Hip Hop in America: A Regional Guide 2 volumes

Hip Hop in America: A Regional Guide

Hip Hop in America: A Regional Guide

VOLUME 1: EAST COAST AND WEST COAST

Mickey Hess, Editor

GREENWOOD PRESS

An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC

Copyright 2010 by Mickey Hess All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hip hop in America : a regional guide / Mickey Hess, editor. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-313-34321-6 (set: paper) — ISBN 978-0-313-34322-3 (set: ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-34323-0 (vol. 1: paper) — ISBN 978-0-313-34324-7 (vol. 1: ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-34325-4 (vol. 2: paper) — ISBN 978-0-313-34326-1 (vol. 2: ebook) 1. Rap (Music)—History and criticism. I. Hess, Mickey, 1975– ML3531.H573 2010 782.4216490973—dc22 2009034923 ISBN: 978-0-313-34321-6 (set) ISBN: 978-0-313-34323-0 (vol. 1) ISBN: 978-0-313-34325-4 (vol. 2) EISBN: 978-0-313-34322-3 (set) EISBN: 978-0-313-34324-7 (vol. 1) EISBN: 978-0-313-34326-1 (vol. 2) 14 13 12 11 10

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This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook. Visit www.abc-clio.com for details. Greenwood Press An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC ABC-CLIO, LLC 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America

Contents

Introduction: ‘‘It’s Only Right to Represent Where I’m From’’: Local and Regional Hip Hop Scenes in the United States, Mickey Hess Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop, Mickey Hess

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VOLUME 1: EAST COAST AND WEST COAST 1. Hip Cats in the Cradle of Rap: Hip Hop in the Bronx, David Diallo 2. Uptown, Baby!: Hip Hop in Harlem and Upper Manhattan, David Shanks 3. From Queens Come Kings: Run DMC Stomps Hard out of a ‘‘Soft’’ Borough, Ericka Blount Danois 4. Brooklyn Beats: Hip Hop’s Home to Everyone from Everywhere, Jennifer R. Young

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5. ‘‘Brooklyn Keeps on Takin’ It!’’: A Conversation with Bushwick, 107 Brooklyn’s Da Beatminerz, Mickey Hess 6. A Black Sheep Borough, an Island of All White People: Staten Island Steps Up, Matthew Brian Cohen 7. The Sound of Philadelphia: Hip Hop History in the City of Brotherly Love, Mickey Hess 8. The Bricks and Beyond: Hip Hop in Newark and Northern New Jersey, Andrea Roberts 9. Hip Hop in the Hub: How Boston Rap Remained Underground, Pacey C. Foster

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Contents 10. From Electro-Rap to G-Funk: A Social History of Rap Music in Los Angeles and Compton, California, David Diallo

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11. Between Macks and Panthers: Hip Hop in Oakland and San Francisco, George Ciccariello-Maher and Jeff St. Andrews

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12. From the SEA to the PDX: Northwest Hip Hop in the I-5 Corridor, Rachel Key

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VOLUME 2: THE MIDWEST, THE SOUTH, AND BEYOND Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop

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13. The Evolution of the Second City Lyric: Hip Hop in Chicago and Gary, Indiana, Warren Scott Cheney

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14. Heartland Hip Hop: Nelly, St. Louis, and Country Grammar, Amanda Lawson 15. From St. Paul to Minneapolis, All the Hands Clap for This: Hip Hop in the Twin Cities, Justin Schell 16. Welcome to tha D: Making and Remaking Hip Hop Culture in Post-Motown Detroit, Carleton S. Gholz

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17. The Long, Hot Grind: How Houston Engineered an Industry of Independence, Jamie Lynch

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18. ‘‘The Sound of Money’’: Atlanta, Crossroads of the Dirty South, Matt Miller

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19. Virginia Is for Lovers and Rappers: Hampton Roads Rappers, Changing the Game, Laurie Cannady 20. Bouncin’ Straight Out the Dirty Dirty: Community and Dance in New Orleans Rap, Rich Paul Cooper

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21. Soul Legacies: Hip Hop and Historicity in Memphis, Zandria F. Robinson 22. Tropic of Bass: Culture, Commerce, and Controversy in Miami Rap, Matt Miller

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23. Paradise Lost and Found: Hip Hop in Hawai’i, Rohan Kalyan

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Appendix: Regional Hip Hop Playlist, Danielle Hess Selected Bibliography Index Acknowledgments About the Editor and Contributors

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Introduction: “It’s Only Right to Represent Where I’m From”: Local and Regional Hip Hop Scenes in the United States

Hip Hop in America: A Regional Guide profiles 23 local hip hop scenes across the United States, from the Bronx to Honolulu. This two-volume set is organized into broad regions of East Coast, West Coast, Midwest, and Dirty South, and each chapter is dedicated to showcasing the history of the local scene, through the MCs, DJs, b-boys and b-girls, label owners, hip hop clubs, and radio shows that have created distinct styles of hip hop culture. Through extensive research— including exclusive interviews with rap artists such as Run DMC, Da Beatminerz, The Force MDs, Phat Kat, MC Spice, DJ DATKID, and the Hawaiian group Sudden Rush—our contributing authors highlight the importance of place and region to hip hop identity, showcase the pioneers who brought hip hop to each region, and profile the hip hop artists who created styles all their own by developing slang, fashion styles, and musical and lyrical structures meant to represent their hometowns. With an eye toward illuminating the social contexts that fostered the unique hip hop styles of each region, the chapters in this collection trace hip hop’s development from 1970s club DJs in Harlem and block parties in the South Bronx to a nationwide, and worldwide, phenomenon with unique musical styles created in several major cities and regions in the United States. The roles of place and region are central to hip hop culture, which was born in the United States in the 1970s. The competitive nature of hip hop, seen in MC and DJ battles, b-boy competitions, and the inherent territorialism of graffiti

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writing and tagging (which was initially used by street gangs to mark turf, and later became an artists’ war on the establishment), lends itself to a local pride that sees rappers name-check the regions, cities, boroughs, streets, and neighborhoods that they call home. American rap artists emphasize representing the places they come from, whether the broad regions of East Coast, West Coast, Midwest, and Dirty South, or any one of New York City’s five boroughs, or even a specific neighborhood. For example, Mr. Cheeks of Queens group The Lost Boyz, whom I quote in my title, expresses that ‘‘it’s only right to represent where I’m from: East Coast, bottom line’’ (‘‘Music Makes Me High’’). Other artists get much more specific: N.W.A. emphasizes their ties to Compton, California. Ed O.G. emphasizes that he comes from the Roxbury section of Boston. Jay-Z mentions Brooklyn’s Marcy Housing Projects on many of his songs, and Lil Wayne makes clear that he represents the Holly Grove neighborhood in New Orleans, and—in one of the strongest examples of hip hop’s geographical specificity—the street corner at the intersection of Apple and Eagle Streets. A Tribe Called Quest were even more specific on their 1990 single, ‘‘I Left My Wallet in El Segundo,’’ where Q-Tip rhymes, ‘‘490 Madison, we here, Shah,’’ including his bandmate Ali Shaheed Muhammad’s actual Brooklyn street address in the song’s lyrics. In the most intensive study of place in hip hop to date, The ’Hood Comes First: Race, Space, and Place in Rap and Hip-Hop (2002), Murray Forman proposed that hip hop music’s focus on the local goes beyond territorial allegiance to stand for a particular black urban experience that is symbolized by places like Compton, California, or South Bronx, New York. Forman identified the ‘‘urgency’’ with which rappers use local imagery to examine and critique power dynamics, place, race relations, and identity, stating that: Whereas blues, rock, and R & B have traditionally cited regions or cities . . . contemporary rap is even more specific, with explicit references to particular streets, boulevards and neighborhoods, telephone area codes, postal zip codes, or other sociospatial information. Rap artists draw inspiration from their regional affiliations as well as from a keen sense of what I call the extreme local, upon which they base their constructions of spatial imagery. (xvii) A focus on the ‘‘extreme local’’ can lend credibility to an artist through his or her familiarity with local landmarks, hip hop spots, and even restaurants, as seen in the widespread references to Roscoe’s Chicken and Waffles in hip hop music from Los Angeles, or in Paul Wall’s references to the ‘‘ghetto grub’’ served at the Houston restaurant Timmy Chan’s (on Mike Jones’ song ‘‘They Don’t Know,’’ for example). In his chapter on Houston hip hop included in Volume 2, Jamie Lynch illustrates the strength of long-standing local independent rap labels in Houston, a city that, until 2000, was for the most part ignored by national radio and major labels, and where it is common for artists to distinguish between Northside and

Introduction Southside Houston and to call out local landmarks and neighborhood figures as a way of enhancing their credibility with local listeners. Outside this question of audience, rap artists may invoke icons of the extreme local in order to fit with a tradition of territorialism within their communities. Many critics, Forman included, have linked hip hop’s territorialism and focus on the extreme local to the influence of street gang culture. Several hip hop pioneers were members of street gangs before they made the transition to music: Afrika Bambaataa was a member of the Black Spades, for example, and Russell Simmons was a member of the Seven Immortals. The influence of gang culture remains felt in 2009 in the street gang imagery of artists like L.A.’s The Game and New Orleans’ Birdman. In his chapter on hip hop in the Bronx, included in Volume 1, David Diallo provides an overview of the links between the territorial practices of street gang culture and hip hop, especially as these practices influenced hip hop music and culture in its formative years. In his Los Angeles chapter, Diallo also analyzes this influence of gang culture on rap music in L.A. Whether or not their territorial allegiance is rooted in gang culture, the symbolic capital of a ghetto location lies at the heart of the biographies of many (although not all) hip hop stars, as well as the stories they tell in their lyrics. However, beyond invoking ‘‘the ghetto’’ or ‘‘the hood’’ to connect themselves to an overarching experience of being young, poor, and disenfranchised in the United States, hip hop artists also illuminate the specific struggles and pleasures that come with living in their particular neighborhoods. In this sense, a focus on a particular location becomes more about establishing credibility and authenticity on the continuum of tradition and innovation that is central to hip hop culture: to come from New York City gives a new artist a built-in level of credibility because of the music’s origins there in the 1970s. However, invoking a more precise location within the city can distinguish a new artist from the multitudes of other NYC artists. Wu-Tang Clan, for example, when they debuted in 1993, emphasized that they came from Staten Island, the one New York City borough from which almost no major rap artists (except an early 1980s group called The Force MDs) had come before. Wu-Tang claimed Staten Island—arguably New York’s least credible borough for hip hop—even though three members of the group (GZA, Ol’ Dirty Bastard, and Masta Killa) lived in Brooklyn. As Matthew Brian Cohen shows in his Staten Island chapter included in Volume 1, Wu-Tang changed the preconception of Staten Island as ‘‘an island of all white people,’’ when they wrote songs about the living conditions in Stapleton and Park Hill, two of Staten Island’s biggest housing projects. Making their location even more specific, Wu-Tang emphasized their connections to ‘‘the one-six-ooh’’—Park Hill’s Building 160, which was infamous as a center of drug trafficking. Wu-Tang’s success put Staten Island, which they nicknamed Shao-Lin, on the map, and at the same time set them apart from the old guard of New York City hip hop; the group’s name, in fact, is borrowed from the kung fu film about a group of renegade martial artists who rebel against

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their teachers and elders. In breaking with the hip hop tradition in Queens, Brooklyn, and the Bronx, and instead emphasizing their connections to Staten Island, Wu-Tang made a lesser-known geographical location a distinct part of their brand and identity. Inversely, rappers who come from less traditionally credible locations can link themselves to a broader region in order to establish more credibility. Lexington, Kentucky’s CunninLynguists devote several songs to connecting themselves to ‘‘the South,’’ a hip hop region that includes Miami, Atlanta, and Houston, cities with far more hip hop history than Lexington. CunninLynguists also devote one song, ‘‘Seasons,’’ to reminiscing about the golden era of old school hip hop, lamenting the commercialization that took hip hop away from its origins, and connecting themselves to hip hop’s origins by saying, ‘‘It’s about time for the cycle to start over.’’ However, another Kentucky group, Nappy Roots, chose a farm motif for their 2002 ‘‘Awnaw’’ music video: they wore overalls and posed in front of tractors and barns, although R. Prophet, one of the group’s members, hailed from Oakland, California (itself a long-standing hotbed of hip hop talent). Relying on this popular conception of Kentucky as a rural locale, Nappy Roots put forth an image that was distinct from the urban neighborhoods connected to rappers from Houston and Atlanta. Nappy Roots wasn’t the first rap group to put forth a stereotypically ‘‘Southern’’ identity. In the Atlanta chapter included in Volume 2, Matt Miller describes the way the Atlanta group Arrested Development (whose lead MC grew up in Milwaukee) created a particular Southern image for its 1992 debut album: Rural themes in songs such as ‘‘Tennessee’’ and the group’s penchant for overalls and other rustic signifiers contributed to a vision of Southernmess consciously framed as an antidote to the materialism and violence present in other rap music popular at the time. (478) Geographical location, then, becomes one marker of authenticity along the continuum of tradition and innovation. Using fashion markers such as overalls, Nappy Roots and Arrested Development play on a stereotype of rural Southernness that has proven marketable to mainstream audiences. In his book, Creating Country Music: Fabricating Authenticity, Richard Peterson shows that the 1920s hillbilly group The Skillet Lickers went from dressing in formal wear for its performances at Nashville, Tennessee’s Grand Ole Opry, to dressing in straw hats and overalls for its first publicity photographs after signing to a national record label (94–96). As Peterson has stated about the ways country and western musicians communicate their authenticity to fans, hip hop artists must prove that they fit the accepted model, while at the same time proving that they aren’t merely copying the model (220). Across the four decades that hip hop has existed, the model of authenticity for hip hop culture tends to be black, male, urban, and American. Adam Krims, in his book Rap Music and the Poetics of Identity, finds that hip hop culture in

Introduction countries such as Canada, France, and The Netherlands typically holds up the model of African American hip hop as ‘‘real’’ hip hop (154–57). Ian Condry’s Hip Hop Japan: Rap and the Paths of Cultural Globalization shows that Japanese rappers such as ECD use their lyrics to pay homage to ‘‘the New York City pioneers—Grandmaster Flash, Kool Herc, Rakim, KRS-One—and energy of the Bronx that started the movement’’ (1). The Berlin group Spezializtz similarly devotes a song, ‘‘Kettenkreation,’’ to celebrating hip hop’s origins ‘‘back in the day’’ in Uptown Manhattan and the Bronx. When studying hip hop culture in the United States, historians invariably trace its origins to New York City. As the story goes, hip hop began in the Bronx on August 11, 1973, when Cindy Campbell, sister of Clive ‘‘Kool Herc’’ Campbell, threw a block party, where a new music culture was born. Within a fuller timeline of hip hop history, Kool Herc’s August 11 block party may more accurately mark the birth of the hip hop DJ—Kool Herc is called the ‘‘father of hip hop’’ because he invented the breakbeat, the backbone of hip hop music, by using two turntables and two copies of the same record to loop the same instrumental break over and over. Kool Herc was undoubtedly influential in creating the culture and music that has come to be known as hip hop. The question of when and where hip hop culture began, however, is more complicated than this August 11, 1973 birthdate acknowledges. First, Herc drew heavily from the DJ routines of Eddie Cheeba and DJ Hollywood, who were working in Harlem nightclubs—these routines included Hollywood’s use of two copies of the same record to extend the break (although he tended to play different types of records than Kool Herc did), and Eddie Cheeba’s call-and-response routines with the audience, many of which were later used by MCs in the Bronx. Second, it is widely accepted that hip hop culture has four central elements: MCing, DJing, b-boying, and graffiti art. These four elements did not come into existence in the same moment (in fact, hip hop pioneer Fab Five Freddy claims, in the documentary The Freshest Kids, that he and filmmaker Charlie Ahearn were the first to bring all four elements together, in their 1982 film Wild Style). Although graffiti has existed for centuries, the style of graffiti art that came to be associated with hip hop came to New York by way of a graf writer named Top Cat from Philadelphia, where graf writers like Cornbread had been tagging walls since 1967 (Jenkins 35–36). Michael W. Brooks, in his book Subway City: Riding the Trains, Reading New York, says of hip hop graffiti, ‘‘It was born in Philadelphia. In the mid-sixties teenage gang members there began staking out territory with markings made with felttipped pens. Before long, a few graffiti writers, more interested in self-display than territory, began marking their names on the city’s subways and buses’’ (212). Graffiti became so prevalent in Philadelphia that a July 25, 1971 New York Times article referred to Philadelphia as the ‘‘Graffiti Capital of The World’’ (3). Cornbread and Cool Earl developed the tall, stylistic lettering we now associate with hip hop, and Cool Earl invented the use of the arrow as a stylistic element. Both of these

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elements can be seen in the 1983 graffiti documentary Style Wars, but there is no mention of Cornbread and Earl, or any other graffiti writer living outside New York City. The history of b-boying and hip hop dance also tends to focus on New York to the exclusion of other cities in the United States. In Los Angeles in 1970, Don Campbell invented his locking style of dance, which would become a central component of hip hop dance. To acknowledge these contributions from other cities does not discredit the Bronx as the borough that spawned hip hop, but instead challenges the typical narrative of hip hop as a local phenomenon stolen from the South Bronx and sold to the rest of the world. The most widely accepted stories of hip hop’s origins place its birth in the Bronx, and these Bronx origins make it tempting to tell the story of hip hop as the story of a local culture that was removed from its original neighborhoods and transformed by outsiders into a watered-down, or even corrupted, mainstream form. For example, Jeff Chang’s much-lauded book Can’t Stop, Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip Hop Generation depicts the Bronx as hip hop’s Garden of Eden. ‘‘It may be hard to imagine now,’’ Chang writes, ‘‘but during the mid1970s, most of the youthful energy that became known as hip-hop could be contained in a tiny seven-mile circle’’ (109). Chang also speaks of hip hip’s expansion out of the Bronx in terms of a fall from grace: he marks 1979 as ‘‘the first death of hip-hop’’ (127), as bootleg cassettes of Bronx artists spread to other New York City boroughs, and early rap recordings (most notably Sugar Hill Gang’s ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’) took hip hop out of the Bronx and into radio stations and record stores across the globe. Furthering his nostalgic take on hip hop history, Chang presents the debut of the Hollis, Queens group Run DMC, who recorded rap’s first platinum album, as ‘‘the end of innocence’’ (189). Chang’s nostalgia for 1970s Bronx hip hop is common in the rap world. As I wrote about in my 2007 book Is Hip Hop Dead? The Past, Present, and Future of America’s Most Wanted Music, rappers and music journalists have long displayed their nostalgia for hip hop’s early days before major record labels and MTV got involved. Films such as Wild Style and nostalgic songs such as Nas’s ‘‘Hip Hop Is Dead’’ (2007), CunninLynguists’ ‘‘Seasons’’ (2003), and Common’s ‘‘I Used to Love H.E.R.’’ (1994) tell the story of a vibrant culture being sold out for profit. This story of hip hop’s crossover to the mainstream often laments the music and culture’s move out of the neighborhoods where it began, so it creates a tension between the Bronx and the other boroughs, and between New York City and other regions. Chang’s nostalgia for a pure, noncommercial moment in hip hop leads him to overwrite the history of contributions from other cities, pre-1979. When Chang discusses graffiti, for instance, he neglects to mention the contributions of Philadelphians. When he discusses dance, he neglects L.A.’s Don Campbell. And although Chang rightly acknowledges that New Jersey’s Sugar Hill Gang stole some of its ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ lyrics from the Bronx MC Grandmaster Caz,

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Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar also identifies the roots of one ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ verse in a Chicago street gang rhyme from the 1960s: ‘‘evidence suggests that the rhyme is anchored in classic urban badman styles found throughout urban centers in the United States’’ and ‘‘reflect[s] a style that was not unique to New York or hiphop’s early years’’ (76–77). The danger in overwriting the histories of other cities’ contributions is that if hip hop historians agree that hip hop in its purest form is 1973 Bronx hip hop, then the hip hop created in other areas comes to look like a symptom of commercialism, rather than a part of hip hop’s original culture, or a localized form of that culture. ‘‘The Old School,’’ the mythological moment when hip hop was a pure form of positive, energetic, noncommercial cultural expression, is intrinsically tied to New York, so much that several Southern rappers took offense to Nas proclaiming the death of hip hop in 2007, during an era in which Southern hip hop was thriving and had taken hold on the national charts. Atlanta’s Ludacris, for example, appeared on stage wearing a t-shirt that read, ‘‘Hip Hop Ain’t Dead. It Lives in the South.’’ The story of hip hop’s expansion from New York City to the rest of the nation (and the world) is a complicated story of corporate annexation as well as African American entrepreneurialism. It is on one hand an essentially American story of artists overcoming the adversity of being born into poverty and hopelessness to achieve multimillion dollar careers in music (a story told in songs like The Notorious B.I.G’s ‘‘Juicy’’ and The Game’s ‘‘Dreams,’’ and critiqued in Rich Boy’s ‘‘Let’s Get That Paper’’), and on the other hand another very American story of rising to success by glamorizing the very societal ills that these same artists faced along their paths to careers in entertainment. Throughout its history, hip hop has faced countless charges of promoting violence and drug trafficking, which several artists have justified as necessary evils for financing time in a recording studio, founding a record label, or even feeding one’s family. Much American rap music tells (and sells) stories about American ghettoes. Even those artists well into their careers and living in posh suburbs continue to set many of their songs in the ghetto. Rappers’ boasting about the rough neighborhoods they come from has led critics to complain that hip hop glorifies the ghetto. In his 2007 book, Know What I Mean? Reflections on Hip Hop, Michael Eric Dyson addresses such criticism by writing: the metaphysical root of hip hop is connected to the ghetto whether or not many of its artists grew up there . . . . A lot of people in the ghetto are trying to get the hell up out of there. They don’t want to romanticize it. So it’s not the ghetto that’s being romanticized—its physical geography—so much as the intellectual attachment and intimacy that it breeds, a bond established between those who suffer and struggle together who long for an exit from its horrible limits. (11)

