Bachir Ben El Abbes Taârji Ministre des finances: Ben Salem Guessouss Ministre de l’information: Ahmed Magid Benjelloun Ministre du travail, des affaires sociales, de la jeunesse et des sports: Mohamed Arsalane El Jadidi Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Abdeslem Berrada Ministre des habous, des affaires islamiques et de la culture: Mohamed Mekki Naciri Ministre du tourisme: Abderrahmane El Kouhen Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement supérieur: Abdelkrim Halim

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Government XV: 10 October 1977-27 March 1979 Premier ministre: Ahmed Osman Ministre d’état chargé des affaires étrangères et de la coopération: M’Hammed Boucetta Ministre d’état chargé des postes et de télécommunications: Mahjoubi Ahardane Ministre d’état chargé des affaires culturelles: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini Ministre d’état chargé de l’intérieur: Mohamed Benhima Ministre de la justice: Mohamed Maâti Bouabid Ministre de l’équipement et de la promotion nationale: M’hammed Douiri Ministre des finances: Abdellatif Ghissassi Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Mustapha Faris Ministre de l’information: Mohamed Larbi Al Khatabi Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Ahmed Ramzi Ministre de travail et de la formation professionnelle: Mohamed Bouamoud Ministre des affaires administratives: M’Hammed Benyakhlef Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre de l’éducation nationale et de la formation des cadres: Azzeddine Laraki Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Abdelhafid El Kadiri Ministre de l’habitat et de l’amenagement du territoire: Abbes El Fassi Ministre des affaires sociales et de l’artisanat: Abdellah Gharnit Ministre des transports: Mohand Naceur Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie: Abdelkamel Rherhaye Ministre de la santé publique: Rahal Rahhali Ministre de l’énergie et des mines: Moussa Saadi Ministre du tourisme: Mansouri Ben Ali Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan et du développement régional: Taieb Ben Cheikh Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires générales: Abdeslem Zenined Secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur: Driss Basri Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques: Othman Slimani Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Abderrahmane Baddou Secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement supérieur et à la recherche scientifique: Saïd Belbachir Secrétaire d’état à la formation des cadres: Abdelhak Tazi Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abbes El Kissi Changes: Nominations: 10 October 1977: Ministre d’état chargé de l’information: Abdelhadi Boutaleb Ministre des affaires administratives: Mansouri Ben Ali Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre: Abdellatif Jouahri Ministre du tourisme: Azzedine Guessous Dismissals: 10 October 1977: Ministre de l’information: Mohammed Larbi Al Khattabi Ministre des affaires administratives: Mohammed Benyakhlef Ministre du tourisme: Mansouri Ben Ali

Government XVI: 27 March 1979-5 November 1979 Premier ministre et ministre de la justice: Mohamed Maâti Bouabid Ministre d’état chargé des affaires étrangères et de la coopération: M’Hammed Boucetta Ministre d’état chargé des postes et de télecommunications: Mahjoubi Ahardane Ministre d’état chargé des affaires culturelles: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini Ministre de l’équipment et de la promotion nationale: M’Hammed Douiri Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Mohamed Haddou Echiguer Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Ahmed Ramzi

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Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Abdellatif Ghissassi Ministre de l’intérieur: Driss Basri Ministre des finances: Abdelkamel Rherhaye Ministre de l’éducation nationale et de la formation des cadres: Azzeddine Laraki Ministre du travail et de la formation professionnelle: Mohamed Arsalane El Jadidi Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Abdelhafid El Kadiri Ministre des affaires sociales et de l’artisanat: Abdellah Gharnit Ministre de l’habitat et de l’aménagement du territoire: Abbes El Fassi Ministre des affaires administratives: Mansouri Ben Ali Ministre des transports: Mahand Naceur Ministre de l’énergie et des mines: Moussa Saadi Ministre de la santé publique: Rahal Rahhali Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie: Azzeddine Guessouss Ministre du tourisme: Abdeslem Zenined Ministre de l’information: Abdelouahed Belkeziz Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre: Abdellatif Jouahri Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan et du développement régional: Taieb Ben Cheikh Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Abderrahmane Baddou Secrétaire d’état de l’enseignement supérieur e de la recherche scientifique: Said Belbachir Secrétaire d’état à la formation des cadres: Abdelhak Tazi Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires sahariennes: Khali Henna Ould Er-Rachid Changes: Nominations: 25 February 1980: Ministre d’état chargé du tourisme: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Dismissals: 25 February 1980: Ministre du tourisme: Abdeslem Zenined

Government XVII: 5 November 1981-30 November 1983 Premier ministre: Mohamed Maâti Bouabid Ministre d’état chargé de la coopération: Mahjoubi Ahardane Ministre d’état chargé des affaires étrangères: M’Hammed Boucetta Ministre d’état: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini Ministre d’état: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre de la justice: Moulay Mustapha Bel Arbi Alaoui Ministre de l’intérieur: Driss Basri Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: El Hachmi Filali Ministre de plan, formation des cadres et formation professionnelle: M’Hammed Douiri Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Azzeddine Laraki Ministre des finances: Abdellatif Jouahri Ministre de l’emploi et de la promotion nationale: Mohamed Arsalane El Jadidi Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie et du tourisme: Azzeddine Guessouss Ministre de l’artisanat et des affaires sociales: Abbes El Fassi Ministre de l’information, de la jeunesse et des sports: Abdelouahed Belkeziz Ministre des transports: Mansouri Ben Ali Ministre de l’énergie et des mines: Moussa Saadi Minstre de la santé publique: Rahal Rahhali Ministre des pêches maritimes et de la marine marchande: Ben Salem Smili Ministre des affaires culturelles: Saïd Belbachir Ministre de l’habitat et de l’aménagement du territoire: Lemfadel Lahlou Ministre de l’équipement: Mohamed Kabbaj Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre: Abdelkrim Ghallab Ministre of postes and télécommunications: Mohand Laenser Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Othman Demnati

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Appendix Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Ahmed Belhaj Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abbes El Kissi Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Abdelhak Tazi Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires sahariennes: Khali Henna Ould Er-Rachid Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires administratives: Mohamed Toughani Secrétaire d’état à la jeunesse et aux sports: Abdelatif Semlali Secrétaire d’état à l’habitat et à l’aménagement du territoire national: Abdellatif Hajjaji

Government XVIII: 30 November 1983-11 April 1985 Premier ministre: Mohamed Karim Lamrani Ministre d’état: Ahmed Osman Ministre d’état: Mohamed Maâti Bouabid Ministre d’état: Abderrahim Bouabid Ministre d’état: Mohamed Boucetta Ministre d’état: Mahjoubi Ahardane Ministre d’état: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre de la justice: Moulay Mustpha Bel Arbi Alaoui Ministre d’état: Mohamed Arsalane El Jadidi Ministre de l’intérieur: Driss Basri Ministre des affaires étrangères: Abdelouahed Belkeziz Ministre de l’information: Abdellatif Filali Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: El Hachmi Filali Ministre du plan, de la formation des cadres et de la formation professionnelle: M’Hammed Douiri Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Azzedine Laraki Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques: Taieb Bencheikh Ministre des finances: Abdellatif Jouahri Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie et du tourisme: Azzeddine Guessouss Ministre de l’artisanat et des affaires sociales: Abbès El Fassi Ministre des transports: Mansouri Ben Ali Ministre de l’énergie et des mines: Moussa Saadi Ministre de la santé publique: Rahal Rahhali Ministre des pêches maritimes et de la marine marchande: Ben Salem Smili Ministre des affaires culturelles: Saïd Belbachir Ministre de l’habitat et de l’aménagement du térritoire: Lamfadel Lahlou Ministre de l’équipement: Mahamed Kabbaj Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre: Abdelkrim Ghallab Ministre of postes and télécommunications: Mohand Laensar Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Othman Demnati Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Ahmed Belhaj Ministre des sports et de la jeunesse: Abdellatif Semlali Ministre chargé de la coopération: Abdelouahed Radi Ministre de l’emploi et de la promotion nationale: Moulay Zine Zahidi Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abbes El Kissi Secrétaire d’état des affaires étrangères: Abdelhak Tazi Secrétaire d’Etat auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires sahariennes: Kahli Henna Ould Er-Rachid Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires administratives: Mohamed Toughani Secrétaire d’état à l’habitat et à l’aménagement du territoire national: Abdellatif Hajjaji Changes: Nominations: 23 February 1984: Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Abdelkabir M’daghri Alaoui 27 June 1984:

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Ministre de l’équipement, de la formation professionnelle et de la formation des cadres: Mohamed Kabbaj Ministre du plan: Abdelhak Tazi 18 February 1985: Ministre des affaires étrangères: Abdellatif Filali Dismissals: 27 June 1984: Ministre du plan, de la formation des cadres et de la formation professionnelle: M’Hammed Douiri Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Abdelhak Tazi 29 October 1984: Secrétaire général du gouvernment: Abbès El Kissi 18 February 1985: Ministre des affaires étrangères: Abdelouahad Belkeziz

Government XIX: 11 April 1985-11 August 1992 Premier ministre: Mohammed Karim Lamrani Ministre d’état: Hadj M’Hammed Bahnini Ministre d’état: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre de la justice: Moulay Mustpha Bel Arbi Alaoui Ministre des affaires étrangères, de la coopération et de l’information: Abdellatif Filali Ministre de l’intérieur: Driss Basri Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Azzeddine Laraki Ministre de la santé publique: Taieb Ben Cheikh Ministre des finances: Abdellatif Jouahri Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des relations avec la communauté économique européenne: Azzeddine Guessouss Ministre du tourisme: Moussa Saadi Ministre of pêches maritimes et de la marine marchande: Ben Salem Smili Ministre de l’équipement, de la formation des cadres et de la formation professionnelle: Mohamed Kabbaj Ministre des transports: Mohamed Bouamoud Ministre des postes et des télécommunications: Mohand Laenser Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Othaman Demnati Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Abdellatif Semlali Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques: Moualy Zine Zahidi Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Abdelkabir M’daghri Alaoui Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du développement des provinces sahariennes: Khali Henna Ould Er-Rachid Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan: Rachidi El Rhezouani Ministre de l’artisanat et des affaires sociales: Mohamed Abied Ministre de l’énergie et des mines: Mohamed Fettah Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie: Tahar Masmoudi Ministre des affaires culturelles: Mohamed Benaissa Ministre de l’habitat: Abderrahmane Bouftas Ministre de l’emploi: Hassan Abbadi Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Tahar Afifi Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires administratives: Abderrahim Ben Abdeljelil Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abbes El Kissi

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Changes: Nominations: 11 October 1985: Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Moulay Ahmed Cherkaoui 15 November 1985: Ministre de l’intérieur et de l’information: Driss Basri 12 March 1986: Ministre de l’éducation nationale et vice-premier ministre: Azzeddine Laraki 7 April 1986: Ministre des finances: Mohamed Berrada 30 September 1986: Premier ministre: Azzeddine Laraki Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Mohamed Hilali Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères chargé des relations avec la communauté économique européenne: Mohamed Sekkat 9 March 1987: Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie: Abdallah Azmani Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Abdeslam Baraka Dismissals: 15 November 1985: Ministre de l’information: Abdellatif Filali 7 April 1986: Ministre des finances: Abdellatif Jouahri 30 September 1986: Premier ministre: Karim Lamrani Vice-premier ministre et ministre de l’éducation nationale: Azzeddine Laraki 9 March 1987: Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie: Tahar Masmoudi Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargée des relations avec le parlement: Tahar Afifi

Government XX: 11 August 1992-11 November 1993 Premier ministre: Mohamed Karim Lamrani Ministre d’état: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre d’état chargé des affaires étrangères et de la coopération: Abdellatif Filali Ministre de la justice: Moulay Mustapha Bel Arbi Alaoui Ministre de l’interieur et de l’information: Driss Basri Ministre de la santé publique: Abderrahim Harouchi Ministre des finances: Mohamed Berrada Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Taieb Chkili Ministre des pêches maritimes et de la marine marchande: Ben Salem Smili Ministre des travaux publics, de la formation professionnelle et de la formation des cadres: Mohamed Kabbaj Ministre des transports: Rachidi El Rhezouani Ministre des postes et des télécommunications: Abdeslam Ahizoune Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire: Othman Demnati Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Abdellah Belkeziz Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, et de la transformation des établissements publics au secteur privé: Moulay Zin Zahidi Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Abdelkabir M’daghri Alaoui Ministre de l’emploi, de l’artisanat et des affaires sociales: Mohamed Al Wadghiri Ministre des affaires culturelles: Mohamed Allal Sinaceur Ministre de l’habitat: Abderrahman Bouftas Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires administratives: Aziz Hasbi

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Ministre du commerce extérieur, des investissements extérieurs et du tourisme: Hassan Abou Ayoub Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des résidents marocains à l’étranger: Rafiq Haddaoui Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques et sociales: Mohamed M’daghri Alaoui Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abbes El Kissi Secrétaire d’état des affaires étrangères: Moulay Ahmed Cherkaoui Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires générales: Abderrahman Sbai Vice-secrétaire général auprès du ministre de l’intérieur chargé de l’environement: Chaouki Serghini

Government XXI: 11 November 1993-25 May 1994 Premier ministre: Mohamed Karim Lamrani Ministre d’état: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre d’état chargé des affaires étrangères et de la coopération: Abdellatif Filali Ministre d’état à l’intérieur et à l’information: Driss Basri Ministre de la justice: Mohamed Idrissi Alami Machichi Ministre de la santé publique: Abderrahim Harouchi Ministre des finances: Mohamed Skouh Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Mohamed Knidiri Ministre des pêches maritimes et de la marine marchande: Al Mustapha Sahel Ministre des travaux publics, de la formation des cadres et de la formation professionnelle: Mohamed Hassad Ministre des transports: Rachidi El Rhezouani Ministre des postes et de télécommunications: Abdeslam Ahizoune Ministre de l’agriculture et de l’investissement agraire: Abdelaziz Meziane Belfkih Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Moulay Driss M’daghri Alaoui Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie: Driss Jettou Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Abdelkabir M’daghri Alaoui Ministre de l’emploi et des affaires sociales: Rafiq Haddaoui Ministre des affaires culturelles: Mohamed Allal Sinaceur Ministre de l’habitat: Driss Toulali Ministre du commerce extérieur, des investissements extérieurs, de l’artisanat: Mourad Cherif Ministre du tourisme: Serge Berdigo Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abdessadek Rabiah Ministre délégue auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires administratives: Haziz Hasbi Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre: Abderrahman Sbai Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des marocains résidents à l’étranger: Ahmed al Wardi Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Mohamed Mouaatassim Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de la promotion économique: Omar Kabbaj Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des droits de l’homme: Omar Azziman Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de la transformation des établissements publics au secteur privé: Abderrahman Saaidi Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Taieb El Fassi Fihri Vice-secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’intérieur chargé de l’environnement: Chaouki Serghini Changes: Nominations: 25 May 1994: Premier ministre: Abdellatif Filali

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Appendix Dismissals: 25 May 1994: Premier ministre: Mohamed Karim Lamrani

Government XXII: 7 June 1994-31 January 1995 Premier ministre et ministre des affaires étrangères et de la coopération: Abdellatif Filali Ministre d’état: Mouay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre d’état à l’intérieur et à l’information: Driss Basri Ministre de la justice: Mohamed Drissi Alami Machichi Ministre de la santé publique: Abderrahim Harouchi Ministre des finances: Mohamed Skouh Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Mohamed Knidiri Ministre des pêches maritimes et de la marine marchande: al Mustapha Sahel Ministre des travaux publics, de la formation des cadres et de la formation professionnelle: Mohamed Hassad Ministre des transports: Rachidi El Rhezouani Ministre des postes et des télécommunications: Abdessalem Ahizoune Ministre de l’agriculture et des investissements agraires: Abdelaziz Meziane Belfkih Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Moulay Driss M’daghri Alaoui Ministre de l’emploi et des affaires sociales: Rafiq Haddaoui Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie: Driss Jettou Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Abdelkabir M’daghri Alaoui Ministre de l’énergie et des mines: Abdellatif Guerraoui Ministre des affaires culturelles: Mohammed Allal Sinaceur Ministre de l’habitat: Driss Toulali Ministre du commerce extérieur, des investissements extérieurs et de l’artisanat: Mourad Cherif Ministre du tourisme: Serge Berdigo Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires administratives: Aziz Hasbi Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre: Abderrahman Sbai Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des marocains résidents à l’étranger: Ahmed al Wardi Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Mohamed al-Mouaatassim Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de promotion économique: Omar Kabbaj Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des droits de l’homme: Omar Azziman Ministre de la privatisation délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du secteur public: Abderrahman Saaidi Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abdessadek Rabiah Secrétaire d’état des affaires étrangères et de la coopération: Taieb El Fassi Fihri Vice-secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre d’état à l’intérieur chargé de la protection de l’environnement: Chaouki Serghini

Government XXIII: 27 February 1995-13 August 1997 Premier ministre et ministre des affaires étrangères and cooperation: Abdellatif Filali Ministre d’état: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre d’état à l’intérieur: Driss Basri Ministre de la justice: Abderrahman Amalu Ministre des finances et des investissements extérieurs: Mohamed Kabbaj Ministre de l’agriculture et de l’investissement agraire: Hassan Abou Ayoub Ministre des pêches maritimes et de la marine marchande: Al Mustapha Sahel Ministre de communication, porte parole du gouvernement: Moulay Driss Alaoui M’daghri Ministre commerce, de l’industrie et de l’artisanat: Driss Jettou

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Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Abdelkabir M’daghri Alaoui Ministre de l’énergie et des mines: Abdellatif Guerraoui Ministre de la privatisation délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du secteur public: Abderrahman Saaidi Ministre des affaires culturelles: Abdallah Azmani Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Abdelslam Baraka Ministre de la santé publique: Ahmed Alami Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur, de la formation des cadres et de la recherche scientifique: Idriss Khalil Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Rachid Benmokhtar Benabdellah Ministre des transports: Said Ameskane Ministre des postes et des télécommunications: Hamza Kettani Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Ahmed Ameziane Ministre de l’emploi et des affaires sociales: Amine Demnati Ministre de l’habitat: Said El Fassi Ministre du tourisme: Mohamed Alaoui M’Hammedi Ministre de l’environnement: Nouredine Ben Omar Alami Ministre de la formation professionnelle: Abdeslam Baroual Ministre du commerce extérieur: Mohamed Alaoui Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre: Abderrahman Sbai Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires administratives: Massoud Mansouri Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de la promotion économique: Mohamed Hamma Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des droits de l’homme: Mohamed Ziane Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de l’habitat: Lamine Ben Omar Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abdessadek Rabiah Vice-secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des affaires étrangères chargé des marocains résidents à l’étranger: Lahsen Gabon Vice-secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des affaires étrangères chargé des relations avec l’union du maghreb arabe: Abdelaziz Messeoui Secrétaire d’état des affaires étrangères et de la coopération: Taieb El Fassi Fihri Dismissals: 13 August 1997: Ministre des transports: Said Ameskane Ministre des postes et des télécommunications: Hamza Kettani Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Ahmed Ameziane Ministre de l’emploi et des affaires sociales: Amine Demnati Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Abdelslam Baraka Ministre de la santé publique: Ahmed Alami Ministre de l’habitat: Said El Fassi Ministre de tourisme: Mohamed Alaoui M’Hammedi Ministre de l’environnement: Nouredine Ben Omar Alami Ministre de la justice et ministre députe chargé des droits de l’homme: Abderrahman Amalu Ministre des finances et des investissements exterieurs: Mohamed Kabbaj Ministre de l’agriculture et de l’investissement agraire: Hassan Abou Ayoub Ministre des affaires culturelles: Abdallah Azmani Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Abdeslam Baraka Ministre délégué aupès du premier ministre chargé de l’habitat: Lamine Ben Omar Ministre délégué aupès du premier ministre chargé de la promotion économique: Mohamed Hamma Ministre délégué aupès du premier ministre chargé des affaires administratives: Massoud Mansouri Ministre du commerce extérieur: Mohamed Alami Ministre de la formation professionnelle: Abdeslam Baroual Vice-secrétaire d’Etat auprès du ministre des affaires étrangères chargé des marocains

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Appendix résidents à l’étranger: Lahsen Gabon Vice-secrétaire d’état des affaires étrangères chargé des relations avec l’union du maghreb arabe: Abdelaziz Messeoui

Government XXIV: 13 August 1997-March 1998 Premier ministre et ministre des affaires étrangères and cooperation: Abdellatif Filali Ministre d’état: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre d’état à intérieur: Driss Basri Ministre de la justice: Omar Azziman Ministre des finances, du commerce, de l’industrie et de l’artisanat: Driss Jettou Ministre de l’agriculture, de l’équipement et de l’environnement: Abdelaziz Meziane Belfkih Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Abdelkabir M’daghri Alaoui Ministre de l’habitat, de L’emploi et de la formation professionnelle: Mourad Cherif Ministre des pêches maritimes, des affaires administratives, et des relaltions avec le parlement: al Mustapha Sahel Ministre de la communication; porte parole du gouvernement: Moulay Driss M’daghri Alaoui Ministre des affaires sociales, de la santé, de la jeunesse, des sports et de l’entraide nationale: Abdellatif Guerraoui Ministre de la privatisation délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du secteur public: Abderrahman Saaidi Ministre des transports: Abdessalem Ahizoune Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur, de la recherche scientifique et de la formation professionnelle: Idriss Khalil Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Rachid Benmokhtar Ben Abdellah Ministre des transports, de la marine marchande, du tourisme, de l’énergie et des mines: Driss Benhima Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de l’administration de la défense nationale: Abderrahman Saaidi Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abdessadek Rabiah Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères: Taieb El Fassi Fihri Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’enseignement supérieur, de la recherche scientifique, et de la culture: Aziza Bennani Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des finances chargé du financement de l’économie: Abdelfettah Benmansour Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des finances chargé du commerce, de l’industrie et de l’artisanat: Abderrazak Masmoudi Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’agriculture, de l’équipement et de l’environnement chargé des investissements agraire: Abdelaadim Al Hafi Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’agriculture, de l’equipement et de l’environnement chargé de l’environnement: Al Hocine Tijani Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’énergie et des mines chargé du développement du secteur des mines: Amina Benkhadra Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre affaires sociales chargé de la santé: Fouad Hammadi Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère des affaires sociales chargé de l’entraide nationale: Zoulikha Naciri Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des affaires sociales chargé de la jeunesse et des sports: Nawal al Moutaouakil

Government XXV: 14 March 1998-6 September 2000 Premier ministre: Abderrahmane Youssoufi Ministre d’état chargé des affaires étrangères: Abdellatif Filali Ministre d’état chargé de l’intérieur: Driss Basri Ministre d’état: Moulay Ahmed Alaoui Ministre de la justice: Omar Azziman Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Abdelkabir M’daghri Alaoui

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Ministre des finances et de l’économie: Fathallah Oulaalou Ministre de l’habitat, de l’urbanisme, de l’environnement et de l’aménagement du territoire: Mohamed El Yazighi Ministre de l’agriculture: Habib El Malki Ministre de la solidarité, du développement social, de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle: Khalid Alioua Ministre des postes et des télécommunications: Larbi Ajjoul Ministre du tourisme: Hassan Sebbar Ministre de la culture: Mohamed Achaari Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires générales: Ahmed Lahlimi Alami Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Mohamed Bouzoubaa Ministre de l’énergie et des mines: Youssef Tahiri Ministre de la santé publique: Abdelouahed El Fassi Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan: Abdelhamid Aouad Ministre de la communication: Larbi Messari Ministre de l’équipement: Tighouane Bouamour Ministre des transports: Mansouri Mustapha Ministre de la réforme administrative: Aziz Hocine Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie: Alami Tazi Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur: Najib Zerouali Ministre des droits de l’homme: Mohamed Aujjar Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Ismail Alaoui Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Hassan Maaouni Ministre délégué auprès du ministre de l’agriculture chargé des eaux et forêts: Said Chbaatou Ministre délégué auprès du ministre de l’agriculture chargé de la pêche: Thami El Khyari Ministre délégué auprès du ministre de l’éducation nationale chargé de l’enseignement secondaire et technique: Abdellah Saaf Ministre délégue auprès du premier ministre chargé de l’administration de la défense nationale: Abderrahman Sbai Secrétaire d’état à la coopération: Aicha Belarbi Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Rabiah Abdessadek Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des finances chargé du secteur public et de la privatisation: Rachid Filali Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre chargé de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’environement, de l’urbanisme, et de l’habitat chargé de l’habitat: Mohamed M’Barki Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre chargé de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’environnement, de l’urbanisme, et de l’habitat chargé de l’environnement: Moulay Ahmed Iraqi Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’emploi chargé des handicapés: Nezha Chekrouni Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre du commerce et de l’industrie chargé de l’artisanat: Mohamed Moussaoui Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’emploi chargé de la solidarité et de l’action humanitaire: Hammou Ouhali Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des affaires étrangères chargé des affaires maghrébines et arabes: Abdeslam Zenined Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’enseignement supérieur chargé de la recherche scientifique: Omar El Fassi Fihri Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’emploi chargé de la protection sociale, de la famille et de l’enfance: Mohamed Said Saadi

Government XXVI: 6 September 2000-7 November 2002 Premier ministre: Abderrahmane El Youssoufi Ministre de la justice: Omar Azziman

406

Appendix Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Abdelkabir M’daghri Alaoui Ministre des affaires étrangères et de la coopération: Mohamed Benaissa Ministre de l’intérieur: Ahmed El Midaoui Ministre de l’emploi, de la formation professionnelle, du développement social et de la solidarité: Abbes El Fassi Ministre chargé de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat et de l’environnement: Mohamed El Yazighi Ministre de l’économie, des finances et du tourisme: Fathallah Oulaalou Ministre de l’économie sociale, des petites et moyennes entreprises et de l’artisanat, chargé des affaires générales du gouvernement: Ahmed Lahlimi Alami Ministre de l’agriculture et du développement rural: Ismail Alaoui Ministre de l’industrie, du commerce, de l’énergie et des mines: Mustapha Mansouri Ministre des pêches maritimes: Said Chbaatou Ministre de l’équipement: Bouamour Tighouane Ministre des transports et de la marine marchande: Abdeslem Zenined Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique: Najib Zerouali Ministre de l’éducation nationale: Abdallah Saaf Ministre de la santé: Thami El Khyari Ministre de la culture et de la communication: Mohamed Achaari Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement: Mohamed Bouzoubaa Ministre chargé des droits de l’homme: Mohamed Aujjar Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports: Ahmed Moussaoui Ministre de la prévision économique et du plan: Abdelhamid Aouad Ministre de la fonction publique et de la réforme administrative: M’Hammed El Khalifa Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre, chargé de l’administration de la défense nationale: Abderrahman Sbai Ministre délégué auprès du ministère de l’agriculture et du développement rural, chargé du développement rural: Hassan Maaouni Ministre déléguée auprès du ministre de l’emploi, de la formation professionnelle, du développement social et de la solidarité, chargée de la condition de la femme, de la protection de la famille et de l’enfance et de l’intégration des handicapés: Nezha Chekrouni Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères et à la cooperation: Taieb El Fassi Fihri Secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur: Fouad Ali El Himma Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre chargé de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat et de l’environnement, chargé de l’habitat: Mohamed M’Barki Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique, chargé de la recherche scientifique: Omar El Fassi Fihri Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre, chargé de la poste, des téchnologies de l’information et de la communication: Nacer Hajji Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’économie sociale, des petites et moyennes entreprises et de l’artisanat, chargé de l’artisanat: Abdelkrim Ben Atiq Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abdessadek Rabiah

Government XXVII: 7 September 2002-7 June 2004 Premier ministre: Driss Jettou Ministre d’état: Abbes El Fassi Ministre des affaires étrangères et de la coopération: Mohamed Benaissa Ministre de l’intérieur: Al Mustapha Sahel Ministre de la justice: Mohamed Bouzoubaa Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Ahmed Toufiq Ministre de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’eau et de l’environnement: Mohamed El Yazighi Ministre des finances et de la privatization: Fathallah Oulaalou Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abdessadek Rabia Ministre de l’agriculture et du développement rural: Mohand Laenser Ministre de l’emploi, des affaires sociales et de la solidarité: Mustapha Mansouri

Appendix

407

Ministre de l’éducation nationale et de la jeunesse: Habib El Malki Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique: Khalid Alioua Ministre chargé de la modernisation des secteurs publics: Najib Zerouali Ministre de la culture: Mohamed Achaari Ministre des droits de l’homme: Mohamed Aujjar Ministre de l’artisanat et de l’économie sociale: M'hammed Khalifa Ministre de l’équipement et du transport: Karim Ghellab Ministre de l’industrie, du commerce et des télécommunications: Rachid Talbi El Alami Ministre du tourisme: Adil Douiri Ministre de la santé publique: Mohamed Cheikh Biadillah Ministre des pêches maritimes: Mohamed Taieb Rhafes Ministre des relations avec le parlement: Mohamed Saad Alami Ministre de l’énergie et des mines: Mohamed Boutaleb Ministre de la communication, porte parole du gouvernement: Nabil Benabdallah Ministre du commerce extérieur: Mustapha Mechahouri Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de l’administration de la défense nationale: Abderrahman Sbai Ministre délégué aux affaires étrangères et à la cooperation: Taieb El Fassi Fihri Ministre déléguée auprès des affaires étrangères et de la coopération chargée des marocains résidents à l’étranger: Nouzha Chekrouni Ministre délégué à l’intérieur: Fouad Ali Himma Ministre délégué auprès du ministre de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique chargé de la recherche scientifique: Omar El Fassi Fihri Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques et générales et de la mise à niveau de l’économie: Abderazzak El Mossadeq Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du logement et de l’urbanisme: Ahmed Toufiq Hjira Secrétaire d’état auprés du ministère de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’eau et de l’environnement, chargé de l’eau: Abdelkebir Zahoud Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’eau et de l’environnement, chargé de l’environnement: M’Hammed El Morabit Secrétaire d’état auprés du ministère de l’emploi, des affaires sociales et de la solidarité, chargée de la famille, de la solidarité et de l’action sociale: Yasmina Baddou Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’emploi, des affaires sociales et de la solidarité, chargé de la formation professionnelle: Said Oulbacha Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’éducation nationale et de la jeunesse, chargée de l’alphabétisme et de l’éducation non formelle: Najima Rhozali Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’éducation nationale et de la jeunesse, chargé de la jeunesse: Mohamed El Gahs

Government XXVIII: 8 June 2004Premier ministre: Driss Jettou Ministre d’état: Abbes El Fassi Ministre des affaires étrangères et de la coopération: Mohamed Benaissa Ministre de l’intérieur: Al Mustapha Sahel Ministre de la justice: Mohamed Bouzoubaa Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques: Ahmed Toufiq Ministre de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’eau et de l’environnement: Mohamed El Yazighi Ministre des finances et de la privatization: Fathallah Oulaalou Secrétaire général du gouvernement: Abdessadek Rabia Ministre de l’agriculture, du développement rural et des pêches maritimes: Mohand Laenser Ministre de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle: Mustapha Mansouri

408

Appendix

Ministre de l’éducation nationale de l’enseignement supérieur de la formation des cadres et de la recherche scientifique: Habib El Malki Ministre chargé de la modernisation des secteurs publics: Mohamed Boussaid Ministre de la culture: Mohamed Achaari Ministre de l’équipement et du transport: Karim Ghellab Ministre de l’industrie, du commerce et de la mise à niveau de l’économie: Salaheddine Mezouar Ministre du tourisme, de l’artisanat et de l’économie sociale: Adil Douiri Ministre de la santé publique: Mohamed Cheikh Biadillah Ministre des relations avec le parlement: Mohamed Saad Alami Ministre de l’énergie et des mines: Mohamed Boutaleb Ministre de la communication, porte parole du gouvernement: Nabil Benabdallah Ministre du commerce extérieur: Mustapha Mechahouri Ministère du développement social, de la famille, de la solidarité: Abderrahim Harouchi Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de l’administration de la défense nationale: Abderrahman Sbai Ministre délégué aux affaires étrangères et à la cooperation: Taieb El Fassi Fihri Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre, chargé des affaires économiques et générales: Rachid Talbi Alami Ministre déléguée auprès des affaires étrangères et de la coopération chargée des marocains résidant à l’étranger: Nouzha Chekrouni Ministre délégué à l’intérieur: Fouad Ali Himma Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du logement et de l’urbanisme: Ahmed Toufiq Hjira Secrétaire d’état auprés du ministère de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’eau et de l’environnement, chargé de l’eau: Abdelkebir Zahoud Secrétaire d’état auprés du ministère du développement social, de la famille, de la solidarité: Yasmina Baddou Secrétaire d’état auprés du Ministre de l’agriculture, du développement rural et des pêches maritimes, chargé de développement rural: Mohamed Mohattane Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle, chargé de la formation professionnelle: Said Oulbacha Secrétaire d’état auprès du Ministre de l’éducation nationale de l’enseignement supérieur de la formation des cadres et de la recherche scientifique, chargé de l’alphabétisme et de l’éducation non formelle: Anis Perou Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre, chargé de la jeunesse: Mohamed El Gahs

Index of Government Officials since Independence Le Roi Mohammed V muHammad al-khâmis ‫ﺟﻼﻟﺔ اﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ‬ Government V: Président du Conseil Le Prince Heritier Moulay Hassan mulây al-Hasan ‫ﻣﻮﻻي اﻟﺤﺴﻦ‬ Government V: Vice-président du Conseil Ministre de la défense nationale Le Roi Hassan II al-Hasan al-thânî ‫ﺟﻼﻟﺔ اﻟﻤﻠﻚ اﻟﺤﺴﻦ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ‬ Government VI: Président du Conseil Ministre de la défense; Ministre de l’agriculture Government VII: Président du Conseil

Appendix

409

Ministre des affaires étrangères Government VIII: President du Conseil Government IX: President du Conseil Le Roi Mohamed VI muhâmmad al-sâdis ‫ﺟﻼﻟﺔ اﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺴﺎدس‬ Ababou, Hassan Hasan a‘bâbû ‫ﺣﺴﻦ اﻋﺒﺎﺑﻮ‬ Government X; XI: Ministre du tourisme Abbadi, Hassan Hasan al-‘abbâdî ‫ﺣﺴﻦ اﻟﻌﺒﺎدي‬ Government XIX: Ministre de l’emploi Abdeljalil, Mohamed El Mehdi muHammad al-mahdî ‘abd al-jalîl ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﻬﺪي ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺠﻠﻴﻞ‬ Government III: Ministre de la production industrielle et mines Abied, Mohamed muHammad abyaD ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﺑﻴﺾ‬ Government XIX: Ministre de l’artisanat et des affaires sociales Abou Ayoub, Hassan Hasan abû ’ayyûb ‫ﺣﺴﻦ اﺑﻮ اﻳﻮب‬ Government XX: Ministre du commerce extérieur, des investissements extérieurs et du tourisme Government XXIII: Ministre de l’agriculture et des investissements agraires Achaari, Mohamed muHammad al-ash‘arî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻻﺷﻌﺮي‬ Government XXV; XXVII: Ministre de la culture Government XXVI: Ministre de la culture et de la communication Government XXVIII: Ministre de la culture Afifi, Tahar al-Tâhar al-‘afîfî ‫اﻟﻄﺎﻫﺮ ﻋﻔﻴﻔﻲ‬ Government XIX: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement Ahardane, Mahjoubi maHjûbî aHarDân ‫ﻣﺤﺠﻮﺑﻲ اﺣﺮﺿﺎن‬ Government XVII; XVIII: Ministre de la défense nationale Government IX: Ministre de l’agriculture Government X: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire; Ministre d’état chargé de la défense nationale Government XV; XVI: Ministre d’état chargé des postes et télécommunications Government XVII: Ministre d’état chargé de la coopération Government XVIII: Ministre d’état Ahizoune, Abdessalem ‘abd al-salâm aHizûn ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺴﻼم أﺣﻴﺰون‬ Government XX; XXI: Ministre des postes et des télécommunications Government XXIV: Ministre des transports Ajjoul, Larbi al-‘arbî ‘ajjûl ‫اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ ﻋﺠﻮل‬ Government XXV: Ministre des postes et des télécommunications Alami, Ahmed aHmad al-‘alamî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ‬ Government XXIII: Ministre de la santé publique Alami, Driss Ben Omar (Général) idrîs bn ‘umar al-‘alamî ‫إدرﻳﺲ ﺑﻦ ﻋﻤﺮ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ‬ Government XII; XIII; XIV: Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones Alami, Mohamed muHammad al-‘alawî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ‬ Government III: Ministre du commerce extérieur Alami, Mohamed Larbi muHammad al-‘arbî al-‘alamî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ‬ Government VII: Sous-secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères Alami, Mohamed Saad muHammad sa‘d al-‘alamî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺳﻌﺪ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ‬ Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre des relations avec le parlement Alami, Nouredine Ben Omar nurddîn bn ‘umar al-‘alamî ‫ﻧﻮر اﻟﺪﻳﻦ ﺑﻨﻌﻤﺮ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ‬ Government XXIII: Ministre de l’environnement Alami, Rachid Talbi rashîd Talbî al-‘alamî ‫رﺷﻴﺪ ﻃﻠﺒﻲ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ‬ Government XXVIII: Ministre délégué aupres du premier ministre, chargé des affaires économiques et générales Alaoui, Ismail ismâ‘îl al-‘alawî ‫اﺳﻤﺎﻋﻴﻞ اﻟﻌﻠﻮي‬ Government XXV: Ministre de l’éducation nationale Government XXVI: Ministre de l’agriculture et du développement rural Alaoui, Mohamed muHammad al-‘alawî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻌﻠﻮي‬ Government XXIII: Ministre du commerce extérieur Alaoui, Moulay Ahmed aHmad al-‘alawî ‫ﻣﻮﻻي اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﻌﻠﻮي‬ Government V; VI: Ministre de l’information et du tourisme

410

Appendix

Government VII: Ministre de l’information, du tourisme et des beaux arts; Ministre du tourisme, de l’artisanat, et des beaux arts Government VIII: Ministre du tourisme de l’artisanat et des beaux arts Government IX: Ministre de l’information, du tourisme, des beaux arts et de l’artisanat Government X: Ministre de l’industrie et des mines; Ministre du commerce, de l’artisanat, de l’industrie et des mines Government XI: Ministre du commerce, de l’artisanat, de l’industrie et des mines; Ministre d’état chargé du toursime et de l’artisanat; Ministre d’état chargé de la promotion nationale et de l’artisanat Government XVI: Ministre d’état chargé du toursime Government XVII; XVIII; XIX; XX; XXI; XXII; XXIII; XXIV; XXV: Ministre d’état Alaoui M’Hammedi, Mohamed muHammad al-‘alawî al-mHamdî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻌﻠﻮي اﻟﻤﺤﻤﺪي‬ Gouvernment XXIII: Ministre du tourisme Alaoui, Moulay Mustapha Bel Arbi mulay musTafa bn al-‘arbî al-‘alawî ‫ﻣﻮﻻي ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺑﻦ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ اﻟﻌﻠﻮي‬ Government XVII; XVIII; XIX: Ministre de la justice Alioua, Khalid khâlid ‘lîwa ‫ﺧﺎﻟﺪ ﻋﻠﻴﻮه‬ Government XXV: Ministre de la solidarité, du développement social, de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle Government XXVII: Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique Amalou, Abderrahman ‘abd al-raHmân amâllû ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﺎن اﻣﺎﻟﻮ‬ Government XXIII: Ministre de la justice et ministre député chargé des droits de l’homme Ameskane, Said sa‘îd amskân ‫ﺳﻌﻴﺪ اﻣﺴﻜﺎن‬ Government XXIII: Ministre des transports Ameziane, Ahmed aHmad amzyyân ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻣﺰﻳﺎن‬ Government XXIII: Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports Ameziane, Zaharaoui Mohamed (Général) amazyân muHammad al-sharqâwî ‫اﻟﺠﻨﺮال أﻣﺰﻳﺎن ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺰﻫﺮاوي‬ Government IX; X: Ministre de la défense Government XI: Ministre chargé de la coordination des forces du royaume; Ministre de la défense nationale Ammar, Thami al-thâmî ‘amâr ‫اﻟﺘﻬﺎﻣﻲ ﻋﻤﺎر‬ Government IV: Ministre de l’agriculture Amour, Mohamed muHammad ‘ammûr ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﻤﻮر‬ Government IX: Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales Aouad Abdelhamid ‘abd al-Hamîd ‘awwâd ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺤﻤﻴﺪ ﻋﻮاد‬ Government XXV: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan Government XXVI: Ministre de la prévision économique et du plan Aouad Mohamed muHammad ’awwâd ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﻮاد‬ Government III: Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones Government IV: Ministre de la défense; Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones Arsalane El Jadidi Mohamed arsalân al-jadîdî ‫ارﺳﻼن اﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪي‬ Government XII; XIII; XIV: Ministre du travail, des affaires sociales, de la jeunesse et des sports Government XVI: Ministre du travail et de la formation professionnelle Government XVII: Ministre de l’emploi et de la promotion nationale Government XVIII: Ministre d’état Aujjar, Mohamed muHammad ’ujjâr ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اوﺟﺎر‬ Government XXVI: Ministre chargé des droits de l’homme Government XXV; XXVII: Ministre des droits de l’homme Azziman, Omar ‘umar ‘azimân ‫ﻋﻤﺮ ﻋﺰﻳﻤﺎن‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des droits de l’homme Government XXIV; XXV; XXVI: Ministre de la justice Azmani, Abdallah ‘abd al-llâh azmânî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻪ ازﻣﺎﻧﻲ‬ Government XIX: Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie

Appendix

411

Government XXIII: Ministre des affaires culturelles Baddou, Abderrahmane ‘abd al-raHîm bâddu ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﺎن ﺑﺎدو‬ Government XV; XVI: Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères Baddou, Yasmina yâsmîna bâddû ‫ﻳﺎﺳﻤﻴﻨﺔ ﺑﺎدو‬ Government XXVII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’emploi des affaires sociales et de la solidarité, chargée de la famille, de la solidarité et de l’action sociale Government XXVIII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère du développement social, de la famille et de la solidarité Bahnini, Ahmed aHmad bâ Hnînî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ أﺑﺎ ﺣﻨﻴﻨﻲ‬ Government VIII: Ministre de la justice Government IX: Premier ministre; ministre chargé du ministère des affaires de mauritanie et du sahara marocain Bahnini, Hadj M’Hammed al-Hâj maHmad bâ Hnînî ‫اﻟﺤﺎج ﻣَﺤﻤﺪ أﺑﺎ ﺣﻨﻴﻨﻲ‬ Government I; II; III: Secrétaire général du gouvernement Government IV: Ministre de la justice; Secrétaire général du gouvernement Government V: Secrétaire général du gouvernement; ministre de la justice Government VI: Secrétaire général du gouvernement Government X: Ministre des affaires administratives; Secrétaire général du gouvernement Government XI: Ministre des affaires administratives; Secrétaire général du gouvernement; Ministre de la défense nationale; Secrétaire général du gouvernement Government XII: Ministre de la justice; Secrétaire général du gouvernement Government XIII: Vice-premier ministre; Ministre de la justice; Secrétaire général du gouvernement Government XIV: Ministre d’état; Ministre d’état chargé des affaires culturelles Government XV; XVI: Ministre d’état chargé des affaires culturelles Government XVII: Ministre d’état Government XVIII: Ministre d’état Government XIX: Ministre d’état El Bakkaï Ben M’Barek El Hbil al-bakkây bn mbarak al-habîl ‫اﻟﺒﻜﺎي ﺑﻦ ﻣﺒﺎرك اﻟﻬﺒﻴﻞ‬ Government I; II: Président du Conseil Government V; VI: Ministre de l’intérieur Balafrej, Hadj Ahmed al-Hâj aHmad blâ fraj ‫اﻟﺤﺎج اﺣﻤﺪ ﺑﻼ ﻓﺮج‬ Government II: Ministre des affaires étrangères Government III: Président du Conseil; ministre des affaires étrangères Government VIII: Représentant personnel de Sa Majeste le Roi Ministre des affaires étrangères Baraka, Abdeslem ‘abd al-salâm baraka ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺴﻼم ﺑﺮﻛﺔ‬ Government XIX; XXIII: Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement Bargach, Hadj Ahmed al-Hâj aHmad bargâsh ‫اﻟﺤﺎج اﺣﻤﺪ ﺑﺮﻛَﺎش‬ Government VIII; IX: Ministre des habous, chargé du ministère des affaires islamiques Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques Government X; XI; XII; XIII: MInistre des habous et des affaires islamiques Bargach, Hadj M’Hammed amHmad bargâsh ‫اﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﺮﻛَﺎش‬ Government X: Ministre du développement chargé de la promotion nationale et du plan Government XI: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire, chargé de la promotion nationale Baroual, Abdeslam ‘abd al-salâm barwâl ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺴﻼم ﺑﺮوال‬ XXIII: Ministre de la formation professionnelle Basri, Driss idrîs al-baSrî ‫ادرﻳﺲ اﻟﺒﺼﺮي‬ Government XIV; XV: Secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur Government XVI; XVII; XVIII: Ministre de l’intérieur Government XIX: Ministre de l’intérieur; Ministre de l’intérieur et de l’information Government XX: Ministre de l’intérieur et de l’information Government XXI; XXII: Ministre d’état à l’intérieur et à l’information Government XXIII; XXIV: Ministre d’état à l’intérieur

412

Appendix

Government XXV: Ministre d’état chargé de l’intérieur Belarbi, Aicha ‘âisha bal‘arbî ‫ﻋﺎﺋﺸﺔ ﺑﻠﻌﺮﺑﻲ‬ Government XXV: Secrétaire d’état à la coopération Belfkih, Abdelaziz Meziane ‘abd al-‘azîz mazyân ballafqîh ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﻣﺰﻳﺎن ﺑﻠﻔﻘﻴﻪ‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre de l’agriculture et de l’investissement agraire Government XXIV: Ministre de l’agriculture, de l’équipement et de l’environnement Belkeziz, Abdellah ‘abd al-llâh balaqzîz ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻪ ﺑﻠﻘﺰﻳﺰ‬ Government XX: Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports Belkeziz, Abdelouahad ‘abd al-wâHad balaqzîz ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ ﺑﻠﻘﺰﻳﺰ‬ Government XVI: Ministre de l’information Government XVII: Ministre de l’information, de la jeunesse et des sports Government XVIII: Ministre des affaires étrangères Belbachir Saïd sa‘îd bn al-bashîr ‫ﺳﻌﻴﺪ ﺑﻦ اﻟﺒﺸﻴﺮ‬ Government XV; XVI: Secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement supérieur et à la recherche scientifique Government XVII; XVIII: Ministre des affaires culturelles Belhaj, Ahmed aHmad balHâj ‫اﺣﻤﺪ ﺑﻠﺤﺎج‬ Government XVII; XVIII: Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement Belkhayat, Mohamed muHammad balkhayyaT ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻠﺨﻴﺎط‬ Government XIV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques Benhima, Ahmed Taibi aHmad al-Tayybî banhîma ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﻄﻴﺒﻲ ﺑﻨﻬﻴﻤﺔ‬ Government IX; X: Ministre des affaires étrangères Government XIV: Ministre des affaires étrangères; Ministre d’état chargé de l’information Benhima, Mohamed muHammad banhîma ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻨﻬﻴﻤﺔ‬ Government XII: Ministre des travaux publics; Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines, de l’artisanat et de la marine marchande Government VIII: Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines, de l’artisanat et de la marine marchande; Ministre des travaux publics Government IX: Ministre des travaux publics; Ministre des travaux publics et des communications Government X: Ministre de l’éducation nationale, des beaux arts, de la jeunesse et des sports; Ministre des travaux publics et de la communication Government XI: Premier ministre Government XIII; XIV: Ministre de l’intérieur Government XIV: Ministre d’état chargé de la coopération et de la formation des cadres Government XV: Ministre d’état chargé de l’intérieur Benhima, Driss muHammad idrîs ‫ادرﻳﺲ ﺑﻨﻬﻴﻤﺔ‬ Government XXIV: Ministre des transports, de la marine marchande, du tourisme, de l’énergie et des mines Belmahi, Abdelmajid ‘abd al-majîd balmâHî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻤﺠﻴﺪ ﺑﻠﻤﺎﺣﻲ‬ Government XII: Ministre de la santé publique Ben Abdelali, Abderrahmane ‘abd al-raHmân bn ‘abd al-‘alî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﺎن ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻌﻠﻲ‬ Government IV; V; VI: Ministre des travaux publiques Benabdellah, Nabil nabîl bn‘abd al-llâh ‫ﻧﺒﻴﻞ ﺑﻨﻌﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻪ‬ Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre de communication, porte parole du gouvernement Ben Abdeljelil, Abdellatif ‘abd al-llaTîf bn ‘abd al-jalîl ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻄﻴﻒ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺠﻠﻴﻞ‬ Government XIV: Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur Ben Abdeljelil, Abderrahim ‘abd al-raHîm bn ‘abd al-jalîl ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺠﻠﻴﻞ‬ Government XIX: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires administratives Ben Abdeljelil Taârji, Hadj Omar al-Hâj ‘umar bn ‘abd al-jalîl ‫اﻟﺤﺎج ﻋﻤﺮ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺠﻠﻴﻞ‬ Government II: Ministre de l’agriculture

Appendix

413

Government III: Ministre de l’éducation nationale Benaissa Abdeslam ‘abd al-salâm bn‘îsâ ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺴﻼم ﺑﻨﻌﻴﺴﻰ‬ Government IX: Sous-secrétaire d’état à la défense nationale chargé des anciens résistants, des anciens membres de l’armée de libération et des anciens combattants Government X: Secrétaire d’état chargé des affaires des résistants, des anciens membres de l’armée de libération et des anciens combattants Government XI: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires des anciens résistants, anciens membres de l’armée de libération et anciens combattants; Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales Benaissa, Mohamed muHammad ban‘îsâ ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻨﻌﻴﺴﻰ‬ Government XIX: Ministre des affaires culturelles Government XXVI; XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre des affaires étrangères et de la coopération Ben Ali, Mansouri al-mansûrî bn ‘alî ‫اﻟﻤﻨﺼﻮري ﺑﻦ ﻋﻠﻲ‬ Government XV: Ministre du tourisme; Ministre des affaires culturelles Government XVI: Ministre des affaires administratives Government XVII; XVIII: Ministre des transports Ben Atiq, Abdelkrim ‘abd al-karîm bn ‘atîq ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻜﺮﻳﻢ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺘﻴﻖ‬ Government XXVI: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’économie sociale, des petites et moyennes entrprises et de l’aritisanat, chargé de l’artisanat Ben El Alem, Mohamed muHammad bn al-‘âlam ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‬ Government X; XI: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur Ben Bouchaïb, M’Hammed maHmad bn bûsh‘ayb ‫ﻣَﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺑﻮﺷﻌﻴﺐ‬ Government I: Ministre de l’urbanisme et l’habitat Ben Bouchta, Ahmed aHmad bn bushtta ‫اﺣﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺑﻮﺷﺘﻰ‬ Government XI: Ministre de la justice Government XII: Ministre de l’intérieur, chargé de l’artisanat, de l’habitat et l’urbanisme Ben Bouchta, Mehdi al-mahdî bn bushtta ‫اﻟﻤﻬﺪي ﺑﻦ ﺑﻮﺷﺘﺔ‬ Government X: Sous-secrétaire d’état à la jeunesse et aux sports Secrétaire d’état à la jeunesse et aux sports auprès du premier ministre Government XI: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre, chargé de la jeunesse et des sports; Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports; Ministre du travail, de l’emploi et de laformation professionnelle Ben El Abbes Taârji, Bachir al-bashîr bal‘abbâs al-ta‘ârijî ‫اﻟﺒﺸﻴﺮ ﺑﻠﻌﺒﺎس اﻟﺘﻌﺎرﺟﻲ‬ Government III: Ministre du travail et des questions sociales Government XIV: Ministre de la justice Ben El Abbes Taârji, Youssef Taârji yusaf bn al-‘abbâs ‫ﻳﻮﺳﻒ ﺑﻦ اﻟﻌﺒﺎس‬ Government IV; V; VI; VII: Ministre de la santé publique Government VII; VIII; IX: Ministre de l’éducation nationale Government XI: Ministre des affaires étrangères Ben Brahim, Jawad bn brâhîm jawâd ‫ﺑﻦ اﺑﺮاﻫﻴﻢ ﺟﻮاد‬ Government XI: Ministre de l’industrie, des mines et de la mraine marchande Bencheikh, Taïeb al-Tayyab ibn al-shaykh ‫اﻟﻄﻴﺐ اﺑﻦ اﻟﺸﻴﺦ‬ Government XIV; XV; XVI: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan et du développement régional Government XVIII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques Government XIX: Ministre de la santé publique Ben Driss, Moulay Hassan al-amîr mulay al-Hasan bn idrîs ‫اﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﻣﻮﻻي اﻟﺤﺴﻦ ﺑﻦ ادرﻳﺲ‬ Government IX; X: Ministre des affaires de mauritanie et du sahara marocain Government XI: Ministre de mauritanie et du sahara marocain; Ministre d’état Benhima, Ahmed Taïbi aHmad Taybî banhîma ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﻄﻴﺒﻲ ﺑﻨﻬﻴﻤﺔ‬ Government IX; X; XIII: Ministre des affaires étrangères