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Dyson’s comment points to the notion that ‘‘the ghetto’’ can supersede a specific geographical location, just as Forman argued that ‘‘the hood’’ can symbolize a particular black urban experience. As Trenton, New Jersey emcee Wise Intelligent puts it on his song ‘‘Go with Me’’ (2006), ‘‘You don’t have to be Wise Intelligent to relate to this one; all you gotta do is be from a hood.’’ Just as invoking the hood or the ghetto can stand for a larger experience, representing one of the regions of East Coast, West Coast, or Dirty South can speak for a particular social experience and link an artist to a tradition of hip hop from that region. Even when writing songs about the ghetto, hip hop artists tend to emphasize local culture by dropping the names of local establishments and landmarks important to the hip hop culture of their particular cities and neighborhoods. Wise Intelligent acknowledges the universal appeal of the stories his songs tell, but at the same time his lyrics criticize Trenton’s mayor, describe the poverty of New Jersey’s state capital and the failures of the Trenton public school system, and include Trenton landmarks like the Capitol Rink and the New Jersey Transit station. Wise Intelligent’s lyrics focus on the universal effects of living in poverty, but he illustrates these effects through his stories of living in Trenton. This continuum of universal topics and unique details gives hip hop some of its power. Most literary writing, and autobiographical writing in particular, seeks to accomplish this same combination of making the personal universal. W. E. B. Yeats called this technique the mirror-turn-lamp—self-examination and personal revelations shed light on the larger culture. Hip hop lyrics are not always autobiographical (and many times artists tell fictional stories in the first person), but because representing where you’re from is so important to hip hop culture, hip hop artists tend to link their first-person stories to specific geographical locales. Just as hip hop authenticity centers on a continuum of tradition and innovation, artists must also prove themselves both local and universal. Hip hop artists who release albums and make music videos represent their hometowns for a global audience. Hip hop is an African American cultural force that influenced the nation and the world. It has without question been a global force since 1979, when Sugar Hill Gang’s ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ charted in several countries around the globe. Although Chang and other hip hop historians have criticized Sugar Hill Gang for their lack of authenticity (they were based in Englewood, New Jersey, rather than the Bronx, and worse, they stole lyrics from a Bronx MC, Grandmaster Caz, who had yet to release a record), this group was the first version of hip hop heard around the world, and many rap artists give Sugar Hill Gang credit for introducing them to a music and culture that had previously been isolated to Uptown and the Bronx. St. Louis radio DJ Gentleman Jim Gates was the first DJ to play ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ on the radio, thus sparking a nascent hip hop scene that would not emerge onto national radio until Nelly’s debut in 2000. In an interview for this two-volume set, Skippy White, the father of Boston hip hop, recalls ordering 500 copies of Sugar Hill Gang’s record for his store in Boston, and selling out within a week.

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Even within New York City, Sugar Hill Gang’s radio hit introduced new listeners to hip hop. In another interview, Da Beatminerz credit Sugar Hill Gang with introducing them to a new style of music. Although Da Beatminerz were living in Bushwick, Brooklyn, they were too young to travel to see hip hop in Harlem and the Bronx. Even though they were living only a few miles away from these areas, hip hop music first came to them by way of Sugar Hill Gang on the radio. Sugar Hill Gang brought hip hop to the masses, but, as this collection will reveal, hip hop, even pre-1979, was part of national, local, and global streams of culture, even as territorial as its participants could be. Hip hop MCs were influenced by the rhyming boats of street gangs around the United States, as well as by rhyming radio DJs such as Dr. Jockenstein in St. Louis and Jocko Henderson in Philadelphia. In one take on history, hip hop was global before it became local. Two of hip hop’s three founding fathers were born in the Caribbean: Grandmaster Flash (Joseph Saddler) was born in 1958 in Barbados; and Kool Herc was born in 1955 in Kingston, Jamaica. The third founder, Afrika Bambaataa, is of Caribbean descent, and founded the Bronx Zulu Nation Organization after a trip to Africa in the early 1970s. Slick Rick, another early Bronx MC, was born in Great Britain in 1965. Doug E. Fresh, a pioneering MC and beatboxer, was also born in Barbados, in 1966. Although Kool Herc denies such a connection, many scholars believe that he, even unconsciously, brought the influence of Jamaican selectors, or radio DJs, to the music scene in New York. The lineage of Caribbean influence on hip hop is complicated, however, in that Clement ‘‘Sir Coxsone’’ Dodd, one of the Jamaican pioneers of the mobile sound systems, first heard rhythm & blues music when he was working in the southern United States as a young man, and he took this music back to Jamaica with him. Just as Herc’s sound system had a precedent in Jamaica, the rhymes that early rappers like Coke La Rock spit over Herc’s beats had their roots not only in the toasting of Jamaican selectors, but also in the toasts of black comedians such as Rudy Ray Moore, which can be traced directly to the American street gang culture of the 1950s and 1960s (see Abrahams or Bryant), and to African bad man legends and the tradition of signifyin’ that Henry Louis Gates links to African Yoruba tribes in his book The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. In his chapter on Kool Herc in Greenwood Press’s Icons of Hip Hop: An Encyclopedia of the Music, Movement, and Culture, Wayne Marshall reminds his readers that the Jamaican influence did not stop with hip hop’s founding father; it is heard in the more recent music of second-generation Jamaican-Americans like Busta Rhymes and Notorious B.I.G. Hip hop continues to see international influence via the music of an artist like Immortal Technique, who moved with his family from Peru to Harlem in the early 1980s, and the music of Wyclef Jean, a second-generation Haitian-American. Paul Butler contends that ‘‘Hip-hop foreshadows the future of the United States—one in which no racial group will constitute a majority. It is the most diverse form of American popular culture . . . .The Neptunes, among hip-hop’s most acclaimed producers, consist of Chad Hugo, a

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Filipino American, and Pharrell Williams, an African-Korean American’’ (984). Paul Gilroy, in his influential book The Black Atlantic: Modernity and DoubleConsciousness, contends that black culture has become global culture: because hip hop and other cultural forms developed along with the capitalist structures that created the black Atlantic world, black culture’s styles have crossed national boundaries and spawned localized responses (80). In 2009, hip hop is a global movement with local variants across the world. At the same time, though, hip hop is an intrinsically American, and African American form. The Great Migration—the label given to the mass exodus of African Americans from the South to the North in the first half of the twentieth century—also influenced the sounds of hip hop. As I discuss in my history of Philadelphia hip hop included in this volume, W. E. B. Du Bois’s The Philadelphia Negro (1899) attributed crime, broken homes, and alcoholism to the disorienting, intergenerational effects of Africans having been displaced from their homeland and within a few generations moving from Southern farms to Northern industrial cities. Hip hop’s lineage within the African diaspora is evident, as is the influence of rural Southern culture from past generations. In fact, several hip hop stars are second-generation Southerners. The rise of the Dirty South came as no surprise to listeners who heard the Southern drawls of California rappers Snoop Dogg, whose family comes from Mississippi and Alabama, and Too $hort. The Southern influence in slang, rhythm, and pronunciation is felt throughout rap. Philadelphia rapper Bahamadia’s family comes from Georgia, as does the mother of Posdnuos from the Long Island group De La Soul, and the family of Chicago artist Kanye West. In his memoir, Sentences: The Life of M. F. Grimm, Percy Carey, who performs as M. F. Grimm, notes that his mother moved from Alabama to the Upper West Side of New York when she was in her teens. The influence of the cadences of Southern speech can be heard in hip hop made in all parts of the country. Just as hip hop was born in New York out of a mix of Caribbean and Puerto Rican immigrants, American Southerners, and native New Yorkers, the story of many regional scenes across the United States often begins with someone moving to the area from New York. Symbiotically, New Yorkers brought hip hop culture with them as they traveled to other cities. In this collection, Warren Scott Cheney’s chapter on Chicago hip hop reveals that a New York graffiti writer named Angel moved to Chicago and started a graffiti crew in the Logan Square neighborhood in 1978. David Diallo’s history of Los Angeles hip hop credits Tony Joseph, a DJ from East Elmhurst, New York, for taking turntablism’s mixing techniques to L.A. when he moved there in 1979. Matt Miller’s history of Atlanta hip hop begins with MC Shy D, who moved from the Bronx to Georgia in 1980. Justin Schell’s piece on Twin Cities hip hop traces its history back to 1981, when New Yorker Travis ‘‘Travitron’’ Lee matriculated at the University of Minneapolis. Pacey Foster chronicles the contributions of MC Spice, a New York transplant, to the Boston hip hop scene. Laurie Cannady marks the beginning of hip hop in Virginia with Harlem’s Teddy Riley moving to the Hampton Roads area of Virginia,

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opening a recording studio, and ultimately mentoring Timbaland, who would become Virginia’s most iconic producer. While emigration from New York spread hip hop to other parts of the country, there is also the story of immigration to the five boroughs. As I stated above, hip hop’s story begins with immigration: Kool Herc moved from Kingston, Jamaica to the Bronx. Grandmaster Flash and Doug E. Fresh were both born in Barbados and moved to New York as children. Beyond this international influence, the music that came to represent New York felt the influence of other U.S. regions. The group Gang Starr was extremely influential in creating the Brooklyn Sound, but its members hailed from Boston (Guru) and Houston (DJ Premier). This story is common in hip hop: Kanye West, who brought Chicago’s hip hop scene to the forefront of the mainstream, was born in Atlanta. Eminem, who brought Detroit rap to the mainstream, was born in St Joseph, Missouri. Shock-G, an icon of Bay Area hip hop, spent his early years in New York and worked as a DJ in Florida before moving to Oakland. And Shock’s prote´ge´, Tupac Shakur, who became the primary avatar of the West Coast during the East Coast vs. West Coast conflict of the 1990s, was born in New York and went to high school in Baltimore, Maryland. There are also those figures who are iconic to certain areas, but who relocate throughout their careers. Too $hort, one of the earliest and most cherished hip hop icons of the San Francisco Bay Area, moved to Atlanta in 1994 and within a few years began working with a new group of Southern artists before he moved back to the Bay Area in 2006. MF DOOM was born in Great Britain, and represented Long Island with his first group, KMD, before more recently moving to Atlanta. Queen Latifah’s collaborator and Native Tongues affiliate Monie Love is also a British emigrant to the United States, and currently lives in Philadelphia. Ice-T, icon of Los Angeles gangsta rap, grew up in New Jersey and moved to L.A. as a teenager after his parents were killed in a car accident. Big Daddy Kane, icon of Brooklyn hip hop, recently moved to North Carolina and began recording with a new group named Butta Team. J-Ro, of Tha Alkaholiks, moved from California to Texas after his group took a hiatus after 2006’s Firewater, and currently resides and records as a solo artist in Sweden. Donald D moved from North Carolina to New York, and worked early in his career with Grandmaster Flash and Afrika Islam, before moving to Los Angeles and becoming a member of Ice-T’s Rhyme Syndicate, and ultimately relocating to his current home in Italy. Maxx Stoyanoff-Williams, of the Philadelphia rap-rock forerunner The Goats, moved to Germany and recorded an album under the name Hack Tao before returning to Philly in 2006 and forming his current group, Black Landlord. Recently, several scholars have noted the role of regions across the United States in the development of hip hop culture. Along with Ogbar’s look at the rhymes spouted by street gangs, Kyra D. Gaunt’s The Games Black Girls Play: Learning the Ropes from Double-Dutch to Hip Hop shows that hip hop lyrics were influenced by playground chants and rhymes invented by black girls in the 1940s in several American cities. Looking to other precursors to hip hop, The Vibe

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History of Hip Hop traces hip hop’s rhymes back to rhyming radio DJs from several American cities, such as Detroit, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and Austin, Texas (Szwed 8–9). Tracing hip hop’s rhyme lineage in another direction, Ogbar and Imani Perry each credit Louisville, Kentucky’s Muhammad Ali with laying the foundation for hip hop. Ogbar points to Ali’s ‘‘style, confidence, consciousness, and defiance’’ (72), and Perry calls Ali ‘‘part of the foundation for the explosion of hip hop’’ (58). Ali’s rhyming boasts, often used to taunt his opponents before a fight, influenced hip hop culture as well; rapper Darryl ‘‘DMC’’ McDaniels has called Ali’s ‘‘float like a butterfly, sting like a bee,’’ couplet ‘‘the most famous rap lyrics ever’’ (Szwed 10). Certainly, there is a difference between identifying a cultural form that influenced hip hop versus identifying a form that was part of the burgeoning hip hop culture. Muhammad Ali influenced rap, but he shouldn’t be considered a rapper. Neither should Dick Gregory, the Saint Louis comedian whose 1964 autobiography, Nigger, employed a title that was denied Nas for his 2008 album. But this does go to show that across the United States, the foundation of hip hop culture had been forming, in the Civil Rights Movement, the Watts Riots, and The Black Panther Party in Oakland. These movements influenced hip hop culture, but they are not the same thing as hip hop. The tension between global and local plays out in much the same way: as far as hip hop has spread, its artists are careful to pay tribute to the old school, and are dedicated to keeping hip hop close to its roots. Sociologist Andy Bennett, in a study of white hip hop artists from the small town of Newcastle upon Tyne in northeast England, found that several white British rappers were very forthcoming in expressing their dedication to African American hip hop: There was a carefully fashioned sensitivity which dictated that in being frank about their dedication not only to African-American hip hop but to the stylistic and ideological forms of address they deemed to be part of it, they were in turn revealing an honesty and integrity within themselves, thus setting the group apart from the small town mentality which was deemed to prevail in Newcastle. (14) For those rappers in Newcastle, being involved in hip hop becomes a marker against racism and closed-mindedness, a way to expand their horizons by engaging with a culture outside the one into which they were born. Bennett uses the concept of glocality (developed by Robert Robertson) to say that localizing hip hop doesn’t necessarily entail any obvious transformations of the music and style, ‘‘but may, alternatively, rely on localized affinities which are experiences more at the level of the experiential’’ (14–15). In other words, hip hop emphasizes lived experience and firsthand accounts—these stories tend to be set within one’s own neighborhood. Condry, in Hip Hop Japan, explains that ‘‘Japanese hip hop draws inspiration from American artists while at the same time

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integrating the language and everyday understandings of Japanese youth’’ (2) and that ‘‘Japanese rappers are expected to respect the African American roots of the music while also producing something uniquely authentic and original’’ (27). As hip hop grew from a local phenomenon into a global cultural force, rappers around the world were faced with questions of imitation and appropriation of African American hip hop culture: from one direction, they faced criticism of imitating African American stars or making blackness ‘‘a fad’’ (Bynoe 83), and from the other, they were criticized for making hip hop that was too local, and thus too far removed from the African American roots of the culture. Tony Mitchell, editor of Global Noise: Rap and Hip Hop Outside the USA, argues that ‘‘Hip-hop and rap cannot be viewed simply as an expression of African American culture; it has become a vehicle for global youth affiliations and a tool for reworking local identity all over the world,’’ yet admits that ‘‘the flow of consumption of rap music within the popular music industry continues to proceed hegemonically, from the USA to the rest of the world, with little or no flow in the opposite direction’’ (2). So, like many American rappers from the South and the Midwest during the 1990s, before these regions reached their current level of credibility, the British and Japanese rappers of Bennett’s and Condry’s studies must show their respect for the New York innovators while at the same time making their own brand of hip hop a uniquely local expression. Hip hop’s emphasis on the local began with the shout-outs to NYC landmarks included on songs like Spyder D’s ‘‘Big Apple Rappin’ ’’ (which he recorded while attending college in Michigan in 1980), and the images of a decaying Bronx shown in the music video for Grandmaster Melle Mel and the Furious Five’s ‘‘White Lines (The Message)’’ in 1982. Such songs established a New York model of the authentic, to which rappers from other regions soon began to respond, telling stories of what life was like in their own neighborhoods: In 1985, Chicago’s MC Sugar Rae Dinky released ‘‘Cabrini Green Rap,’’ which chronicled life in one of the city’s most dangerous housing projects. In 1986, Newark, New Jersey’s MC Hassan and DJ 7-11 released ‘‘Livin’ in the City,’’ an ode to their hometown, and Philadelphia’s Tuff Crew released ‘‘My Part of Town’’ in 1988. Hip hop’s local pride has bred competition between neighborhoods, cities, and even sides of the country, and territoriality has become a topic of several hip hop conflicts over where true hip hop resides. The three moments of regional conflict that stand out across hip hop history are the Bridge Wars of the 1980s, and the East Coast vs. West Coast beefs of the 1990s, and, more recently, the offense some Southern rappers took to Nas’s 2006 album Hip Hop Is Dead. The competitive nature of hip hop music can be traced back to before 1979, when the first hip hop records were released. When hip hop existed only in live performance, DJs would challenge each other to battle to see who could rock a party the hardest. The winner was chosen based on crowd reaction, and local allegiances were called into play as DJs and MCs shouted out their own neighborhoods and called for a reaction from the audience members who came from that

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same place. In Philadelphia’s Two One Five Magazine, Angela Carter wrote that as early as 1985, ‘‘every ’hood throughout Philly had a DJ crew’’ (15). As MCs developed more complex rhymes and moved into the spotlight in their own right at hip hop shows, they began to battle as well, and this translated to dis records and answer records as hip hop was put onto wax. Answer records began in 1985 with Roxanne Shante’s ‘‘Roxanne’s Revenge,’’ which was a response to the UTFO song, ‘‘Roxanne, Roxanne.’’ The exchange between these two artists spawned, by some estimates, over 100 answer records. Beginning in 1986, the first hip hop battle over turf, now known as the ‘‘Bridge Wars,’’ was waged in a series of answer records between Boogie Down Productions (BDP) in the Bronx and the Juice Crew in Queens. In 1986, Queens artist MC Shan recorded ‘‘The Bridge,’’ a song that chronicled life in Queensbridge and claimed that hip hop had actually begun in Queens. Bronx-based group BDP responded with the songs ‘‘South Bronx’’ and ‘‘The Bridge Is Over.’’ Throughout the series of answer records between these two groups, the Juice Crew became a primary representative of Queens, although two members, Big Daddy Kane and Masta Ace, were from Brooklyn. During this same era, Philadelphia artists stepped into the ring, with MC Breeze’s ‘‘It Ain’t New York’’ (1986), and Cool C’s ‘‘Juice Crew Dis’’ (1988), both records aimed at New York crews who saw their city as the center of the rap universe. Another Philadelphia artist, Schoolly D, recorded the first gangsta rap record, 1985’s ‘‘P.S.K. (What Does it Mean?),’’ a song that influenced Ice-T to record ‘‘Six N the Mornin,’’ the first gangsta rap record in Los Angeles, the city that would become synonymous with gangsta rap, through Ice-T (although he grew up in New Jersey) and the Compton group N.W.A. N.W.A.’s 1988 album Straight Outta Compton emphasized the credibility of the group’s greater Los Angeles neighborhood from the first to the last track, with lines like ‘‘born and raised in Compton.’’ The popularity of the album, and the controversy surrounding it, made Compton synonymous with gangsta rap. The emerging West Coast gangsta style was controversial and highly marketable; its graphic violence captured attention outside the realm of entertainment, effectively shifting attention away from the New York City neighborhoods where hip hop music began. New York’s resentment of rap’s move to L.A. may have first become evident in Bronx artist Tim Dog’s 1991 song, ‘‘Fuck Compton,’’ which responded to the rise of West Coast gangsta rap in general, and Compton artists N.W.A., Ice Cube, and Eazy-E, specifically. In 1992, Compton’s Tweedy Bird Loc responded to Tim Dog with his single, ‘‘Fuck the South Bronx/This Is Compton,’’ and Compton’s DJ Quik responded with ‘‘Way 2 Fonky.’’ Following N.W.A.’s breakup after the 1991 album Efil4zaggin, Dr. Dre responded with a dis against Tim Dog on 1993’s ‘‘Dre Day,’’ where Dre also dissed Miami’s Luther Campbell, who entered the ring with a single of his own, 1993’s ‘‘Cowards in Compton,’’ which cautioned that ‘‘cowards in Compton get sprayed in Dade [County, Florida].’’