414

Appendix

Government XIV: Ministre des affaires étrangères; Ministre d’état chargé de l’information Benhima, Mohamed muHammad banhîma ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻨﻬﻴﻤﺔ‬ Government VII: Ministre des travaux publics Government VIII: Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande Government IX: Ministre des travaux publics et des communications Government X: Ministre de l’éducation nationale, des beaux arts, de la jeunesse et des sports; Ministre des travaux publics et des communications Government XI: Premier ministre Government XIII: Ministre de l’intérieur Government XIV: Ministre de l’intérieur; Ministre d’état chargé de la coopération et de laformation des cadres Government XV: Ministre d’état chargé de l’intérieur Benhima, Driss idrîs banhîma ‫ادرﻳﺲ ﺑﻨﻬﻴﻤﺔ‬ Government XXIV: Ministre des transports, de la marine marchande, du tourisme, de l’énergie et des mines Benjelloun, Abdelaziz ‘abd al-‘azîz bn jallûn ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﺑﻨﺠﻠﻮن‬ Government XIII: Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie, aux mines et à la marine marchande Government XIII: Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande Benjelloun, Abdelkader ‘abd al-qâdar bn jallûn ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻘﺎدر ﺑﻦ ﺟﻠﻮن‬ Government I: Ministre des finances Government VIII: Ministre délégué au travail at aux affaires sociales Government IX: Ministre de la justice Benjelloun, Ahmed Majid aHmad majîd bn jallûn ‫اﺣﻤﺪ ﻣﺠﻴﺪ ﺑﻨﺠﻠﻮن‬ Government X; XIV: Ministre de l’information Government XI: Ministre du Cabinet Royal Government XII; XIII: Ministre des affaires administratives Benjelloun, Ali ‘alî bn jallûn ‫ﻋﻠﻲ ﺑﻨﺠﻠﻮن‬ Government X; XI: Ministre de la justice Benjelloun Touimi, Hadj Abdelkrim ‘abd al-karîm bn jallûn twîmî ‫اﻟﺤﺎج ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻜﺮﻳﻢ ﺑﻦ ﺟﻠﻮن اﻟﺘﻮﻳﻤﻲ‬ Government I; II; III: Ministre de la justice Government IV; V; VI: Ministre de l’éducation nationale Government VII: Ministre délégué au travail et aux affaires sociales Benkhadra, Amina âmîna bankhaDrâ’ ‫آﻣﻴﻨﺔ ﺑﻦ ﺧﻀﺮاء‬ Government XXIV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’énergie et des mines chargé du développement du secteur des mines Benkirane, Ahmed aHmad bn kirân ‫اﺣﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻛﻴﺮان‬ Government III: Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie, à l’artisanat et à la marine marchande Government XI: Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie, et aux mines Benmansour, Abdelfettah ‘abd al-fattâH banmansûr ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻔﺘﺎح ﺑﻨﻤﻨﺼﻮر‬ Government XXV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des finances chargé du financement de l’économie Benmokhtar Ben Abdellah, Rachid rashîd bn al-mukhtâr bn ‘abdallâh ‫رﺷﻴﺪ ﺑﻨﻤﺨﺘﺎر ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻪ‬ Government XXIII; XXIV: Ministre de l’éducation nationale Bennani, Aziza ‘azîza bannâni ‫ﻋﺰﻳﺰة ﺑﻨﺎﻧﻲ‬ Government XXIV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’enseignement supérieur, de la recherche scientifique, et de la culture Bennani, Ahmed al-thâmî al-wazzânî ‫اﻟﺘﻬﺎﻣﻲ اﻟﻮزاﻧﻲ‬ Government IX: Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie, aux mines et à la marine marchande; Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie, et aux mines

Appendix

415

Government X: Sous-secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre Government XI: Sous-secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques Ben Omar, Lamine lâmîn ban‘mar ‫ﻻﻣﻴﻦ ﺑﻨﻌﻤﺮ‬ Ben Slimane, Abdelkader ‘abd al-qâdar banslîmân ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻘﺎدر ﺑﻨﺴﻠﻴﻤﺎن‬ Government XIV: Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande; Ministre des finances Ben Slimane, Yahia yaHyâ banslimân ‫ﻳﺤﻴﻰ ﺑﻨﺴﻠﻴﻤﺎن‬ Government X: Ministre de l’industrie et des mines Bensouda, Ahmed aHmad bn sûda ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﺑﻦ ﺳﻮدة‬ Government I: Secrétaire d’état à la jeunesse et aux sports Benyakhlef, M’Hammed amHmad banyakhlaf ‫اﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻨﻴﺨﻠﻒ‬ Government XIV: Ministre des affaires administratives; Secrétaire général du gouvernement Government XV: Ministre des affaires administratives Benzaquen (Moroccan Jew) bn zkîn ‫ﺑﻦ زﻛﻴﻦ‬ Government II: Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones Berdigo, Serge (Moroccan Jew) sîrj birdigû ‫ﺳﻴﺮج ﺑﻴﺮدوﻛَﻮ‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre du tourisme Berrada, Abdeslem ‘abd al-salâm barâda ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺴﻼم ﺑﺮادة‬ Government XIV: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire Berrada, Mohamed muHammad barâda ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﺮادة‬ Government XIX: Ministre des finances Bernoussi, Mohamed muHammad al-barnûSî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺒﺮﻧﻮﺻﻲ‬ Government XII: Ministre des travaux publics et des communications Biadillah, Mohamed Cheikh muHammad al-shaykh biyad al-llâh ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺸﻴﺦ ﺑﻴﺪ اﻟﻠﻪ‬ Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre de la santé publique Bouabid Abderrahim ‘abd al-raHîm bû‘bîd ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ ﺑﻮﻋﺒﻴﺪ‬ Government I; XVIII: Ministre d’état Government II: Ministre de l’économie nationale Government III: Vice président du Conseil; Ministre de l’économie nationale; Ministre de l’agriculture Government IV: Vice président du Conseil; Ministre de l’économie nationale; Ministre des finances Bouabid, Mohamed Maâti muHammad al-ma‘Tî bu‘bîd ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﻌﻄﻲ ﺑﻮﻋﺒﻴﺪ‬ Government IV: Ministre du travail et des questions sociales Government XV: Ministre de la justice Government XVI: Premier ministre et ministre de la justice Government XVII: Premier ministre Government XVIII: Ministre d’état Bouamoud, Mohamed muHammad bu‘mûd ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻮﻋﻤﻮد‬ Government XIV: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement primaire et secondaire; Ministre de l’enseignement primaire et secondaire Government XV: Ministre du travail et de la formation professionnelle Government XIX: Ministre des transports Boucetta, Mohamed mHammad bustta ‫اﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻮﺳﺘﺔ‬ Government III: Sous-secrétaire d’état aux affaires sociales Government V; VI: Ministre de la fonction publique et de la réforme administrative Government VII: Ministre de la justice Government XV; XVI: Ministre d’état chargé des affaires étrangères et de la coopération Government XVIII: Ministre d’état Bouftas, Abderrahmane ‘abd al-raHmân bufttâs ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﺎن ﺑﻮﻓﺘﺎس‬ Government XIX; XX: Ministre de l’habitat Boussaid, Mohamed muHammad bû sa‘îd ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻮﺳﻌﻴﺪ‬ Government XXVIII: Ministre chargé de la modernisation des secteurs publics

416

Appendix Boutaleb, Abdelhadi ‘abd al-hâdî buTâlab ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻬﺎدي ﺑﻮﻃﺎﻟﺐ‬ Government I: Ministre du travail et des questions sociales Government VII: Secrétaire d’état à l’information Government VIII: Secrétaire d’état à l’information, à la jeunesse et aux sports; Ministre de l’information, de la jeunesse et des sports Government IX: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre; Ministre de la justice Government X: Ministre de la justice; Ministre de l’éducation nationale et des beaux arts Government XI: Ministre de l’éducation nationale et des beaux arts; Ministre d’état; Ministre des affaires étrangères Government XV: Ministre d’état chargé de l’information Boutaleb, Abdelhafid ‘abd al-hâdî buTâlab ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺤﻔﻴﻆ ﺑﻮﻃﺎﻟﺐ‬ Government IX: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur Government X: Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales Government XI: Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales; Ministre des travaux publics et des communications; Ministre de la justice; Ministre du travail, de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle Boutaleb, Mohamed muHammad bûTâlab ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻮﻃﺎﻟﺐ‬ Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre de l’énergie et des mines Bouzoubaa, Mohamed muHammad bûzûba‘ ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻮزوﺑﻊ‬ Government XXV; XXVI: Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre de la justice Chafik, Mohamed muHammad shafîq ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺷﻔﻴﻖ‬ Government XI: Secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement secondaire, technique, supérieur et de laformation des cadres auprès du premier ministre Government XII: Sous-secrétaire d’état à la culture, à l’enseignement supérieur, secondaire et originel et à la formation des cadres Government XIII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre Chami, Hassan Hasan al-shâmî ‫ﺣﺴﻦ اﻟﺸﺎﻣﻲ‬ Government XI: Ministre des travaux publics et des communications Chbaatou, said sa‘îd shbâ‘tû ‫ﺳﻌﻴﺪ اﺷﺒﺎﻋﺘﻮ‬ Government XXV: Ministre délégué auprès du ministre de l’agriculture chargé des eaux et des forêts Government XXVI: Ministre des pêches maritimes Chefchaouni, Charif Abdallah shrîf ‘abd al-llâh al-shafshâwnî ‫ﺷﺮﻳﻒ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻪ اﻟﺸﻔﺸﺎوﻧﻲ‬ Government II: Sous-secrétaire d’état au ministère de l’économie nationale et aux finance Government III: Sous-secrétaire d’état aux finances Chefchaouni, Yahia yaHyâ al-shafshâwnî ‫ﻳﺤﻴﻰ اﻟﺸﻔﺸﺎوﻧﻲ‬ Government XI: Ministre des travaux publics et des communications Chekrouni, Nouzha nuzha al-shaqrûnî ‫ﻧﺰﻫﺔ اﻟﺸﻘﺮوﻧﻲ‬ Government XXV: Ministre d’état auprès du ministre de l’emploi chargé des handicapés Government XXVI: Ministre déléguée auprès du ministre de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle, du développement social et de la solidarité, chargée de la condition de la femme, de la protection de la famille et de l’enfance et de l’intégration des handicappés Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre déléguée auprès des affaires étrangères et de la coopération chargée des marocains résidents à l’étranger Cherif, Mourad murâd shrîf ‫ﻣﺮاد ﺷﺮﻳﻒ‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre du commerce extérieur, des investissements extérieurs et de l’artisanat Government XXIV: Ministre de l’habitat, de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle Cherkaoui, M’fedel al-mufaDal al-sharqâwî ‫اﻟﻤﻔﻀﻞ اﻟﺸﺮﻗﺎوي‬ Government VII: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur Cherkaoui, Mohamed muHammad al-sharqâwî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺸﺮﻗﺎوي‬

Appendix

417

Government I: Ministre d’état Government V; VI: Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones Government IX: Ministre des affaires économiques et des finances Government X: Ministre du développement; Ministre des affaires étrangères; Ministre de la défense nationale Cherkaoui, Moulay Ahmed mulay aHmad al-sharqâwî ‫ﻣﻮﻻي اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﺸﺮﻗﺎوي‬ Government XIV; XIX; XX: Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères Chiguer, Messaoud mas‘ûd al-shîgar ‫ﻣﺴﻌﻮد اﻟﺸﻴﻜَﺮ‬ Government III: Ministre de l’intérieur Chkili, Taieb al-Tayyib al-shkîlî ‫اﻟﻄﻴﺐ اﻟﺸﻜﻴﻠﻲ‬ Government XX: Ministre de l’éducation nationale Chorfi, Abdellah ‘abd al-llâh al-sharfî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻪ اﻟﺸﺮﻓﻲ‬ Government IX; X; XI: Sous-secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères Chraibi, El Arbi al-‘arbî al-shrâybî ‫اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ اﻟﺸﺮاﻳﺒﻲ‬ Government IX; X; XI: Ministre de la santé publique Debbagh, Driss idrîs al-dabâgh ‫ادرﻳﺲ اﻟﺪﺑﺎغ‬ Government VIII: Ministre du commerce, d l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande Demnati, Amine amîn al-damnâtî ‫اﻣﻴﻦ اﻟﺪﻣﻨﺎﺗﻲ‬ Government XXIII: Ministre de l’emploi et des affaires sociales Demnati, Othmane ‘utmân al-damnâtî ‫ﻋﺜﻤﺎن اﻟﺪﻣﻨﺎﺗﻲ‬ Government XVII; XVIII; XIX; XX: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire Douiri, Adil ‘âdil al-dwîrî ‫ﻋﺎدل اﻟﺪوﻳﺮي‬ Government XXVII: Ministre du tourisme Government XXVIII: Ministre du tourisme, de l’artisanat et de l’économie sociale Douiri, M’Hammed mHamad al-dwîrî ‫اﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺪوﻳﺮي‬ Government I; II; III: Ministre des travaux publics Government V; VI; VII: Ministre de l’économie nationale et des finances Government XV; XVI: Ministre de l’équipement et de la promotion nationale Government XVII; XVIII: Ministre du plan; de la formation des cadres et de la formation professionnelle Doukkali, Mounir munîr al-dukkâlî ‫ﻣﻨﻴﺮ اﻟﺪﻛﺎﻟﻲ‬ Government XIV: Sous-secrétaire d’état à la jeunesse et aux sports Drissi Alami Machichi, Mohamed muHammad al-idrîsî ‘alamî al-mashîshî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻹدرﻳﺴﻲ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ اﻟﻤﺸﻴﺸﻲ‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre de la justice Echiguer, Mohamed Haddou muHammad Haddû al-shîgar ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺣﺪو اﻟﺸﻴﻜَﺮ‬ Government IX: Secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur; Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones Government X: Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones; Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire Government XI: Ministre de la défense nationale; Ministre de l’enseignement primaire Government XII; XIII: Ministre de l’enseignement primaire Government XIV: Ministre de l’éducation nationale; Ministre de l’intérieur Government XV; XVI: Ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement Faraj, Abdelmalek ‘abd al-mâlak fraj ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﻚ ﻓﺮج‬ Government I; II; III: Ministre de la santé publique Faris, Mustapha muSTfa fâris ‫ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﻓﺎرس‬ Government XI: Secrétaire d’état, chargé du plan auprès du premier ministre Government XII: Secrétaire d’état aux finances Government XIII: Ministre des finances Government XV: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire El Fassi, Abbes ‘abbâs al-fâsî ‫ﻋﺒﺎس اﻟﻔﺎﺳﻲ‬ Government XV; XVI: Ministre de l’habitat et de l’aménagement du territoire Government XVII; XVIII: MInistre de l’artisanat et des affaires sociales

418

Appendix

Government XXVI: Ministre de l’emploi, de la formation professionnelle, du développement social et de la solidarité Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre d’état El Fassi, Allal ‘allâl al-fâsî ‫ﻋﻼل اﻟﻔﺎﺳﻲ‬ Government VII: Ministre d’état chargé des questions islamiques El Fassi, Abdelouahed ‘abd al-wâHad al-fâsî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ اﻟﻔﺎﺳﻲ‬ Government XXV: Ministre de la santé publique El Fassi Mohamed muHammad al-fâsî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻔﺎﺳﻲ‬ Government XI: Ministre des sciences, de l’éducation et des beaux arts El Fassi, Mohamed Ben Abdeslem muHammad bn ‘abd al-salâm al-fâsî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺴﻼم اﻟﻔﺎﺳﻲ‬ Government I: Ministre de l’instruction publique Government II: Ministre de l’éducation nationale Government VI; VIII; IX: Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones El Fassi, Nacer nâSar al-fâsî ‫ﻧﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﻔﺎﺳﻲ‬ Government X: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’éducation nationale, aux beaux arts, à la jeunesse et aux sports El Fassi, Said sa‘îd al-fâsî ‫ﺳﻌﻴﺪ اﻟﻔﺎﺳﻲ‬ Government XXIII: Ministre de l’habitat El Fassi Fihri, Abdellah ‘abd al-llâh al-fâsî al-fihrî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻪ اﻟﻔﺎﺳﻲ اﻟﻔﻬﺮي‬ Government XIII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé affaires économiques et de la coopération El Fassi Fihri, Mohamed muHammad al-fâsî fihrî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻔﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻬﺮي‬ Government XI: Ministre d’état chargé des affaires culturelles et de l’enseignement originel El Fassi Fihri, Omar ‘umar al-fâsî ‫ﻋﻤﺮ اﻟﻔﺎﺳﻲ‬ Government XXV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’enseignement supérieur chargé de la recherche scientifique Government XXVI: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique chargé de la recherche scientifique Government XXVII: Ministre délégué auprès du ministre de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique chargé de la recherche scientifique El Fassi Fihri, Taieb al-Tayyîb al-fâsî al-fihrî ‫اﻟﻄﻴﺐ اﻟﻔﺎﺳﻲ اﻟﻔﻬﺮي‬ Government XXI; XXIV: Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères Government XXII; XXIII; XXVI: Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères et à la coopération Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre délégué aux affaires étrangères et à la coopération Fettah, Mohamed muHammad fattâH ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻓﺘﺎح‬ Government XIX: Ministre de l’énergie et des mines El Fihri, El Habib al-Habîb al-fihrî ‫اﻟﺤﺒﻴﺐ اﻟﻔﻬﺮي‬ Government XIII: Ministre de la culture, de l’enseignement originel, supérieur et secondaire Filali, Abdellatif ‘abd al-llaTîf al-fîlâlî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻄﻴﻒ اﻟﻔﻴﻼﻟﻲ‬ Government XI: Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur Government XII; XIII: Ministre des affaires étrangères Government XVIII: Ministre de l’information; Ministre des affaires étrangères Government XIX: Ministre des affaires étrangères, de la coopération et de l’information Government XX; XXI: Ministre d’état chargé des affaires étrangères et de la coopération Government XXII; XXIII; XXIV: Premier ministre et ministre des affaires étrangères et de la coopération Government XXV: Ministre d’état chargé des affaires étrangères Filali, El Hachmi al-hâshîmî al-fîlâlî ‫اﻟﻬﺎﺷﻴﻤﻲ اﻟﻔﻴﻼﻟﻲ‬ Government XVIII; XIX: Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques Filali, Rachid rashîd al-fîlâlî ‫رﺷﻴﺪ اﻟﻔﻴﻼﻟﻲ‬ Government XXV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des finances chargé du secteur public et de la privatization

Appendix

419

Gabon, Lahsen laHsan gabûn ‫ﻟﺤﺴﻦ ﻛَﺒﻮن‬ Vice-secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des affaires étrangères chargé des marocains résidents à l’étranger El Gahs, Mohamed muHammad al-gaHS ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻜَﺤﺺ‬ Government XXVII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’éducation nationale et de la jeunesse Government XXVIII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre, chargé de la jeunesse Ghallab, Abdelkrim ‘abd al-karîm ghallâb ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻜﺮﻳﻢ ﻏﻼب‬ Government XVII; XVIII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre Gharnit, Abdellah ‘abd al-llâh gharnîT ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻪ ﻏﺮﻧﻴﻂ‬ Government XIII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de la promotion nationale, de l’entraide nationale et de l’artisanat Government XIV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de la promotion nationale, de l’entraide nationale et de l’artisanat; Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de l’entraide nationale et de l’artisanat Government XV; XVI: Ministre des affaires sociales et de l’artisanat Ghellab, Karim karîm ghallâb ‫ﻛﺮﻳﻢ ﻏﻼب‬ Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre de l’équipement et du transport Ghissassi, Abdellatif ‘abd al-laTîf al-ghisâsî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻄﻴﻒ اﻟﻐﻴﺴﺎﺳﻲ‬ Government XIII: Ministre des travaux publics et des communications Government XIV: Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande Government XV: Ministre des finances Government XVI: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire El Ghorfi, Noureddine nûr al-dîn al-ghurfî ‫ﻧﻮر اﻟﺪﻳﻦ اﻟﻐﺮﻓﻲ‬ Government XIII: Secrétaire d’état à l’agriculture Guedira, Ahmed Reda aHmad riDâ gdîra ‫أﺣﻤﺪ رﺿﺎ اﺟﺪﻳﺮة‬ Government I: Ministre d’état Government II: Ministre de l’information et du tourisme Government VII; VIII: Ministre de l’intérieur et ministre de l’agriculture Government IX: Ministre des affaires étrangères Government XI: Ministre d’état chargé du plan et de la formation des cadres; Ministre d’état chargé de l’enseignement secondaire, technique, supérieur et de la formation des cadres Guerraoui, Abdellatif ‘abd al-llaTîf al-grâwî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻄﻴﻒ اﻟﻜَﺮاوي‬ Government XXII; XXIII: Ministre de l’énergie et des mines Government XXIV: Ministre des affaires sociales, de la santé, de la jeunesse, des sports et de l’entraide nationale Guessouss, Azzeddine ‘az al-ddîn gasûs ‫ﻋﺰ اﻟﺪﻳﻦ ﺟﺴﻮس‬ Government XVI: Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie Government XVII; XVIII: Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, et du tourisme Government XIX: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des relations avec la communauté économique européenne Guessouss, Ben Salem bansâlam gasûs ‫ﺑﻨﺴﺎﻟﻢ ﺟﺴﻮس‬ Government VIII: Ministre des travaux publics Government XIV; XV: Ministre des finances Government XVI: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire Haddaoui, Rafiq rafîq al-Haddâwî ‫رﻓﻴﻖ اﻟﺤﺪاوي‬ Government XX: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des résidents marocains à l’étranger Government XXI; XXII: Ministre de l’emploi et des affaires sociales Al Hafi, Abdelaadim ‘abd al-‘aZîm al-Hâfî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻌﻈﻴﻢ اﻟﺤﺎﻓﻲ‬ Government XXIV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’agriculture, de l’équipement et de l’environnement chargé des investissements agraire Hajjaji, Abdellatif ‘abd al-llaTîf al-Hajâjî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻄﻴﻒ اﻟﺤﺠﺎﺟﻲ‬ Government XVII; XVIII: Secrétaire d’état à l’habitat et à l’aménagement du territoire national Hajji, Nacer nâSar Hajjî ‫ﻧﺎﺻﺮ ﺣﺠﻲ‬

420

Appendix

Government XXVI: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de la poste, des technologies de l’information et de la communication Halim, Abdelkrim ‘abd al-karîm Halîm ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻜﺮﻳﻢ ﺣﻠﻴﻢ‬ Government XIV: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement supérieur Hamiani Ahmed aHmad al-Hamyânî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﺤﻤﻴﺎﻧﻲ‬ Government XIV: Ministre de l’intérieur Hamma, Mohamed muHammad Hammâ ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺣﻤﺎ‬ Government XXIII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de la promotion économique Hammadi, Fouad fu’âd Hammâdî ‫ﻓﺆاد ﺣﻤﺎدي‬ Government XXIV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des affaires sociales chargé de la santé Harouchi, Abderrahim ‘abd al-raHîm al-harûshî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ اﻟﻬﺮوﺷﻲ‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre de la santé publique Government XXVIII: Ministre du développement social, de la famille, de la solidarité Hasbi, Aziz ‘azîz Hasbî ‫ﻋﺰﻳﺰ ﺣﺴﺒﻲ‬ Government XX; XXI; XXII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires administratives Hassad, Mohamed muHammad HaSSâd ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺣﺼﺎد‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre des travaux publics de la formation des cadres et de la formation professionnelle Hilali, Mohamed al-hilâlî muHammad ‫اﻟﻬﻼﻟﻲ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ‬ Government XIX: Ministre de l’éducation nationale El Himma, Fouad Ali fu’âd ‘âli al-himma ‫ﻓﺆاد ﻋﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﻬﻤﺔ‬ Government XXVI: Secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre délégué à l’intérieur Government XXVIII: Ministre délégué à l’intérieur Hjira, Ahmed Toufiq aHmad tawfîq aHjîra ‫اﺣﻤﺪ ﺗﻮﻓﻴﻖ اﺣﺠﻴﺮة‬ Government XXVII; XXVIII: Secrétaire délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du logement et de l’urbanisme Hocine Aziz ‘azîz Hûsîn ‫ﻋﺰﻳﺰ اﻟﺤﺴﻴﻦ‬ Government XXV: Ministre de la réforme administrative Al Hocine, Tijani al-Husayn al-tijânî ‫اﻟﺤﺴﻴﻦ اﻟﺘﺠﺎﻧﻲ‬ Government XXIV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’agriculture, de l’équipement et de l’environnement chargé de l’environnement Ibrahim, Abdallah ‘abd al-llâh ibrâhîm ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻪ اﺑﺮاﻫﻴﻢ‬ Government I: Secrétaire d’état à l’information, attaché à la présidence du Conseil Government II: Ministre du travail et des questions sociales Government IV: Président du Conseil; Ministre des affaires étrangères Imani, Abdellatif ‘abd al-laTîf al-‘aymânî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻄﻴﻒ اﻟﻌﻴﻤﺎﻧﻲ‬ Government XIII; XIV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan, du développement régional et de la formation des cadres Imani, Mohamed muHammad al-‘aymânî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻌﻴﻤﺎﻧﻲ‬ Government X: Sous-secrétaire d’état à la formation des cadres; Sous-secrétaire d’état à la formation des cadres auprès du premier ministre Government XI: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé du plan et de la formation des cadres; Ministre chargé des affaires économiques, du plan, et de la formation des cadres auprès du premier ministre; Ministre des travaux publics et des communications Iraqi, Moulay Ahmed mulay aHmad al‘irâqî ‫ﻣﻮﻻي اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﻌﺮاﻗﻲ‬ Government XXV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’environnement, de l’urbanisme et de l’habitat chargé de l’environnement Jaidi, Mohamed muHammad al-j‘aydî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺠﻌﻴﺪي‬ Government XI: Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines et de la marine marchande Jettou, Driss idrîs jaTTû ‫ادرﻳﺲ ﺟﻄﻮ‬ Government XXI; XXII: Minsitre du commerce et de l’industrie

Appendix

421

Government XXIII: Minsitre du commerce, de l’industrie et de l’artisanat Government XXIV: Ministre des finances, du commerce, de l’industrie et de l’artisanat Government XXVII & XXVIII: Premier ministre Jorio, Maâti al-ma‘Ti jûryû ‫اﻟﻤﻌﻄﻲ ﺟﻮرﻳﻮ‬ Government XII: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire, chargé de la promotion nationale Government XIII: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire Jouahri, Abdellatif ‘abd al-llaTîf al-jawahirî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻄﻴﻒ اﻟﺠﻮاﻫﺮي‬ Government XV; XVI: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre Government XVII; XVIII; XIX: Ministres des finances El Joundi, Ahmed aHmad al-jundî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﺠﻨﺪي‬ Government VII: Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines, de l’artisanat et de la marine marchande Kabbaj, Mohamed muHammad al-qabbâj ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻘﺒﺎج‬ Government XVII: Ministre de l’équipement Government XVIII: Ministre de l’équipement; Ministre de l’équipement, de la formation des cadres et de la formation professionnelle Government XIX: Ministre de l’équipement, de la formation professionnelle et de la formation des cadres; Ministre des travaux publics, de la formation professionnelle et de la formation des cadres Government XX: Ministre des travaux publics, de la formation professionnelle et de la formation des cadres Kabbaj, Omar ‘umar al-qabbâj ‫ﻋﻤﺮ اﻟﻘﺒﺎج‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de la promotion économique EL Kadiri, Abdelhafid ‘abd al-HafîD al-qâdirî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺤﻔﻴﻆ اﻟﻘﺎدري‬ Government III: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’agriculture Government XV; XVI: Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports El Kadiri, Abdelhafid ‘abd al-HafîD al-qâdirî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺤﻔﻴﻆ اﻟﻘﺎدري‬ Government III: Sous-sectrétaire d’état à l’agriculture Government XV: Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports Kettani, Hamza Hamza al-kattânî ‫ﺣﻤﺰة اﻟﻜﺘﺎﻧﻲ‬ Government XXIII: Ministre des postes et des télécomunications El Khalifa, M’Hammed mHammad al-khalîfa ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺨﻠﻴﻔﺔ‬ Government XXVI: Ministre de la fonction publique et de la réforme administrative Government XXVII: Ministre de l’artisanat et de l’économie sociales Khalil, Idriss idrîs khalîl ‫ادرﻳﺲ ﺧﻠﻴﻞ‬ Government XXIV: Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur, de la recherche scientifique et de la formation professionnelle El Khatib, Abdelkrim ‘abd al-karîm al-khatîb ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻜﺮﻳﻢ اﻟﺨﻄﻴﺐ‬ Government V; VI: Ministre du travail et des questions sociales Government VII; VIII: MInistre d’état chargé des affaires africaines et ministre de la santé publique El Khatib, Abderrahmane ‘abd al-raHmân al-khaTîb ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﺎن اﻟﺨﻄﻴﺐ‬ Government IX: Ministre de l’intérieur El Khattabi, Mohamed Larbi muHammad al-‘arbî al-khaTâbî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ اﻟﺨﻄﺎﺑﻲ‬ Government XIV: Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales Government XV: Ministre de l’information El Khyari, Thami al-thâmî al-khiyarî ‫اﻟﺘﻬﺎﻣﻲ اﻟﺨﻴﺎري‬ Government XXV: Ministre délégué auprès du ministère de l’agriculture chargé de la pêche Government XXVI: Ministre de la santé El Kissi, Abbes ‘abbâs al-qaysî ‫ﻋﺒﺎس اﻟﻘﻴﺴﻲ‬ Government XI: Sous-secrétaire d’état au ministère des affaires administratives; Secrétariat général du gouvernment; Secrétaire adjoint du gouvernement Government XIII: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur

422

Appendix

Government XIV: Ministre des affaires administratives; Secrétaire général du gouvernement; Ministre de la justice Government XV; XVI; XVII, XIX: Secrétaire général du gouvernement Government XVIII: Secrétaire général du gouvernement; Secrétaire général du gouvernement, chargé d’assurer les relations du gouvernement avec la Chambre des Représentants Knidiri, Mohamed muHammad al-knîdîrî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻜﻨﻴﺪﻳﺮي‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre de l’éducation nationale El Kouhen, Abderrahmane ‘abd al-raHmân al-kûHan ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﺎن اﻟﻜﻮﻫﻦ‬ Government IX: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’information, au tourisme, aux beaux arts et à l’intérieur; Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’information, au tourisme, et aux beaux arts Government X: Sous-secrétaire d’état au tourisme et à l’artisanat Government XIII; XIV: Ministre du tourisme Kriem, Abdelhamid ‘abd al-Hamîd krayam ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺤﻤﻴﺪ ﻛﺮﻳﻢ‬ Government XI: Ministre du tourisme Laenser, Mohand muHand l‘anSar ‫ﻣﺤﺎﻧﺪ ﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ‬ Government XVII; XVIII; XIX: Ministre des postes et des télécommunications Government XXVII: Ministre de l’agriculture et du développement rural Government XXVIII: Ministre de l’agriculture, du développement rural et des pêches maritimes Laghzaoui, Mohamed muHammad alaghzâwî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻷﻏﺰاوي‬ Government X: Ministre de l’industrie, des mines, du tourisme et de l’artisanat Lahlimi Alami, Ahmed aHmad al-Halîmî ‘alamî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﺤﻠﻴﻤﻲ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ‬ Government XXV: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires générales Government XXVI: Ministre de l’économie sociale, des petites et moyennes entreprises et de l’artisanat, chargé des affaires générales du gouvernement Lahlou, Lemfadel al-mufaDal laHlû ‫اﻟﻤﻔﻀﻞ ﻟﺤﻠﻮ‬ Government XVII; XVIII: Ministre de l’habitat et de l’aménagement du territoire Lamrani, Mohamed Karim muHammad karîm al-‘amrânî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻛﺮﻳﻢ اﻟﻌﻤﺮاﻧﻲ‬ Government XII: Premier ministre, chargé du plan, des affaires économiques et du tourisme Government XIII: Premier ministre, chargé du dévéloppement régional et de la formation des cadres, des affaires économiques et de la coopération, de la promotion nationale, de l’entraide et de l’artisanat Government XVIII; XIX; XX; XXI: Premier ministre Laraki Abdelwahad ‘abd al-wahhâb al-‘irâqî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻮﻫﺎب اﻟﻌﺮاﻗﻲ‬ Government X: Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce Government XI: Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce; Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre Laraki, Ahmed aHmad al-‘irâqî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﻌﺮاﻗﻲ‬ Government X: Ministre des affaires étrangères Government XI: Ministre des affaires étrangères; Premier ministre; Premier ministre chargé de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire Government XIV: Ministre d’état chargé des affaires étrangères Laraki, Azzedine ‘azz al-ddîn al-‘irâqî ‫ﻋﺰ اﻟﺪﻳﻦ اﻟﻌﺮاﻗﻲ‬ Government XV; XVI: Ministre de l’éducation nationale et de la formation des cadres Government XVII; XVIII: Ministre de l’éducation nationale Government XIX: Ministre de l’éducation nationale; Vice-premier ministre; Ministre de l’éducation nationale; Premier ministre Lasky, Ahmed aHmad al-‘askî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﻌﺴﻜﻲ‬ Government X: Ministre des travaux publics et des communications Government XI: Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme administrative Government XII: Ministre de la culture, de l’enseignement supérieur, secondaire et originel et de la formation des cadres

Appendix

423

Lazrak, Abdelkrim ‘abd al-karîm al-azraq ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻜﺮﻳﻢ اﻷزرق‬ Government XI: Ministre du tourisme; Ministre des finances Lukasch, Hassan al-Hasan al-waqqâsh ‫اﻟﺤﺴﻦ اﻟﻮﻗﺎش‬ Government XIV: Secrétaire d’état aux affaires islamiques et au habous Maaouni, Hassan Hasan al-mâ‘ûnî ‫ﺣﺴﻦ اﻟﻤﺎﻋﻮﻧﻲ‬ Government XXV: Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports Government XXVI: Ministre délégué auprès du ministère de l’agriculture et du développement rural chargé du développement rural Mahjoubi, Mohamed muHammad al-maHjûbî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﺤﺠﻮﺑﻲ‬ Government XIV: Secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur El Malki, Habib al-Habîb al-mâlkî ‫اﻟﺤﺒﻴﺐ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﻜﻲ‬ Government XXV: Ministre de l’agriculture Government XXVII: Ministre de l’éducation nationale et de la jeunesse Government XXVIII: Ministre de l’éducation nationale, de l’enseignement supérieur, de la formation des cadres et de la recherche scientifique Mansouri, Massoud mas‘ûd al-manSûrî ‫ﻣﺴﻌﻮد اﻟﻤﻨﺼﻮري‬ Government XXIII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires administratives Mansouri, Mustapha muSTafâ al-manSûri ‫ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ اﻟﻤﻨﺼﻮري‬ Government XXV: Ministre des transports Government XXVI: Ministre de l’industrie, du commerce, de l’énergie, et des mines Government XXVII: Ministre de l’emploi, des affaires sociales et de la solidarité Government XXVIII: Ministre de l’emploi, et de la formation professionnelle Masmoudi, Abderrazak ‘abd al-razzâq al-maSmûdî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮزاق اﻟﻤﺼﻤﻮدي‬ Government XXV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des finances chargé du commerce, de l’industrie et de l’artisanat Masmoudi, Tahar al-Tâhar al-maSmûdî ‫اﻟﻄﺎﻫﺮ اﻟﻤﺼﻤﻮدي‬ Government XIX: Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie M’barki, Mohamed muHammad al-mbârkî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﺒﺎرﻛﻲ‬ Government XXV; XXVI: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre chargé de l’aménagment du territoire, de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat et de l’environnment chargé de l’habitat M’daghri Alaoui, Abdelkabir ‘abd al-kabîr al-mdaghrî al-‘alawî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻜﺒﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﺪﻏﺮي اﻟﻌﻠﻮي‬ Government XVIII; XIX; XX; XXI; XXII; XXIII; XXIV; XXV: Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques M’daghri Alaoui, Moulay Driss mulay idrîs al-‘alawî al-mdaghrî ‫ﻣﻮﻻي ادرﻳﺲ اﻟﻤﺪﻏﺮي اﻟﻌﻠﻮي‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports Government XXIII; XXIV: Ministre de communication, porte parole du gouvernement. M’daghri Alaoui, Mohamed muHammad al-‘alawî al-mdaghrî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﺪﻏﺮي اﻟﻌﻠﻮي‬ Government XX: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques et sociales El M’daghri Mohamed muHammad al-mdaghrî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﺪﻏﺮي‬ Government XII: Sous-secrétaire d’état aux finances Mechahouri, Mustapha musTafâ mashhûrî ‫ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﻣﺸﻬﻮري‬ Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre du commerce extérieur El Medbouh, Mohamed muHammad al-madbûH ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﺪﺑﻮح‬ Government IV: Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones Messaoudi, Larbi al-‘arbî al-mas‘ûdî ‫اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﻌﻮدي‬ Government IX: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement primaire Messari, Larbi al-‘arbî al-massârî ‫اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺎري‬ Government XXV: Ministre de la communication Messeoui, Abdelaziz ‘abd al-‘azîz al-masîwî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ اﻟﻤﺴﻴﻮي‬ Government XXIII: Vice-secrétaire d’état des affaires étrangères chargé des relations avec l’union du maghreb arabe Mezouar, Salaheddine SalâH al-dîn mazwâr ‫ﺻﻼح اﻟﺪﻳﻦ ﻣﺰوار‬ Government XXVIII: Ministre de l’industrie, du commerce et de la mise à niveau de l’économie

424

Appendix M’Hammedi, Driss idrîsî al-mHamdî ‫ادرﻳﺲ اﻟﻤﺤﻤﺪي‬ Government I: Ministre d’état; Ministre d’état chargé provisoirement des fonctions de ministre de l’intérieur Government II; IV: Ministre de l’intérieur Government V; VI: Ministre des affaires étrangères El Midaoui, Ahmed aHmad al-mîdâwî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﻴﺪاوي‬ Government XXVI: Ministre de l’intérieur Mohattane, Mohamed muHammad muHaTTan ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻣﺤﻄﻦ‬ Government XXVIII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du Ministre de l’agriculture, du développement rural et des pêches maritimes, chargé de développment rural Mokhtar Soussi, Mohamed muHammad al-mukhtâr al-sûsî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺎر اﻟﺴﻮﺳﻲ‬ Government I: Ministre des habous Al-Mouaatassim, Mohamed muHammad al-mu‘taSim ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﻌﺘﺼﻢ‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des relations avec le parlement Mouline, Mohamed Rachid muHammad rashîd mlîn ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺮﺷﻴﺪ ﻣﻠﻴﻦ‬ Government II: Ministre d’état chargé de la fonction publique Government VII: Ministre d’état chargé de l’éducation nationale Moussaoui, Ahmed aHmad al-mûsâwî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﺴﺎوي‬ Government XXVI: Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports Moussaoui, Mohamed muHammad al-musâwî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﺴﺎوي‬ Government XXV: Ministre d’état auprès du ministre du commerce et de l’industrie chargé de l’artisanat Al Moutaouakil, Nawal nawâl al-mutawakkil ‫ﻧﻮال اﻟﻤﺘﻮﻛﻞ‬ Government XXIV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des affaires sociales chargée de la jeunesse et des sports El Morabit, M’Hammed mHammad al-murâbiT ‫اﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﺮاﺑﻂ‬ Government XXVII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’amenagement du territoire, de l’eau et de l’environnement chargé de l’environnement El Mossadeq, Abderazzak ‘abd al-razzâq al-muSaddaq ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮزاق اﻟﻤﺼﺪق‬ Government XXVII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques et générales et de la mise à niveau de l’économie M’zili, Salah SâlaH al-mzîlî ‫ﺻﺎﻟﺢ اﻟﻤﺰﻳﻠﻲ‬ Government XIV: Ministre des travaux publics et des communications; Ministre de l’agriculture et de la réforme agraire Naceur, Mohand mHânad nâSar ‫ﻣﺤﺎﻧﺪ ﻧﺎﺻﺮ‬ Government XV; XVI: Ministre des transports Naciri, Mohamed Mekki muHammad al-makkî al-nâSirî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﻜﻲ اﻟﻨﺎﺻﺮي‬ Government XIV: Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques; Ministre de la culture Naciri, Zoulikha zûlikha al-nâSirî ‫زﻟﻴﺨﺔ اﻟﻨﺎﺻﺮي‬ Government XXIV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère des affaires sociales chargé de l’entraide nationale Njai, Ahmed Ben Mansour aHmad bn manSûr al-najâ‘i ‫اﺣﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻣﻨﺼﻮر اﻟﻨﺠﺎﻋﻲ‬ Government I: Ministre de l’agriculture Osman, Ahmed aHmad ‘uSmân ‫اﺣﻤﺪ ﻋﺼﻤﺎن‬ Government VII: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’industrie et aux mines Government XI: Ministre des affaires administratives Government XIV; XV: Premier ministre Government XVIII: Ministre d’état El Ouazzani, Mohamed Ben El Hassan muHammad bn al-Hasan al-wazânî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ اﻟﺤﺴﻦ اﻟﻮزاﻧﻲ‬ Government VII: Ministre d’état El Ouazzani,Thami al-thamî al-wazzânî ‫اﻟﺘﻬﺎﻣﻲ اﻟﻮزاﻧﻲ‬ Government I: Ministre de la production industrielle et des mines Government IX: Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales; Ministre de la fonction publique et de la réforme administrative Government XI: Ministre du tourisme Oufkir, Mohamed (général) muHammad ’ufqîr ‫اﻟﺠﻨﺮال ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اوﻓﻘﻴﺮ‬ Government IX; X: Ministre de l’intérieur

Appendix

425

Government XI: Ministre de l’intérieur, chargé des travaux publics et des communications; Ministre de l’intérieur, de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat, chargé des affaires des anciens résistants, combattants et membres de l’armée de libération Government XII: Ministre de la défense nationale, major général des forces armées royales chargé des anciens résistants et des anciens combattants Government XIII: Ministre de la défense nationale, major général des forces armées royales Ouhali, Hammou Hammû ’uHallî ‫ﺣﻤﻮ اوﺣﻠﻲ‬ Government XXV: Ministre d’état auprès du ministre de l’emploi chargé de la solidarité et de l’action humanitaire Oulaalou, Fathallah fatH al-llâh wa-la‘lû ‫ﻓﺘﺢ اﻟﻠﻪ واﻟﻌﻠﻮ‬ Government XXV: Ministre des finances et de l’économie Government XXVI: Ministre de l’économie, des finances et du tourisme Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre des finances et de la privatization Oulbacha, Said sa‘îd ’ulbâshâ ‫ﺳﻌﻴﺪ اوﻟﺒﺎﺷﺎ‬ Government XXVII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’emploi et des affaires sociales et de la solidarité, chargé de la formation professionnelle Government XXVIII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’emploi et de la formation professionnelle Ould Er-Rachid, Kahli Henna khalîhana wuld al-rashîd ‫ﺧﻠﻴﻬﻦ وﻟﺪ اﻟﺮﺷﻴﺪ‬ Government XVI; XVII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du développement des provinces sahariennes Government XVIII; XIX: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires sahariennes Ould Omeir, Fal fâl wuld ‘mîr ‫ﻓﺎل وﻟﺪ ﻋﻤﻴﺮ‬ Government V: Ministre d’état Government VII; VIII; IX: Ministre d’état chargé des affaires de mauritanie et du sahara marocain Ould Sidi Baba, Dey al-ddây wuld sîdî bâba ‫اﻟﺪاي وﻟﺪ ﺳﻴﺪي ﺑﺎﺑﺎ‬ Government XIV: Ministre de l’éducation nationale; Ministre des affaires islamiques et des habous Perou, Anis Government XXVIII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du Ministre de l’éducation nationale de l’enseignement supérieure de la formation des cadre et de la recherche scientifique, chargé de l’alphabétisme et de l’éducation non formelle Rabiah, Abdessadek ‘abd al-Sâdaq rabî‘ ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺼﺎدق رﺑﻴﻊ‬ Government XXI; XXII; XXIII; XXIV; XXV; XXVI; XXVII; XXVIII: Secrétaire général du gouvernement Radi, Abdelwahed ‘abd al-wâhad al-râDî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ اﻟﺮاﺿﻲ‬ Government XVIII: Ministre chargé de la coopération Rahhali, Rahal raHHâlî raHHâl ‫رﺣﺎﻟﻲ رﺣﺎل‬ Government XV; XVI; XVII; XVIII: Ministre de la santé publique Ramzi, Ahmed aHmad ramzî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ رﻣﺰي‬ Government XIV: Ministre de la santé publique Government XV; XVI: Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques Rhafes, Taieb muHammad al-Tayyîb ghâfis ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻄﻴﺐ ﻏﺎﻓﺲ‬ Government XXVII: Ministre des pêches maritimes Rherhaye, Abdelkamel ‘abd al-kâmal al-raghây ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ اﻟﺮﻏﺎي‬ Government XII: Sous-secrétaire d’état au tourisme Government XIV: Secrétaire d’état aux finances Government XV: Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie Government XVI: Ministre des finances El Rhezouani, Rachidi al-râshidî al-ghazwânî ‫اﻟﺮاﺷﻴﺪي اﻟﻐﺰواﻧﻲ‬ Government XIX: Ministre délégué du premier ministre chargé du plan Government XX; XXI; XXII: Ministre des transports Rhozali, Najima najîma ghûzâlî ‫ﻧﺠﻴﻤﺔ ﻏﻮزاﻟﻲ‬ Government XXVII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’éducation nationale et de la jeunesse, chargée de l’alphabétisme et de l’éducation non formelle

426

Appendix Rmili, Larbi al-‘arbî rmîlî ‫اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ رﻣﻴﻠﻲ‬ Government XI: sous-secrétaire d’état à la défense nationale Sebbar, Hassan Hasan al-Sabbâr ‫ﺣﺴﻦ اﻟﺼﺒﺎر‬ Government XXV: Ministre du tourisme Saadi, Mohamed Said muHammad sa‘îd al-sa‘dî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺳﻌﻴﺪ اﻟﺴﻌﺪي‬ Government XXV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre de l’emploi chargé de la protection sociale, de la famille et de l’enfance Saadi, Moussa mûsâ al-sa‘dî mûsa al-sa‘dî ‫ﻣﻮﺳﻰ اﻟﺴﻌﺪي‬ Government XIV: Ministre d’état au commerce, à l’industrie aux mines et à la marine marchande Government XV; XVI; XVII; XVIII: Ministre del’énergie et des mines Government XIX: Ministre du tourisme Saaf, Abdallah ‘abd al-llâh sâ‘af ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻪ ﺳﺎﻋﻒ‬ Government XXV: Ministre délégué auprès du ministre de l’´ducation nationale, chargé de l’enseignement secondaire et technique Government XXVI: Ministre de l’éducation nationale Saaidi, Abderrahman ‘abd al-raHmân al-sa‘îdî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﺎن اﻟﺴﻌﻴﺪي‬ Government XXI: Ministre de la privatisation délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de la transformation des établissements publics au secteur privé Government XXII; XXIII: Ministre de la privatisation délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du secteur public Government XXIV: Ministre de la privatisation délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé du secteur public; Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de l’administration de la défense nationale Sahel, Al Mustapha al-muSTafâ al-sâhal ‫اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻔﻰ اﻟﺴﺎﻫﻞ‬ Government XXI; XXII; XXIII: Ministre des pêches et de la marine marchande Government XXIV: Ministre des pêches, de la marine marchande et des relations avec le parlement Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre de l’intérieur Sahraoui, Abdelkader ‘abd al-qâdar al-SaHrâwî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻘﺎدر اﻟﺼﺤﺮاوي‬ Government XII; XIII: Ministre de l’information Saïd Jalal jalâl al-sa‘îd ‫ﺟﻼل اﻟﺴﻌﻴﺪ‬ Government XIV: Secrétaire d’état au tourisme, à l’urbanisme, à l’habitat et à l’environnement Sbai, Abderrahman ‘abd al-raHmân al-subâ‘î ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﺎن اﻟﺴﺒﺎﻋﻲ‬ Government XX: Ministre d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires générales Government XXI; XXII; XXIII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre Government XXV; XXVI; XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé de l’administration de la défense nationale Sekkat, Mohamed al-saqâT muHammad ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺴﻘﺎط‬ Government XIX: Secrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères chargé des relations avec la communauté économique européenne Semlali, Abdelatif ‘abd al-llaTîf al-samlâlî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻠﻄﻴﻒ اﻟﺴﻤﻼﻟﻲ‬ Government XVII: Secrétaire d’état à la jeunesse aux sports Government XVIII; XIX: Ministre de la jeunesse et des sports Senoussi, Ahmed aHmad al-sanûsî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﺴﻨﻮﺳﻲ‬ Government XI: Ministre de l’information Senoussi, Badreddine badr al-ddîn al-sanûsî ‫ﺑﺪر اﻟﺪﻳﻦ اﻟﺴﻨﻮﺳﻲ‬ Government IX: Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie et aux mines Government X: Sous-secrétaire d’état aux affaires administratives; Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones Government XI: Ministre des postes, des télégraphes et des téléphones Serghini, Chaouki shawqî al-sarghînî ‫ﺷﻮﻗﻲ اﻟﺴﺮﻏﻴﻨﻲ‬ Government XX; XXI; XXII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier d’état à l’intérieur chargé de l’environnement Sinaceur, Mohamed Allal muHammad ‘allâl sinâSar ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﻼل ﺳﻴﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬ Government XX; XXI; XXII: Ministre des affaires culturelles