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Even with the burgeoning tensions between East and West Coast, artists from both sides of the country did work together. After leaving N.W.A. in 1989, Ice Cube worked with New York’s Bomb Squad, the same crew that produced Public Enemy’s music, to produce his first solo album, 1990’s AmeriKKKa’s Most Wanted. Brooklyn-born Masta Ace presented New York rhymes over L.A. beats on 1993’s Slaughtahouse. Ace recorded two albums (Slaughtahouse and 1995’s Sittin’ on Chrome) for the L.A. label Delicious Vinyl, and immersed himself in the car culture of the L.A. rap scene. The Beastie Boys moved from New York to L.A. to record their sophomore album Paul’s Boutique, which featured production by the West Coast duo The Dust Brothers. Even the primary players in the East Coast vs. West Coast battle were not as staunchly territorial as the coastal wars would indicate. After all, Tupac featured Brooklyn’s Buckshot on ‘‘Military Minds,’’ and is featured on Masta Killa’s ‘‘School’’ professing his love for Staten Island’s Wu-Tang Clan: ‘‘I feel as though they represent the East Coast the way we represent the West Coast, and I love them.’’ Dr. Dre signed the Texas artists CPO and D.O.C., and Snoop Dogg signed Lil Bow Bow, from Cleveland. The dis songs between regions lasted several years, however. In 1994, the Midwest entered the fray when Chicago artist Common Sense (now Common) released ‘‘I Used to Love H.E.R,’’ which lamented that hip hop music and culture had strayed from its roots. L.A.’s Ice Cube and his group Westside Connection took offense to Common’s suggestion that hip hop went downhill when she went ‘‘out west,’’ which sparked a dis against Common on Mack 10’s ‘‘Westside Slaughterhouse’’ (1995) and a response song from Common (1996’s ‘‘The Bitch in Yoo’’). While the East Coast and West Coast duked it out, new styles of hip hop were burgeoning in the South. As regional tensions heated up in 1994, Too $hort moved from Oakland to Atlanta. Too $hort’s 1988 album Life Is . . . Too Short chronicled life in East Oakland with songs such as ‘‘Oakland’’ and ‘‘City of Dope,’’ and he made Oakland a major part of his persona. Too $hort’s relocation predated the dominance of the Southern subgenres of crunk and snap, which would produce hits for artists like Lil Jon in the late 1990s and early 2000s. In the early 1990s, hip hop’s focus had not yet turned to the South; in fact, hip hop was presented in a coastal binary of East Coast vs. West Coast, or New York vs. Los Angeles. The clash between NYC’s Bad Boy Records and L.A.’s Death Row Records had gripped the public’s interest, and dis records from Death Row artist Tupac Shakur and Bad Boy artist the Notorious B.I.G. stirred up turmoil. Atlanta was home to producer Jermaine Dupri, who began his career as a dancer for the NYC group Whodini. Dupri enlisted Chicago’s Da Brat (Shawntae Harris). Da Brat met Dupri through his prote´ge´s, the group Kriss Kross, in Chicago in 1992, and Dupri produced her debut album, Funkdafied, in 1994. T Hasan Johnson, writing about this early 1990s wave of Dupri-produced Atlanta artists in Icons of Hip Hop, explains that ‘‘their sound was much more experimental, colorful, and club-friendly. Compared to The Geto Boy’s brutal realism and 2 Live Crew’s

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rampant sexuality, these newer groups included a more youthful energy’’ (459). This Dupri wave was followed by a second wave of Atlanta hip hop that introduced the Southern drawls of groups like Outkast and Goodie Mob, who began performing locally in 1993. Around this same time, Norfolk, Virginia producers Timbaland and Missy Elliott were beginning to produce songs for major releases, such as Aaliyah’s 1996 album One in a Million. Southern hip hop was making a name for itself. A true turning point in the perception of rap music as an East Coast or West Coast thing came with the 1995 Source Awards. Hip hop, from its inception, had been fiercely territorial, but this second annual event, held in New York City’s Madison Square Garden on August 3, 1995, brought regional tensions in hip hop to a head. The list of performers included several artists from both Bad Boy and Death Row, including East Coast artists Lil Kim, Notorious B.I.G, Junior Mafia, Craig Mack, and Faith, and West Coast artists Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, Nate Dogg, and Tha Dogg Pound. The New York audience members remained loyal to their hometown artists and booed Snoop, one of rap’s biggest stars. Snoop famously responded, his voice incredulous, ‘‘The East Coast ain’t got no love for Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg and Death Row?’’ The audience booed again. The rest of the ceremony showcased posturing from both camps, with Death Row CEO Suge Knight calling out Bad Boy CEO Sean ‘‘Diddy’’ Combs for speaking in the backgrounds of songs and dancing in so many of his artists’ videos: ‘‘Anyone out there who wanna be a recording artist and wanna stay a star, but don’t wanna have to worry about the executive producer trying to be all in the videos, all on the records, dancing, come to Death Row.’’ The 1995 Source Awards was the boiling point for the East Coast/West Coast rivalry that would ultimately see both Tupac and Biggie gunned down in unsolved murders, but the ceremony was also the turning point in our perception of regional hip hop in the United States. Although the roster of performers at the 1995 Source Awards was almost entirely made up of New York and L.A. artists, it was rounded out with Cleveland’s Bone Thugs N Harmony, Miami’s 69 Boyz, and Atlanta’s Outkast. Bone Thugs N Harmony, though discovered by Compton, California’s Eazy-E and signed to his L.A.-based Ruthless Records, made their Ohio roots clear; with Krayzie Bone performing in a Cleveland Indians jersey, Bone Thugs reminded the audience that hip hop existed between the coasts. The biggest regional statement, however, came from Big Boi and Dre of Outkast. As the duo accepted their award for Best New Artist, and the audience booed them just as they had Snoop Dogg, Outkast simply and quietly stated, ‘‘The South got somethin’ to say. And that’s all I’ve got to say.’’ Outkast’s 1994 album Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik, along with Goodie Mob’s Soul Food album from 1995, established Southern hip hop as a force to be reckoned with. The two groups, both members of the larger collective the Dungeon Family, brought musical, vocal, lyrical, and stylistic innovation to hip hop.

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A further boost to Southern hip hop’s credibility in New York circles came when Jay-Z asked the Houston group UGK (Underground Kingz) to guest star on his 2000 song ‘‘Big Pimpin’.’’ For 2003’s The Black Album, Jay-Z recruited producers from around the country, including North Carolina’s 9th Wonder, New Jersey’s Just Blaze, Virginia’s The Neptunes and Timbaland, Detroit’s Eminem, Compton’s DJ Quik, Long Island’s Rick Rubin, and Chicago’s Kanye West, who in 2002 relocated from Chicago to Hoboken, New Jersey to be closer to the New York studios where he found work producing tracks for major artists such as Jay-Z. Recently, hip hop’s move away from its New York City origins has prompted a stance of unity across the five boroughs. KRS-One and producer Marley Marl, who were bitter rivals during the Queens vs. Bronx rap wars of the late 1980s, joined forces for the 2007 album Hip Hop Lives. LL Cool J’s 2008 track ‘‘The Five Boroughs is Back’’ brings together representatives from Queens (LL Cool J), the Bronx (KRS-One), Manhattan (Jim Jones), Brooklyn (Lil Kim), and Staten Island (Method Man). A new breed of cross-country collaborations began when Brooklyn’s Talib Kweli paired up with Cincinnati, Ohio’s DJ Hi-Tek to form the group Reflection Eternal in 1997. Atlanta’s Cee-Lo teamed up with New York-born producer Danger Mouse to form the group Gnarls Barkley in 2003. L.A. underground rapper Murs and Brooklyn rapper Buckshot have each worked with North Carolina producer 9th Wonder to record multiple full-length albums. 9th Wonder also produced the debut album of Jean Grae, an MC from New York by way of Cape Town, South Africa. When I began writing this introduction in 2008, the #1 song in the country was ‘‘Lollipop’’ by Lil Wayne from New Orleans and Static Major from Louisville. Posse cuts, which originally showcased all the MCs in a local crew, have gone nationwide, and worldwide as well. The 2007 hit ‘‘We Takin Over’’ featured the Palestinian-American DJ Khaled from Miami, the Senegalese-American singer Akon from New Jersey, and rappers T.I. from Atlanta, Lil Wayne and Birdman from New Orleans, and Rick Ross from Miami. While writing the Philadelphia entry for this collection, I discovered two CDs, both released in 2008, featuring local artists in collaboration with artists in other countries. Traum Diggs’ The Essential Traum Diggs Mixtape, was mixed by DJ Knew Rulz in London and Nigeria. Black Snow, from the German group Snow Goons, features a who’s who of Philadelphia’s underground MCs, as well as MCs from Boston, RaleighDurham, Los Angeles, and New York City. As Traum Diggs (aka David Shanks, who wrote the Harlem chapter included in Volume 1 of this set) says on the intro to his mixtape, ‘‘We’re taking this all over the world. It’s not just a local thing. That’s not what it’s about right now, man, it’s about spreading our borders.’’ These borders are not only international, but symbolic. As I have discussed in this introduction, hip hop critics ranging from Murray Forman to Michael Eric Dyson have described the symbolic capital that ‘‘the ghetto’’ or ‘‘the hood’’ holds for a hip hop artist. Dyson even links ‘‘the metaphysical root of hip hop’’ to the ghetto (11). The future of space and place in hip hop may see the music created

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out of very different locations, and virtual places may play as much of a role as physical locales. The closing of many small hip hop clubs across the country because of security concerns and insurance worries, and the creation of several online forums devoted to hip hop has created a new sense of place and its role in making the music. Several groups have formed via online spaces: Underground Chicago sensation The Cool Kids are made up of Chuck Inglish (from the Detroit suburbs) and Mikey Rocks (from the Chicago suburbs), who formed the group after they met each other on the Internet in 2005; the hip hop Web site www.okayplayer.com provided a collaborative forum for Dutch producer Nicolay and Houston rapper Kay, who met on the Web site in 2004 and began collaborating on songs via the Internet; that same year, Nicolay released the debut album of his group Foreign Exchange, a collaboration with Durham, North Carolina rapper Phonte—the duo made the album by sending beats and rhymes back and forth over email and AOL Instant Messenger. With the advent of such collaborative technologies, American hip hop, while still staunchly local in devoting its lyrics to stories that represent the places its artists come from, has become increasingly national, and international, in designing collaborations between artists from different regions. The multiregional group who has taken this new concept of place the furthest is Tanya Morgan, which consists of MCs Donwill and Ilyas from Cincinnati and producer/MC Von Pea from Brooklyn. Donwill and Von Pea met online via a message board at the hip hop Web site www.okayplayer.com, the same Web site where Kay met Nicolay. Like Nicolay and Kay, they began exchanging beats and rhymes over AOL Instant Messenger, and soon added Ilyas to the trio. Beyond the fact that Tanya Morgan was formed as a cross-country collaboration via the Internet, the group may point to the future of place in hip hop with the concept of its third album, 2009’s Brooklynati. In celebration of both their hometowns, and to promote the new album, the group launched the Web site www.brooklynati.com, which purports to be run by the Chamber of Commerce of the ‘‘thriving metropolis’’ of Brooklynati, which exists only as a virtual city created by combining aspects of Brooklyn and Cincinnati. The Brooklynati Web site includes a map of the city, links to restaurants, shopping, and attractions, and even invites online visitors to print Brooklynati postcards to mail to their friends. The virtual city of Brooklynati may be the first ‘‘place’’ to represent a new trend in hip hop’s relationship with space and place. As small hip hop clubs disappear even in New York City (Wolf), and more MCs and producers look to the Internet to release music independently of record labels, to establish a fan base, and to network with other rap performers, in the future we may see more Tanya Morgans, Cool Kids, and Nicolay and Kays—groups who formed and first collaborated via online interchanges—than we will see groups fostered by the physical spaces like the Hevalo and The Rooftop that gave Bronx and Uptown Manhattan performers a place to trade beats and rhymes in the 1970s and 1980s. In an art form born in some of the most impoverished neighborhoods in America, Brooklynati stands out among the cities shouted out in most hip hop songs. Hip hop’s first virtual city

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prides itself on its progressiveness more than its adherence to the ghetto location that, as I discussed earlier, has formed the basis and setting for most of the hip hop music recorded in the United States. Rather than establish this virtual city’s credibility to the model of surviving the ghetto, the fictitious Chamber of Commerce’s Web site touts the attributes of its city: ‘‘Politically progressive, culturally diverse and socially concerned, Brooklynati prides itself on having one of the smallest homeless populations in the United States as well as the lowest unemployment rate among major cities . . . . Brooklynati finds itself at the top of the Western World in terms of technology and new energy.’’ Brooklynati, then, combines the best aspects of two major American cities with the amenities of the suburbs, which until fairly recently, have been viewed as distant from hip hop culture, and not a credible locale to claim to represent in one’s music. Rappers have tried to downplay or even hide their suburban upbringings. In 1990–1991, white rapper Vanilla Ice was criticized for claiming, in his official artist biography, to come from a Miami ghetto when he actually grew up in the Dallas suburbs. This history led to Eminem’s emphasis, both in his music and in his partly autobiographical film 8 Mile, on the impoverished neighborhoods of Detroit, where he grew up. In a defining scene from 8 Mile, Eminem’s character B. Rabbit defeats his opponent, Papa Doc, at a rap battle, by revealing that Doc grew up in a stable family and went to a private school, both characteristics associated with life in the suburbs rather than the Detroit ghetto where B. Rabbit grew up. In 2009, however, a suburban background is proving less detrimental, and even beneficial, to the careers of some rappers. Two white rappers, John Brown (from Davis, California) and Asher Roth (from Morrisville, Pennsylvania), eschewed the hood and instead laid claim to America’s suburbs. Brown, the winner of ego trip’s and VH1’s The (White) Rapper Show, claims to be ‘‘king of the burbs,’’ and Asher Roth claims that he’s ‘‘bringing hip hop into the burbs.’’ Wayne Marshall has pointed out that Brown actually resides in Williamsburg, Brooklyn rather than the California suburbs (Gaunt et al. 51), so Brown is actually reversing the typical hip hop narrative of claiming association with a major city, especially one with Brooklyn’s hip hop heritage. Based on the history of hip hop’s reaction against the suburbs (aside from Vanilla Ice’s fake bio, both Run DMC and the Beastie Boys were criticized for taking hip hop to the suburbs in the 1980s), it will be interesting to see how this new breed of suburban rap artist is received in the long run. With this history and the importance of place in mind, Hip Hop in America: A Regional Guide traces the spread of hip hop across the United States, with a particular focus on the social contexts that spawned new styles in each region. From the response to Hurricane Katrina by New Orleans rappers to the response to the U.S. annexation of Hawaii by rap artists in Honolulu, the chapters in this twovolume set illuminate local history and the social environments that have inspired unique and innovative hip hop scenes across the United States.

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REFERENCES Abrahams, Roger D. Deep Down in the Jungle: Negro Narrative Folklore from the Streets of Philadelphia. Chicago: Adline Publishing Company, 1973. Bennett, Andy. ‘‘Rappin’ on the Tyne: White Hip Hop Culture in Northeast England— an Ethnographic Study.’’ The Sociological Review 1999: 1–24. Brooks, Michael W. Subway City: Riding the Trains, Reading New York. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997. Bryant, Jerry H. Born in a Mighty Bad Land: The Violent Man in African American Folklore and Fiction. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003. Bullard, Robert D., ed. In Search of the New South: The Black Urban Experience in the 1970s and 1980s. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1989. Butler, Paul. ‘‘Much Respect: Toward a Hip-Hop Theory of Punishment.’’ Stanford Law Review 56.3 (2004): 963–1016. Bynoe, Yvonne. ‘‘Getting Real about Global Hip Hop.’’ Georgetown Journal of International Affairs 3, no. 1 (2002): 77–84. Carey, Percy, and Ronald Wimberly. Sentences: The Life of MF Grimm. New York: DC Comics, 2007. Carter, Angela. ‘‘Touch and Go: How DJ Jazzy Jeff’s Studio Spawned a Musical Legacy.’’ Two One Five Magazine 1, no. 2 (2008): 15–20. Castleman, Craig. ‘‘The Politics of Graffiti.’’ In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 21–30. New York: Routledge, 2004. Chang, Jeff. Can’t Stop, Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation. New York: St. Martin’s, 2005. Condry, Ian. Hip Hop Japan: Rap and the Paths of Cultural Globalization. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006. Dyson, Michael Eric. Know What I Mean? Reflections on Hip Hop. New York: Basic Civitas, 2007. Forman, Murray. The ’Hood Comes First: Race, Space, and Place in Rap and HipHop. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2002. The Freshest Kids: A History of the B-Boy. Dir Israel. Image, 2002. Gates, Henry Louis Jr. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Gaunt, Kyra D. The Games Black Girls Play: Learning the Ropes from Double-Dutch to Hip Hop. New York: NYU Press, 2006. Gaunt, Kyra, et al. ‘‘Roundtable: VH1’s (White) Rapper Show: Intrusions, Sightlines, and Authority.’’ Journal of Popular Music Studies 20, no. 1: 44–78. Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double-Consciousness. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993. Hess, Mickey. Is Hip Hop Dead? The Past, Present, and Future of America’s Most Wanted Music. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2007.

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Jenkins, Sasha. ‘‘Graffiti: Graphic Scenes, Spray Fiends, and Millionaires.’’ In Vibe History of Hip-hop, edited by Alan Light, 35–41. New York: Vibe, 1999. Johnson, T. Hasan. ‘‘Outkast.’’ In Icons of Hip Hop: An Encyclopedia of the Movement, Music, and Culture, edited by Mickey Hess, 457–80. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2007. Krims, Adam. Rap Music and the Poetics of Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Mitchell, Tony, ed. Global Noise: Rap and Hip Hop Outside the U. S. A. New York: Wesleyan University Press, 2002. Ogbar, Jeffrey O. G. Hip-Hop Revolution: The Culture and Politics of Rap. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007. Perry, Imani. Prophets of the Hood: Politics and Poetics in Hip-Hop. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004. Peterson, Richard A. Creating Country Music: Fabricating Authenticity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997. ‘‘Philadelphia, Graffiti Capital of the World.’’ New York Times July 25, 1971, 31:3. Reeves, Marcus. ‘‘Regional Scenes.’’ In Vibe History of Hip-Hop, edited by Alan Light, 217–27. New York: Vibe, 1999. Robertson, Robert. ‘‘Glocalization: Time-space and Homogeneity-heterogeneity.’’ In Global Modernities, edited by M. Featherstone, S. Lash, and R. Robertson, 25–44. London: Sage, 1995. Style Wars. Dir. Tony Silver. PBS, 1984. Szwed, John F. ‘‘The Real Old School.’’ In Vibe History of Hip-Hop, edited by Alan Light, 3–11. New York: Vibe, 1999. Wolf, Mike. ‘‘Where’s Hip Hop At? NYC Gave Birth to Hip-Hop Music and Culture —So Why Is it Disappearing from the City’s Clubs?’’ Time Out New York Issue 621: August 23–29, 2007. http://newyork.timeout.com/articles/music/21438/ wheres-hip-hop-at.

FURTHER RESOURCES Alim, H. Samy, Awad Ibrahim, and Alastair Pennycock. Global Linguistic Flows: Hip Hop Cultures, Youth Identities, and the Politics of Language. New York: Routledge, 2008. Alim, H. Samy, and Hi-Tek. ‘‘ ‘The Natti Ain’t No Punk City’: Emic Views of Hip Hop Cultures.’’ Callaloo 29, no. 3 (Summer 2006): 969–990. Baxter, Vern Kenneth, and Peter Marina. ‘‘Cultural Meaning and Hip-Hop Fashion in the African-American Male Youth Subculture of New Orleans.’’ Journal of Youth Studies 11, no. 2 (May 2008): 93–113. Cohen, Judah. ‘‘Hip-hop Judaica: The Politics of Representin’ Heebster Heritage.’’ Popular Music 28, no. 1 (January 2009): 1–18.

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Dennis, Christopher. ‘‘Afro-Colombian Hip-Hop: Globalization, Popular Music and Ethnic Identities.’’ Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 25 (January 2006): 271–295. Durham, Aisha S. ‘‘Behind Beats and Rhymes: Working Class from a Hampton Roads Hip Hop Homeplace.’’ Policy Futures in Education 7, no. 2 (2009): 217–229. Grem, Darren E. ‘‘The South Got Something to Say’’: Atlanta’s Dirty South and the Southernization of Hip-Hop America. Southern Cultures 12, no. 4 (Winter 2006): 55–73. Hammett, Daniel. ‘‘Local Beats to Global Rhythms: Coloured Student Identity and Negotiations of Global Cultural Imports in Cape Town, South Africa.’’ Social & Cultural Geography 10, no. 4 (June 2009): 403–419. Harrison, Anthony Kwame. ‘‘Cheaper than a CD, Plus We Really Mean It: Bay Area Underground Hip Hop Tapes as Subcultural Artifacts.’’ Popular Music 25, no. 2 (May 2006): 283–301. Henderson, April K. ‘‘Dancing Between Islands: Hip Hop and the Samoan Diaspora.’’ In The Vinyl Ain’t Final: Hip Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, edited by Dipannita Basu and Sidney J. Lemelle, 180–199. Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2006. Hines, Alan. ‘‘Brooklyn’s Mighty Mobile Jocks: Just Across the Bridge, Disco Is on the Move.’’ Discothekin’ June 1976: 14–17. Khabeer, Suad Abdul. ‘‘Rep that Islam.’’ Muslim World 97, no. 1 (Jan. 2007): 125–141. McFarland, Pancho. Chicano Rap: Gender and Violence in the Postindustrial Barrio. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008. Munby, Jonathan. ‘‘Signifyin’ Cinema: Rudy Ray Moore and the Quality of Badness.’’ Journal for Cultural Research 11, no. 3 (July 2007): 203–219. O’Hanlon, Renae. ‘‘Australian Hip Hop: A Sociolinguistic Investigation.’’ Australian Journal of Linguistics 26, no. 2 (Oct. 2006): 193–209. Omoniyi, Tope. ‘‘Hip-hop through the World Englishes Lens: A Response to Globalization.’’ World Englishes 25, no. 2 (May 2006): 195–208. Pennycook, Alistair. ‘‘Language, Localization, and the Real: Hip-Hop and the Global Spread of Authenticity.’’ Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 6, no. 2 (2007): 101–115. Plummer, Ronald. ‘‘A Personal View: One of Disco’s Finest Young Deejays Looks Back on his Brooklyn Beginnings.’’ Discothekin’ June 1976: 13. Reiter, Bernd, and Gladys L. Mitchell. ‘‘Embracing Hip Hop As Their Own: Hip Hop and Black Racial Identity in Brazil.’’ Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 27 (January 2008): 151–165. Rivera, Raquel Z. New York Ricans from the Hip Hop Zone. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003. Santoro, Marco, and Marco Solaroli. ‘‘Authors and Rappers: Italian Hip Hop and the Shifting Boundaries of Canzone d’Autore.’’ Popular Music 26, no. 3 (October 2007): 463–488.