Appendix

427

Skouh, Mohamed muHammad skûh ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺳﻜﻮه‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre des finances Slaoui, Driss idrîs al-slâwî ‫إدرﻳﺲ اﻟﺴﻼوي‬ Government III: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur Government IV: Sous-secrétaire d’état au commerce, à l’industrie, à l’artisanat et à la marine marchande Government V; VI: Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie, des mines, de l’artisanat et de la marine marchande Government VII: Ministre des travaux publics Government VIII: Ministre des finances Government IX: Ministre des affaires économiques, des finances et de l’agriculture Slimani, Othman ‘uthmân al-slîmânî ‫ﻋﺜﻤﺎن اﻟﺴﻠﻴﻤﺎﻧﻲ‬ Government XV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques Smili, Ben Salem bansâlam al-Smîlî ‫ﺑﻨﺴﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﺼﻤﻴﻠﻲ‬ Government XVII; XVIII; XIX; XX: Ministre des pêches maritimes et de la marine marchande Tadili, Mohamed muHammad al-tâdilî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺘﺎدﻟﻲ‬ Government IX: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’enseignement technique, à la formation professionnelle, et à la formation des cadres Government X: Sous-secrétaire d’état à la promotion nationale Tahiri Jouti, Mohamed muHammad al-tâhirî al-jûTî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻄﺎﻫﺮي اﻟﺠﻮﻃﻲ‬ Government XIV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé de la jeunesse et des sports Tahiri, Mamoun mâmûn al-Tahîrî ‫ﻣﺎﻣﻮن اﻟﻄﺎﻫﺮي‬ Government IX: Sous-secrétaire d’état aux finances Government X: Ministre des finances Government XI: Ministre des finances; Ministre de l’enseignement secondaire, technique, supérieur et de la formation des cadres Tahiri, Mohamed muHammad al-tâhirî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻄﺎﻫﺮي‬ Government III: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’éducation nationale Tahiri, Youssef yusuf al-Tâhîrî ‫ﻳﻮﺳﻒ اﻟﻄﺎﻫﺮي‬ Government XXV: Ministre de l’énergie et des mines Talbi El Alami, Rachid rashîd al-Tâlîbî al-‘alamî ‫رﺷﻴﺪ اﻟﻄﺎﻟﺒﻲ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ‬ Government XXVII: Ministre de l’industrie, du commerce et des télécomunications Taoufiq, Ahmed aHmad al-tawfîq ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﺘﻮﻓﻴﻖ‬ Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre des habous et des affaires islamiques Tazi, Alami al-‘alamî al-tâzî ‫اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ اﻟﺘﺎزي‬ Government XXV: Ministre du commerce et de l’industrie Tazi, Abdelhak ‘abd al-Haq al-tâzî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺤﻖ اﻟﺘﺎزي‬ Government XV; XVI: Secrétaire d’état à la formation des cadres Government XVII: Scrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères Government XVIII: Scrétaire d’état aux affaires étrangères; Ministre du plan Tazi, Ahmed aHmad al-tazî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﺘﺎزي‬ Government XIV: Ministre des travaux publics et des communications Tighouane, Bouamour bu‘mûr taghwân ‫ﺑﻮﻋﻤﻮر ﺗﻐﻮان‬ Government XXV; XXVI: Ministre de l’équipement Torres, Abdelkhaleq ‘abd al-khalaq al-Tûrîs ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺨﺎﻟﻖ اﻟﻄﺮﻳﺲ‬ Government V; VI: Ministre de la justice Toughani, Mohamed muHammad al-tukânî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺘﻮﻛَﺎﻧﻲ‬ Government XVII; XVIII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires administratives Touhami, Abderrahman ‘abd al-raHîm al-thâmî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﺎن اﻟﺘﻬﺎﻣﻲ‬ Government XIII; XIV: Ministre de la santé publique Toulali, Driss idrîs al-tûlâlî ‫ادرﻳﺲ اﻟﺘﻮﻻﻟﻲ‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre de l’habitat Al Wadghiri, Mohamed muHammad al-wadghîrî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻮدﻏﻴﺮي‬

428

Appendix

Government XX: Ministre de l’emploi, de l’artisanat et des affaires sociales Al Wardi, Ahmed aHmad al-wardî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﻮردي‬ Government XXI; XXII: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des marocains résidents à l’étranger Al Wazzani, Thami al-thâmî al-wazzânî ‫اﻟﺘﻬﺎﻣﻲ اﻟﻮزاﻧﻲ‬ Government IX: Ministre du travail et des affaires sociales El Yazidi, Ahmed aHmad al-yazîdî ‫اﺣﻤﺪ اﻟﻴﺰﻳﺪي‬ Government I: Ministre du commerce, de l’artisanat, du tourisme et de la marine marchande Government II: Sous-secrétaire d’état au ministère de l’économie nationale, du commerce et de l’industrie; Ministre de la défense nationale Government III: Ministre de la défense nationale El Yazighi, Mohamed muHamad al-yâzighî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﻴﺎزﻏﻲ‬ Government XXV: Ministre de l’habitat, de l’urbanisme, de l’environnement et de l’aménagement du territoire Government XXVI: Ministre chargé de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat, et de l’environnement Government XXVII; XXVIII: Ministre chargé de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’eau, et de l’environnement El Youssi, Caïd Lahcen al-qâyd al-Hasan al-yûsî ‫اﻟﻘﺎﻳﺪ اﻟﺤﺴﻦ اﻟﻴﻮﺳﻲ‬ Government I: Ministre de l’intérieur El Youssoufi, Abderrahmane ‘abd al-raHmân al-yûsufî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﺎن اﻟﻴﻮﺳﻔﻲ‬ Government XXV; XXVI: Premier ministre Zaamoun Taieb al-Tayyib za‘mûn ‫اﻟﻄﻴﺐ زﻋﻤﻮن‬ Government X: Sous-secrétaire d’état auprès du vice-premier ministre; Sous-secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre Government XI: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’agriculture et à la réforme agraire Zahidi, Moulay Zine mulay al-zzîn al-zzâhidî ‫ﻣﻮﻻي اﻟﺰﻳﻦ اﻟﺰاﻫﺪي‬ Government XVIII: Ministre de l’emploi et de la promtion nationale Government XIX: Ministre délégué auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires économiques Government XX: Ministre du commerce, de l’industrie et de la transformation des établissements publics au secteur privé Zahoud, Abdelkebir ‘abd al-kabîr zahûd ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻜﺒﻴﺮ زﻫﻮد‬ Government XXVII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’eau et de l’environnement chargé de l’eau Government XXVIII: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministère de l’aménagement du territoire, de l’eau et de l’environnement, chargé de l’eau Zeghari, M’Hammed mHamad al-zghârî ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻟﺰﻏﺎري‬ Government I: Vice-président du Conseil Government II: Ministre de la défense nationale Government X: Vice-premier ministre; Vice-premier ministre chargé du ministère du développement Zemmouri, Abdelhamid ‘abd al-Hamîd al-zammûrî ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺤﻤﻴﺪ اﻟﺰﻣﻮري‬ Government X: Ministre du commerce; Ministre du commerce et del’artisanat Zemmouri, Hassan al-Hasan al-zammûrî ‫اﻟﺤﺴﻦ اﻟﺰﻣﻮري‬ Government IV: Sous-secrétaire d’état à l’intérieur chargé des affaires municipales et communales Government V; VI: Ministre de l’agriculture Government XIII: Ministre de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat et de l’environnement Government XIV: Ministre de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat et de l’environnement; Ministre du tourisme, de l’urbanisme, de l’habitat et de l’environnement Zenined, Abdeslem ‘abd al-salâm znînad ‫ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺴﻼم زﻧﻴﻨﺪ‬ Government XIV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires générales; Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires générales et sahariennes

Appendix

429

Government XV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du premier ministre chargé des affaires générales Government XVI: Ministre du tourisme Government XXV: Secrétaire d’état auprès du ministre des affaires étrangères chargé des affaires maghrébines et arabes Government XXVI: Ministre des transports et de la marine marchande Zerouali, Najib najîb al-zarwâlî ‫ﻧﺠﻴﺐ اﻟﺰرواﻟﻲ‬ Government XXV: Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur Government XXVI: Ministre de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique Government XXVII: Ministre chargé de la modernisation des secteurs publics Zhiri, Kacem qâsim al-zahîrî ‫ﻗﺎﺳﻢ اﻟﺰﻫﻴﺮي‬ Government XI: Ministre de l’enseignement secondaire et technique Ziane, Mohamed muHammad zayyân ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ زﻳﺎن‬ Government XXIII: Ministre auprès du premier ministre chargé des droits de l’homme

03-370 (1) Front

3/18/04

12:51 PM

Page ii

Glossary

‘abîd: slave. amir (amîr): generally a military designation but literally a leader; caliphs sometimes claimed to be the amîr al-mu’minîn (leader of the believers). baraka: an inheritable quality blending blessedness, power, and luck. caid (qâ’id): before the 20th century, a governor of a region; now the term ‘âmil is used for governor. chleuh: a speaker of tachelhyt or a person from the area (the south) where this dialect of Berber is spoken. colon: a colonist during the period of the protectorates. dahir (Zâhir): a government proclamation or decree. derb: a quarter of a city. dhamazighth: the dialect of Berber spoken in the Rif (northern mountains). dila’ite: an English term for an adherent of the dilâ’ zâwiya. fahrasa: a traditional genre whose purpose is to provide a catalogue of one’s teachers and diplomas. The genre has great traditional importance because of concern over authenticating the chains of transmission (s. asnâd) of religious knowledge. fâsî: someone from Fès. Fatimids: referring to the dynasty founded by ‘ubayd allâh, which lasted in North Africa from 909-1171 and was centered in Egypt after 972. filâlî: someone from Tafilalt, often used to mean an ‘Alawite sharîf. fitna: sedition or the process of taking back allegiance to the central power and thereby denying the central government’s legitimacy. Gallieni: referring to Le Maréchal Gallieni (1849-1916), a French general who helped establish the French colonial enterprise in Niger, Sudan, and Madagascar (where Lyautey worked under him). 431

432

Glossary

habous (Habûs, pl. aHbâs): a common Moroccan term for waqf (pl. awqâf). Hadîth: the tradition of what the Prophet Muhammad did; each incident is carefully evaluated and positions are formed as to its likelihood of being a correct account. hagiography: the study of saints; many traditional works in Morocco have been in this genre, for the population has had a boundless interest in ascetics and religious figures of all sorts. hammam: Turkish bath; men and women use it at different times. Haramayn: the two cities of Mecca and Medina and their environs; considered off limits to non-Muslims. Haratine: the presumptive early inhabitants of the Maghrib, along with the Berbers, or perhaps before them; for long viewed as virtual slaves by the conquering classes. hegira: the date (16 July 622 A.D.) on which Muhammad made a migration back to Mecca from Medina and the starting point of the Islamic calendar. imam: religious leader or authority in a mosque or in a whole society. Shi’ite Muslims believe each generation has an Imam who may, however, be hidden from the public if the time is not right for him to reveal himself. jbel/jabal: mountain. jihad: holy war against infidel; literally “effort” (in a good cause). jma‘a: assembly of notables among Berbers that traditionally had considerable authority. khalifa: generally a second in command, but derived from the same root as Caliph, who was second only in being a representative on earth of a higher power. khaTîb: the person who delivers the khuTba. khuTba: the sermon delivered at Friday prayer in the mosque. mahdi: the envoy of God sent to complete the work of Muhammad. makhzan: the central (Moroccan) government; literally, storehouse.

Glossary

433

malikî: pertaining to the branch of sunni Islam formulated by Imam Malik Ibn Anas (90 H-180 H) in his work al-muwaTTa (the book that smooths the way). This is a middle-of-the-road, common-sense version of Islam. mallah/mellah: Jewish quarter of a city or town in Morocco. marabout (murâbiT): a person with high religious prestige viewed as having baraka and often wielding significant amounts of worldly power. Marabouts became particularly important after the 15th century. mukhalat (mukhalaT): a consular agent designated to work in rural areas. Ottoman: referring to the Islamic caliphate based in Turkey, which between 1300 and 1914 came to control much of the central Middle East and as far west as Algeria. Pasha (bâsha): mayor or governor of a town. qadi (qâDî): a judge. qaSba: a fortified quarter established in many towns for military reasons. qSâr: a fortified town common on the north fringe of the Sahara (pl. qSûr). quTb: a religious figure so renowned as to become a pole of attraction for his time. riHla: a travel account. sahel: the coast or the region at the edges of the Sahara (the Arabic sea). sîdî: a colloquial honorific implying the possession of baraka equivalent to, and more correctly spelled, “sayyidî” in classical Arabic. semsar: a consular agent or broker who after 1856 tended to have the right to have any infractions against local law dealt with at the consular level. sharifan: pertaining to shurafâ’ but more particularly to the Sa‘dian and ‘Alawite dynasties and their governments. shari‘a: Islamic law (the way). shurafâ’: the descendants of the Prophet Muhammed considered to have special virtues and generally given special status in Islamic societies (pl. shurafâ’, s. sharîf).

434

Glossary

slawî: someone from Salé. sunni Islam: standard Islam based on the qur’an, the Hadîth, and the sunna (practice) of the Prophet. swîrî: someone from Essaouira. tachelhyt: the dialect of Berber spoken in the Draa and parts of the Atlas and southern Atlantic plains. tamazight: the dialect of Berber spoken in the Middle Atlas, most of the Atlantic plains, and much of the Atlas. Tarîqa: a religious order or “wird” usually associated with a zâwiya and a religious leader who promotes some form of religious practice and belief for the adherents, most of whom will not, however, reside in the zâwiya. tertib (tartîb): a tax (on production) initiated by mawlây Hasan I and then continued by French during the protectorate period. ‘ulamâ’: the intellectual and religious elite whose opinions count. In principle the sultan is chosen by the ‘ulamâ’ and they could depose him by naming a replacement. In practice, their power has been distinctly less than that of the head of state and many have been beholden to the state for both salaries and munificence. umanâ’: officials charged with collecting taxes or customs duties (pl. umanâ’, s. amîn). Umayyads: referring to the dynasty founded by Mu‘awiya that lasted from 650-750 A.D. in the central Middle East and then in Cordova (Spain/ Andalusia) until the caliphate there split into pieces in 1030 A.D. waqf/awqâf: see habous zâwiya: a religious lodge or center founded by a person renowned for their religious knowledge or holiness, often enduring for centuries and providing both religious instruction and a powerful voice in social and political matters.

Bibliography To conserve space we have made every effort to avoid duplications even when a work clearly would fit into more than one section. Readers will frequently, therefore, need to consult more than one section to find a particular reference or to locate all relevant materials for a given topic. References are alphabetized by author and then by title within each section; Arabic names beginning with “al-” or its variants are alphabetized under the next letter unless the name has been westernized. Initial section page numbers are shown below: I. Culture and Religion Culture Education Islam and Religion Judaic Studies Language Literature

447 449 452 460 474 480

II. Economy Agriculture, Pastoralism, and Environment Development and Rural Studies Economic Situation Migration Numismatic Studies and the History of Prices

484 488 490 498 502

III. History Pre-Islamic Period and Archaeology Studies Precolonial Islamic Period Colonial Period Independent Era Travel Accounts and Memoirs Historiography

504 511 533 542 551 561

IV. Politics Government, NGOs, and Political Parties Human Rights, Law, and Legislation Southern Provinces/Former Spanish Sahara

565 576 586

V. Science and Social Sciences Berber Studies Ethnology and Sociology Gender Studies Geography Medicine Urbanism

590 593 600 608 610 613

VI. Resources for Scholars Bibliographies, Research Guides, and Handbooks Biographical Works Classic Manuscripts, Translations, and Critical Commentary Edited Collections (covering multiple subject areas) Libraries and Archives Journals Key Reference Works Web Sites

646 650 654 659 662 665 667 668

435

436

Bibliography

Bibliographical Introduction The published and archival resources dealing with Morocco are truly extensive. This bibliography includes more than 6,000 entries of which about 50 percent are new entries; many older and new works of less importance (to most readers) found in the last edition have been dropped to make room for the new material. The two bibliographies may therefore be usefully combined yet together include only a minority of the extant bibliography on Morocco. The bibliography has been organized into six broad themes and thirty-one subject areas. In comparison to most other countries in this series, the literature on Morocco is more extensive, richer in its thematic content, and has a much greater time depth. Although the archaeological material for Morocco is scant compared to that for countries in Western Europe, it is far more extensive than that for all but a few countries in Africa (Egypt most significantly having more studies). Manuscript material in Arabic and Hebrew is available from throughout the Middle Ages and many North African scholars of that period became famous and have long since been translated into European languages, so there are many translations available. From the period of European global exploration (beginning in the 15th century) significant numbers of accounts of Morocco written by foreigners began to appear, and with the advent of colonization in the 20th century, many Moroccans began to write in French or Spanish. Today Moroccans make contributions to science and literature in many languages, and the proliferation of universities in Morocco has given rise to a great efflorescence of writing. At the same time, traditional areas of Islamic scholarship continue to produce significant work, and the engagement of scholars of all backgrounds with the political situation, domestic and global, has given rise to a critical literature in many fields that promises to transform the social and political landscape (Gibbins 1996; Laroui 1974). Because it would be quite impossible in a brief essay to review a fully representative sample of the items in this bibliography, this essay will focus on examples that illustrate either recent trends in publication or what is most distinctive. Much of the material documenting trends common throughout the world (e.g., linked to modernization or globalization) simply cannot be touched upon in this essay, however well they may be documented in the bibliography. Since alphabetization is within subject area, the essay is organized into the same sequence of subject areas to help readers locate the references cited. Traditional Moroccan culture has broad roots, and the material in the Culture section makes this abundantly clear; as an example, its music has long exhibited West African, North African, Andalusian, and Middle Eastern influences, and it now also shows European and American influences (Lortat-Jacob 1980; Maier 1996; Paques 1978; Schuyler 1978, 1981, 1985, 2000). Moroccan architecture is similarly diverse in its influences and innovative in its form (Hill and Golvin 1976; Messier 1999; Paccard 1980; Wright 1987; see also the more extensive discussion in the Urbanism section). The textile tradition in Morocco includes a minor emphasis on Middle Eastern derived pile rugs, having a format of a central medallion surrounded by abstract pattern, as well as a richer and more

Bibliography

437

interesting tradition of flat weaves and pile carpets using techniques and styles inimitably Moroccan (Fiske 1980; Grammet 1985; Hyde 1991; Terrasse 1925). The Education section documents some specifically Moroccan themes. A few Moroccan women have been highly educated throughout the centuries, but it is only from the 20th century that they have acceded to high levels of education in large numbers (Barkallil 1994). This expansion of women’s education began with traditional Islamic education and can be traced to women’s participation in the nationalist movement during the protectorate (Baker 1998). It may be seen as a trend stimulated by modernization yet initially justified in terms of resistance to colonialism. Traditional male scholarship has both a long history and deep roots in Islam, yet Morocco has a history of scholarship that makes it distinctive in a number of ways. Hammoudi (1997) has suggested that the master/ disciple relationship that has been at the root of Islamic scholarship in Morocco is based on a culture of authoritarianism that is specifically Moroccan. The section on Islam and Religion incorporates a particularly rich and diverse set of material but excludes material that would fit better in the following section on Judaic Studies. Islam has regularly claimed a political voice with a potential to express resistance to the state. Morocco has a long history of such voices being expressed: from those who opposed the government’s invasion of the Sudan in the 15th century (Abdellah 1986-1987), to those who adopted Salafiya ideas to oppose the colonial government (Abun-Nasr 1963; El Mansour 1994) or those who in recent years have espoused the cause of Osama bin Laden both as an expression of opposition to corrupting Western influences and to their own government’s alliance with non-Muslim nations (Beck 1986; Cooper 1993; Munson 1993a; Tozy 1979; Willis 1999; Yassine 2000). Judaic studies document historical attitudes toward Jews in Morocco as well as the changing perspectives brought aboout by the Palestinian conflict. Although bin Laden’s original stimulus was the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, viewed as the holy land, the perception of U.S. bias toward Israel on the Palestinian issue has proved to be an even more useful support in Morocco for both anti-Americanism and anti-Jewish sentiment, which are now almost inseparable. Although the Jewish diaspora put Jews in a vulnerable position both in Europe and the Middle East, on balance most historians take the view that Jewish lives in Europe were more frought with hazard than in the Middle East—at least until recently (Abitbol 1980a, b; Ayache 1987; Bar-Acher 1980; Bar-Asher 1988; Bensimon 1980a, b; Bilu 1996; Chouraqui 1950; Guigui 1980; Laskier 1991a, b, c, d; Malka 1978; Meyers 1996; Nahon 1980; Rosen 1972; Schroeter 2000; Shokeid 1980; Stillman 1978; Tessler 1979; Zafrani 1986). One area of particular interest to historians has been the establishment in Morocco of special residential quarters, mellah, in many cities and towns (Abitbol 1982; Cohen 1980a, b; Corcos 1976; Deshen 1989; Goldberg 1983; Ilahiane 2000; Leibovici 1984b; Lévy 1980; Malka 1946; Ovadia 1974-1975; Press 1974; Slousch 1913). Though discrimination was the norm in Morocco, outright pograms were less common than any cursory comparison between Christian Spain and either

438

Bibliography

Muslim Spain or Morocco would suggest. This difference may date to the 13th century. One of Morocco’s most original dynasties, the Marinids, established a strong positive relationship with the Jewish community (Corcos 1965; Shatzmiller 1982) that subsequent dynasties continued to a significant degree (Abitbol 1993; Corcos 1976; Deshen 1989; Gerber 1980; Hirschberg 1974-1982; Kenbib 1985, 1989; Schroeter 1988). More recently, under Vichy, Mohammed V took a strong stance in support of Moroccan Jews, claiming that they were under his protection (Assaraf 1997). In his turn, Hassan II set a standard for moderation on the Palestinian issue by arguing at Arab and Islamic forums that an uncompromising opposition to the very existence of an Israeli state was an unfruitful approach. It is quite plausible that had his advice been followed, a viable Palestinian state might long ago have been established and now be prospering (Abadi 2000; Bensimon 1991; Levy 1997; Maddy-Weitzman 1996). Although there have always been, as there are now, countervailing voices, pluralism has long been a hallmark of states in the Maghrib and there is little doubt that this had much to do with the efflorescence of culture in Andalusia and south of the straits both before the expulsion of Jews from the Iberian peninsula and after. This pluralism is illustrated in the Language section with studies of Judeo Arabic (Stillman 1981, 1988), Judeo-Spanish (Alvar 1996; Chetrit 1985) and Judeo-Berber as well as Tachelhyt (Aspinion 1953; Destaing 1920a, b), and Tamazight (Laoust 1927; Boukous 1992) in addition to studies of major regional differences in Moroccan Arabic dialects (Benhallam 1995; Dahbi 2002; Roux 1936; Zawadowski 1978). Modern linguists have found Morocco a fertile ground for a great variety of linguistic research including code switching, speech registers, and diglossic mixing (Bentahila 1983; Chetrit 1980; Heath 1989), multilingualism (Ennaji 1991), gender-specific language usage (Elbaz 1977; Mouhssine 1997; Sadiqi 1995), semiotics (Joseph 1987) and traditional topics from grammar to phonetics (Boukous 1987; Boumalk 1996; Cuvalay 1991; Levy 1994). The influence of Morocco’s languages on each other has also been of interest to linguists (Chatou 1997; Gaadi 1995; Salah-Eddine 1995). In contrast, the Literature section makes it clear that Moroccan literature has been primarily in Arabic or French though traditional stories and some novels in other languages have been published and Berber may soon prosper as a literary language (Lefébure 1993; Peyron 2000) now that it has the imprimatur and support of the state. Moroccan novels in French (Mouzouni 1987) often deal either with the experience of life abroad (Ben Jelloun, common theme in many novels) or with reflections on the bases of Moroccan identity (Ben Jelloun; Hadraoui 1998; Khireddine 1997; Oussaïd 1989; al-Tazi 1999). There are, however, novelists who write in French on explicitly European themes such as police novels (Chraïbi), madness (Bencheikh 1994; Benjelloun 1978), politics (Ouarab 1999), or feminism (Abouzeid 1998; Mernissi 1994; see section on Gender). The traditional roots of the economy have been agriculture and pastoralism, but in both cases, water, a primary and enduring concern in Morocco, has been linked to environmental studies (Bencherifa and Johnson 1990; Raki 1998). In much of Morocco, irrigation in some form is

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crucial to survival, and this has led to legally elaborate systems of water control both traditional (Hammoudi 1985; Ouhajou 1996; Pascon 1977) and modern (Bouderbala et al. 1984; Popp 1982; Swearingen 1987a) with broad consequences for society (Laouina 1996; Pérennès 1993; Prefol 1986; Zainabi 1997). Rainfed wheat and barley have also long been staples in Morocco (Papy 1979; Zagdouni 1990), but environmental factors such as drought (Swearingen 1992; Swearingen and Bencherifa 1998) as well as global markets in grains and structural adjustment (Azam 1993; Denoeux 1998; Hamdouch 1987; Kydd and Thoyer 1992; Seddon 1987a, b) have had major impacts on their viability. The section on the Economic Situation includes much material that is not unique to Morocco but rather is common to many countries confronting globalization and modernization. Morocco’s integration into the modern world economy (in contrast to its integration into the Islamic world economy) has grown steadily since the beginning of the 19th century, and by early in the 21st century Morocco had already elaborated various forms of free trade agreements with the EU, the United States, and various Muslim countries (Damis 1998a; Mourji 1997; Nuñez Villaverde 1996; Testas 2002). These agreements are likely to be just a beginning, and it is unlikely at this point that turning back from such forms of integration is possible (El Rassi 2000). While Moroccans have migrated to Europe for more than a century in search of employment, one of the most significant advantages to Morocco of tighter integration in the modern world economy is precisely the sort of free movement of labor that historically prevailed within the Islamic world or the premodern European world that was first inhibited, then severely damaged, by the rise of modern nationalism and is now threatened by security concerns over terrorism. There is a rich literature in the Migration section that deals with many related issues. These include life experiences abroad from racism to medical care (Ambrosini 1996; Campani 1993; Dal Lago 1994; De Mas and Obdeijn 1996-1998; Entzinger 1994; Ghayet 1997; Gramberg 1998; Karmi 1994; Naji 1993), migrant finances (Ait Hamza 1993; Bennabou 1981; Gauthier 1997), impacts of migration on home communities (Ait Hamza 1995; Belkadi 1994; Bencherifa et al. 1997), migration and identity construction (Benadada 1995; Cammaert 1986), and structural influences on migration (Bruni 1995; Lazaar 1998; Park 1992). The section on Numismatic Studies deals with publications documenting the rich history of North African coins and currency. While in the period after the establishment of the French protectorate the Moroccan experience differed only modestly from that of other countries (Abdesselem 1911), prior to this time there was much that was unique. Beginning in the Islamic period, Moroccan sovereigns followed similar bimetal policies to those of more central Islamic countries (Bel 1933; Brethes 1939; Brunschvig 1950; Colin 1936; Eustache 1984; Hazard 1952; Michaux-Bellaire 1920; Nützel 1902; Sauvaire 1872; Sidbon 1921). Morocco, however, never became part of the Ottoman empire and so was forced to reach its own compromises in the face of the increasing dominance of foreign currencies in the 18th and 19th centuries. This proved to be an opportunity for uniquely brilliant policies aimed at

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protecting both customs revenues (collected in silver) and tax revenues (collected in local bronze currency) from depreciation abroad or at home (Ayache 1979; Park 1985). The history section dealing with the Pre-Islamic Period also includes archaeological material from many periods, primarily to facilitate use of the bibliography by archaeologists. The earliest world system in which Morocco participated, albeit somewhat peripherally and primarily via grain exports (Swearingen 1992), was the Roman empire. Although the Maghreb was just beginning to develop politically, it had long had a central role in supplying the purple dyes so important to Roman political life via the factories on the island near modern Essaouira. These had been originally established by the Phoenicians because of the local abundance of a purple snail (Jodin 1966, 1967). French archaeologists have traditionally been interested first in the Roman legacy (Brisson 1958; Cagnat 1913; Chatelain 1944; Carcopino 1943; Jodin 1987; Lenoir 1983, 1986; Salama 1951; Schmitt 1973) and then, secondarily, in Morocco’s other monumental architecture and urban architecture (Cressier 1995a, b; Levi-Provençal 1918). Modern techniques and other themes have gradually begun to appear (Debenath 1983-1984; Hassar-Benslimane 1976a, b; Hublin 1992; Wengler 1990). The Precolonial Islamic Period section incorporates material from the Islamic conquest up to 1912 and thus includes most of what we would call Moroccan or Maghribi history. The Maghrib itself in time developed empires at their greatest extents included what are now Mauritania, Mali, Spain, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya (Julien 1970; Laroui 1970; Le Tourneau 1969). These empires fostered learning and the arts even as successive dynasties used a rhetoric of moral and religious purity replacing decadence and corruption to justify their ascendance (Ibn Khaldun 1967; Mahdi 1957; Shatzmiller 1982). Most of this section could be cited here as it deals with intrinsically Moroccan themes and topics but this would inordinately lengthen the essay. The reader is invited to peruse the titles to see all the topics investigated by historians of this period. The Colonial Period section covers material that deals either explicitly with some part of the 1912-1956 period or is directly relevant to the colonial projects of France, Spain, or Portugal (e.g., Allain 1976a; Martin 1973; Ramos de Almeida 1978). In 1912, France forcibly integrated Morocco via colonization into the modern world economy (Abun-Nasr 1987; Bernard 1920; Morales Lezcano 1976; Parsons 1976; Porch 1986; Pennell 2000; Venier 1997). The colonial project included for both the French and the Spanish an administrative component (Bernard 1920; Gruner 1984; Guillamo 1991; Halstead 1974; Hart 1975; Michaux-Bellaire 1927a; Montfert 1930; Rivet 1988), the expansion of colonial commercial interests (Bachoud 1986; Hoisington 1985; see also Le Coz 1964 in Geography section and Pascon 1977 in Agriculture section), and for the French the establishment of a significant agricultural base for colons (Benhaim 1979; Hardy 1951) and the general geopolitical goal of consolidating French control in North Africa (Ageron 1972; Jouin 1967). Yet much happened in the period that was not according to plan, and resistance did in the end lead to independence (Aboud 1984; Aouchar 1990; Ayache 1957, 1978; Balafrej 1956; Benjelloun 1999; Ihraï-Aouchar

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1982; Janon 1953; M’Barek 1988; al-qâdirî 2001). Morocco’s proximity to Europe, its location on the northwest corner of the African continent, and its position on the periphery of the traditional Islamic world have all contributed to the richness and proliferation of the Travel Accounts in which Morocco plays a part. Islamic literature refers to such narratives as riHla (the noun derived from raHala, to travel). The Islamic obligation to make the Hajj, trip to the Mecca/Medina area, once in ones lifetime if possible, predisposed countless Muslims to travel long distances, and many wrote accounts of those travels and even became so enthusiastic about seeing new and fascinating places that they went far beyond the basic route to and from the Hijaz. Perhaps the most famous traveler in the middle ages was the Moroccan Ibn Battuta, whose 14thcentury travels (1325-1350) through Africa, the Islamic world, and Asia have long been available in Western languages but have been recently translated anew by Ross Dunn (Ibn Battuta 1986). Another early travel account of North and West Africa was that of al-bakri, an Andalusian who lived in Cordova (d. 1094) whose descriptions of Morocco, though based only on the meticulous collection of information from informants and others’ accounts are still the best available for the period (al-bakri 1965). Moroccans traveled to Europe and left accounts of their impressions, such as that of muHammad al-Saffâr who went to France in the 19th century (Miller 1991). There are also many accounts, written by Western explorers and diplomats (Barth 1857-1858a; Caillié [1830] 1968; Jackson 1809; Lenz 1884; Meakin 1905; Pepys 1841; René-Leclerc 1905; Segonzac 1903, 1910; Slousch 1909) who visited various subsets of the Maghrib as well as by those who were captured or shipwrecked on the coast, often enslaved, and who saw the region less voluntarily and inevitably from a lower station in life (Follie 1785; Fréjus 1670; Paddock 1818; Riley 1817; Robbins [1817] 1851). A recent, and easily available, account (King 2004) successfully rewrites the harrowing Riley and Robbins accounts, which deals with a shipwreck on the Saharan coast and three years of enslavement, with additional information and commentary on both Mauritanian and Moroccan society. Since at least WWII, historians have developed the field of historiography and have argued among other things that because each topic area of history has its own chronology it cannot usefully be shoehorned into a single, e.g., political, chronology. They further argue that received ideologies tend to influence the selection of topics of interest and shape their interpretation. Historians of Morocco have contributed significantly to this field (Choueiri 2003; El Mansour 1997; Miège 1979; Morsy 1978; El Moudden 1997; Pellat 1962). In recent years, historians writing on Morocco have examined concepts of monarchy (Eickelman 1986; Sebti 1986) and time (Eickelman 1977; Valensi 1990), labor movements (Forst 1976), economic conditions (Benhaim 1979; Mouride 2001), human rights (Darîf 1994; Diouri 1993; Serfaty 1992), social stratification (Ennaji 1994, 1997; Leveau 1982), Jewish-Muslim relations (see Judaic Studies section), military organization (Gershovich 2003), political and religious thought (Tozy 1999), and international relations (Julien 1978; Sahli 1965). These, as well as other subjects, have been studied over a variety of timescales usually transcending simple chronological organizations such as

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that adopted for practical reasons in this bibliography. Historians have also contributed a plethora of more traditional social and political histories on particular dynasties. Representative examples include the following from the appropriate sections: the Precolonial Islamic Period (Benchekroun 1970; Berthier 1985; Blunt 1951; Burke 1976; Cook 1994; Hess 1978; ibn manSûr 1977; Khaneboubi 1987; Laroui 1977; Le Tourneau 1969; Nekrouf 1987), the Colonial Period (Aouchar 1990; Ayache 1956; Bernard 1920; Bleuchot 1973; Gruner 1984; Halstead 1967; Hoisington 1984; Nouschi 1981; Rivet 1988), and the Independent Era (Hermassi 1972; Landau 1961; Layachi 1995, 1999a). The Government section collects literature on government and politics but includes in particular two important areas: the elaboration of democratic institutions (Basri 1993; Benani 1986; Bensbia 1996; bû ‘abîd 1994; Cubertafond 1997; Guibal 1993; Layadi 1998; Morsy 1984; El Mossadeq 1995, 1998; Parejo Fernández 1999a; Rousset 1994a; Santucci 1998; El Yaagoubi 1998) and the, often critical, role of political parties and organizations, e.g., labor/leftist or religious-based groups participating in the political process (al-‘absî 2002; al-‘awnî 1998; ‘abbû 1998; alash‘arî 1990; Darîf 1999; Joffé 1998; ya‘ta 1985). To summarize this literature egregiously, the current government has made significant progress toward greater democracy, though it has some constraints that are unlikely to be overcome in the immediate future that are linked both to educational levels and the strength of the monarchy. In addition, it can be said that the political parties have tended to gravitate into three camps: supporters of the monarchy and status quo, supporters of progressive change, and supporters of a movement toward a greater role for Islam in the constitution and the state. This diversity has created a vigorous dialogue that is stimulating both to the elite and to much of the general population; all the more so as the current government seems inclined to do more than listen to the various viewpoints. The section on Human Rights, Law, and Legislation groups together material on both the practical impact of law and the legislation itself. The most significant recent changes in legislation have been twofold: the reworking of the administrative organization of Morocco, introducing a reworked regionalization incorporating the southern provinces and allocating new authority to regional administrators (El Mossadeq 1992-1994, 1998; Raounak 1994), and the introduction of an entirely new family status code (mudawwana) that, although carefully based on Islamic principles, greatly enhances women’s rights and brings them in line with international norms (ADFM 2004; El Alami 1992; Benani 1983; Colomer 1961; Lapanne-Joinville 1959a; Mernissi 1998; Mir-Hosseini 1993; Moulay Rchid 1996). Much has been done as well to enhance human rights more generally, including freedom of the press and a major reduction in imprisonment for political offenses (Essaid 1994; Feliu 1996; Ihraï 1994; Mikou 1994; Naciri 1994; Rousset 1994; Zirari-Deviv 1994-1995). The section titled Southern Provinces/Former Spanish Sahara deals with what some call the Western Sahara, though this title would be inappropriate in a book on Morocco. The abdication of control over the Spanish Sahara by Spain in 1975 initially led to Morocco claiming the

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northern half (Green March) and Mauritania taking the southern half. The development of a Sahrawi resistance movement aided by Algeria quickly persuaded Mauritania to drop its claims, but Morocco immediately then claimed the southern half for itself (Alami 1977; Damis 1983, 1987, 1992, 2000; Hodges 1984; Lawless and Monahari 1987; mamlaka al-maghribîya 1984; Seddon 1987a, 1989, 1992). This led first to armed conflict and recently to diplomatic conflict as many international organizations (United Nations, OAU, AU) recognized the Sahrawi claim to the “Western Sahara” and Morocco, though suffering diplomatic slights, refused to relinquish either its claim or its de facto control of the region (Benmessaoud 1991; Lamouri 1985; Layachi 1994; Zoubir and Volman 1993; Zoubir 1997, 1999). The Sahrawi and international claim is that this is a case of decolonization in which the traditional population should be allowed to form a government. In contrast, the Moroccan claim is that the territory was taken from Morocco during the colonial period and it should therefore revert to Morocco. Berber Studies focuses attention on Moroccan society and history from a particular ethnic perspective. Colonial attempts to sabotage Moroccan unity began with the conquest of Algeria (1844) and the gradual expansion of Algeria’s western border at Morocco’s expense, but they took their most explicit form in the Berber Dahir (Ageron 1971; Bounfour 1997; Duclos 1973; Lafuente 1999; Montagne 1930; Sayad 1979). This was a blatant attempt to separate out the Berbers from the Arab population on the illusory grounds that the Berbers were, if not crypto Christians, at least not very Muslim and would be more easily induced to side with France. In reality, Berbers had long been Muslims and there had been much blending of cultures since Islam began to spread in earnest in the 9th century (Norris 1982; Shatzmiller 2000; Vinogradov 1974; Waterbury 1973). The literature in this section and the Language section deals in considerable detail with Berber culture and can be expected to expand significantly now that Berber studies have official government support. Ethnology and Sociology are based on the need to step back from ideological commitments to gain a better understanding of society. The strategy of divide and conquer actually backfired for France not because Morocco was homogeneous but because there was a wide consensus around the basics of Islam—unlike much else. Rather than one major cleavage, Morocco had many minor cleavages overlaying a common support for a Muslim state. In more recent times, social scientists have focused on religious difference (Elboudrari 1985; Gellner 1981, 1997; Hart 2001a, b, c; Marcus 1985), social structure (Bahani 1994; Benhlal 1980; Berque and Pascon 1978; Jamous 1981; Rosen 1984), resistance (Bounfour 1983), the segmentary lineage (Combs-Schilling 1985; Gellner 1969; Hammoudi 1980; Hart 1976, 1981; Munson 1993; Sadki 1985), youth (Adam 1963; Bennani-Chraïbi 1998; Davis and Davis 1989; Ringa 1998), and ethnography itself (Burke 1977; Goldberg 1990). The Gender section deals with literature that examines a particularly crippling ideological bias common to most societies. Perhaps the most pervasive cleavage in Moroccan society is based on gender (Chiche 1994) because it has the potential to set even family members against each other (Bergman 1994) and because in recent years it has had the greatest impact

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on public discourse. Although before the 20th century, significant numbers of women have been educated and some have held political positions in the Islamic world, this has been, on balance, quite rare (Mernissi 1993). The roots of radical Moroccan feminism go back to the independence movement (Baker 1998; Clancy-Smith 1996; Mernissi 1982a, 1991; Pennell 1987; Rahmouni 1988) and then build gradually (D. Davis 1995; S. Davis 1993; Dwyer 1978; Mahler 1974b; Meknassi 1994; NaamaneGuessous 1987). Feminists have gained strength in the last decade to a degree never before seen in Morocco (Belarbi 1997; Benabdenbi 1997; Hajjarabi 1996; Kapchan 1997; Mernissi 1994b; Miadi 1997). In 2004, they succeeded in transforming the laws governing women’s rights (mudawwana). While Fatima Mernissi is easily the Moroccan feminist writer best known in the United States, countless others in politics, social work, and various other fields have contributed to this success. While it might be possible to distribute the material in the Geography section into other sections, it seemed best to place a number of key studies by geographers in their own section. Geographers who have brought their spatial skills to the study of Morocco have looked at geographical differences both through regional case studies (El Abbasi 1997; Berriane 1998b; Charvet 1972; Le Coz 1968; Popp 1991) as well as broader comparative analyses of a variety of topics including; space/toponymy (Beguin 1974; Bencherifa and Popp 1990; McDougall 1991), social geography (Popp 1982a), tourism (Berriane 1998a, b; Ross et al. 2002), markets (Troin 1975a), agriculture and irrigation (Popp 1978, 1984; Troin 1996), climate (Naciri 1969), and even demography and population (Noin 1969, 1970). Many contributions by geographers, due to the broad conception of the field, may also be found in other sections of the bibliography especially those dealing with Agriculture, Pastoralism, and Environment; Development and Rural Studies; Migration; or Urbanism. Obviously, most of the research on Medicine by Moroccan scientists has little that is specific to Morocco and would therefore be inappropriate in this bibliography. Researchers in numerous fields have, however, contributed to the study of the dynamics of the Moroccan population from a medical (Bakker 1993; Belakhdar 1978, 1997; Ricard 1933; Rivet 1995, 1996; Venzlaff 1977), demographic (Crognier 1992; Obermayer 2000), or public health/epidemiological (El-Bezzaz 1984, 1985, 1992; Hancock 1821; Renaud 1921, 1923a, 1925, 1930, 1931a, 1939a; Renaud and Colin 1935; Rosenberger 1974) perspective. This medical literature is split reasonably evenly between studies of modern medicine or public health and studies of traditional medical practice and pharmacopia. A small amount literature has been produced specifically addressing Moroccan women’s perspectives on health and medicine (Ayat 1994; Bennani 1967; Bourqia 1996; Chattou 1993; Ech-Channa 1997; Varea 1993; see Gender and MacPhee 1998). Urbanism has a long history both in the Middle East and in Morocco, but the quintessential modern form of residence has been the city. While persuasive arguments are lacking that city life involves completely new ways of being human, the higher levels of interaction intensify some types of relationships (e.g., those based on specialization) while sometimes attenuating others (e.g., precedence of kinship ties) and facilitate the

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resolution of some problems (e.g., communication, construction of knowledge) just as they aggravate others (e.g., waste disposal, psychological insecurities). While much remains common between rural and urban worlds, the latter have increasingly attracted particular attention in Morocco as well as elsewhere. The literature in the Urbanism section is so extensive that it may be worth reminding the reader that this discussion will deal with those entries purporting to discuss characteristics specific to Moroccan cities; recent publications cover many other topics. Lyautey introduced an influential dichotomy into Moroccan urbanism with his construction of a modern city along side traditional Fès, created explicitly to preserve the latter. The general idea of chosing between preservation and modernization has since elicited much discussion (e.g., Abu-Lughod 1975a, 1981; Berque 1972; Bianca 1983, 1985; Buy 1966; Dethier 1972; Dryef 1993; Escher 1992; Findlay and Findlay 1986; Le Tourneau 1966; Lucas 1937; Naciri 1992). While scholars have not resolved this debate, the situation in Fès is still at its core. Even as preservationists work hard to preserve the traditional form in the Old City, the area becomes increasingly inadequate, in terms of residential amenities, to the needs of a modernizing population. It is ever more clear both that some compromise will be necessary and that there were flaws in the original conception. A related and enduring area of research in Moroccan urbanism is that of architecture. The architecture of Morocco is extremely diverse, yet the bulk of the extant urban literature touching on architecture falls primarily into three categories: Berber architecture (Adam 1978; Afatach 1996; Curtis 1983; Montagne 1930; Naji 2001), royal cities (bal muqaddam 1993; Barrucand 1985; Cigar 1978-1979; Ennahid 2002; Garnett 1928; Le Tourneau 1938, 1957b, 1965; El Mansour 1997; Massignon 1925; Mezzine 1992; Michaux-Bellaire 1907; René-Leclerc 1905; Stambouli 1974, 1976; Terasse 1938; Wirth 1993) and (the exotic nature of) Saharan architecture of qSûr (Gentilleau 1999; Ghorafi 1999; Hensens 1969; Jacques-Meunié 1959; La Chapelle 1929; Naciri 1986a; Pletsch 1972, 1973a, 1978; Terasse 1942). Within this general framework similar issues arise as modern architects strive to create modern and innovative works with roots in an authentic tradition. Hegel would neither be surprised that such contradictions are conducive to progress nor that those embroiled in the debate could be passionately engaged. The remaining sections of the bibliography collect material by type rather than theme. They may significantly facilitate research but include in each section a great variety of topics and themes including those already mentioned but adding many others such as hagiography and other traditional Islamic sciences covered primarily by manuscripts. It should be noted that the Classic Manuscripts section lists the most important manuscripts and their translations relevant to Moroccan history but does not begin to cover the full set of manuscripts available in major libraries and archives that have specifically Moroccan content or relevance. Many edited books, such as Festschrifts and even books based on conferences, include a great variety of thematic contributions and cannot be accurately placed within a single subject bibliography, so these types of edited works have been gathered together in the Edited Collections section. The Journal

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section includes only the most important journals for Moroccanists— obviously a great variety of journals publish the occasional article on Morocco. The Key Reference Works section lists the most important general reference works used in this dictionary and includes much material that would be indispensable to any such work on Morocco. The final section, Web Sites, attempts to gather in one place the key government Web sites, the Web sites of Moroccan Press organizations, and a number of other Web sites of particular value to those interested in Morocco. Any search of the Web will easily find additonal sites with material on Morocco. It is inevitable that many of these sites will disappear before a new edition of this book appears even though all links work as the book goes to press. By contrast, readers who intend to consult the various archives are invited to consult the first edition of this dictionary—so little has changed that that appendix has not been reproduced in this edition. The authors have compiled a lengthy list of theses on Morocco (including most French and Moroccan history or social science theses dealing with Morocco) that was too long to include in this edition. Readers are welcome to request this directly from the authors.

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I. Culture and Religion Culture Abou El Farah, Yahia, Abdelouahed Akmir, and Abdelmalek Beni Azza. La présence marocaine en Afrique de l’ouest: cas du Sénégal, du Mali et de la Côte d’Ivoire. Publications de l’Institut des Etudes Africaines-Rabat. Série: Etudes, 2. Rabat: Royaume du Maroc, Université Mohammed V-Souissi, l’Institut des Etudes Africaines-Rabat, 1997. Aït Tabassir, Saïd. Jama‘ el-Fna, place complexe. Horizons Maghrébins 23-24:93-99, 1994. Arrif, Abdelmajid. Le paradoxe de la construction du fait patrimonial en situation coloniale: le cas du Maroc. Revue du Monde Musulman et de la Méditerranée 73-74:153-166, 1996. Ayat, Mohamed. Hommage à un héraut de l’art populaire marocain. Horizons Maghrébins 22:8-24, 1993. Aydoun, Ahmed. Musiques du Maroc. Casablanca: Éditions Eddif, 1992. ———. Musiques sacrées du Maroc. Revue Maroc-Europe 6:145-150, 1994. Bachir, Mohammed and Moulay Mohammed Najib. La Politique culturelle au Maroc. Paris: UNESCO, 1981. Bekkali, Mohamed. Redistribution de la population active et évolution des flux du système éducatif au Maroc durant la décennie 1970-1980. Annuaire de l’Afrique du Nord 19:45-69, 1980. Bekkhoucha, Mohammed. Savoir-vivre: vie sociale et religieuse des Marocains, leurs contes. Casablanca: Librairie Farraire, 1938. Boum, Aomar. Folk dance between reality and Ideology: Ahwash as a case study. Unpublished Master’s thesis. Ifrane: Al Akhawayn University, 1997. Carter, Sandra G. Moroccan Cinema: What Moroccan Cinema? Maghreb Review 25(i-ii):65-97, 2000. Charnay, Jean Paul. Transferts de culture au Maghreb. Politique étrangère 36(5-6):603-616, 1971. Debbasch, Charles, et al. Mutations Culturelles et Coopération au Maghreb. Paris: CNRS, 1969. Fiske, Patricia L., W. Russell Pickering, and Ralph S. Yohe. From the Far West: carpets and textiles of Morocco—al-Maghrib al-Aqsa—De l’extreme occident: tapis et textiles du Maroc. Washington, D.C.: Textile Museum, 1980. Grammet, I. Tapijten van de Glaoua en de Aït Aouwzguita. Africa-Tervuren 31, 1985. Haddiya, El Mostafa. Rôle de la famille urbaine dans la socialisation des adolescents scolarisés. Pp. 129-140. In: Le Maroc et la Hollande: une approche comparative des grands intérêts communs. Rabat: Université Mohammed V, Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines, 1995. Hill, Derek, and Lucien Golvin. Islamic Architecture in North Africa. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1976. Hyde, Jefferson S., editor. Windows on the Maghrib: tribal and urban weavings of Morocco. Knoxville, Tenn.: Frank H. McClung Museum, University of Tennessee; Washington, D.C.: Near Eastern Art Research Center, 1991. Lahlou, Abbès. La bourgeoisie, symbole et reflet direct de l’occidentalisation de la société marocaine. Civilisations 14:62-84, 1964. Langlois, T. The Gnawa of Oujda: Music at the Margins in Morocco. World of Music 40(i):135-156, 1998. Legey, Françoise. The folklore of Morocco; translated from the French by Lucy Hotz; preface by Marshal Lyautey. London: G. Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1935. Le Tourneau, R. North Africa: Rigorism and Bewilderment. Pp. 231-260. In: Unity and variety in Muslim civilization. Edited by Gustave E. Von Grunebaum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955.

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Lortat-Jacob, Bernard. Community music as an obstacle to professionalism: a Berber example. Ethnomusicology 25(i):87-98, 1981. ———. Music as a collective enterprise: the case of Berber music of the High Atlas. World of Music 21(iii):62-77, 1979. ———. Musique et fêtes au Haut-Atlas. Paris; New York: Mouton; Paris: Ecole des hautes etudes en sciences sociales, 1980. Maier, J. Desert songs: Western images of Morocco and Moroccan image of the West. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York, 1996. Marcus, Michael A. ‘Horsemen are the fence of the land’: honor and history among the Ghiyata of eastern Morocco. Pp. 49-60. In: Honor and shame and the unity of the Mediterranean. Edited by D.D. Gilmore. Washington, D.C.: American Anthropological Association, 1987. ———. ‘The saint has been stolen’: sanctity and social change in a tribe of eastern Morocco. American Ethnologist 12(Aug.):454-467, 1985. Martìnez, Fernando Valderroma. Historia de la acción cultural de España en Marruecos (1912-1956). Tetuán: Editora Marroquí, 1956. Marty, Paul. La nouvelle jeunesse intellectuelle du Maroc. Renseignements Coloniaux. Pp. 133-146, 1925. Mas, Marie. La petite enfance à Fes et à Rabat. Annales de l’institut d’études orientales (Algeria) 17:1-144, 1959; and 20:277-400, 1962. Masson, Denise. Porte ouverte sur un jardin fermé: valeurs fondamentales et traditionnelles d’une société en pleine évolution, Marrakech 1930-1989. Paris: Desclée de Brouwer, 1989. Messier, R.A. The Grand Mosque of Sijilmasa: the evolution of a structure from the Mosque of Ibn Abd Allah to the restoration of Sidi Mohammed ben Abdallah. Pp. 287-296. In: L’architecture de terre en Méditerranée. Coordination: Mohammed Hammam/al-mi‘mâr al-mabnî bi-tturâb fî Hawd albaHr al-mutawassiT. Edited by Muhammad Hammam. Rabat: Université Mohammed V, Publications de la Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines, 1999. Miège, Jean-Louis. Le Maroc. (Collection Que sais-je? no. 439.) Paris: P.U.F., 1971. ———. Origine et développement de la consommation du thé au Maroc. Bulletin Economique et Social du Maroc 20(71):377-398, 1957. Morocco. Service des arts indigènes. Corpus des tapis marocains, presenté par Prosper Ricard, chef du Service des arts indigènes. Paris: P. Geuthner, 1923n.d. Ooijen, H. van. Religion and emancipation: a study of the development of Moroccan Islamic organizations in a Dutch town. Pp. 163-180. In: Islam in Dutch society: current developments and future prospects. Edited by W.A.R. Shadid and P.S. van Koningsveld. Kampen, Netherlands: Kok Pharos, 1992. Paccard, André. Traditional Islamic craft in Moroccan architecture. London: Éditions Atelier, 1980. Pacholczyk, J. The relationship between the nawba of Morocco and the music of the troubadours and trouvères. World of Music 25(ii):5-16, 1983. Paques, V. The Gnawa of Morocco: the derdeba ceremony. Pp. 319-329. In: The nomadic alternative. Modes and models of interaction in the African Asian deserts and steppes. Edited by W. Weissleder. The Hague, 1978. ———. Le tiers caché du monde dans la conception des Gnawa du Maroc. Journal de la Société Africanistes 45:7-17, 1975. Quitout, M. Dictionnaire bilingue des proverbes marocains: arabe-français. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1997. Rachik, Hassan. La science et une chasse: aperçu sur la pensée de Mokhtar Soussi. Pp. 249-267. In: Penseurs maghrébins contemporains. Collectif. Tunis: CERES, 1993. Saulniers, Alfred. Splendid Isolation: Tribal Weavings of the Aït Bou Ichaouen Nomads. Hali 110:106-113, 118, 2000.