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Schloss, Joseph G. ‘‘Like Old Folk Songs Handed Down from Generation to Generation: History, Canon, and Community in B-boy Culture.’’ Ethnomusicology 50, no. 3 (Fall 2006): 411–432. Spady, James G. ‘‘The Fluoroscope of Brooklyn Hip Hop: Talib Kweli in Conversation.’’ Callaloo 29, no. 3 (Summer 2006): 993–1011. Thompson, Cheryl. ‘‘Standing in the Shadows of America: Afro-Diasporic Oral Culture and the Emancipation of Canadian Hip-Hop.’’ Canadian Theatre Review (Spring 2007): 113–116. —Mickey Hess

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop

1958

Grandmaster Flash (Joseph Saddler) is born in Barbados and soon moves with his family to the Bronx.

1959

Brooklyn’s Big John Ashby becomes a mobile DJ who plays records at basement parties.

1964

Cassius Clay, ‘‘The Louisville Lip,’’ fights Sonny Liston. The day before the fight, he taunts his opponent with the rhyming boast, ‘‘float like a butterfly, sting like a bee,’’ which DMC (of Run DMC) later calls ‘‘the most famous rap lyrics ever’’ (Szwed 10). After Clay defeats Liston, he announces that he is a member of the Nation of Islam and has changed his name to Muhammad Ali.

1965

Malcolm X is assassinated at the Audubon Ballroom in Upper Manhattan.

1966

Black Panther Party is founded in Oakland, California. Doug E. Fresh is born in Barbados.

1967

Clive ‘‘Kool Herc’’ Campbell moves from Kingston, Jamaica, to New York City. Philadelphia graffiti artists Cornbread and Cool Earl begin spray-painting their names on public structures in a tall, exaggerated script that is a hallmark of the graffiti style that comes to be associated with hip hop.

1968

The Last Poets form in Marcus Garvey Park in East Harlem, New York City. Their mix of jazz, funk, and poetry has been a major influence on xxxi

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop hip hop, and they are featured vocalists on Common’s 2005 single ‘‘The Corner,’’ produced by Kanye West. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee.

1969

Brooklyn’s Grandmaster Flowers opens for James Brown at Yankee Stadium.

1970

Gil Scott-Heron releases Small Talk at 125th & Lenox, featuring the poem ‘‘The Revolution Will Not Be Televised.’’ Scott-Heron’s poetry has influenced hip hop, and he appears on the 2002 Blackalicious album Blazing Arrow. Don Campbell invents a new style of dance called ‘‘locking’’ or ‘‘The Campbellock’’ in Los Angeles. Rudy Ray Moore releases the comedy album Eat Out More Often, which features the ‘‘Dolemite Toast.’’ Moore’s combination of X-rated humor with traditional African toasts influenced hip hop’s storytelling. Moore is featured on Big Daddy Kane’s 1990 album Taste of Chocolate and on 2 Live Crew’s Back at Your Ass for the Nine-4. Taki 183, a Greek teenager from Washington Heights, begins spraypainting his nickname and street number as the tag ‘‘Taki 183’’ in subway stations during his train rides to high school in Midtown Manhattan.

1971

The New York Times profiles Uptown Manhattan’s Taki 183 as the man who spawned a New York City graffiti phenomenon. Brooklyn DJ Ras Maboya is invited to perform in London. The New York Times refers to Philadelphia as the ‘‘Graffiti Capital of The World.’’ Los Angeles poet-musicians Watts Prophets release Rappin’ Black in a White World. With their political topics and spoken word performances over jazz music, the group was a forerunner to hip hop.

1973

DJ Kool Herc spins records at his sister’s block party at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue, Bronx, New York. Last Poets member Jalal Nuriddin (AKA Lightnin’ Rod) records the solo album Hustler’s Convention, a major influence on hip hop music. Afrika Bambaataa founds the Universal Zulu Nation on November 12, 1973. Don ‘‘Campbellock’’ Campbell forms The Campbellock Dancers (later shortened to The Lockers), featuring Slim the Robot, Fluky Luke, Greg ‘‘Campbellock Jr.’’ Pope, and Penguin (aka Fred Barry, who would go on to play Rerun on the sitcom What’s Happening).

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1975

10-year-old Ricky Walters, who goes on to record as Slick Rick, moves with his family from South Wimbledon, London, England to the Bronx.

1977

The Rocksteady Crew forms in the Bronx. At the urging of his manager, Russell Simmons, Kurtis Blow moves from Harlem to Simmons’s home borough of Queens, where Simmons begins billing him as ‘‘The Number One Rapper in Queens.’’ Crash Crew forms in Harlem. Grand Wizzard DJ Johnny O begins DJing in Cleveland, Ohio. The Bronx’s DJ Disco Wiz, hip hop’s first Latino DJ (his father was Puerto Rican and his mother Cuban), teams up with Grandmaster Caz to create hip hop’s first mixed plate or dub record.

1978

Lovebug Starski becomes the house DJ at Club Disco Fever in the Bronx. Graffiti writer Angel moves to Chicago from New York and tags in the northwest Chicago neighborhood of Logan Square. He and local tagger Berto (or B-Boy-B) form the Angel Berto Crew (ABC). Roger Clayton and Gid Martin form the DJ crew Unique Dream Entertainment in Los Angeles.

1979

The first rap records are released: • Philadelphia’s rhyming radio DJ Jocko Henderson releases ‘‘Rhythm Talk’’ on Philadelphia International Records. • New York City’s Fatback Band releases ‘‘King Tim III (Personality Jock).’’ • Englewood, New Jersey’s Sylvia Robinson puts together a group called Sugarhill Gang, that records ‘‘Rapper’s Delight,’’ hip hop’s first international hit. • Bronx’s Funky Four Plus One More releases ‘‘Rapping and Rocking the House.’’ • Harlem-born Queens rapper Kurtis Blow releases ‘‘Christmas Rappin’.’’ • Philadelphia’s Lady B releases ‘‘To The Beat, Ya’ll,’’ the first hip hop record by a female artist. • Harlem’s Paulette and Tanya Winley release ‘‘Rhymin’ and Rappin’.’’ • Connecticut native Mr. Magic releases ‘‘Rappin’ with Mr. Magic.’’ St. Louis radio DJ Gentleman Jim Gates is the first DJ to play Sugar Hill Gang’s ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ on the radio.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Lonzo Williams opens Eve’s After Dark club in Compton, California, and forms The World Class Wreckin’ Cru with future N.W.A. members DJ Yella and Dr. Dre. Tony Joseph, a DJ from East Elmhurst, New York, relocates to Los Angeles and introduces New York’s turntable innovations to L.A. DJs. West Coast dance crew the Electric Boogaloos perform on Soul Train, introducing the nation and the world to the West Coast dance style known as popping.

1980

Chicago’s DJ Casper releases ‘‘Casper’s Groovy Ghost Show,’’ the first hip hop record from a Chicago artist. During a campaign rally, Presidential candidate Ronald Reagan says that the landscape of the Bronx reminds him of the destruction he saw in Dresden, Germany, during World War II. The Harlem group The Treacherous Three releases ‘‘The New Rap Language,’’ which debuts a new rhyme style that would become known as speed rap. Harlem’s Crash Crew releases its first single, ‘‘High Power Rap.’’ Seattle’s KFOX 1250 begins airing the West Coast all-rap radio show, Fresh Tracks, produced by DJ Nestor ‘‘Nasty Nes’’ Rodriguez. Spyder D (Duane Hughes) records the song ‘‘Big Apple Rappin’ ’’ with Motown bass player Billy ‘‘Motley’’ Wilson while attending college in the Detroit area. The Atlanta label Shurfine releases ‘‘Space Rap’’ by Danny Renee and the Charisma Crew. This is the first rap record issued by an Atlanta label. Dr. Donda West moves from Atlanta with her three-year-old son Kanye to take a faculty position at Chicago State University. Samoan-American dancer SugaPop brings the East Coast b-boy dance styles of the Rocksteady Crew back to his home in California, introducing West Coast dancers to breaking.

1981

Kool Moe Dee battles Busy Bee at Harlem World in New York City. The Bronx’s Lovebug Starski releases his first single, ‘‘Positive Life.’’ Too $hort sells homemade tapes in the Oakland Coliseum during Oakland Raiders games. Force MCs (later changed to the Force MDs) form in Staten Island.

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Bronx native Afrika Bambaataa releases his first record, ‘‘Zulu Nation Throwdown,’’ produced by Harlem’s Paul Winley. Travis ‘‘Travitron’’ Lee, the godfather of Twin Cities hip hop, moves from Brooklyn to Minneapolis to attend the University of Minnesota. Bond Hill Crew forms in Cincinnati, Ohio. Common, a Chicago MC, cites Bond Hill as a major influence. Common’s cousin was a member of Bond Hill and he used to visit Cincinnati during summers. New York City’s Mean Machine records ‘‘Disco Dreams,’’ one of the first rap records to feature lyrics in Spanish. 1982

Boston’s Michael Jonzun (Michael Johnson) releases the electro 12’’ single ‘‘Pack Jam (Look out for the OVC),’’ a classic hip hop breakbeat record that would become particularly influential on the Miami Bass Sound. Afrika Islam’s ‘‘Zulu Beats,’’ an all-hip hop mix show, debuts on New Jersey’s WHBI. Bronx’s Kool DJ AJ releases the single ‘‘Ah, That’s the Joint.’’ Mexican-American Kid Frost (Arturo Molina Jr.) begins his rap career in Los Angeles.

1983

Queens group Run DMC signs to Profile Records. DJ Kut begins playing house parties in and around the Peabody Projects in St. Louis. Boston’s Kevin Fleetwood and the Cadillacs release ‘‘Sweat it Off,’’ the first hip hop single from a Boston artist. The hip hop film Wild Style premiers in Boston. Two of the film’s stars, Pink (Sandra Fabara) and Heart (Gloria Williams) come to town to promote the film. Ice-T, who had moved from New Jersey to Los Angeles, records ‘‘The Coldest Rap’’ b/w ‘‘Cold Wind Madness’’ with Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. This is the first hip hop record produced in Minnesota. Connecticut transplant Mr. Magic launches his Friday and Saturday night radio show, Rap Attack, in New York City. The PBS documentary Style Wars chronicles subway graffiti in New York City.

1984

Philadelphia’s Schoolly D releases his first record, ‘‘Maniac’’ b/w ‘‘Gangster Boogie’’ on his own Schoolly D Records. Queens rap pioneer Davy DMX releases ‘‘One for the Treble.’’

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Atlanta’s Mo-Jo releases ‘‘Jump, Stomp, and Twist.’’ Miami’s first independent rap label, 4-Sight Records, releases its first record, ‘‘Beef Box’’ by Ervin ‘‘M.C. Chief’’ German (featuring Sexy Lady). Members of the Bronx and Harlem’s Rock Steady Crew perform at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Rick Rubin and Russell Simmons form Def Jam Records, initially selling records out of Rubin’s dorm room at New York University. Def Jam Records releases its first single, ‘‘It’s Yours’’ by the Bronx’s T La Rock, featuring the South Carolina-born Jazzy Jay. Brooklyn native Uncle Ralph McDaniels launches Video Music Box, the first television show to focus primarily on hip hop, on New York’s WNYC-TV. Travitron begins hosting KMOJ’s ‘‘The Hip Hop Shop,’’ the Twin Cities’ first hip hop radio show. Kevvy Kev debuts the first Bay Area hip hop show on Stanford’s KZSU. Sir Mix-A-Lot begins hosting Friday night dances at the Boys and Girls Club in Seattle’s Central District. California-based 2 Live Crew releases a single, ‘‘Revelation,’’ which sells well in Florida and leads to the group’s relocation to Miami in 1986.

1985

Chicago’s MC Sugar Rae Dinky releases ‘‘Cabrini Green Rap,’’ which chronicles life in one of the city’s most dangerous housing projects. Queens rapper LL Cool J releases his debut album, Radio. Elizabeth and Plainfield, New Jersey’s Word of Mouth releases ‘‘King Kut,’’ featuring the turntablism of DJ Cheese. MC Shy D, from Atlanta by way of the Bronx, releases ‘‘Rapp will Never Die’’ on Miami’s 4-Sight Records. Philadelphia’s MC Breeze releases ‘‘Discombobulatorlator,’’ the first rap song to be banned from the radio. The hip hop phenomenon of answer records begins with 14-year-old Queensbridge rapper Roxanne Shante’s ‘‘Roxanne’s Revenge,’’ a response to the Brooklyn group U.T.F.O’s song, ‘‘Roxanne, Roxanne.’’ The exchange between these two artists would spawn, by some estimates, over 100 answer records.

Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop

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Miami’s Gigolo Tony and Lacey Lace enter the Roxanne Wars with their record, ‘‘The Parents of Roxanne.’’ 1986

The Bronx’s Jazzy Joyce, one of the earliest female turntablists, releases her debut single, ‘‘It’s My Beat,’’ a collaboration with Sweet T. MC Shan releases ‘‘The Bridge,’’ which ignites the Bridge Wars, conducted via a series of dis records between the Bronx’s Boogie Down Productions and Queens’s Juice Crew. Harlem’s Doug E. Fresh and the Get Fresh Crew release their debut album Oh, My God! Philadelphia’s DJ Jazzy Jeff wins New Music Seminar DJ Battle for World Supremacy. Fort Greene, Brooklyn’s Just-Ice releases Back to the Old School. Seattle’s Sir Mix-A-Lot releases ‘‘Square Dance Rap,’’ which sees radio play in Great Britain. Geto Boys form in Houston. J. Prince founds Rap-A-Lot Records in Houston. Houston’s Real Chill releases the single, ‘‘Rockin It.’’ Luther Campbell (aka Luke Skyywalker, Luke, and Uncle Luke) founds Skyywalker Records in Miami. 2 Live Crew relocates from Riverside, California, to Miami and adds new members Luther Campbell (from Miami) and Brother Marquis (born in Rochester, New York) to their roster of Californian Mr. Mixx and Fresh Kid Ice, born in Trinidad and Tobago and raised in Brooklyn. Detroit’s Most Wanted begin performing in Michigan. Kurupt leaves Philadelphia, relocates to Los Angeles, and meets Snoop Dogg. Newark, New Jersey’s MC Hassan and DJ 7-11 release ‘‘Livin’ in the City,’’ an ode to the music scene of their hometown. Run DMC collaborates with rock group Aerosmith in a remake of its 1975 hit ‘‘Walk this Way.’’ New York group The Show Boys releases ‘‘Drag Rap,’’ which would go on to form the backbone of the New Orleans rap subgenre called bounce, which heavily samples the Show Boys’ ‘‘triggaman beat.’’

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Afeni Shakur moves her family from Brooklyn to Baltimore, Maryland, where her son Tupac attends the Baltimore School for Performing Arts and meets classmate Jada Pinkett.

1987

Long Island’s Public Enemy releases Yo! Bum Rush the Show. Ice T’s ‘‘Six N The Morning,’’ launches Los Angeles gangsta rap. Boogie Down Productions releases its debut album, Criminal Minded. Founding member DJ Scott La Rock is killed in the Bronx. Guru founds Gang Starr in Boston. Brooklyn’s Audio Two releases ‘‘Top Billin’,’’ which would become one of hip hop’s most sampled songs. Artists ranging from Queens’s 50 Cent to Mobile, Alabama’s Rich Boy, to Berlin, Germany’s Harris have sampled or reworked portions of this song in their music. Newark, New Jersey’s Queen Latifah releases her first single, ‘‘Princess of the Posse.’’ Philadelphia’s Tuff Crew collaborates with Camden, New Jersey’s Krown Rulers to make the album PH.A.N.J.A.M. (PHiladelphia And New Jersey All-star MCs), which features production work by Ced Gee and Kool Keith, members of the Bronx group Ultramagnetic MCs. Oakland group Digital Underground’s ‘‘Underwater Rimes’’ hits #1 in the Netherlands. Philadelphia’s Money B moves to Oakland and joins Digital Underground. Long Island’s Eric B. & Rakim release Paid in Full. Samoan-American brothers Paul, Ted, Donald, Roscoe, Danny, and David Devoux (later known as Boo-Yaa Tribe) leave South Bay, Los Angeles to perform rap music in front of audiences in Japan.

1988

Long Island’s Public Enemy releases It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold us Back. Philadelphia’s DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince win the first Grammy award presented to a rap artist. N.W.A.’s Straight Outta Compton is released. Bronx group Ultramagnetic MCs releases Critical Beatdown. Das EFX forms at Virginia State University when Skoob (from Brooklyn) and Krazy Drayzy (from Teaneck, New Jersey) meet at college.

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Orlando, Florida’s DJ Magic Mike collaborates with Miami’s Beat Master Clay D on ‘‘Rock the House,’’ a single that features beatboxing by Queens native Prince Raheim, who had moved to Miami in the early 1980s. Detroit’s Prince Vince releases ‘‘Gangster Funk’’ on Mercury Records. Detroit’s Awesome Dre & the Hardcore Committee release a debut album on Priority Records. Camden, New Jersey’s Krown Rulers release their debut album, Paper Chase. Tupac Shakur moves with his family from Baltimore to Marin City, California. Brooklyn’s MC Lyte releases her debut album Lyte as a Rock. Two Harvard students, Dave Mays and John Schecter, begin printing The Source. MC Shy D releases ‘‘Atlanta, That’s Where I Stay,’’ the first rap single to celebrate living in Atlanta. Harlem’s Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock release ‘‘It Takes Two.’’ The Samoan-American Devoux brothers take on the name Boo-Yaa Tribe and return from Japan to Los Angeles. 1989

Bronx duo Nice & Smooth release their self-titled debut album. Long Island’s De La Soul releases its debut album, 3 Feet High and Rising. Brooklyn’s Big Daddy Kane includes a live version of ‘‘The Wrath of Kane,’’ performed at Harlem’s Apollo Theater, on his album, It’s a Big Daddy Thing. Guru moves from Boston to New York. Houston-born DJ Premier joins Gang Starr. Brand Nubian forms in New Rochelle, New York. Dutch group Urban Dance Squad sees airplay on MTV and on U.S. radio with its debut album Mental Floss for the Globe and the single ‘‘A Deeper Shade of Soul.’’ Urban Dance Squad’s music is a fusion of rap and rock. Houston’s Geto Boys release Grip It! On That Other Level, which is later picked up and reissued by Rick Rubin’s Def American label.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Newark, New Jersey’s Queen Latifah releases ‘‘Ladies First,’’ featuring British rapper Monie Love. Atlanta group Success-N-Effect’s debut album, In the Hood, sells more than half a million copies. Cleveland’s Bango the B-Boy Outlaw releases a single, ‘‘Big Bango Theory,’’ on Ice-T’s Rhyme Syndicate Records. Cleveland’s Brothers 4 the Struggle release the single, ‘‘Ready Rocks,’’ which sees nationwide airplay. Cuban-American Mellow Man Ace releases ‘‘Mentirosa,’’ a landmark single in Latin rap.

1990

Bronx’s Lord Finesse and DJ Mike Smooth release Funky Technician. Master P founds No Limit Records in New Orleans. Queens group A Tribe Called Quest releases its debut album, People’s Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm. Professor Griff, having left the Long Island group Public Enemy in the wake of controversy over his anti-Semitic comments, signs to Luther Campbell’s Miami-based Skyywalker Records. Ice Cube works with New York’s Bomb Squad to produce his first solo album, AmeriKKKa’s Most Wanted. Long Island’s Public Enemy release Fear of a Black Planet. Detroit’s Kid Rock releases his debut album, Grits Sandwiches for Breakfast, on Jive Records. Atlanta’s Kilo releases ‘‘America Has a Problem . . . Cocaine,’’ which sells around 40,000 copies nationwide. Cincinnati’s Ronnie Ron scores a regional hit with his single ‘‘When Da Hum Plays.’’ Trenton, New Jersey’s Poor Righteous Teachers release ‘‘Rock Dis Funky Joint.’’ The music video features the group rhyming underneath the ‘‘Trenton Makes’’ bridge. 2 Live Crew’s 1989 album, As Nasty as They Wanna Be, is declared legally obscene by Judge Mel Grossman in Broward County, Florida. San Jose’s Peanut Butter Wolf and Charizma meet and begin recording together.