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ibn al-khaTîb, lisan al-dîn. The history of Granada entitled al-iHâTa fî akhbâr gharnâTa by lisân al-dîn ibn al-ibn al-muwaqqît, muHammad bn muHammad bn ‘abd allâh, al-murrâkushî. al-sa‘âda al-abadîya fî al-ta‘rîf bi rijâl al-HaDra al-murrâkushîya. Lithograph. 2 vols. Fès, 1918. ———. khaTîb. Edited with introduction and notes by Mohamed Abdulla Enan. Cairo, 1956. ———. al-katîba al-kâmina fî man laqînâhu bi-l-andalus min shu‘arâ’ al-mi’a althâmina. Edition by iHsân ‘abbâs. bayrût, 1963. ———. nufâDat al-jirâb fî ‘ulâlat al-ightirâb. turathuna. al-qâhira, dâr al-kâtib al‘arabî, 1968. ———. nufâDat al-jirâb fî ‘ulâlat al-ightirâb/li-lisan al-dîn ibn al-khaTîb; (713-776h/1313-1374m). taqdîm wa-taHqîq sa‘dîya faghîya. al-Tab‘a 1. [S.l.:s.n.], al-dâr al-bayDâ’: maTba‘at al-najâH al-jadîda, 1989. ibn al-qâDî, aHmad. durrat al-Hijâl fî ghurrat asmâ’ al-rijâl. Edition by I.S. Allouche. Rabat: Institut des hautes études marocaines, vols. IV and V, 1934-1936. ———. jadhwat al-iqtibâs fî man Halla min al-a‘lâm madînat fâs. Lithograph. Fès, 1891-1892/1309H. ibn al-Sabbâgh, muHammad bn al-qâsim (known as) al-Himyârî. The mystical teachings of al-Shadhili. Including his life, prayers, letters, and followers. Translation of durrat al-asrâr wa-tuHfat al-abrâr by Elmer H. Douglas and edited by Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi‘. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993. ibn al-shabbat, muHammad bn ‘alî. Un fragmento de la obra de Ibn al-Sabbat (s. XIII) sobre al-Andalus. Emilio de Santiago Simon. La rebelión de los Abid, en 1778, y su desintegración como milicia especial/Ramon Lourido Diaz. Serie monografica-islámica occidentalia; no. 4-5 Cuadernos de historia del Islam; no. 5. Granada: Publicaciones del Seminario de Historia del Islam, Universidad de Granada, 1973. ibn al-zayyât, abû ya‘qub yûsuf bn yaHya bn ‘îsâ bn ‘abd al-raHmân al-tâdilî. altashawwuf ilâ rijâl al-taSawwuf (1221). Edited edition by A. Faure. Rabat: IHEM Vol.12, 1958. ibn anas, malik. Al-muwatta of Imam Malik bn Anas. The First Formulation of Islamic Law. Translated by Aisha Abdurrahman Bewley. London: Kegan Paul, 1989. ibn ‘askar, abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn ‘alî bn al-Husayn bn misbâH. dawHat alnâshir li-maHâsin man kâna bi-l-maghrib min mashâyikh al-qarn al-‘âshir. Lithographe Fès, 1891. Translated by A. Graulle as, Daouhat en-Nâchir (Vie des saints maghribins du Xe s.) de Ibn Askar. Archives Marocaines 9 (1906). Paris: Leroux, 1913. ibn Hawqal, abû al-qâsim muHammad bn ‘alî al-naSîbî. Description de l’Afrique. Translation of M.G. de Slane. Journal Asiatique (3e série) 13:153-196, 209-258, 1842. ———. kitâb Sûrat al-arD (circa 988). Translated by J.H. Kramers and G. Wiet, Configuration de la terre. 2 vols. Paris: G.P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1964. ibn ‘idhârî, abû al-‘abbâs aHmad bn muHammad, al-marrâkushî. kitâb al-bayân almughrib fî akhbâr mulûk al-andalus wa-l-maghrib (1205). Translated as Los Almohades. 2 vols. Tétouan, 1953-1954. Edition by A. Huici and M. Kattani. Tétouan, 1963. Also published as Histoire de l’Afrique du Nord et de l’Espagne musulmane, by G.S. Colin and E. Lévi-Provençal. 2 vols. Leiden, 1948-1951. ibn khaldûn, abû zayd ‘abd al-raHmân. kitâb al-‘ibar wa-dîwân al-mubtada’ wa-lkhabar fî ayyâm al-‘arab wa-l-‘ajam wa-l-barbar wa-man ‘aSarahum min dhawî al-sulTân al-akbar. Edition by Joseph Daghir. Beirut 1956-1959. Translated by M.G. de Slane as, Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l’Afrique septentrionale. 4 vols. Algiers: Imprimerie du gouvernement, 1847-1851; Paris: Geuthner, 1925-1934, 1956.

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———. lubâb al-muHaSSal fî uSûl al-dîn. Edition and translation by P. Luciano Rubio. Tetuan, 1952. ———. The Muqaddimah: An introduction to history. Translated by Franz Rosenthal. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1967. A French edition worth noting is that by Vincent Monteil as, Discours sur l’histoire universelle (al-Muqaddima). Beirut, 1967-1968. ———. shifâ’ al-sâ’il li-tahdhîb al-masâ’il. Edition by Ignace-Abdo Khalifé. Beirut: Institut de Lettres de Beyrouth t. XI, 1959. ———. al-ta‘rîf bi-ibn khaldûn wa-riHlatuhu gharban wa-sharqan. Edition by muHammad bn tâwît al-Tanjî. Cairo, 1951. ibn marzuq, muHammad bn aHmad. al-musnâd. Translated by E. Lévi-Provençal as Un nouveau texte d’histoire mérinide: Les Musnad d’Ibn Marzûk. Hespéris 5:1-82, 1925. ———. El Musnad: Hechos Memorables du Abu al-Hassan, Sultan de los Benimerinos. Transl. and ed. by Maria J. Viguera. Madrid: Instituto HispanoArabe de Cultura, 1977. ibn riDwân, abû-l-qâsim. ibn sa‘îd al-maghribî. Edition and translation by E. García Gomez as El libro de las Banderas de los campeones. Madrid, 1942. ———. al-shuhum al-lâmi‘a fî al-siyâsa al-nâfi‘a. taHqîq ‘alî sâmî al-nashâr. aldâr al-bayDâ’: dâr al-thaqâfa, 1984. ibn sûda, muHammad al-tâwudî bn muHammad. as’ila wa-ajwiba. Lithograph. Fès, 1885/1301H. ibn zaydân, abû zayd ‘abd ar-raHmân bn muHammad bn ‘abd ar-raHmân bn ‘alî bn ‘abd al-malik bn zaydân bn ismâ‘îl. al-‘izz wa-l-Sawla fî ma‘âlim nuZum aldawla. 2 vols. al-rabâT, al-maTba‘a al-malakîya, 1381-1382H/1961-1962. ———. itHâf a‘lâm al-nâs bi-jamâl akhbâr HâDirat maknâs. 5 vols. Rabat, 1929-1933. Iby Tuwayr-al-Jannah, Ahmad. The Pilgrimage of Ahmad, Son of the Little Bird of Paradise. Trans. from the Arabic by H.T. Norris. Westminster, England: Aris and Phillips, 1977. al-idrîsî, abû ‘abd allâh muHammad bn muHammad bn ‘abd allâh bn idrîs al-‘âlî bi-‘amr allâH. kitâb nuzhat al-mushtâq fî ikhtirâq al-afâq (1154). Translated by R. Dozy and J. Goeje as Description de l’Afrique et de l’Espagne, Leyde, 1866, and by P.A. Jaubert. as Géographie d’Edrisi. 2 vols. Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1836-1840. al-ifrânî, abû ‘abd allâh muHammad al-saghîr bn al-Hâjj muHammad bn ‘abd allâH. nuzhat al-Hâdî bi-akhbâr mulûk al-qarn al-Hâdî. Lithograph. Fès, 1889. Translated by H. Houdas as Histoire de la dynastie saadienne au Maroc (1511-1670). 2 vols. Paris, 1888-1889. ———. nuzhat al-Hâdi bi-akhbâr mulûk al-qarn al-Hâdi. ta’lîf muHammad alSaghîr bn al-Hâjj bn ‘abd allâh al-wafrânî al-najjâr al-murrâkushî al-wajar; qad saHHaha ‘ibâratihi al-târîkhîya al-sayyid Hudas. al-rabâT: maktabat al-Tâlib, [197?]. ‘iyâD bn mûsâ bn ‘iyâD bn ‘amrûn al-yaHSubî al-sabtî al-qâDî. tartîb al-madârik wa-taqrîb al-masâlik bi-ma‘rifat a‘lâm madhhab mâlik. Edited by aHmad bakîr maHmûd. bayrût, 1967. al-jaznâ’î, ‘alî abû al-Hasan. zahrat al-âs. [deals with the foundation of Fès] Edition and translation by Alfred Bel. Alger: Faculté des Lettres d’Alger: Bulletin de correspondance africaine t. 59, 1923. al-kattânî, muHammad bn ja‘far. al-azhâr al-‘âTirat al-anfâs bi-dhikr ba‘D maHâsin qutb al-maghrib wa-tâj madînat fâs. Lithograph. Fès, 1888-1889/1306H. Leo Africanus. Description de l’Afrique. 2 vols. Traduit par A. Epaulard. Paris, 1956. ———. Description de l’Afrique, tierce partie du monde. Translated by J. Temporal. New edition by Ch. Shefer, 3 vols. Paris, 1896-1898.

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makhTûTat farîda bi-maktabat al-budliyan bi-jami’at uksfurd. taqdîm wataHqîq Norman Cigar; qaddama lahu ‘abd al-Hâdî al-tâzi. al-rabâT: ma‘had aljami‘i li-l-baHth al-‘ilmî bi-l-maghrib, 1978. ———. Muhammad al-Qadiri’s Nashr al Mathani: the chronicles. Edited and translated by Norman Cigar. Series Arabica (Union Académique Internationale. Commission XXII—Fontes Historiae Africanae). London and New York: Oxford University Press for the British Academy, 1981. ———. nashr al-mathânî li-ahl al-qarn al-Hâdî ’ashar wa-l-thânî. ta’lîf muHammad bn al-Tayyib al-qâdirî; taHqîq muHammad Hajjî, aHmad alTawfîq. 4 vols. al-rabâT: dâr al-maghrib li-l-ta’lîf wa-l-tarjama wa-l-nashr, 1977-1986. al-sa‘dî, ‘abd al-raHmân bn ‘abd allâh al-sûdânî. ta’rîkh al-sudân. Edited and translated by O. Houdas. 2 vols. Paris: E.L.O.V., 1898-1900. Shatzmiller, Maya. Une source méconnue de l’histoire des Berbères: le Kitâb alAnsâb li-Abî Hayyân. Arabica 30:73-79, 1983. al-Tâhirî, aHmad (Hamdûn) bn muHammad. tuHfat al-ikhwân bi-ba‘D manâqib shurafâ’ wazzân. Lithograph. Fès, 1906/1324H. al-tamanartî, abû zayd sayyidî ‘abd al-raHmân bn muHammad al-jazûlî al maghafrî. fawâ’id al-jamma bi-isnâdi ‘ulûm al-‘umma. Translated by Justinard. Chartres: S.H.M. Durand, 1953. al-‘umarî, ibn faDl allâH. masâlik al-abSâr fî mamâlik al-amSâr. Translated by Gaudefroy-Demombynes as I. L’Afrique moins l’Egypte. Paris: Bibliothèque des Géographes arabes, t. II, 1927. al-wansharîsî, abû-l-‘abbâs aHmad bn yaHyâ bn muHammad. al-mi‘yâr al-mu‘rib wa-l-jâmi‘ al-mughrib ‘an fatâwî ifriqîya wa-l-andalus wa-l-maghrib. Partial translations in Archives Marocaines II:75-210, 1904; XII:192-228, 1907. ———. Histoire et société en occident musulman au Moyen Age: Analyse du mi‘yar d’al-Wansarisi. Translated by Vincent Lagardère. Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 1995. al-yaqûbî. kitâb al-buldân (889). Edition by De Goeje, Leyde, 1860. Vol. 1. Translated by G. Wiet as Les pays. Cairo: PIFAO , 1937. al-zakarsî. ta’rîkh al-dawlatayn al-muwaHHidîya wa-l-Hafsîya. Tunis, 1872. Translated by E. Fagnan as Chronique des Almohades et des Hafsides. Constantine, 1895. zarhûnî, sayyidi muHammad bn al-Hâj ibrâhîm. La rihla du marabout de Tasaft. Notes sur l’histoire de l’Atlas. Texte arabe du XVIIIes. Translated and annotated by Louis Justinard. Paris: P. Geuthner, 1940. al-zayyânî, abû al-qâsim bn aHmad bn ‘alî bn ibrâhîm. al-turjumân al-kubrâ fî akhbâr al-ma‘mûr barran wa-baHran. Haqqaqahu wa-‘alaqa ‘alayh ‘abd alkarîm al-filâlî. al-rabât: maTba‘at al-ma‘ârif al-jadîda, 1991. ———. al-turjumân al-mu‘rib ‘an duwal al-mashriq wa-l-maghrib. Partially translated by O. Houdas as Le Maroc de 1631 a 1812; extrait de l’ouvrage intitule (Ettordjeman elmo’arib ‘an douel elmachriq ou’lmaghrib), l’interprète qui s’exprime clairement sur les dynasties de l’Orient et de l’Occident, de Aboulqasem ben Ahmed Ezziani. Texte arabe, publié et traduit en français, avec une introduction, des notes et un index. Paris, 1886; Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1969. Zniber, Mohammed. Coup d’œil sur quelques chroniques almohades récemment publiées. Hespéris-Tamuda 7:41-60, 1966. Edited Collections (covering multiple subject areas) Anonymous. Abd el-Krim et la Republique du Rif. Paris: Maspero, 1976. Papers from a Colloquium held in Paris January 18-20, 1973. ———. al-islâH wa-l-mujtama‘ al-maghribî fî al-qarn al-tâsi‘ ‘ashar: ayyâm dirâsîya min 6 ilâ 9 rajab 1404 muwâfiq 20/23 abrîl 1983. Colloque Reformisme et société marocaine au XIX siècle (1983: Rabat, Morocco). al-

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Cohen, Mark R., and Abraham L. Udovitch, eds. Jews among Arabs: contacts and boundaries. Princeton, N.J.: The Darwin Press, 1989. Colloque international organisé par l’association des Economistes Marocains. Intégration économique des provinces sahariennes et développement national. Colloque international organisé par l’association des Economistes Marocains. Rabat le 9-10 janvier, 1984. Casablanca: Les Éditions Maghrébines, 1985. Congreso Hispano-Africano de las Culturas Mediterraneas Fernando de los Rios Urruti (1st: 1984: Escuela Universitaria de Magisterio de Melilla). España y el Norte de Africa: bases historicas de una relacion fundamental (aportaciones sobre Melilla)/direccion e introduccion por Manuel Olmedo Jimenez. Granada: Publicaciones de la Universidad de Granada; Melilla: Excmo. Ayuntamiento de Melilla, 1987. Gellner, Ernest, ed. Islam, société et communauté: anthropologies du Maghreb. Paris: CNRS, 1981. ———. Islamic dilemmas: reformers, nationalists, and industrialization: The southern shore of the Mediterranean. Berlin and New York: Mouton Publishers, 1985. Gellner, Ernest, and Charles Micaud, eds. Arabs and Berbers: From Tribe to Nation in North Africa. London: Lexington Books, 1973. Gellner, Ernest, and John Waterbury, eds. Patrons and clients in Mediterranean societies. London: Duckworth; Hanover, N.H.: Center for Mediterranean Studies of the American Universities Field Staff, 1977. International Conference on Urbanism in Islam. Urbanism in Islam. 5 vols. The Proceedings of the International Conference on Urbanism in Islam (ICUIT), held 22-28 October 1989 at the Middle Eastern Culture Center, Tokyo. Tokyo: Research Project “Urbanism in Islam” and The Middle Eastern Culture Center in Japan, 1989. Jimenez, Manuel Olmedo, ed. España y el Norte de Africa: bases históricas de una relación fundamental (aportaciones sobre Melilla). dirección e introducción por Manuel Olmedo Jimenez. Congreso Hispano-Africano de las Culturas Mediterráneas “Fernando de los Ríos Urruti” (1st: 1984: Escuela Universitaria de Magisterio de Melilla). Granada: Publicaciones de la Universidad de Granada; Melilla: Excmo. Ayuntamiento de Melilla, 1987. Joffé, E.G.H., ed. North Africa: nation, state and region. SOAS Contemporary Politics and Culture in the Middle East. London: Routledge, 1993. Joffé, E.G.H., and C.R. Pennell. Tribe and state: essays in honour of David Montgomery Hart. Cambridgeshir, England: Middle East and North Africa Studies Press Ltd., 1991. Kaddouri, Abdelmajid, Jilali Saïb, and Abdelmajid Zeggaf, eds. Le Maroc et la Hollande. Etudes sur l’histoire, la migration, la linguistique et la sémiologie de la culture. Rabat: Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines, 1988. Khatibi, Abdelkabir, ed. Etudes sociologiques sur le Maroc. Rabat: Société d’études économiques, sociales et statistiques, 1972. (From the Bulletin Economique et Sociale du Maroc, 1965-1970). Knapp, W., ed. North West Africa, a literary and economic survey. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977. Lawless, Richard, and Laila Monahan, eds. War and refugees: the Western Sahara conflict. London: Pinter Publishers; New York: Columbia University Press, 1987. luTfî, ‘abd al-Hamid (Abdelhamid Lotfi). a‘mâl nadwat al-HâDira al-ismâ‘îlîya al-kubrâ. actes du colloque de grand Meknès. al-rabâT: maTba‘at al-ma‘ârif aljadîda, 1988. El Mansour, Mohamed, et al. Recherches sur l’histoire du Maroc. Esquisse de bilan. Rabat: Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines-Rabat, 1989. Mantran, Robert, ed. Les grandes dates de l’Islam. Paris: Larousse, 1990. Nonneman, Gerd, ed. The Middle East and Europe: an integrated communities approach. London: The Federal Trust for Education and Research, 1992.

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la recherche scientifique, 1980. La Veronne, Chantal de, ed. Documents inédits sur l’histoire du Maroc: sources françaises. Documents réunis par Chantal de La Veronne. Paris: Geuthner, 1975. ———. Sources françaises de l’histoire du Maroc au XVIIIe siècle. I. Revue d’histoire maghrébine 21-22:117-198, 1981; 25-26:123-164, 1982a. ———. Sources françaises de l’histoire du Maroc aux XVIIIe siècle. I (suite). Revue d’Histoire Maghrébine 9(27-28):341-359, 1982b. ———. Sources françaises de l’histoire du Maroc aux XVIIIe siècle. II. Revue d’Histoire Maghrébine 13(43-44):127-181, 1986. ———. Sources françaises de l’histoire du Maroc aux XVIIIe siècle. III. Revue d’Histoire Maghrébine 14(45-46):127-174, 1987. ———. Sources françaises de l’histoire du Maroc aux XVIIIe siècle. IV. Revue d’Histoire Maghrébine 16(53-54):161-200; (55-56):89-145, 1989. La Veronne, Chantal de, and Ahmad Farouk. Sources françaises de l’histoire du Maroc aux XVIIIe siècle. V. Revue d’Histoire Maghrébine 19(65-66):157-210, 1992. Lévi-Provençal, Evariste. Les Manuscrits Arabes de Rabat. Paris: Éditions Ernest Leroux, 1921. ———. Note sur l’exemplaire du kitâb al-‘ibar offert par Ibn Khaldûn à la bibliothèque al-qarawîyîn. Journal Asiatique CCIII:161-168, 1923. ———. Un Manuscrit de la bibliothèque du calife al-Hakam II. Hespéris XVIII(fasc. 2):198-200, 1934. Luccioni, Joseph. Les Bibliothèques habous au Maroc. Bulletin Economique et Social du Maroc XIX, 66(Sept.):233-248, 1955. Maillard, P. La bibliothèque de la Grande Mosquée de Tanger. Revue du Monde Musulman 35:105-192, 1917-1918. al-mamlakat al-maghribîya. dalîl al-dûriyât al-maghribîya al-maHfûZat bi-lkhizâna al-‘âmat. al-rabâT: al-khizâna al-‘âmat li-l-kutub wa-l-wathâ’iq, 1983. al-mannûnî, muHammad. ‘an al-khizânât al-malakîya bi-l-maghrib. majallât ali‘lâmî 2(avril):121-143, 1982. ———. marâkiz al-makhTûTât w-adillatuhâ bi-l-maghrib al-aqSâ. da’wat alHaqq. V:Pp. 21-26, 1980(1440H). al-maSâdir al-‘arabîya li târîkh al-maghrib. Rabat: Faculté des Lettres, 1983. ———. târîkh al-muSHaf al-sharîf bi-l-maghrib. Revue de l’Institut des manuscrits arabes, Cairo XV(fasc. 1):3-47, 1969. ———. al-zâwiya al-Hamzawiyya, SafâHa min târîkhihâ. tiTwân 8:97-117, 1963. Massignon, Louis. Une bibliothèque saharienne. Revue du Monde Musulman VII:409-418, 1909. Menditte, Arnaud de, and Jean Nicot. Répertoire des archives du Maroc, serie 3H (1877-1960). Chateau de Vincennes: Ministère de la défense, Etat-Major de l’Armée de terre, Service historique, 1982. Morsy, Magali, and Allan Meyers. L’Apport des Archives Britanniques à la connaissance de l’histoire du Maroc aux XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles. Description des principales sources. Hespéris-Tamuda 14:177-193, 1973. Park, Thomas K. A report on the state of Moroccan archives. History in Africa 10:395-409, 1983b. Pellegrin, A. Les manuscrits de langues berbères. La Kahena XXI:131-134, 1941. Perotin, M. Préservation et classification des archives au Maroc. Paris: UNESCO, 1969. al-qaddûrî, ‘abd al-majîd. al-wathâ’iq al-maghribîya wa-l-wathâ’iq al-ajnabîya: takâmul wa-ikhtilâf ba‘D al-mulâHaZât Hawla dirâsat Hâla muHaddada. Revue d’Histoire Maghrébine 14(45-46):63-71 (Arabic section), 1987. Renaud, H.-P.-J. Les Manuscrits arabes relatifs à l’histoire de la médecine à la Bibliothèque de Rabat. Bulletin de la Société française d’Histoire de la médecine (juillet-août):261-277, 1923. ———. Trois études d’histoire de la médecine arabe en Occident. Hespéris (XII/

Journals

665

fasc. 1):91-105; (fasc. 2):204-228, 1931. Royaume du Maroc. Centre National de Documentation. Répertoire des bibliothèques et centres de documentation. Rabat: CND, 1974. Royaume du Maroc. Ministère des Affaires Culturelles. ‘ashr sanawât min almunjazât al-thaqâfîya fî ‘ahd al-Hasan al-thânî. Rabat: Ministère des Affaires Culturelles, 1971. Riche, Jacques. Les Archives du Maroc. Paris: Ed. Nourry, 1939. Also in Archives et Bibliothèques 4:234-57, 1936. Rivet, Daniel. Archives coloniales et écritures de l’histoire du protectorat français au Maroc. Pp. 25-34. In: Recherches sur l’histoire du Maroc. Esquisse de bilan. Edited by Mohamed El Mansour et al. Rabat: Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines-Rabat, 1989. Schacht, Joseph. On some manuscripts in the libraries of Morocco. HespérisTamuda IX(fasc. 1):5-57, 1968. Schroeter, Daniel. The royal palace archives of Rabat and the makhzen in the 19th century. The Maghreb Review 7(1-2):41-45, 1982. ———. The town of Mogador (Essaouira) and aspects of change in pre-colonial Morocco: a bibliographical essay. British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin 6(1):24-38, 1979. Spillmann, Georges (also Georges Drague, pseudonym). La Zaouïa de Tamegrout. Renseignements coloniaux, suppl. à l’Afrique française 8-9(sept.):205-223, 1938. Stillman, Norman A. A new source for eighteenth-century Moroccan history in the John Rylands University Library of Manchester: the Dombay papers. Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library 57:463-486, 1974-1975. al-tâzî, ‘abd al-hâdî. jâmi‘ al-qarawîyîn. 3 vols. Beyrouth, 1973. Yacono, X. L’histoire moderne et contemporaine du Maghreb dans les archives arabes et turques. Revue historique 250:403-416, 1973. Journals N. B. To facilitate library research most Arabic journal and serial titles below have been (mis)spelled as they appear transcribed on journal covers or in libraries, e.g., without diacritics, emphatic consonants, etc. Those not found in libraries or officially transcribed have been transcribed properly. The following list includes journals and serials exclusively devoted to Morocco as well as those with a history of publishing many significant articles on Morocco. Annales. Centre d’études stratégiques. Faculté des Sciences Juridiques Economiques et Sociales/markaz al-dirâsât al-istrâtîjîya. Hawliyât kullîya al‘ulûm al-qânûnîya wa-l-iqtiSâdîya wa-l-ijtimâ‘îya. Rabat. Annales de la Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines/Hawliyât kullîyat alâdâb wa-l-‘ulûm al-insânîya. Casablanca: Université Hassan II, 1984-. Annales Marocaines d’économie. Revue de l’Association des Economistes marocains/al-Hawliyât al-maghribîya al-iqtiSâdîya. 1984-. Annales Marocaines de Sociologie/al-Hawliyat al-Maghribiyah li-ilm al-ijtima. Rabat: Institut de Sociologie, 1968-1970. Annuaire de l’Afrique du Nord. Paris: CNRS, 1962-. Annuaire économique et financier. Casablanca. Archives Berbères. Paris. v. I-IV, 1915-1920. Archives Marocaines. Paris. v. I-XXXIV, 1904-1936. Banque marocaine du commerce extérieur. Monthly information review. Bibliographie nationale marocaine. Rabat: Bibliothèque générale et archives du Maroc. Bilan économique. Banque marocaine du commerce exterieur. Révue d’informations. Bouhout. Revue de la Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines III-