1991

Brian ‘‘Baby’’ Williams founds Cash Money Records in New Orleans. Queens group Organized Konfusion releases a self-titled debut album.

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Miami’s 2 Live Crew releases Live In Concert, the first live rap album in history. Chicago’s Tung Twista (now Twista) releases his first album Runnin’ Off at Da Mouth. Boston’s Ed O.G. and Da Bulldogs release their debut album Life of a Kid in the Ghetto, and the national hit single ‘‘I Got to Have It.’’ The Micranots form in Minneapolis. Jibri Wise One becomes Cincinnati’s first rap artist to reach Billboard’s Hot Rap Singles chart, with his first single, ‘‘The House the Dog Built.’’ Flint, Michigan’s MC Breed’s ‘‘Ain’t No Future in Your Frontin’ ’’ becomes a national hit. Memphis’s Gangsta Pat releases his debut album, #1 Suspect. Dr. Dre and Suge Knight found Death Row Records in Los Angeles. Bronx artist Tim Dog releases ‘‘Fuck Compton,’’ which initiates a series of East Coast/West Coast dis records. Staten Island’s UMCs release their debut album, Fruits of Nature. 1992

The Bronx’s Diamond and the Pyschotic Neurotics release Stunts, Blunts, and Hip Hop. Compton’s Tweedy Bird Loc releases ‘‘Fuck the South Bronx/This Is Compton.’’ Atlanta’s Arrested Development releases the countrified single ‘‘Tennessee.’’ The group is led by Todd ‘‘Speech’’ Thomas, a Milwaukee native who spent summers with his grandmother in rural Tennessee. Atlanta’s Success-N-Effect releases the single ‘‘The Ultimate DriveBy,’’ in which the song’s narrator fantasizes about killing President George Bush. Virginia’s The Neptunes (Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo) produce SWV’s single, ‘‘Love Will Be Right Here.’’ Port Arthur, Texas’s UGK releases its debut album, The Southern Way, on Big Tyme Records. Ice Cube concert ends in a riot at downtown Minneapolis’s First Avenue club. Newark’s Redman releases his debut album, Whut? Thee Album. Tulsa, Oklahoma’s Litefoot releases The Money E.P. Litefoot claims to be the first Native American to perform rap music.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop

1993

Minneapolis’s Rhymesayers releases Headshots, Volume One. Queens group Onyx releases a debut album, Bacdafucup, featuring production from Run DMC’s Jam Master Jay. Memphis’s Eightball and MJG release Comin’ Out Hard on Houston’s Suave label. Atlanta’s Outkast releases its first single, ‘‘Player’s Ball,’’ a tribute to Atlanta’s black youth culture. The song spends six weeks at the top of the Billboard rap charts. Japanese MCs Scha Dara Parr and Takagi Kan are featured on De La Soul’s ‘‘Long Island Wildin’,’’ marking the first appearance of Japanese rap on a song by a U.S. group. Newark’s Lords of the Underground release their debut album Here Come the Lords. Tha Alkaholiks release the group’s debut album 21 and Over. This L.A. -based group consists of E-Swift (from Toledo, Ohio), Tash (from Columbus, Ohio), and J-Ro (from Pacoima, California). Philadelphia’s The Roots releases its debut album Organix. Brooklyn’s Black Moon releases its debut album Enta Da Stage. Staten Island’s Wu-Tang Clan releases Enter the 36 Chambers, bringing mainstream attention to NYC’s forgotten borough. Detroit’s The Boss releases Born Gangstaz. Dr. Dre’s The Chronic goes platinum. On songs from the album, Dre disses his former N.W.A. bandmate Eazy-E, as well as Bronx artist Tim Dog and Miami’s Luke. Miami’s Luke releases ‘‘Cowards in Compton,’’ a response to Dr. Dre’s ‘‘Dre Day.’’ Brooklyn’s Masta Ace records Slaughtahouse for the L.A. label Delicious Vinyl. Digable Planets debuts as one of the first rap groups since 2 Live Crew to be made up of musicians from multiple cities. Although the group is based in Brooklyn, it is made up of Seattle’s Butterly, Philadelphia’s Doodlebug and King Britt, and Ladybug Mecca, from Washington, D.C. Sudden Rush, originator of Hawaiian hip hop, begins performing as a group.

Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop

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Philadelphia-based hip hop music video show, Urban X-pressions, first airs on WGTW TV 48. Bronx rapper Fat Joe releases his debut album Represent. Charizma, from the San Jose suburb of Milpitas, is shot and killed in a mugging. Los Angeles’s Funkdoobiest releases its debut album Which Doobie U B? The three members are Son Doobie (a Puerto Rican MC), DJ Ralph M (a Chicano DJ), and Tomahawk Funk (a Lakota Nation MC). 1994

Chicago’s Common Sense (now Common) releases his breakout sophomore album Resurrection and the single ‘‘I Used to Love H.E.R.,’’ which laments that hip hop has strayed from its roots. Brooklyn MCs Masta Ace, Buckshot, and Special Ed form the supergroup Crooklyn Dodgers for the soundtrack to Spike Lee’s film Crooklyn. Cleveland’s Bone Thugs-N-Harmony releases Creepin on ah Come Up on Eazy-E’s L.A.-based Ruthless Records. Phoenix’s WithOut Rezervation, a Native American group, releases Are You Ready for W.O.R.? Bronx-born Raul ‘‘DJ Raw’’ Medina, Jr., who had moved to Miami at the age of 11, stages the first Hoodstock, a free, all-day hip hop festival in Miami’s Roberto Clemente Park. Ted Lucas founds Slip-N-Slide Records in Miami. The Atlanta rap duo Outkast releases its debut album Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik. The Source’s November issue devotes a large section to the Atlanta hip hop scene, with articles on Jermaine Dupri, Dallas Austin, OutKast, and the Organized Noize production team. Too $hort relocates from East Oakland to Atlanta. Micranots relocate from Minneapolis to Atlanta.

1995

L.A.’s Snoop Dogg and Atlanta’s Outkast are booed at the Source Awards in New York City. Outkast wins best new artist, and states, ‘‘The South got somethin’ to say.’’ L.A. rappers Tha Dogg Pound are fired upon as they record a video for ‘‘New York, New York’’ in NYC. Bronx rapper Nine releases his debut album Nine Livez.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop The Bronx’s Camp Lo releases its debut album, Uptown Saturday Night. Harlem’s Big L releases his debut album LifestylE-Z ov da Poor and Dangerous. Memphis’s Three 6 Mafia releases Mystic Stylez. Atlanta’s Goodie Mob releases its debut album, Soul Food, which sells 500,000 copies. Bay Area rap artists Del the Funky Homosapien, Souls of Mischief, and Casual found Hieroglyphics Imperium Recordings, which would become one of hip hop’s strongest independent labels.

1996

San Jose’s Peanut Butter Wolf founds Stones Throw Records in Los Angeles. Six Western Kentucky University students form the group Nappy Roots in Bowling Green, Kentucky. The group consists of Fishscales from Milledgeville, Georgia, R. Prophet from Oakland, California, and Skinny DeVille, Ron Clutch, Big V, and B. Stille from Kentucky. Willie D, formerly of the Geto Boys, begins hosting a radio show, Reality Check, in Houston. Tupac Shakur is shot several times in a drive-by shooting in Las Vegas. He dies seven days later. Many fans still attribute his murder to the East Coast vs. West Coast wars. Cincinnati’s Kenny P releases the Unfadeable mixtape. Washington, D.C.’s Nonchalant reaches #24 on the Billboard Hot 100 with her single, ‘‘5 O’Clock.’’ Detroit’s Eminem releases his first full-length record, Infinite. Virginians Timbaland and Missy Elliot write and produce ‘‘If Your Girl Only Knew,’’ a top 10 hit for Aaliyah.

1997

Virginia’s Missy Elliott releases her first solo album, Supa Dupa Fly. Miami’s Trick Daddy Dollars (he would later drop ‘‘Dollars’’ from his name) releases his debut album, Based on a True Story. Six months after his rival Tupac was murdered in Las Vegas, the Notorious B.I.G. is shot and killed in a drive-by shooting in California. DJ Charlie Chan and Luq begin hosting freestyle battle nights at the Hi Pointe Cafe´ in Saint Louis. Michael ‘‘5000’’ Watts, a Northside Houston native, founds the Swisha House record label.

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San Diego’s Lil Rob releases his debut album Crazy Life. 1998

Cash Money Records CEO Brian ‘‘Baby’’ Williams signs a $30 million pressing and distribution contract with Universal. Cash Money artist Juvenile releases the albums Solja Rags and 400 Degreez. Dr. Dre signs Detroit’s Eminem to his Aftermath label. Phonte, Big Pooh, and 9th Wonder form the group Little Brother at North Carolina Central University in Durham. Fat Pat is shot to death in Houston. South Bronx’s Big Pun, a Puerto Rican rapper, releases his debut album Capital Punishment.

1999

Providence, Rhode Island’s Sage Francis releases the mixtape Sick of Waiting . . . . Pontiac, Michigan’s Binary Star releases Waterworld. B.G. releases the hit song ‘‘Bling-Bling,’’ which brings a piece of New Orleans slang into the mainstream. Big L is shot to death in Harlem. East Orange, New Jersey’s Lauryn Hill is nominated for 10 Grammy awards for her debut solo album The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill. Too $hort collaborates with several Southern rappers on his eleventh album, Can’t Stay Away. France’s MC Solaar guest stars on Missy Elliot’s ‘‘All N My Grill.’’ Kansas City, Missouri’s Tech N9ne releases his debut album The Calm Before the Storm.

2000

Jay-Z collaborates with Texas rappers UGK and Virginia producer Timbaland on his single ‘‘Big Pimpin’.’’ Nelly puts St. Louis on the hip hop map when his debut album, Country Grammar, hits # 1 on the Billboard chart. Outkast’s album Stankonia sells five million copies and is the first allrap record nominated for the ‘‘Album of the Year’’ award at the Grammys. Houston’s DJ Screw, who pioneered the Screwed production style, dies of a heart attack attributed to his abuse of promethazine, a drug closely associated with Screwed music.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Jackson, Mississippi’s David Banner releases his debut album Them Firewater Boyz Vol. 1. South Bronx’s Big Pun dies of respiratory failure in New York at the age of 28.

2001

Kahokule’a ‘‘Hoku’’ Haiku founds Ill Valley Productions in Hawaii. The group mixes pidgin with local dialects in songs like ‘‘Old School Toyota.’’ Lexington, Kentucky’s CunninLynguists release their debut album Will Rap for Food. Nas releases ‘‘Da Bridge 2001,’’ featuring Queens all-stars Marley Marl, MC Shan, Tragedy, Cormega, Millenium Thug, Nature, and Mobb Deep. The song is a tribute to the original Queens anthem, MC Shan’s 1986 single, ‘‘The Bridge.’’ Kanye West moves from Chicago to Hoboken, New Jersey, in order to be close to the production scene in New York City. Milwaukee’s Stricklin guest stars on Masta Ace’s Disposable Arts.

2002

Kentucky’s Nappy Roots release their debut album Watermelon, Chicken, and Gritz. Kentucky Governor Paul Patton declares September 16, 2002 ‘‘Nappy Roots Day.’’ Philadelphia DJs Diplo and Low Budget form the group Hollertronix and begin playing parties at a Ukrainian social club in North Philadelphia. Chicago’s Kanye West is severely injured in a car crash in L.A. Louisville’s Code Red releases a debut album featuring Brooklyn’s Masta Ace and Bronx MCs Whipper Whip, Grandmaster Caz, and C-Rayz Walz. Houston’s Color Changin’ Click wins The Source’s award for best independent album for Get Ya Mind Correct. Prophetix releases the debut album High Risk. The group consists of Eddie Meeks from Decatur, Georgia, Mello Melanin from Memphis, Tennessee, and Jon Doe from Glasgow, Kentucky. Run DMC’s Jam Master Jay is shot and killed in Queens.

2003

Bronx rapper C-Rayz Walz releases Ravipops (The Substance). Queens rapper 50 Cent releases Get Rich or Die Tryin’.

Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop

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RZA, mastermind behind the Staten Island supergroup Wu-Tang Clan, releases The World According to RZA, an album that features rappers from France, Germany, Sweden, and other countries around the world. Harlem’s The Diplomats releases its first group album, Diplomatic Immunity. Brooklyn’s Jay-Z releases The Black Album, which features producers from around the country: Durham, North Carolina’s 9th Wonder; Chicago’s Kanye West; Paterson, New Jersey’s Just Blaze, Virginia’s The Neptunes and Timbaland; Detroit’s Eminem; Compton, California’s DJ Quik; and Long Island’s Rick Rubin. Kansas City, Missouri’s Mac Lethal releases his debut album Men Are from Mars. Pornstars Are from Earth. 2004

Danger Mouse, a DJ originally from White Plains, New York, who had spent years working in Athens, Georgia, before living in England in 2004, releases The Grey Album, a mashup of Jay-Z’s The Black Album and The Beatles’ The White Album. Durham, North Carolina’s Phonte collaborates with Dutch producer Nicolay to form the group Foreign Exchange, whose first album, Connected, was made by sending beats and vocals back and forth via email and instant messenger. Chicago’s Kanye West releases The College Dropout. L.A.’s Snoop Dogg recruits Virginia’s The Neptunes to produce several tracks for his album R&G (Rhythm & Gangsta): The Masterpiece. Virginia’s Pharrell and L.A.’s Snoop Dogg collaborate on ‘‘Drop It Like It’s Hot.’’ Norfolk, Virginia’s Clipse forms the group Re-Up Gang, joining forces with Philadelphia MCs Ab-Liva and Sandman. Boston DJ Clinton Sparks records Re-Up’s first mixtape, We Got it 4 Cheap: Volume 1. RA Scion and Sabzi begin recording together in Seattle. They go on to form the group Common Market. RA Scion (Ryan Abeo) was born in Louisville in 1974, and lived abroad in Greece and Zambia before moving to Seattle. Brooklyn’s Masta Ace and Boston’s Edo G team up to make an album, Make Some Noise. Dutch producer Nicolay and Houston rapper Kay meet on the Web site www.okayplayer.com and begin collaborating on songs via the Internet.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Bay Area rapper Mac Dre is killed in a drive-by shooting in Kansas City, Missouri. Stones Throw Records releases The Third Unheard: Connecticut Hip Hop, 1979–1983, a compilation of fourteen tracks from old-school Connecticut rappers. Omaha, Nebraska’s Mars Black releases his debut album Folks Music. Nashville’s Young Buck releases his debut album Straight Outta Cashville.

2005

Hurricane Katrina displaces New Orleans rappers to other cities across the country, spreading New Orleans influence. Memphis’s Three 6 Mafia beats fellow Tennessean Dolly Parton to win a Grammy for their song ‘‘It’s Hard Out Here for a Pimp’’ from the Hustle and Flow soundtrack. Brooklyn’s Buckshot and Raleigh-Durham’s 9th Wonder release their debut collaboration, Chemistry. London-born Sri Lankan artist M.I.A. is denied entry to the United States to work with Virginian producer Timbaland on her second album, Kala. Tallahassee, Florida’s T-Pain releases his debut abum Rappa Ternt Sanga.

2005– 2006

New Orleans rappers respond to Katrina: Lil Wayne releases ‘‘Georgia (Bush),’’ a song that criticizes President George W. Bush for his lack of action to help the city of New Orleans. Juvenile, who lost his home in the hurricane, releases the video for ‘‘What’s Happenin.’’ The video depicts the destruction of New Orleans neighborhoods and the lack of reaction from George W. Bush and Dick Cheney, who are portrayed in the video as uncaring politicians.

2006

Miami’s Rick Ross releases his debut album, Port of Miami. Queens rapper Nas angers some Southern rappers with his album title Hip Hop Is Dead. Atlanta’s Ludacris appears on stage wearing a t-shirt that reads ‘‘Hip Hop Ain’t Dead. It Lives in the South.’’ Houston’s Big HAWK is shot to death in his hometown, eight years after his brother Fat Pat was murdered. Atlanta rapper T.I. and his entourage are involved in an altercation after a concert in Cincinnati, Ohio. T.I.’s assistant and childhood friend Philant Johnson is shot and killed.

Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop

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Washington, D.C.’s Tabi Bonney, born in West Africa, releases his first hit single, ‘‘The Pocket.’’ Dutch MC Jerome XL records ‘‘The Power of Speech’’ with Queens MC Craig G. Ann Arbor, Michigan’s Tadd ‘‘Dabrye’’ Mullinix releases his debut album Two/Three. Princeton University hosts a hip hop symposium, featuring Princeton professor Cornel West, rapper Talib Kweli, and U.S. Representative Maxine Waters. Dutch hip hop producer Nicolay moves from Utrecht, The Netherlands, to Wilmington, North Carolina. Mac Lethal founds Black Clover Records in Kansas City, Missouri. 2007

New York state officials declare 1520 Sedgwick Avenue in the Bronx as ‘‘The Birthplace of Hip Hop.’’ The Bronx’s KRS-One and Queens’s Marley Marl bury the Bridge Wars hatchet and join forces to make Hip Hop Lives. DJ Khaled releases ‘‘We Takin Over,’’ a nationwide posse cut featuring DJ Khaled and Rick Ross from Miami, Akon from New Jersey, T.I. from Atlanta, and Lil Wayne and Birdman from New Orleans. Mobile, Alabama’s Rich Boy releases his self-titled debut album. Chicago artists Kid Sister and The Cool Kids launch a new wave of Chicago hip hop. Houston’s Pimp C, of UGK, dies of sleep apnea complications attributed to his abuse of promethazine. Trenton, New Jersey’s Wise Intelligent, of the 1990s group Poor Righteous Teachers, releases The Talented Timothy Taylor, the first of a series of new solo albums. Wise Intelligent founds Intelligent Kidz, an after-school tutoring program for children in the Trenton school system.

2008

Brooklyn’s Killah Priest and Philadelphia’s Chief Kamachi team up to make an album, Beautiful Minds. Columbus, Ohio’s Camu Tao dies of lung cancer at 30 years of age. The Snow Goons (German producers) release Black Snow, featuring American rap artists from Philadelphia, North Carolina, Brooklyn, and Boston.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop New York Governor David Paterson pardons Bronx rapper Slick Rick, who had been facing deportation to his native United Kingdom since 2002. Flint, Michigan’s MC Breed dies of kidney failure in Michigan, having recorded his last song, ‘‘Everyday I Wait,’’ two days before his death. Morrisville, Pennsylvania’s Asher Roth releases The Greenhouse Effect, Volume 1, a mixtape produced by Don Cannon and DJ Drama, who moved from Philadelphia to Atlanta to form the production team The Aphilliates. Louisville’s Static Major dies during a surgical procedure in his hometown. Lil Wayne’s ‘‘Lollipop,’’ the last song on which Static Major performed, reaches #1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Cleveland, Ohio’s Kid Cudi releases the acclaimed mixtape A Kid Named Cudi.

2009

Washington D.C.’s Wale—a second-generation Nigerian-American, releases Back to the Feature, a mixtape with production from North Carolina’s 9th Wonder. Tanya Morgan, a group with members from Brooklyn and Cincinnati, releases Brooklynati, and develops a Web site touting the virtual city of Brooklynati. Bronx organizations The Point CDC and City Lore present ‘‘Bring Out the Sound System: The West Indian Roots of Hip Hop,’’ featuring Kool Herc, Kool DJ Red Alert, and Ralph McDaniels. East St. Louis’ Scripts and Screwz see MTVU airplay for their video, ‘‘Brick.’’

—Mickey Hess

CHAPTER 1 Hip Cats in the Cradle of Rap: Hip Hop in the Bronx David Diallo Rap historians generally consider that, before 1979, hip hop was a local phenomenon that had spread out geographically in poor neighborhoods around New York City, in particular Harlem and the Bronx. Journalist Alex Ogg remarks that rap music, in its early stages, was party music for impoverished people (7). Jefferson Morley, who similarly underscores hip hop’s localized origins, specifies that when the movement started, it was strictly limited to some of New York’s black neighborhoods (qtd. in Stanley 5). When Sugarhill Gang’s 1979 song ‘‘Rapper’s Delight,’’ widely regarded as the first nationwide rap single, gained popularity, rap music had long been flourishing in New York’s disadvantaged districts and had already developed into an influential cultural and commercial phenomenon. It had principally been burgeoning in the Bronx, a borough which has held an unfaltering legendary status in the hip hop community ever since.

THE BOROUGH THAT SPAWNED HIP HOP: SOCIAL CONTEXT OF THE BRONX In his 1994 book The New Beats: Exploring the Music, Culture, and Attitudes of Hip-Hop, S. H. Fernando talks about the difficulty to put into words the poverty that afflicted the geographical and sociocultural matrix that spawned rap music and hip hop. He points out the problems one may have describing the Bronx without falling back on cliche´s and presents a list of the most common names that were given to this borough in the early 1970s; names such as ‘‘America’s worst slum,’’ ‘‘the city of despair,’’ ‘‘ghetto of the ghettoes,’’ ‘‘the stain,’’ ‘‘the cancer.’’ To make his point, Fernando relates that during a campaign rally in 1980, Ronald Reagan compared the Bronx to Dresden, the German town that was destroyed almost completely by allied bombs during WWII. Later on, he puts the finishing touches to his depiction of the Bronx in revealing that many of the residents of the South Bronx, the 35 km area located in the south of the borough, where DJ Grandmaster Flash 1

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used to scavenge junkyards for the inoperative appliances that he needed to build his own sound system, simply refer to it as ‘‘Vietnam’’ (Fernando 31). The structural forces responsible for the difficult living conditions and the urban decay which characterized the Bronx at that time (and other sites of relegation to be found in American large urban centers) have been brought to light by many urban ethnographers and social scientists. Several studies have exposed the extent to which the policy of social disengagement instigated by the Nixon administration —a policy which was reinforced under Ronald Reagan’s presidency (with a Republican government and a predominantly Democrat Congress)—resulted in severe reductions of welfare programs which, allegedly, promoted inactivity. The ideologists who initiated this neo-liberal bend firmly believed that a federal disengagement from social affairs represented a solution to social pathologies that were affecting a large segment of the urban population living in postindustrial America. According to Losing Ground, a book written by Charles Murray—the mastermind of the politics of the Reagan Administration on welfare—and to The Bell Curve, a book co-written by Charles Murray and Richard Herrnstein, a liberal policy towards the poor was supposedly rewarding inactivity and leading to moral degeneration, and was responsible for the increase of poverty in the United States and was the ultimate factor for the predicaments of modern societies, especially urban violence. Berkeley sociologist Loı¨c Wacquant considers this disengagement as one of the main reasons for the shift from communal ghettoes to what he calls, together with William Julius Wilson, ‘‘hyperghettoes’’ (Wacquant and Wilson 32–33). According to Wacquant, the combined political effort to neglect such neighborhoods through measures undermining public programs and drastic cuts in budgets aimed at helping their residents led to a ‘‘systematic destruction’’ of ghettoes, turning them into urban purgatories fitting the evocative descriptions of the Bronx presented by S. H. Fernando (267) and those presented in 80 Blocks from Tiffany’s, Gary Weis’ 1979 documentary about street life in the South Bronx. The appalling situation faced by Bronx residents in the early 1970s has been portrayed in numerous cultural expressions. Some of Donald Goines’ pulp fictions set in New York, like Never Die Alone for instance, offer credible representations of the poverty and the violence which characterized the city’s most impoverished quarters. They realistically reveal the depacification of everyday life and the overpowering mood of violence and fear caused by the dereliction of neighborhood infrastructure, high rates of violent crimes, and the gradual desertion of middleclass households (and values). The film industry also provided several descriptions of the Bronx from the early 1970s which, regardless of their stereotypical characters, managed to give a feel of its decrepitude. Films such as Enzo G. Castellari’s Bronx Warriors (1982), Daniel Petrie’s Fort Apache: The Bronx (1981), and a multitude of vigilante movies like Dirty Harry (1971), Live and Let Die (1973), or Death Wish (1974), highlighted the primal violence of the streets and caricatured the Bronx (or Harlem for that matter) as an urban jungle. The theatrical poster for Fort Apache: The Bronx for instance, advertised the Bronx in these

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terms: ‘‘15 minutes from Manhattan there’s a place where even the cops fear to tread.’’ Such films, in spite of the questionable ideological messages that they conveyed, exposed how the combined deficiency of labor demand, institutional desertification, and failings of welfare support were nurturing the growth of an informal economy led by the drug trade and by other criminal activities run by juvenile street gangs. This fearsome reputation of hip hop’s home is acknowledged by journalist David Toop in his groundbreaking history of rap music. On the one hand, Toop notes that the Bronx’s grim project housing and burnt-out buildings had little of the political and cultural resonance of neighboring Harlem. He nonetheless remarks that it was within the Bronx (and to a lesser extent Harlem) that ghetto youths developed hip hop as an alternative to street gang warfare to dominate and divide neighborhoods north of Central Park (Toop 12).

THE BOOGIE DOWN BRONX In spite of the harshness of its living conditions and of the realistically bleak descriptions of its streets abounding in the works of many urban ethnographers, the Bronx drew a mythical aura from the various expressive forms that it spawned in the early 1970s. Dubbed the Boogie Down Bronx because of the musical effervescence that characterized its musical scene, the Bronx became, at that time, the melting pot of vanguard mixes that rocked heterogeneous crowds at improvised block parties organized in parks, on street corners, or in community centers. As Gerald Maze Alicea, a 32-year-old resident of Longwood Avenue recalls, there was no escape from the hip hop community if you were from the Bronx; block parties were all over the borough (qtd in Jacobs). Those parties, which brought together an assorted ensemble of ghetto dwellers, were especially appreciated by a mixed crowd of hustlers and partygoers (Williams 30). In a conversation concerning the early days of hip hop in the Bronx, pioneers Afrika Islam and Grandmaster Caz confirm that rap music became popular in a downtown, bourgeois type of hustler crowd (Eure and Spady xxvii). Some of these parties, according to the main actors, would start spontaneously in a park or on a street corner, at times clandestinely. Many historical accounts describe how the first hip hop DJs illegally plugged their equipment into the power source for the neighborhood streetlights. In Nation Conscious Rap, for instance, Grandmaster Caz details the procedure of setting up a jam in the park. He explains that, drawing their inspiration from the open-air parties performed by radio stations on flatbed trucks, groups of youngsters would spontaneously bring their equipment out in parks, schoolyards, or street corners, generally on Fridays and Saturdays, and illegally tap the city’s power to get parties going (Eure and Spady xiv) These block parties drew their inspiration, under the notable impulsion of DJ Kool Herc (born Clive Campbell on April 16, 1966), from Jamaican sound systems. Herc, who had emigrated from Jamaica at the age of 12, had the idea to transplant to the Bronx the basic principle of the mobile sound systems of his home

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Kool Herc (Chip East/Reuters/Corbis)

island. Sound systems, extremely popular in Jamaica, consisted in setting up massive speakers in the back of a truck to play proto-reggae music all around the island. This Jamaican variant of the itinerant discotheque had rapidly become one of the main components in the lives of the residents of Jamaican slums. As Ulf Poschardt explains in his book DJ Culture, the bass volume was the determining criteria to assess the quality of a sound system. The louder the sound system, the bigger the crowd. As for the names of the performing DJs, considered the first pop stars in Jamaica because of the success of their sonic jousts, they frequently referred to their greatness and regularly evoked a criminal imagery. As rap DJs would later do, Jamaican selectors (i.e. disc jockeys) were constantly boasting and bragging about their skills and wore flashy gangster’s outfits. Duke Reid for instance, would deejay in an ermine coat, a golden crown, a colt 45 on both hips, with a shotgun strapped on and cartridges on his belt. Such an oppositional gangster style turned Reid and other star DJs into inspirational models for ghetto hipsters of the 1950s and the 1960s (Poschardt 164). This observation interestingly bears out the important place of a criminal imagery in the music from Jamaican ghettoes which, like calypso and rap, emerged from a sociocultural matrix subjected to structural forms of domination similar to those that afflicted the Bronx and many other ghettoes across the United States in the early 1970s. Rap historians assert that in adapting Jamaican sound systems to his new environment, DJ Kool Herc was the first hip hop DJ. He certainly was the individual who kick-started the sonic and technical contests where DJs competed imaginatively to increase the volume of their speakers and strived to find the track or the mix that would rock the crowd. After a legendary house party that took place

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CEDAR PARK Sedgwick Avenue and Cedar Park are unanimously referred to as the epicenters of hip hop culture. For many hip hop aficionados, August 11, 1973, the date Cindy Campbell decided to throw a back to school party in her building’s small recreation room at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue, is the day hip hop culture was born. That day, spinning records at his sister’s party, DJ Kool Herc introduced extended break beats that awestruck the jam-packed audience and launched the movement. Shortly after this legendary party, Herc started to organize block parties outside and down the street to Cedar Park. His parties soon drew hundreds of ghetto youths throughout the night to witness and contribute to the development of the hip hop movement. Before long, Cedar Park started to gather, on a regular basis, creative musicians and dancers who would come out and plug their sound systems into the street lights to party. 123 Park was another early area where DJs, B-Boys and MCs gathered. In Spring 2005, legendary hip hop pioneers like DJ Kool Herc, Afrika Bambaataa, Grandmaster Caz, Melle Mel, and a wide range of early figures in hip hop lent their names to Sedgwick & Cedar, an old school hip hop fashion line which referred reverently to the original location of hip hop’s early outdoor parties. Capitalizing on the high symbolic status of the Sedgwick Avenue and Cedar Park intersection of the Bronx, this upscale fashion line claimed to pay tribute to the original pioneers of the entire hip hop movement. Founded by business manager Ray Riccio and Cold Crush’s MC Grandmaster Caz, this urban apparel business honors those who paved the way to hip hop on their t-shirts and draws its legitimacy and street credibility from the place where it all began.

at his parents’ home on Sedgwick Avenue in the West Bronx, Herc started to throw block parties around his neighborhood, from Sedgwick Avenue up to Cedar Park, at 179th and Sedgwick (see sidebar: Cedar Park). Gaining popularity, he rapidly landed gigs in clubs like the Twilight Zone, the Hevalo and venues like the TConnection, The Godfather’s Club, or the Galaxy 2000 (Marshall 7). The Ecstasy garage, located in the Bronx around 173rd street was another hot spot for what DJs, laying the emphasis on their musical contribution, unrewardingly labeled ‘‘breakbeat music.’’ Located on Jerome Avenue, between 180th and 181st street, the Hevalo (which later became Salvation Baptist Church) was the place where, in 1975, many youths from the Bronx would go on Fridays and Saturdays to hear Herc’s beats (see sidebar: The Hevalo). Herc had quickly made a reputation for himself with a monster system that nobody could rival. It was bigger, better, had speakers the size of refrigerators and had bigger amps. Herc had also made a reputation for himself by playing records in a certain order to build up the crowd.

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Grandmaster Flash (Photofest)

He would start with a rousing song to get dancers into a groove and would then throw another one on to stir their blood. At that point he usually played records that would blow their minds like ‘‘Sex Machine,’’ ‘‘Apache’’ (one of his favorites), or ‘‘Baby Huey.’’ As Afrika Bambaataa would do soon after, Herc also played records that were very difficult for other DJs to find. Later on, Herc moved to another club called the ‘‘Executive Playhouse’’ (which became Sparkle), right on Jerome Ave. At that time, as Grandmaster Caz recalls, he was the first DJ to have a home base. Other DJs were only playing at house parties or at parties that took place in Cedar Park, Webster Park, and in all kinds of school yards across the Bronx (Eure and Spady xviii). Herc’s success rapidly granted him an iconic status in the Bronx. By 1976, as Wayne Marshall remarks, his hulking frame (his moniker was short for Hercules) and his larger-than-life sense of fashion attracted audiences from across the Bronx and beyond. His achievement also paved the way to up-and-coming Bronx-based DJs like Afrika Bambaataa (born Kevin Donovan on April 17, 1957) or Grandmaster Flash (born Joseph Saddler on January 1, 1958), who were spurred on by the same ambition and love of deejaying and equally eager to challenge their equipments and record collections with those of other DJs.

HIP HOP’S FOUNDING FATHERS If DJ Kool Herc is unequivocally considered as a pioneer, more uncertainties remain concerning the evolution of the hip hop movement. The autonomous and

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THE HEVALO In 1975, DJ Kool Herc (also called Kool DJ Herc) secured a steady gig at The Hevalo, a famous Bronx venue located on Jerome Avenue, between Tremont and Burnside (this building was later turned into a car park). Herc had started to work professionally as a DJ in 1973. He got his first professional job at a place called the Twilight Zone. According to the legend, one night, as he was handing out flyers for one of his parties at the Twilight Zone in front of The Hevalo, one of the most popular venues, Herc was asked to leave the premises by the security staff. He then promised he would be back to play in this club. Two years later, his fame had peaked to such a level in the Bronx and beyond that The Hevalo eventually hired him as a resident DJ. At that time, Herc was among the first DJs to have his own home base. Others were mostly restricted to house parties. Shortly after, he joined forces with Coke La Rock and Clark Kent and formed the first rap crew known as Kool Herc and the Herculoı¨ds. Herc’s period at The Hevalo is often considered as pivotal since he most likely started to specialize in short breakbeats while deejaying at this club. He notably turned the Incredible Bongo Band’s ‘‘Apache’’ into what he calls ‘‘the national anthem of hip hop.’’ Herc, who had discovered the Bongo Rock album through his colleague DJ Timmy Tim, used its explosive track ‘‘Apache’’ to drive The Hevalo’s dancers crazy. As he explains in a recent New York Times interview, he used this record to start what he called the Merry-Go-Round, which was a segment where he played all the records with beats that he had in his collection. He would use that format at the ‘‘hypest’’ part of the night, between 2:30 and 3 AM. As the Merry-Go-Round evolved, Herc played extended percussion-driven sections of songs through hand manipulation of his turntables, thus creating magnetic rhythmic breakbeats that later developed into rap music as we know it today.

REFERENCES Henderson, Errol A. ‘‘Black Nationalism and Rap Music.’’ Journal of Black Studies 26, no. 3 (January 1996): 308–39. Hermes, Will. ‘‘All Rise for the National Anthem of Hip-Hop.’’ New York Times, October 29, 2006.

clandestine development of hip hop somehow complicates any attempt to establish peremptory histories and chronologies. Nelson George nevertheless succeeded, in an interview with Kool Herc, Afrika Bambaataa, and Grandmaster Flash—the three DJs unanimously considered as the pioneers of the movement—in establishing a consensual history acknowledged by most rap critics. Nelson George

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convened these ‘‘Founding Fathers’’ of hip hop in the New York offices of The Source in 1993 to obtain clarifications on diverging stories and made-up legends concerning the beginnings of rap music. George’s article, ‘‘Hip Hop’s Founding Fathers Speak The Truth,’’ confirmed or invalidated stories previously published in books and articles that sometimes contradicted each other on several points. By establishing a coherent version of the development of hip hop in the Bronx (with insignificant variations in dates), this article canonized these three deejays and the movement to which they considerably contributed. This article clearly established the Bronx as the indisputable matrix of rap. Herc was the name on its West Side, Flash in the South Bronx, and Bambaataa over in Bronx River. Chronologically, Kool Herc, using the principle of Jamaican sound system, defined the norms of reference for hip hop deejaying and determined the standard way to accomplish this practice. Under his influence, sound systems became instruments leading to a new musical form. Using a basic set of two old Gerard turntables, a mixing table, and bass speakers, Herc came up with the breakbeats technique. This technique, which consisted in alternating two copies of a record by making a loop out of a chosen part—the break—laid the foundation of rap music. It was instantly taken on by several deejays (Bambaataa, Grandmaster Flash, and many others) who emulated his style and technique and established this elemental structure as the basis of rap music. As Ulf Poschardt explains in DJ Culture, breakbeats were as simple as they were revolutionary. He remarks that before hip hop appeared, most DJs considered songs as units while Herc and his epigones considered tracks as musical quarries from which they could extract stones to build their own pieces and make people dance. Old tunes suddenly served as materials for a new musical form, transcending the preexisting one, in the Hegelian sense of the term (Aufheben), simultaneously rejecting, preserving, and elevating it (Poschardt 172). Vanguard DJs like Kool Herc, Afrika Bambaataa, and Grandmaster Flash, using assemblages and sequences of breakbeats, clearly launched, in the early 1970s, the history of hip hop in the Bronx. In the early years of the movement, these DJs were amongst the most prominent personalities. They were the sole architects of the avant-garde musical sensation that wowed partygoers and made b-boys and b-girls (break-boys and break-girls) spin on cardboard. The considerable success of these pioneers, who could play up to five gigs in a single night, rapidly turned them into independent entrepreneurs who made (a little) money from their talents and hopped from one party to the other with their portable sound systems and their huge records collections. For Steven Hager, this success elevated Bronx DJs to the rank of ‘‘new folk heroes’’ (33). If Herc invented the basic principle of the breakbeats, deejaying was pushed further by another Bronx resident, Grandmaster Flash, and his virtuoso manipulations of turntables. Dubbed the ‘‘Toscanini of Turntables’’ by Life Magazine, Grandmaster Flash used his skills in electronics (he had studied this subject at Samuel Gompers Vocational High School) (Williams 29) to perfect the synchronization of the

Hip Cats in the Cradle of Rap | 9 breakbeats introduced by Kool Herc. Influenced by veteran disco DJ Pete Jones’s precuing technique, Flash created what he called the peek-a-boo system. He manually equipped his mixing table with a cross fader to switch easily from one record to the other. This device, a button sliding from side to side on an horizontal slot, enabled Flash to switch smoothly on an off both turntables. H. C. Williams explains that in the standard DJ style, the right turntable is the only one producing sound when the fader is on the right, and vice versa (Williams also points outs that the opposite option is the hamster style—when the fader slides to one side, that particular turntable’s sound cuts out). Thanks to this technique that permitted him to listen to a track before playing it, Flash perfected the mixing of breakbeats to a point that it could no longer be heard by the audience. He also developed styles and established technical innovations which would all prove to be fundamental to the formation of today’s hip hop and introduced methods that still inspire today’s turntablists. The clock theory, for instance, a relatively simple concept that makes it possible to immediately set the needle down on the right track of a record is still widely used by contemporary DJs. Indeed, to know exactly what part of the record they want, many DJs still mark their records with tape or a crayon, as Flash did. Such improvements are just two of the many mechanical modifications that Grandmaster Flash made to the ‘‘wheels of steel’’ (a slang term for turntables) that stretched out DJs’ existing possibilities. The beat box is another significant innovation that he introduced. This machine, an electronic set of drums that repeated indefinitely prerecorded rhythmic loops completed the equipment of the DJ, which simply consisted, until then, of two turntables plus a mixing table. The beat box perfected, along with scratching techniques, the basic forms of deejaying. Between 1977 and 1979, a period often considered as the golden era of hip hop deejaying, many DJs contributed to its development in establishing different disciplines and in exploring unsuspected technical possibilities and styles. It is extremely important to consider in all their details and particularities the technical contributions of these emblematic Bronx musicians, as well as the different conventions that they established, to understand how the streets of the Bronx became the paradigmatic space of reference of rap music. DJ Kool Herc’s block parties, Grandmaster Flash’s smooth breakbeats or the group-minded ideology and the vanguard mixes of Afrika Bambaataa defined the legitimacy standards of the rap practice in attributing a glaring symbolic status to the streets of the Bronx and in establishing reference norms which determined the ‘‘proper’’ way to make rap. The examination of this structural normalization of the practice and of its cultural legitimacy helps to understand in detail the large number of rappers’ nostalgic references evocative of the mythic past of the Bronx. The inspection of the formal origins of rap music enables to localize the locus of this expressive cultural form in the inner-city and to elucidate the institution of the Bronx as the archetype of sites of social relegation valorized by rappers all across the United States. This detailed review of the main steps of the development of this music in areas blighted by crime, poverty, and

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unemployment (but nevertheless valorized) facilitates the understanding of the profoundly ghettocentric discourse which prevails in rap and brings to light the stylistic conventions established in a borough that, more than 30 years after the birth of rap, still holds a prominent symbolic status.

REPRESENTING THE BRONX The emerging sound system scene in the Bronx was spatially or, more accurately, territorially distributed as follows: Kool Herc had the West Side, Afrika Bambaataa had Bronx River, and Grandmaster Flash had the South Bronx, from 138th Street up to Gun Hill. This parting of the Bronx into sectors separating each DJ’s territory distinguished the locations that covered the key operative areas for the competing sound systems. This spatial distribution reveals rap music’s particular relationship to specified places. As the core element of early hip hop, sound systems featured a series of practices that rapidly linked the music to other activities such as breakdancing and graffiti painting. As Grandmaster Caz recalls, hip hop, at this stage was mostly about who had the ‘‘baddest’’ beats and the best moves (Eure and Spady xvii). Not everybody had a microphone at that time. This element came into play later on, first to urge b-boys and b-girls on to greater fervor, to sing the praises of a performing DJ (and of the crew of 20 people with his name on their sweatshirts), or to extol the virtues of their places of residence. Then, as Caz suggests, microphones contributed to elevate generic DJs’ formulas into what rhyming is today. As rap scholar Murray Forman remarks, all these closely related practices and methods of ‘‘constructed place-based identities’’ (rap, breakdancing, and grafitti) shaped symbolic bonds upon which connections were produced within specific social geographies (70). Identifying a significant relation between the territorial practices of street gangs and hip hop practices that maintained, and in some cases, intensified the structuring systems of turf, Forman brings to light a connection which is essential to the understanding of the regional aspect of rap music explored in this volume. Kevin Donovan, before he took the alias Afrika Bambaataa, had been a member of the Black Spades, one of the most infamous street gangs in New York (Kool Herc had also been a member of this gang, which, unlike New York’s ‘‘clubs’’ like the Savage Skulls or the Savage Nomads, was strictly composed of black teens). Grandmaster Flash, while deejaying, was running with the Casanova Crew, another notorious gang whose reputation was so bad that MC Grandmaster Caz admits that he had to shorten his initial alias from Casanova to Caz to avoid confusion (Eure and Spady xxiv). In accordance with gang principles, the Black Spades provided a substitute family for ghetto kids from dysfunctional households or for those attracted to the idea of joining a structured organization that would ensure them emotional backing and protection in a dangerous environment.