666

Journals

Mohammedia/buHûth. majalat kuliyat al-âdâb wa-l-‘ulûm al-insânîya. almuHammadiya: Université Hassan II, 1988-. Bulletin d’archéologie marocaine. Casablanca, Division des Antiquités. v. 1-1956-. Bulletin de la Société d’Histoire du Maroc. jâmi‘at târîkh al-maghrib. Rabat, 1968-1973. Bulletin du Comite de lutte contre la répression au Maroc-Paris. No 1 (1. mai 1978)- Paris: Comités de lutte contre la répression au Maroc, 1978. Supplément au Bulletin de liaison du Cedetim. Continued by Bulletin mensuel des Comités de lutte contre la répression au Maroc. Bulletin mensuel des Comités de lutte contre la répression au Maroc. No. 35 (sept. 1981). Paris: Les Comités. Le Commerce extérieur. Banque marocaine du commerce extérieur. Révue d’informations. Conjoncture économique. Banque marocaine du commerce extérieur. Révue d’informations. Country profile. Morocco. EIU, the Economist Intelligence Unit. London: The Unit, 1986-. Country report. Morocco. EIU, the Economist Intelligence Unit. London: The Unit, 1986-. Da‘wat al-Haqq. al-Rabat: Wizarat ‘Umum al-Awqaf, irregular, 1957-. dirâsât majala al-âdâb wa-l-‘ulûm al-insânîya/revue publiée par la faculté des lettres et des sciences humaines. Agadir, 1987 -. L’économie marocaine en 19--. Banque nationale pour le développement économique. Rabat: La Banque. Hespéris and Hespéris-Tamuda. Rabat. Originally two separate publications, Hespéris (1921-1959) published by the Institut des Hautes Etudes Marocaines and Tamuda (1933-1959). The two publications were combined in 1960. Index retrospectif: statistiques. Rabat. no 1-; 1974-. Index retrospectifs. Rabat: PNUD-FAO, Centre national de documentation [In libraries these documents are also found under Markaz al-Watani li-l-Tawthiq OR Morocco. Idarat al-Bahth al-zirq’i OR Morocco. Kitabat al-Dawla li-lTakhtit wa-al-tanmiya al-jihawiyah OR Morocco. Ministère de l’habitat, de l’urbanisme, du tourisme et de l’environnement OR Document(s) du CND OR Agriculture—Morocco—Indexes OR Morocco—Statistics—Indexes. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 1970-. Jamiyat Tarikh al-Maghrib. Nashrat Jamiyat Tarikh al-Maghrib. al-Rabat, Jamiyat Tarikh al-Maghrib. Journal Asiatique. 1. ser. (1822)-11. ser. (1923). Journal of African History. 1969-. Journal of Maghrebi Studies. Special Issue Maghrebi Women. vols. 1 and 2, no. 1 Spring 1993 (ceased publication after first issue). The Journal of Modern African Studies. 1962-. The Journal of North African Studies. 1996-. al-kitâb al-maghribî. majalat bîbliyûghrâfîya naqdîya/Le Livre Marocain. Revue de bibliographie critique publiée par l’association des auteurs marocain pour la publication. al-dâr al-bayDâ’, 1983-. al-Lisan al-‘Arabi. al-Rabat: al-Maktab al-Da‘im li-Tansiq al-Ta‘rib fi al-Watan al‘Arabi, 1964-, al-‘Adad 1. (Yuniyu 1964)-. El maghreb el yadid. Nuevo Marruecos. Tetuán 1935-1936. Maghreb messenger. Rabat, Morocco: JAO, American Embassy, Rabat. The Maghreb Review. 1975-. London. Maghrib Digest, v. I-V, 1963-1967. Published by the School of International Relations, University of Southern California. Majallat al-buhuth al-tarikhiya. Libya, 1979-. Majallat dar al-Niyabah. al-Sanah 1., al-adad 1. (Yanayir 1984)- Tanja, alMaghrib: s. n., 1984-. Majallat tarikh al-Maghrib. al-Sanah 1, al-adad 1 Rabi al-Thani 1401 [Fabrayir

Key Reference Works

667

1981]- al-Rabat: Jamiyat al-Imtidad al-Thaqafi, 1981-. al-Manahil. al-Rabat, al-Maghrib, Wizarat al-Dawlah al-Mukallafah bi-al-Shu’un al-Thaqafiyah. al-Sanah 1-Nufimbir 1974-. Maroc-documents. Rabat./Morocco. Wizarat al-Shu’un al Kharijiyah, 1957-1969. Le Maroc en chiffres. [Rabat] Direction de la statistique. Maroc repression. No 69 (mars 1985)-Paris: Association de soutien aux Comités de lutte contre la repression au Maroc, 1985. Maroc; révue du Ministère des Affaires étrangères/Morocco. Wizarat al-Shu’un al KharijiyaH. al-mashrû‘/al-dâr al-bayDâ’ (Casablanca), 1980-. al-mawqif. majala thaqâfîya fuHulîya. Revue culturelle trimestrielle. Rabat. The Middle East Journal. Washington, D. C. 1946-. Morocco. The journal of the society for Moroccan studies. 1991-. Prologues. Revue Maghrébine du Livre. 1994-. al-Qantara. Vol. 1, fasc. 1 y 2 (1980)-Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Instituto “Miguel Asin,” 1980-. Quarterly economic review of Morocco. EIU, the Economist Intelligence Unit. London: The Unit, 1985-. Revue Africaine. Paris. 1856-1960. Revue de la Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines. Fès. Université Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah/majalat kuliyat al-âdâb wa-l-‘ulûm al-insânîya bi-fâs. 1982/83-. Revue de la Faculté des Lettres. Oujda. Université Mohammad Premier/majalat kuliyat al-âdâb wujda. 1990-. Revue de l’Occident Musulman et de la Méditerranée. Aix-en-Provence, 1966-. Revue d’Histoire Maghrébine. Tunis, 1974-. Revue Maroc-Europe: histoire, économies, sociétés. Rabat, Éditions La Porte, 1991-. Revue Tunisienne de Sciences Sociales. Tunis, Tunisia. 1963-. Souffles; Revue Maghrébine litteraire culturelle trimestrielle. Rabat, Morocco. [no. 1]- ; 1966-. Titwan. ma’Had mawlaya al-Hasan li-l-abHath al-maghribîya al-andalusîya, 1956-1965, 1971. Villes et Tribus du Maroc. Paris. v. I-VII, 1915-1921; v. VIII-XI, 1930-1932. al-wathâ’iq (also El Wataïq). al-Rabat: Mudiriyat al-Watha’iq al-Malakiya, 1976-. al-wathâ’iq al-waTanîya majalla tû‘nâ bi-nashr wathâ’iq al-Haraka al-waTanîya al-maghribîya. 1988-. Die Welt des Islams. 1913-1939, N. S. 1951-. Key Reference Works Abdulrazak, Fawzi. The Fez lithographs. Annotated bibliography with historical introduction. Cambridge, Mass.: Mundus Arabicus, 1984. ———. al-maTbû‘ât al-Hajarîya fî al-maghrib. Rabat, 1989. Abou El Karam, Fatima. Repertoire des gouvernements du royaume 1955-1988. Casablanca: publications de la faculté des lettres et des sciences humaines, 1988. Académie des Sciences d’Outre-Mer. Hommes et destins: Dictionnaire bibliographique d’Outre-Mer. Paris: Académie des Sciences d’Outre-Mer, 1975. Ameziane, Mohamed, and M’barek Zaki. Le Maroc dans les archives des PaysBas. Revue Maroc-Europe 6:255-320, 1994. Association des auteurs marocains pour la publication. Encyclopédie du Maroc/ ma‘lamat al-maghrib. 14 vols. Salé: Imprimerie de Salé, 2000. Benchekroun, Mohamed B.A. La vie intellectuelle marocaine sous les Mérinides et les WaTTâsides (XIIIe, XIVe, XVe, XVIe siècles). Rabat, 1974. Benjelloun-Laroui, Latifa. Les bibliothèques au Maroc. Paris: Maisonneuve and

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Larose, 1990. bin-‘abd allâh, ‘abd al-‘azîz. al-mawsû‘a al-maghribîya li-l-a‘lâm al-basharîya wal-HaDârîya. al-rabâT: wizârat al-awqâf wa-l-shu’ûn al-islâmîya, 5 vols., 1975-1977. bin manSûr, ‘abd al-wahhâb. a‘lâm al-maghrib al-‘arabî. al-rabâT: al-maTba‘a almalakîya, 1978-1986. Brockelmann, Carl. Geschichte der Arabischen Literatur. 5 vols. Leiden, 1937-49. Cuoq, Fr. Joseph, ed. Recueil des sources arabes concernant l’Afrique occidentale du VIIIe au XVIe siècle. Paris, 1975. Hajji, Mohammed. L’activité intellectuelle au Maroc sous les Sa‘dides. 2 vols. Rabat: Impr. de Fédala, 1976 and 1977. Hopkins, J.F.P., and Nehemia Levtzion, eds. Corpus of early Arabic sources for West African History. Cambridge: 1981. ibn sûda, ‘abd al-salâm bn ‘abd al-qâdir. dalîl mu’arikh al-maghrib al-aqSâ. 2 vols. al-dâr al-bayDâ’: dâr al-kitâb. 1960 and 1965. ibn zaydân, ‘abd al-raHmân. itHâf a‘lâm al-nâs. 5 vols. Rabat, 1929-1953. Index Islamicus: A catalogue of articles on Islamic subjects in periodicals and other collective publications (1906-). New edition compiled by J.D. Pearson et al. Cambridge, Eng., 1958-. al-kattânî, muHammad bn ja‘far. salwat al-anfâs wa-muHâdathât al-akyâs bi-man uqbira min al-‘ulâmâ’ wa-l-SulaHâ’. 3 vols. Lithographed. Fès, 1898. Koubbel, L.E., and V.V. Mateev, editors. Istochniki po etnografii i istorii Afriki yuzhnee Sakhary: Arabskie Istochniki. 3 vols. Moscow and Leningrad, 1960, 1965, 1985. Lakhdar, Mohammed. La vie littéraire au Maroc sous la dynastie ‘alawide (1075-1311=1664-1894). Rabat: Éditions Techniques Nord-Africaines, 1971. Lévi-Provençal, Evariste. Les Historiens des Chorfa. Essai sur la littérature historique et biographique au Maroc du XVIe au XXe siècle. Thèse principale pour le doctorat ès lettres présentée à la Faculté des Lettres de l’Université d’Alger. Paris: Emile Larose, Editeur, 1922a. al-manûnî, muHammad. al-maSâdir al-‘arabîya li-târîkh al-maghrib. Les sources arabes de l’histoire du Maroc. L’époque contemporaine, 1790-1930. 2 vols. almuHammadîya: maTba‘at faDâla, 1990. al-murrâkushî, al-‘abbâs bn ibrâhîm. al-i‘lâm bi-man Halla murrâkush wa-aghmât min al-a‘lâm. Rabat, 1936-1978. al-qayTûnî, al-Hasanî, idrîsî al-mâthîr al-idrîsî. mu‘jam maTbu‘ât al-maghrib. salâ: maTâbi‘u salâ, 1988. Web Sites Administrative Offices (selected) Casablanca Site de la Communauté Urbaine de Casablanca: www.casablanca.org.ma Direction de la Politique Economique Générale Etudes économiques et sociales sectorielles: www.finances.gov.ma/dpeg/dpeg.htm Direction de la Statistique: www.statistic-hcp.ma Direction de l’urbanisme: www.marocurba.gov.ma Direction des Investissements Extérieurs Investir au Maroc: www.invest-in-morocco.gov.ma Douane Marocaine Administration des Douanes et Impôts Indirects: www.douane.gov.ma Province d’Errachidia: www.errachidia.org

Web Sites

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Services préfectoraux: www.prefalfida.ma Taroudant (municipalité): www.taroudannt.ma Associations Actimme Assistance commerciale et technique en mécanique: www.actimme.com AIMAF Association des Informaticiens Marocains en France: www.aimaf.org AIPCM Amicale des Ingénieurs des Ponts et Chaussées du Maroc: www.ingenieursponts.org.ma American Chamber of Commerce in Morocco: www.amcham-morocco.com Anciens Elèves des Lycées Gouraud and Descartes: www.lyceefr.org Association Achbarou Pour Le Développement à Errachidia: achbarou.free.fr Association des Amitiés Franco-Marocaines d’Armentières: www.france-maroc.net Association awassir pour le développement durable (Rabat): membres.lycos.fr/ awassir Association des anciens élèves de l’école polytechnique Française: www.groupex-maroc.org.ma Association des étudiants marocains au Canada: www.aemc.ca Association Marocaine pour le Civisme et le Développement: www.casanet.net.ma/users/afak Association Marocaine Solidarité sans frontières (micro crédits): www.amssfmc.ma Association des marocains en Grandes Ecoles AMGE-Caravane: www.amge-caravane.org Association “La Medina” - Anciens résidents au Maroc (en espagnol): www.pasanet.es/Asociaciones/Lamedina Association des Physiciens Marocains en Belgique: www.ulg.ac.be/phymabel Association Ribat Al Fath: www.ribatalfath.org ATD Association Timoulilt pour le Développement: site.voila.fr/timoulilt Conféderation Marocaine de la Jeune Entreprise: www.cmje.fr.st CRPON Conseil Régional des Pharmaciens d’Officine du Nord: www.crpon.org Fédération Marocaine du Canada: fedmaroc.org Forum Social Maroc: www.forumsocialmaroc.org Fondation Hassan II pour les Marocains Résidant à l’Etranger: www.alwatan.ma Friends of Morocco: home.att.net/~morocco Maroc Entrepreneurs Association: www.marocentrepreneurs.com Migrations and Développement (développement du sud marocain): www.migdev.org ONIGT Ordre National des Ingénieurs Géomètres-Topographes: www.onigt.org.ma Wafin Portail dédié aux marocains vivant aux Etas Unis: www.wafin.com Educational Institutions (selected sites) CIHEAM Centre International des Hautes Etudes Agronomiques Méditerrannéennes: www.medobs.org CPGE-CPA Site des classes préparatoires et des agrégations: www.cpge-cpa.ac.ma

670

Web Sites

Departement de chimie de l’ENS de casablanca: www.ifrance.com/departementdechimieenscasablanca Ecole Hassania des Travaux Publics: www.ehtp.ac.ma Ecole Nationale d’Agriculture de Meknès: www.enameknes.ac.ma EDHEC Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Gestion, Informatique et Communication de Casablanca: www.edhec.ac.ma E.F.A. Ecole Française des Affaires: www.efa-maroc.com ENIM Ecole Nationale de l’Industrie Minérale: www.enim.ac.ma ENSEM Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Eléctricité et de Mécanique: www.ensem.imaroc.com ESCA Ecole Supérieure de Commerce et des Affaires: www.esca.ac.ma L’étudiant Marocain Site du journal l’Etudiant Marocain: www.etudiant.ma/ French schools in Morocco: www.ambafrance-ma.org/efmaroc HEM Institut des Hautes Etudes de Management: www.hem.ac.ma High Technology School In Morocco: www.hightech.edu IIHEM International Institute for Higher Education in Morocco: www.iihem.ac.ma INRA Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique: www.inra.org.ma INSEA Institut National de Statistique et d’Economie Appliquée: www.insea.ac.ma Institut Polytechnique Privé de Casabalanca: www.polytechnique.ma IPIATE Rabat Etablissement de formation bac+2: www.ipiate.ma IRCAM Institut Royal de la Culture Amazigh: www.ircam.ma/accueil_fr.asp Lycée Descartes (AEFE) à Rabat: www.lycee-descartes.ac.ma Lycée Français d’Agadir (OSUI) Agadir: www.multimania.com/lfa Lycée Lyautey (AEFE) Casablanca: www.lyceelyautey.org SUPTELECOM Ecole Superieure des télécommunications; www.suptelecom.net.ma Université Al Akhawayn Ifrane: www.alakhawayn.ma Université Cadi Ayyad Marrakech: www.ucam.ac.ma Université Hassan I Settat: www.uh1.ac.ma Université Hassan II Mohammedia: www.uh2m.ac.ma Université Mohammed 1er Oujda: www.univ-oujda.ac.ma Université Mohammed V Rabat (Institut Scientifque): www.israbat.ac.ma Université Mohammed V Rabat (Faculté des sciences): www.fsr.ac.ma Université Moulay Ismaïl Meknès (Faculté des Sciences): www.fsmek.ac.ma Université Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah Fès (faculté des sciences): www.fsdmfes.ac.ma Individuals’ Web Sites Abdessalam Yassine’s homepage: www.yassine.net Mehdi El Mandjra’s Page: www.elmandjra.org Libraries and Archives Artemis, Base de données juridique, bulletins officiels, etc.: www.artemis.ma BGA Bibliothèque Générale et Archives de Rabat: www.bga.ma

Web Sites

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CND Centre National de Documentation: webzinecnd.mpep.gov.ma Fondation Roi Abdul Aziz: www.fondation.org.ma For hours, telephone numbers, and locations of official libraries and archives visit: www.minculture.gov.ma Maison de l’Ecologie et des Ecosystèmes du Maroc: homepage.mac.com/jmdelacre/meem Media Al Alam Porte-parole du parti de l’istiqlal: www.alalam.ma Al Bayane: www.albayane.ma Journal en ligne de Tanger Hebdo multilingue couvrant Tanger-Tétouan- Nord: www.lejournaldetanger.com La Gazette du Maroc: www.lagazettedumaroc.com La Vie économique: www.marocnet.net.ma/vieeco/index.html L’Economiste: www.leconomiste.com Le Webzine des cheminots Webzine syndical de l’actualité ferroviaire: www.webzinemaker.com/fnc-ugtm Le Matin du Sahara et du Maghreb: www.lematin.ma Les Nouvelles du Nord Hebdo couvrant Tanger-Tétouan- Nord: www.lesnouvellesdunord.com Libération: www.liberation.press.ma L’opinion quotidien national d’informations en français: www.lopinion.ma Maghreb Canada Hebdo Hebdomadaire destiné a la diaspora maghrébine au Canada: www.maghreb-canada.ca MAP Maghreb Arabe Presse: www.map.co.ma Maroc Hebdo International: www.maroc-hebdo.press.ma Médi 1 Radio Méditerranée Internationale: www.medi1.com The North Africa Journal/Publication Américaine sur le Maroc et le Maghreb: www.north-africa.com Prana Magazine electronique de Culture et d’Actualite: www.webzinemaker.com/prana Radio Casablanca Radio: www.maroc.net/rc Revue de presse marocaine par l’Ambassade de France au Maroc: www.ambafrance-ma.org/presse Tel Quel Le Maroc Tel qu’il est: www.telquel-online.com Ministries/State Government Chambre des Representants - Parlement du Maroc: www.majliss-annouwab.ma Cour Suprême: www.maghrebnet.net.ma/cour-supreme Ministère des Affaires Etrangères et de la Coopération: www.maec.gov.ma Ministere de l’Agriculture and du Développement Rural: www.madrpm.gov.ma Ministère de l’Aménagement du Territoire, de l’Environnement, de l’Urbanisme et de l’Habitat: www.minenv.gov.ma Ministère du Commerce, de l’Industrie et de l’Artisanat: www.mcinet.gov.ma Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication (communication): www.mincom.gov.ma

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Web Sites

Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication (culture): www.mculture.gov.ma Ministère du Développement Social, de la Solidarité, de l’Emploi et de la Formation Professionelle: www.dfp.ac.ma Ministère de l’Energie et des Mines: www.mem.gov.ma Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur, de la Formation des Cadres et de la Recherche Scientifique: www.enssup.gov.ma Ministère de l’Equipement: www.mtpnet.gov.ma Ministère des Finances et de la Privatisation: www.finances.gov.ma Ministère de la Fonction Publique et de la Réforme Administrative: www.mfpra.gov.ma Ministère des Habous et Affaires Islamiques: www.habous.gov.ma Ministère de la Justice Royaume du Maroc-Ministère de la Justice: www.justice.gov.ma Ministère des Pêches: www.mpm.gov.ma Ministère des Postes et Télécommunications: www.onpt.net.ma Ministère de la Santé: www.sante.gov.ma Secrétariat d’Etat et de l’Habitat: www.seh.gov.ma Museums Association Mouvement Twiza: membres.lycos.fr/twiza3/index.html Museum network for Morocco: www.maroc.net/museums Music Festivals Festival d’Essaouira Gnaoua-Les Musiques du Monde: www.festival-gnaoua.co.ma Festival de Fes Festival des Musiques Sacrées du Monde: www.fezfestival.com Festival de Rabat: www.festivalderabat.ma Jazz aux Oudayas, festival de musique à Rabat: www.eurojazzrabat.com Jbara Ganoui Fusion Musicien: usuarios.lycos.es/jbara maroctunes (musiques marocaines): www.maroctunes.com Musique Amazighe: www.azawan.com Soufiane Nmimi: perso.wanadoo.fr/soufiane Non-Governmental Organizations/Associations Amnesty International’s Office in Morocco: web.amnesty.org/contacts/engindex Arganier (tree): perso.wanadoo.fr/mcast/larganier/index.htm Association de Lutte Contre le SIDA: www.alcsmaroc.org Bayti (NGO)-enfants des rues-street children: www.bayti.net CDIFDH Formation et documentation en droits de l’homme: www.cdifdh.org.ma Center for Cross Cultural Learning: www.cccl-ma.com/CCCL/cccl.asp ISESCO Organisation Islamique pour l’Education, les Sciences et la Culture: www.isesco.org.ma Maroc élections (information sur l’actualité politique): www.marocelections.com Moroccan American Commision for Educational and Cultural Exchange: macece.bizland.com/home.html

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Moroccan Association of Researchers and Scholars (MARS): www.mars-net.org Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement (Maroc): www.pnud.org.ma Le Secrétariat Général de l’Union du Maghreb Arabe: www.maghrebarabe.org SEME Association (Sauver L’Environnement Méditerranéen): www.seme.asso.fr Transparency Morocco: Association Marocaine de Lutte Contre la Corruption: www.transparencymaroc.org U.S.- Morocco Free Trade Agreement: www.moroccousafta.com Women: Site dedié à la communaute feminine Marocaine: www.lamarocaine.com Public Offices ANRT Agence Nationale de Réglementation des Télécommunications: www.anrt.net.ma Caisse Centrale de Garantie: www.ccg.ma Centre Marocain de Promotion des Exportations: www.cmpe.org.ma Caisse Marocaine des Retraites: www.cmr.gov.ma Centre Royal de Télédétection spatiale: www.crts.gov.ma Centre SYFED: www.refer.org.ma CNSS Caisse nationale de sécurité sociale: www.cnss.org.ma ERAC (Centre Nord) Promoteur immobilier public: www.erac-cn.seh.gov.ma ERAC (Centre Sud) Promoteur immobilier public: www.erac-cs.seh.gov.ma OCP Office Chérifien des Phosphates: www.ocpgroup.ma OFEC Office des Foires et Expositions de Casablanca: www.ofec.co.ma Office des Changes: www.oc.gov.ma Office du Tourisme Marocain: www.tourisme-marocain.com OFPPT Office de la Formation Professionnelle et de la Promotion du Travail: www.ofppt.org.ma ONAREP Office National de Recherches et d’Exploitations Pétrolières: www.onarep.com ONCF Office National des Chemins de Fer: www.oncf.org.ma ONDA Office National Des Aéroports: www.onda.org.ma ONPT Office National des Postes et Télécommunications: www.onpt.net.ma ONA Groupe Industriel et Financier: www.groupe-ona.com SNEC Société Nationale d’Equipement et de Construction: www.snec.seh.gov.ma Union Offices Union du Maghreb Arabe www.maghrebarabe.org Union Générale des Travailleurs du Maroc (UGTM) and Union Générale des Étudiants du Maroc (UGEM) are managed by the Istiqlâl party: www.istiqlal.ma/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=7 Union Nationale des Étudiants du Maroc (UNEM): www.ugr.es/~unem/unemfr.html Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP): www.usfp.ma

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Web Sites

Web Sites with many Morocco Links Collection of links about Morocco: www.marweb.com University of Pennsylvania’s Morocco Links: www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Morocco.html

About the Authors Thomas K. Park received a Ph.D. in anthropology and history from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1983. He wrote his dissertation on 19th and 20th century administrative and economic changes in the port cities of Morocco. Since 1983, he has done extensive research in Mauritania on land tenure and political ecology. Currently in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Arizona, he is the author of a number of articles and book chapters and editor of the book Risk and Tenure in Arid Lands: The Political Ecology of Development in the Senegal River Basin. He also authored the 1996 edition of the Historical Dictionary of Morocco. Current work includes a book on Jewish merchants in Southern Morocco (with Aomar Boum) and a book on the Frej papers (circa 1876-1926) with Mourad Mjahed. Most of the years 1999 to 2003 were spent studying urbanization in Morocco, Senegal, Mali, Niger, Tanzania, and Botswana on a grant funded by the National Science Foundation. In his spare time, he coedits the Journal of Political Ecology and enjoys life with his family, teaching many students, the Arizona desert, the mountains of Montana, and the maritime provinces of Canada. Aomar Boum is a Ph.D. candidate in cultural anthropology at the University of Arizona. A native of M’Hamid oasis of southern Morocco, Boum received his B.A. in English language and literature from Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech. He obtained an M.A. in applied humanities from Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane where he later was editor in chief of the university newspaper. Boum has a varied research focus that revolves around the history of Morocco and the Middle East, memory of Jewish communities in Morocco and North Africa, as well as issues of migration and urbanism. His dissertation is titled Muslims Remember Jews in Southern Morocco: Social Narratives, Dialogical Memories, and the Collective Imagination of Jewishness, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, 2006.

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