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Afrika Bambaataa (Photofest)

The violence that characterized gang warfare led Afrika Bambaataa to leave the Black Spades in 1975, after the brutal death of one of his friends, and to put a lot of effort into setting up a good sound system and collecting records to follow DJ Kool Herc’s steps. Later on, he founded an organization intended to wander away from violence through artistic battles: the Zulu Nation. The Zulu Nation debuted in the East Bronx as the Bronx River Organization (or The Organization), spread out to neighboring blocks Castle Hill, Soundview, Patterson and Forest projects, then, later, to other cities and states. At one point, Afrika Bambaataa and the Zulu Nation were visible everywhere. They rapidly became, along with Cold Crush, Fantastic Five, Furious Five, and Soulsonic Force, one of the most prominent forces in hip hop. Combining Black Nationalism and radicalism while, somewhat paradoxically, lauding open-mindedness and tolerance, Bambaataa set up an entity that borrowed its structure to juvenile street gangs but that was unified by the hip hop movement. Owing to this seminal link with street gang culture, hip hop practices—rap music, breakdance, and graffiti writing—are profoundly stamped with some of its characteristics. One of the main retentions is the spirit of competition which prevails in these expressive forms. Numerous rap critics have mentioned, though shyly, the narrow link between street gang culture and rap. Fernando considers the hip hop movement an epiphenomenon of street gang culture. He remarks that breakdance started during gang warfare as an alternative to physical violence and provided the opportunity to defeat an opponent or a rival gang with one’s personal style, technique, and personality. Charles Ahearn also insists on such an undeniable link between street gangs and hip hop’s practices in his account of the early years of the hip hop movement (3). As Wayne Marshall remarks, though they were less violent, the style wars raging between various hip

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hop crews were no less competitive than those that street gangs waged on each other (7). Style wars started among DJs and gradually extended to other practices like breakdancing, graffiti, and emceeing. They generally opposed various groups of hip hop artists competing for supremacy. DJ Kool Herc, for instance, would frequently perform in the company of the Herculoı¨ds, a crew of versatile DJs/MCs/BBoys that lengthily reigned undisputed in the Bronx and beyond. As he recounts in his anthology of old school rap for Rhino records, Harlem-based rapper/b-boy Kurtis Blow, one of the first rap musicians to get a record deal, loved to travel up to the Bronx and battle with them (Ogg 12). Kurtis Blow’s story illustrates the notion of rivalry that is essential to the understanding of the dynamics of rap music. It conjointly reveals two of the most noteworthy retentions from street gang culture which characterize rap music: a strong regional allegiance and a pronounced spirit of rivalry. The symbolic attachment of early DJs and crews to their places of residence remarkably expresses the persistent affiliation of rap artists to a specified territory. The term territory, which in this particular context refers to zoological sciences, designates a privileged habitat delimited (with graffiti for example as Alejandro Alonso demonstrates in his research on Los Angeles’s street gangs) and defended against intruders. The symbolic appropriation of a turf and the group spirit which characterize street gangs are expressed through the great number of references that rappers usually make to their relations (group, posse, label, etc.) or to their home territory (neighborhood, city, state, etc.). Mentioning one’s geographical origin (and that of one’s rivals) articulates the prevalence of a regional vision in rap music. This prevalence finds its illustration in rappers’ constant celebration of their geographical origins. Blow’s desire to battle b-boys from the Bronx expresses the eagerness of hip hop musicians to impose or maintain some kind of authority or prerogatives over a specified territory while simultaneously revealing the responsibility to ensure the radiance of their home turf. Through his assertion of his geographic origin, Blow sustains such a discourse. He is defending the reputation of his home turf in the Bronx by challenging its residents and to claim Harlem’s supremacy over the Bronx. This conventional aspiration to mark, defend, or to valorize one’s territory is undeniably the most apparent manifestation of the spirit of community and of territory of street gangs. In turning away from the violence of ethnic ghettoes in favor of artistic challenges (commonly referred to as battles), hip hop practices introduced in the Bronx by Kool Herc and Bambaataa, whether they were DJs duelling through overpowering speakers blasting decibels, dancers trading steps and techniques, or later on, MCs battle rhyming, preserved the territory spirit of street gangs. Murray Forman brought to light this emphasis on the local in his outstanding book on the matter (see sidebar: Space and Place in Rap and Hip Hop), where he demonstrates how rap lyrics, more specifically and to a greater extent than other musical genres, generally show signs of a salient emphasis on place and locality through explicit references to particular streets, area codes, and other sociospatial information.

Hip Cats in the Cradle of Rap | 13 According to Forman, rappers draw inspiration from their regional affiliations as much as from a sense of what he calls the ‘‘extreme local’’ (xvii). Most rap texts and practices, let alone stylistic variations and other idiosyncrasies, satisfy tacit thematic conventions established by the first rap artists. Mentioning one’s geographic origin is part of the stake of supremacy and of the agon which characterized the sonic battles of the first hip hop DJs. Rappers, as they so often remind their listeners, represent a specific place. In other words, they proudly carry the banner of a place and, occasionally, of a posse. They represent both a family and, inseparably, a home turf. Indeed, in rap music the home turf is, like other status symbols, determining inasmuch as it confers legitimacy to an artist. Owing to the contributions that we have just considered, the Bronx holds a prominent symbolic status in rap music, having initiated most of its forms. Numerous musicians that it spawned have repeatedly capitalized on the authority conferred by its eminent historical and symbolic status to assert their legitimacy and supremacy in rap.

KRS-ONE KRS-One (Laurence ‘‘Krishna’’ Parker, also known as Kris Parker, The Blastmaster, or The Teacher) is one of the first to have taken of the torch. Born in Brooklyn in 1965, Kris moved to the South Bronx in his early teens after he had dropped out high school and left his home. He developed an interest in hip hop during that period and started to write his first rhymes and to tag under the alias KRS-One (both an abbreviation for ‘‘Kris Number One’’ and an acronym for Knowledge Reigns Supreme Over Nearly Everyone). At age 19, hustling in the streets and sleeping in homeless shelters, Kris met Scott Sterling, a social worker who was also a DJ performing under the name Scott La Rock. They rapidly became friends and formed a rap group whose name ostentatiously proclaimed their geographical origin: Boogie Down Productions. In 1986, they independently released ‘‘Crack Attack.’’ This first single landed them a deal on B-Boy Records, a small independent label which released CriminalMinded, their debut album. Along with distinguished albums from other emerging artists who were establishing a broader choice of rap styles, Criminal-Minded signalled a break from the sounds and genres that had been prevailing since 1984 (Forman 165). When it appeared in 1987, the album, now considered a classic, immediately earned BDP a large following. Its realistic, street-oriented material (the cover picture of the album shows KRS-One and La Rock draped in ammunition and brandishing guns), KRS-One’s skilful delivery and Scott La Rock’s sober and catchy productions connected greatly with a rap audience eager to hear less aesthetically compromising and nonradio friendly productions (exemplified by the music of Public Enemy or N.W.A.) (Forman 164). Several tracks of Criminal Minded also featured productions by Ced Gee, a member of the Ultramagnetic MCs. This MC/producer had already produced ‘‘Advance,’’ KRS-One’s very first rap, in his Bronx-based home studio (the ‘‘Ultra

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SPACE AND PLACE IN RAP MUSIC AND HIP HOP In The ’Hood Comes First: Race, Space and Place in Rap and Hip-Hop, where he examines the articulation of this triad in the discourse of rappers, rap scholar Murray Forman demonstrates to what extent rap music and satellite cultural practices and expressive productions like breakdancing and graffiti are the products of a multifaceted sociohistorical and geocultural matrix that prevails largely in high density inner cities inhabited predominantly by cultural minorities. Concentrating his study on rap and hip hop’s conspicuous emphasis on what he calls the ‘‘extreme local,’’ a refinement of the spatial scale, Forman analyzes the recurrence of place references in rap lyrics and rap videos by detailed decoding and reveals how they abound with signifiers (basketball team, architectural landmarks, area codes, streets, venues) meant to concentrate viewer attention on the scenery and urban terrain that constitute the rapper’s ‘‘home.’’ Forman also examines the connotations and implications of discursively constructed ‘‘spacemyths’’ attributed to a ‘‘ghettocentric’’ sensibility, such as ‘‘inner city,’’ ‘‘ghetto,’’ and ‘‘hood,’’ and significantly demonstrates how they epitomize ‘‘authenticity’’ in the discourse of rappers. The dual referential strategy of rappers, who refer at the same time to both their places and spaces of origins, can, on the other hand, be explained by an idea which supplements that of the ‘‘extreme local.’’ In their latest album, in spite of multiple references to their Virginia home, Clipse rappers announce that they are no longer ‘‘local’’ but ‘‘global.’’ The discourse of these rappers is definitely consistent with that of many others who regularly send shout-outs to a wide variety of American ghettoes, and somewhat conflicts, occasionally, with the idea of the ‘‘extreme local’’ introduced by Forman. For example, on multiple occasions, Pusha-T and Malice refer to the famous TV series Miami Vice to sanction their Virginia-based gangsta narratives with an extremely evocative symbolic reference (‘‘Miami Vice, Pusha spits this shit for ya’ll’’). For that reason, it seems that the frequent references that rappers make both to their homes and to corresponding symbolic social spaces (’hoods, ghettoes, projects) correspond, to a larger extent, to a celebration of a symbolic community of ghettoes whose similarities are the result of the comparable structural forces that they are submitted to, and whose social practices, especially criminal ones, confer credibility and cultural authenticity in rap music.

REFERENCE Forman, Murray. The ’Hood Comes First: Race, Space, and Place in Rap and Hip-Hop. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2002.

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Lab’’). In 1988, he produced Critical Beatdown, the debut album of Ultramagnetic MCs, which also consisted of MC Kool Keith and DJs Moe Love and T. R. Love. This album (featuring popular singles like ‘‘Ego Trippin’,’’ ‘‘Ease Back,’’ and ‘‘Funky’’), which was rather ignored at its release but whose reputation has gotten bigger in the years, is considered a bona fide classic of ‘‘old-school’’ hip hop by many, mostly thanks to Ced Gee’s expert productions and Kool Keith’s uncanny lyrics and distinctive rhyming style. Rolling Stone Magazine, for example, considers it the quintessential release from the late 1980s ‘‘fast rap’’ era. On Criminal Minded, KRS-One was amongst the first MCs, alongside rappers like Ice-T or Rakim (not to mention the influential Schoolly D), to shift rap lyrical content to firstperson narratives expressing various views and experiences of young black ghetto dwellers (including criminal activities) with an unprecedented graphic imagery. Slick Rick (Ricky Walters), a British-born rapper whose family had moved to the Bronx in the mid-1970s, was another distinguished storyteller hailing from the Boogie Down. This highly influential MC, also know as ‘‘The Ruler,’’ had burst onto the hip hop scene one year before BDP with a couple of memorable firstperson ghetto narratives and tongue-in-cheek rhymes about prostitutes and holdups. Famous for popularizing brightly colored Kangol hats and matching blazers, Slick Rick, with the help of Doug E. Fresh’s beatboxing, stood out in the early Bronx rap scene in 1985 with ‘‘La Di Da Di,’’ a landmark a cappella tale that rapidly landed him a deal on the prestigious Def Jam label. He subsequently released The Great Adventures of Slick Rick (1988), a platinum album considered as a classic by recognized rap historians like Bill Adler and Jeff Chang (Reischel 2007). Otherwise, Boogie Down Productions resumed the geographic and localized turf affiliation that had been central to the hip hop scene from the start through a celebrated battle involving MC Shan and KRS-One. In 1987, MC Shan had released ‘‘The Bridge,’’ a single in which he brought the Queensbridge projects to the fore and challenged the rap supremacy of the Bronx as the epicenter of hip hop. Shan and the other members of the Juice Crew, a group of MCs and DJs that consisted of Roxanne Shante´, Marley Marl, Biz Markie, and Big Daddy Kane, were, at that time, amongst the most prominent banner bearers of the rap from the borough of Queens. KRS-One retorted on wax with the vindictive records ‘‘South Bronx’’ and ‘‘The Bridge Is Over’’ (1987). On these response songs, meant to set the record straight, KRS-One incisively questioned the legitimacy of Queens and reaffirmed that of the Bronx through razor sharp lyrics that greatly contributed to his fame as a distinguished MC. On the musical level, BDP were amongst the very first rap musicians to include elements of Jamaican ragga and dancehall in their productions. They were even promoted as a reggae act for a while (Haring I). Their classic ‘‘9 mm Goes Bang,’’ where they innovatively blended rap and reggae, represents a landmark in the history of rap music. Superstar rapper Fat Joe paid homage to this classic and to its author in his track ‘‘All or Nothing’’ where he imitates KRS-One’s famous chorus.

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Scott La Rock’s reggae-inflected productions and KRS-One’s flamboyant flow soon attracted the attention of RCA affiliate Jive, which signed them to a record contract. Sadly, not long afterwards, Scott La Rock was shot dead trying to break up an argument at a party in the Bronx. KRS-One, though devastated by this tragic loss, far from being a one-off event on the violent streets of black ghettoes, nevertheless carried on BDP with a new line-up. His younger brother Kenny Parker replaced La Rock on production, and side members like D-Nice and Ms Melodie (who was also KRS’s wife for a time) completed the group. In 1988, they recorded By All Means Necessary, on which KRS-One’s lyrics, dualistically hardcore (which had owed him his Blastmaster moniker) and political so far, tipped heavily on the political side. His irate political raps earned him a nickname that would greatly contribute to his iconic status in the pantheon of rap music, ‘‘The Teacher.’’ Insightful social commentaries and militant tracks like ‘‘My Philosophy’’ and ‘‘Stop the Violence’’ greatly contributed, with those of Public Enemy, to the ascension of a New York-based Afrocentric/Black Nationalist impulse. The same year, after the death of a young fan during a concert featuring these two groups, KRSOne got involved in several projects and associations. Walking in Afrika Bambaataa’s footsteps, he founded the Stop the Violence Movement and raised half a million dollars for the National Urban League in 1989 with the all-star charity 12-inch single ‘‘Self-Destruction.’’ This single featured high-profile Bronx artists like Kool Moe Dee, the front man of the ‘‘speed rapping’’ Treacherous Three. This pioneering hip hop group, which consisted of childhood friends Kool Moe Dee, DJ Easy Lee, L. A. Sunshine, Special K, and Spoonie G (who is generally credited as a member even though he left the group in the late 1970s), became popular in the early 1980s with songs like ‘‘Feel the New Heartbeat,’’ ‘‘New Rap Language,’’ and ‘‘Body Rock,’’ the first ever crossover rap song mixing rap and rock. In 1986, after the breakup of the group, Kool Moe Dee went on to pursue a solo career and released several successful hit singles that became classics (titles such as ‘‘Wild Wild West,’’ ‘‘Go See the Doctor,’’ or ‘‘How Ya Like Me Now’’). In 1989, Boogie Down Productions released Ghetto Music: The Blueprint of Hip Hop, a strongly politicized album whose discourse contrasted clearly with that of the emerging West Coast gangsta subgenre embodied by Ice-T and N.W.A. On the musical level, the album’s minimalist productions were meant to distance themselves from what KRS-One perceived as a damaging pop-crossover mentality overtaking hip hop. Tackling issues like black-on-black crime, police brutality, education, or spirituality, KRS-One found many proponents amongst rap scholars and rap critics in search of rappers whose image seemingly stood out against that of stick-up kids popularized by Run DMC and their ‘‘Felon Sneakers.’’ Labelled conscious rapper, street poet, or street philosopher, KRS-One rapidly secured an intellectual image. For instance the New York Times invited him to write editorials, and he started to tour extensively on the college lecture circuit.

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His everywhere political stance, more manifest on Edutainment—BDP’s next album, somewhat disconnected him from his early fan base. The group’s audience started to slip, primarily because of the national appeal of street-oriented California based rappers whose commercial success was progressively overshadowing that of the more socially conscious and preachy New York rap scene. In spite of its hit single ‘‘Love’s Gonna Get’cha (Material Love),’’ Edutainment was roundly criticized as being replete with preachy, didactic lecturing, which came at the expense of compelling musical backing. KRS-One’s feud with pop rappers P. M. Dawn, who had sarcastically questioned his legitimacy as a ‘‘teacher’’ during a magazine interview, further separated the rapper from his audience. During a P. M. Dawn New York’s concert, the founder of the Stop the Violence movement and his entourage, as a reaction to what they considered a softening of rap, kicked the group off the stage and started playing their own songs. BDP’s leader later apologized publicly in the face of the negative reactions that followed. This eventful period did not prevent the group from recording. In 1991, they released the bouncing Live Hardcore Worldwide, one of the first live hip hop albums. As Steve Huey explains, this LP was meant to collect the royalties from Criminal-Minded that a dispute with their former label had prevented them from getting. Later that year, KRS-One made a guest appearance on R.E.M.s’ single ‘‘Radio Song’’ and recorded Civilisation Vs. Technology with the educationoriented side project H.E.A.L. In 1992, the rapper sought to reestablish his street credibility. He came up to his fans expectations with Sex and Violence. This zeitgeist album marked a return to his earlier material and was hailed by some critics as a return to form. Reduced to a simpler expression (by that time the group only featured frontman KRS-One, Willie D, and Kenny Parker) BDP reverted to the hard-hitting beats and resumed their street-oriented discourse in order to win back their former audience. Unfortunately, the second-rate sales of the album tolled the bell of the group. Alongside other street-oriented New York rappers who were developing crude sonorities that clearly differed from the G-Funk sound that was taking over (Wu Tang Clan’s Enter the 36th Chamber [RCA/1993], Mobb Deep’s Infamous [RCA/1995], and Nas’ Illmatic [Sony/1994]), KRS-One, now recording under his own name, released his solo debut album, Return of the Boom Bap (1993). This album included collaborations with producers DJ Premier, Kid Capri and featured the celebrated hardcore standard ‘‘Sound of the Police’’ (produced by Showbiz) whose catchy chorus and ‘‘officer/overseer’’ amalgamation turned it into an instant classic (Wyclef would later take up the chorus in his song ‘‘Thug Angels’’). Showing that his celebrated booming flow was still worthy of serious consideration, KRS-One released KRS-One in 1995. Consistent with its author political stance, the album featured a protest song against Mumia Abu-Jamal’s controversial death row sentence. It also featured an impressive list of guest stars like Busta Rhymes, Brooklyn’s Das EFX, and Bronx rapper Fat Joe.

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The following year KRS-One and his old rival MC Shan joined forces to release Battle for Rap Supremacy, a record that included the highlights of their famous rap battle. He then put his career on hold after his best-selling 1997 I Got Next album (whose eclectic content and lead single ‘‘Step into a World’’ [Rapture’s Delight], built around a sample of Blondie’s crossover landmark ‘‘Rapture’’ helped him reach number three on the Billboard). Capitalizing on the established and recognized symbolic status that he had earned in the rap milieu through his longstanding and relentless efforts to champion the Bronx and underground rap, KRS-One kept on collaborating in various high-profile recordings. He particularly exhibited his versatile lyrics on Zach De La Rocha’s single ‘‘C.I.A. (Criminals In Action)’’ on the first Lyricist Lounge album, released in 1999 (see sidebar: The Lyricist Lounge), or, more recently, on DJ Premier’s single ‘‘Classic’’ featuring Rakim, Nas, and Kanye West. KRS-One’s important achievements and his longevity have granted him a high status not only in the American rap industry, but also abroad. As the ambassador of the seminal New York scene, he was invited to record the opening track of the Ma 6-T Va Craquer album, a highly praised soundtrack for an eponymous French film set in the banlieues (projects). Consistent with his Afrocentric sensitivity, he also appeared alongside MC Supernatural on New York/Paris/Dakar, the album of Senegalese rappers Positive Black Soul (1997) and, in 2000, was invited on Xzibit’s Restless album to ‘‘drop science.’’ He eventually returned to recording his own material in early 2001 with The Sneak Attack. This album was followed, within the next few years, by various efforts exploring different styles and themes (Spiritual Minded that featured an updated version of ‘‘South Bronx’’: ‘‘South Bronx 2002,’’ and The Mix Tape in 2002, Kristyles and D.I.G.I.T.A.L in 2003, Keep Right in 2004, and Life in 2006). Though no longer at the fore front of the rap scene, KRS-One remains, to this day, one of hip hop’s most respected lyricists and MCs. His important achievements and his longevity have granted him an iconic status in the rap industry worldwide that few other rappers can claim.

FAT JOE More recent Bronx rappers like Fat Joe and Big Punisher reminded rap listeners, as KRS-One did with his 1987 hymn to the Bronx, of this borough’s role in originating hip hop. Also known as Fat Joe Da Gangsta, Bronx Terra, or Joey Crack, rapper Fat Joe (born Joe Cartagena on August 19, 1970) grew up in the South Bronx during the early years of hip hop. Influenced by emblematic musicians such as Grandwizard Theodore (Grandmaster Flash’s prote´ge´) and the Furious Five, young Joe started to rap in his teens. He signed his first contract with Relativity in the early 1990s and released his debut album, Represent, in 1993, explicitly introducing himself to the hip hop world as ‘‘Another Wild Nigga From the Bronx.’’ In this album, whose hit single ‘‘Flow Joe’’ topped Billboard’s Hot Rap Singles chart, Fat Joe devoted several rhymes to his home uptown. In ‘‘Bad Bad Man’’ for

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Fat Joe (Photofest)

instance, his gangsta persona drives around the Boogie Down in luxury cars while tracks like ‘‘Da Fat Gangsta’’ or ‘‘Another Wild Nigga from the Bronx’’ contain several shout-outs to a crime-ridden Bronx. Fat Joe’s generic gangsta narratives (and music videos) documented the range of survival strategies of crack dealers of the Bronx. In his book In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio, anthropologist Philippe Bourgois examines the symbols and symptoms of ghetto life amongst Nuyorican hustlers. Bourgois’ book, a remarkable insight into the thought processes of the subjects involved in the underground drug economy of El Barrio presents a documented reality often as shocking as in Fat Joe’s narratives. Acknowledging that addiction, drug abuse, and violent behaviors are the immediate facts shaping daily life on the streets, the anthropologist brings to light the dynamics of the social marginalization and alienation experienced by individuals caught in this socioeconomic niche. According to Bourgois, the drugs and violence glorified in Fat Joe’s gangsta raps and in other like hyperbolic narratives presented as ‘‘reality raps’’ are only the symptoms, or symbols of deeper changes in the culture of modern America. The actions of young drug dealers, whether actual or hyperbolically glorified in stylized raps are nothing more or less than an alternative forum for an autonomous personal dignity denied them by mainstream culture. In the song ‘‘Da Fat Gangsta,’’ Fat Joe exalts a parochial gangsta lifestyle through figuratively homicidal lyrics evoking ostentatiously the danger of what he calls the ‘‘Boogie Down Battleground’’ or ‘‘West Bubblefuck.’’ Interestingly

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THE LYRICIST LOUNGE In the early 1990s, New York’s MCs from the Bronx, Brooklyn, Long Island and from other areas used to gather on the weekend at West 4th St. and Washington Square Park to kick rhymes and create ciphers—circles where MCs deliver top-of-the-head rhymes. This location quickly became a non promoted hot spot for freestylers from the Big Apple. Rap legends like MC Supernatural or Mos Def tested their wits and skills as freestylers at this location where MCs had to go in order to get their stripes and stars as distinguished rhymers. Before long, this open air forum had to move indoors because of the frequent interventions of the police. Considering such gatherings like some kind of public disturbance, the NYPD began to break out ciphers of youths who were either searching a palliative expressive form to their poverty and to their social alienation or simply having a good time, and repeatedly got them out of public parks. In 1991, willing to give an indoor forum to hip hop performers, Danny Castro and Anthony Marshall started to hold ‘‘The Lyricist Lounge,’’ a series of open mic nights located in a small studio apartment in the Lower East Side. This venue quickly began an exceptional springboard for new talents and unsigned hypes from the city’s five boroughs. Later on, The Lyricist Lounge was held at various venues throughout New York City and went on to develop successful events. This experience has now matured into an internationally recognized and respected brand name and business. Indeed, in addition to a series of New York City-based showcases, The Lyricist Lounge spawned three critically acclaimed full-length album releases, several domestic tours, and helped launch the careers of some of rap music’s most successful rap musicians like Mos Def, Eminem, Talib Kweli, and The Notorious B.I.G, musicians who went on to secure recording contracts and deals with major record labels.

REFERENCE Fitzgerald, Kevin. Freestyle: The Art of Rhyme. Organic Films, 2000.

enough, Fat Joe uses a famous sample from Californian rap group Cypress Hill’s gangsta anthem ‘‘A to the K’’ to convey his murderous temper and the terror that reigns in the streets of the Bronx. This referential strategy is indicative of the rapprochement of what could be called a ‘‘community of multiple ghettoes’’ where the celebration of one ghetto resonates to all ghettoes cursed with similar difficult conditions inherent to their sociocultural marginalization. As the sociocultural

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matrix of rap music, ghetto streets remain, especially those of the Bronx, its paradigmatic habitat. In rap music, issues of authenticity, credibility, and legitimacy are integrally linked to the streets of the ghetto and to their social practices. To evoke street corner activities enabled Fat Joe to exhibit a cultural authenticity than can be measured to his rooting in a culture whose criminal practices operate as metonymies. By threatening crews coming from outside the Bronx with death, as he did on ‘‘Da Fat Gangsta’’ and as KRS-One had done on ‘‘The Bridge is Over,’’ Fat Joe reaffirmed the hardheadedness and supremacy of his home borough. His second album, Jealous One’s Envy, featured an impressive cast. Bronx’ finest KRS-One appeared on ‘‘Bronx Tale,’’ the first song on the album. He proclaimed Joe and himself ‘‘Kings of the Boogie Down’’ and justified his high status by drawing listeners’ attention to his longevity in rap (he reminded that he had been in it for 10 years). Such a practice is extremely common amongst rappers. Distinguished rappers and producers like Nas, Common, Rakim, and Dr Dre frequently underline the fact that they have been in the game for a long time. This gimmick has also been used by DJ Jazzy Joyce, a well respected female DJ who, since the mid-1980s, has been a thriving force behind many of NYC’s clubs and radio shows. Born, raised, and still based in the Bronx, DJ Jazzy Joyce started deejaying in the early 1980s, at age 12. She won her first DJ award at the New Music Seminar in 1983 and has not stopped performing since, representing, as she advertises on her personal myspace page, ‘‘Hip-Hop’s past, present and future.’’ Gang Starr’s DJ Premier, a distinguished producer discovered by Lord Finesse, another hip hop artist and producer hailing from the Bronx (he was the leader of the D.I.T.C. rap crew), provided first-rate productions on Jealous One’s Envy with ‘‘The Shit Is Real.’’ On this album, Fat Joe also paired with Wu Tang’s Raekwon on ‘‘Respect Mine,’’ a song consistent with the importance of the notion of respect amongst ghetto dwellers brought to light by Bourgois’s three-year field work amongst Nuyorican drug dealers and repeatedly emphasized by the Puerto Ricans gang members interviewed in 80 Blocks from Tiffany’s. Jealous Ones’ Envy necessarily featured obligatory shout-outs to the rapper’s home. On ‘‘Bronx Keeps Creating It,’’ whose chorus is a cut and scratched sample of KRS-One’s classic ‘‘The Bridge is Over,’’ Fat Joe emphatically puts his home borough back to the forefront and pays homage to KRS and Lord Finesse, two of its greatest representatives. Meanwhile, he appeared extensively on other high-profile rapper’s materials. For example, in 1995 he was featured, alongside Foxy Brown and Keith Murray, on LL Cool J’s hit single ‘‘I Shot Ya.’’ As many other star rappers turned entrepreneurs, Fat Joe also diversified and developed his own brand of street wear (FJ560), and opened a clothing store (Fat Joe’s Halftime). In 1998, he switched labels and signed to Atlantic Records. He carried on the Mafioso/gangsta imagery introduced in his earlier releases and recorded Don Cartagena which featured rappers Jadakiss, Nas, and Raekwon on the track ‘‘John Blaze’’; and Big Pun (on ‘‘John

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Blaze,’’ ‘‘Triplets,’’ and ‘‘My World’’). His next effort, Jealous Ones Still Envy (J.O.S.E.), featured a just as impressive ensemble of rappers. Up and coming rapper Ludacris was featured on ‘‘Get the Hell On With That,’’ M.O.P. on ‘‘Fight Club,’’ and superstar rapper Xzibit on ‘‘The Wild Life,’’ a gangsta anthem on which Fat Joe and his guest joined up the dangerous streets and street corners activities that both distinguish and draw together ghettoes from both coasts. In 1998, Fat Joe had teamed up with Big Pun (Big Punisher), another superstar rapper from the Bronx and from Puerto Rican origins (who had just scored a huge hit with his song ‘‘Still Not a Player’’), to found the Terror Squad. The group, cashing in on the status of these two superstars, became famous in the late 1990s East Coast rap scene. Along with Fat Joe and Big Pun, Terror Squad included fellow Bronx rappers Cuban Link, Armageddon, Prospect, and Triple Seis, plus singer Tony Sunshine. Such posse efforts had become legion in the wake of the Wu Tang Clan’s success (the most notable being Murder Ink, Flipmode Squad, Ruff Ryders, and/or D12). Fat Joe showcased the group extensively on Don Cartagena. Armageddon appeared on ‘‘Find Out’’ and ‘‘My Prerogative’’ and all its rappers on ‘‘Bet Ya Man Can’t (Triz)’’ and ‘‘Terror Squadians.’’ Shortly after Terror Squad had released its debut album in 1999, the group suffered the abrupt loss of Big Pun in early 2000. Meanwhile, Fat Joe carried on with his solo career and appeared on several radio-friendly commercial hits like Ashanti’s ‘‘What’s Love,’’ R. Kelly’s ‘‘We Thuggin,’’ and Ginuwine’s ‘‘Crush Tonight.’’ In 2002, he recorded Loyalty, an album that featured his Terror Squad colleagues whose line up now consisted of Armageddon, Tony Sunshine, Prospect, and Remy. Two years later they released True Story, their sophomore album (Universal 2004). ‘‘Lean Back,’’ its lead single, became an instant hit and reached the top five of Billboard’s Hot 100. Definitely in tune with the clubby zeitgeist that seemed to prevail in rap music and videos at the time (like 50 Cent’s ‘‘In Da Club’’ or Nelly’s ‘‘Hot in Herre’’), this track, produced by hit-making producer Scott Storch and benefiting from heavy rotations, put Fat Joe back in the spotlight. The rapper released All or Nothing in 2005 and has managed to stay in the limelight thanks to high-profile guest appearances and multiple collaborations with hit-makers like DJ Premier or Scott Storch (on the recent hit single ‘‘Make It Rain’’).

CAPITALIZING ON A PARADIGMATIC BRONX As a mythical matrix, the Bronx has spawned many rap musicians who, while they keep on representing the BX, also celebrate a community of multiple ghettoes that transcends the principle of the extreme local introduced by Murray Forman. Indeed, as many rap songs suggest, the territory celebrated by rappers is, paradoxically, both local and, say, translocal. For example, in their debut album Uptown Saturday Night (1997), Camp Lo, another celebrated rap duo hailing from the Bronx, informs us that their music, though inspired by and directed towards

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hustlers from the Bronx, is also intended for an imagined community of hustlers from all over New York. Filling their music and videos with 1970s references and clothing styles, this duo, composed of Sonny Cheeba (Salahadeen Wilds) and Geechi Suede (Saladine Wallace), whose distinctive rhyming styles and smooth melodies secured them a cult following and an opening spot on tour with Long Island’s De La Soul, became very popular by rapping mainly about the Bronx and the status symbols of its residents involved in criminal activities. However, while they notably address their lyrics to ‘‘All the crooks in the BX’’ on their song ‘‘Black Connection,’’ they equally direct them to all the residents from the ‘‘Tri-borough’’ (the Bronx, Manhattan, and Queens). This dual geography of reference reveals an inter-ghetto’s deep-rootedness unchallenged by rivalry between areas. The regional logic deployed by rappers to justify their symbolic supremacy intervenes below the ghettocentrism that confers them a stable referential identity. The hit single ‘‘Jenny From The Block,’’ as corny as it could be considered by rap fans and critics, offers a representative example of the guarantee of legitimacy, authenticity and credibility conferred by direct references to a specific space (‘‘the block’’) and a specific place (‘‘the South Bronx’’). Aiming at presenting herself as ‘‘real’’ after a socioprofessional trajectory that has made her a celebrity in the entertainment industry, Jennifer Lopez exploits her sociogeographic origins (the South Bronx) to legitimate her hip hop/R&B career. Throughout this song, she ‘‘keeps it real’’ in mentioning the harsh living conditions of her birthplace through a sample of BDP’s ‘‘South Bronx.’’ Calling the attention to the diversity of economic activities (both legitimate and illegitimate) which characterize the Bronx, Jennifer Lopez embraces the codes of representations of a ghetto whose poverty is repeatedly suggested (as opposed to her present material and financial wealth). The rappers from L.O.X, who feature on a remix of this song, boost the singer’s street credibility up. They claim their sociogeographic origins several times in the course of the song. They immediately announce that they are pure products from the ghetto (‘‘we off the block’’) and insist on their authenticity (‘‘nothin’ phony with us’’). The listener is equally directed towards the ghetto through the self-portraits presented by the rappers. They refer to acknowledged status symbols (white tee-shirts) and use ghetto vernacular and idioms pointing directly towards street life. Jennifer Lopez, as I already pointed out, is a major personality in the entertainment industry. As an actress, singer on a major record label, and Egeria for famous brands of beauty products, she holds a considerably high status in an industry whose public image generally differs from that of the ghetto. These elements help in understanding the legitimating strategy which stands out in her discourse, especially in the chorus of the song. Throughout the chorus, the singer complies with the ghettocentric discourse that prevails in the rap production and justifies her street credibility despite her new social status in the entertainment industry. She repeatedly insists on her ‘‘realness’’ and expresses her attachment to the ghetto and to the Bronx throughout the whole song. The final section of her hit single,

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with her sentimental references to the Bronx (through the repetition of the ‘‘South Bronx’’ sample) reveals this attachment. Putting the ghetto at the core of one’s discourse, as Jennifer Lopez does in ‘‘Jenny From The Block,’’ is a means to ‘‘keep it real’’ in rap. If the symbolic closeness that she claims in presenting herself as Jenny from the block confers her considerable credibility, her credibility is equally due to her mentioning her Bronx origins.

THE FUTURE OF BRONX HIP HOP Though it is generally quite difficult to know what the future has in store, it is more than likely, owing to its noteworthy status, that the Bronx will, over the years, keep spawning new generations of significant rappers. In a musical genre characterized by a purely discursive distinction between MCs who claim to ‘‘keep it real,’’ who act as guarantors for a ‘‘true’’ hip hop which remains faithful to the musical and thematic traditions established by Bambaataa et al., and MCs who are not considered ‘‘true’’ enough, Bronx rappers inherently hold a valuable symbolic capital. Underground sensation C-Rayz Walz, for instance, a respected freestyler signed to the independent label Definite Jux, seems to owe his current status as one of the most underrated MCs of the alternative rap scene (a condition shared by rappers such as Immortal Technique, Eyedea, and Sage Francis) to his Bronx origins as much as to the stripes he has won through his notable career as a battle rhymer (during which he allegedly defeated freestyle legend Supernatural). For example, he profusely emphasizes his sociogeographical origins on his 2003 album Ravipops (The Substance), notably on ‘‘3 Card Molly,’’ a bleak though ethnographically accurate portrayal of a crime-ridden Bronx, juxtaposed with the celebratory chorus: ‘‘BX, the place I was from. BX, man I love that stuff.’’ True to form and like many Bronx rappers before him, C-Rayz Walz capitalized significantly on his BX and, by extension, New York origins, on his early records not only to make a name for himself, but also to establish his sociocultural credibility in the rap milieu on the mythical aura of his home. Indeed, breakthrough records by Bronx musicians like Afrika Bambaataa and The Soul Sonic Force’s ‘‘Planet Rock’’ and Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five’s ‘‘The Message,’’ the first hip hop song to explore the problems of innercity life, laid the foundation of what would become, 20 years later, one of the most successful musical genres in the United States and abroad. Even though scores of regions across the country have developed their own unique styles and innovations, brought to light in this volume, the Bronx has remained, because of its historical background and legacy, a mythical place with an emblematic status. This special status shows through the multiple tributes that rap musicians from the Bronx and beyond pay to this borough and through the interest of institutional commentators (journalists and academics), who were determining operators, through their documented histories of the movement, of the symbolic transformation of the Bronx into a mythical place. The turf/style wars established by the Founding Fathers

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and perpetuated in 1987 when Boogie Down Productions burst on the rap scene by strongly proclaiming their Bronx roots with the anthems ‘‘The Bridge Is Over’’ and ‘‘South Bronx’’ which have become essential conventions in rap music. In their wake, hip hop musicians have been devoting albums and songs to their places of residence, whether a city, a neighborhood, or even a street.

REFERENCES Ahearn, Charles, ed. Yes Yes Y’all: Oral History of Hip-Hop’s First Decade. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2002. Alonso, Alejandro A. ‘‘Urban Graffiti on the City Landscape.’’ Paper presented at Western Geography Graduate Conference, San Diego State University, February 14, 1998. Bourgois, Philippe. In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Eure, Joseph D., and James G. Spady, eds. Nation Conscious Rap: The Hip Hop Vision. New York: PC International Press, 1991. Fernando, S. H, Jr. The New Beats: Exploring the Music, Culture, and Attitudes of Hip-Hop. New York: Anchor, 1994. Forman, Murray. The ’Hood Comes First: Race, Space, and Place in Rap and HipHop. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2002. George, Nelson. ‘‘Hip-Hop’s Founding Fathers Speak The Truth.’’ The Source, November 1993, 44–50. Hager, Stephen. Hip Hop: The Illustrated History of Breakdancing, Rap Music and Graffiti. New York: St Martins Press, 1984. Haring, Bruce. ‘‘Many Doors Still Closed to Rap Tours.’’ Billboard, December 16, 1989, 1. Haveloc, Nelson, and Michael A. Gonzalez. Bring the Noise: A Guide to Rap Music and Hip-Hop Culture. New York: Harmony Books, 1991. Huey, Steve. Boogie Down Productions. http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll? p=amg&sql=11:hifqxq95ld6e~T1 (accessed September 30, 2009). Jacobs, Sonji. ‘‘Hip Hop’s Heart Still Beating in the Bronx,’’ http://128.59.96.28/ studentwork/bronxbeat/1999/april/april12/hiphop.html (August 21, 2007). Marshall, Wayne. ‘‘Kool Herc.’’ In Icons of Hip Hop, edited by Mickey Hess, 1–25. Wesport, CT: Greenwood, 2007. Murray, Charles, and Richard Herrnstein. The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life. New York: Free Press, 1994. Ogg, Alex. Rap Lyrics: From the Sugarhill Gang to Eminem. London: Omnibus Press, 2002. Poschardt, Ulf. DJ Culture. Paris: Kargo, 2002. Reischel, Julia. ‘‘Slick Trouble.’’ Village Voice, January 9, 2007 http://www .villagevoice.com/2007-01-09/music/slick-trouble/

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Stanley, Lawrence A. Rap: The Lyrics. New York: Penguin Books, 1992. Toop, David. Rap Attack 3: African Rap to Global Hip Hop. London: Serpent’s Tail, 2000. Wacquant, Loı¨c. ‘‘L’Ame´rique comme utopie a` l’envers.’’ In La mise`re du monde, edited by Pierre Bourdieu, 263–78. Paris: Seuil, 1993. Wacquant, Loı¨c, and William J. Wilson. ‘‘The Cost of Racial and Class Exclusion in the Inner City.’’ In The Ghetto Underclass: Social Science Perspectives, edited by William J. Wilson, 25–42. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993. Williams, H. C. ‘‘Grandmaster Flash.’’ In Icons of Hip Hop, edited by Mickey Hess, 27–49. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2007.

FURTHER RESOURCES Bourgois, Philippe. ‘‘Crack in Spanish Harlem: Culture and Economy in the Inner City.’’ Anthropology Today 5, no. 4 (August 1989), 6–11. ———. ‘‘Homeless in El Barrio.’’ In La Mise`re du Monde, edited by Pierre Bourdieu, 317–36. Paris: Seuil, 1993. Forman, Murray. ‘‘ ‘Represent’’: Race, Space and Place in Rap Music.’’ In That’s the Joint!: The Hip Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 201–22. New York: Routledge, 2004. Kozol, Jonathan. Amazing Grace: The Lives of Youth and the Conscience of a Nation. New York: Crown Publishers, 1995.

FILMS Simon, David and Burns, ed. The Wire (TV Series). Home Box Office, 2002–2006. Weis, Gary. 80 Blocks from Tiffany’s. Above Average Productions, 1979.

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY Afrika Bambaataa and the Soulsonic Force Planet Rock: The Album. Tommy Boy, 1986. Big Pun Capital Punishment. Relativity, 1998. Yeeeah Baby. Relativity, 2000. Boogie Down Productions Criminal Minded. B-Boy Records, 1987. By All Means Necessary. Jive/RCA Records, 1988. Ghetto Music: The Blueprint of Hip Hop. Jive/RCA, 1989. Edutainment. Jive, 1990. Busy Bee Running Thangs. Uni/MCA Records, 1988.

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C-Rayz Walz Ravipops. Definite Jux, 2003. Monstermaker. Babygrande, 2007. Camp Lo Uptown Saturday Night. Profile, 1997. Cold Crush Brothers ‘‘Weekend.’’ Elite, 1982. ‘‘Punk Rock Rap.’’ Tuff City, 1983. ‘‘Fresh, Wild, Fly, and Bold.’’ Profile, 1984. ‘‘Cold Crush Brothers at the Dixie.’’ Wild Style Original Soundtrack, 25th Anniversary Edition. Mr. Bongo, 2007. D-Nice Call Me D-Nice. Jive, 1990. To tha Rescue. Jive, 1991. Diamond and the Pyschotic Neurotics Stunts, Blunts, and Hip Hop. Chemistry/Mercury, 1992. Diamond Hatred, Passions, and Infidelity. Mercury/Polygram, 1997. Grown Man Talk. Diamond Mine, 2003. The Diamond Mine. Diamond Mine, 2003. The Huge Hefner Chronicles. Babygrande, 2008. Fantastic Five ‘‘Can I Get a Soul Clapp?’’ Soul-O-Wax, 1982. Fat Joe Represent. Relativity, 1993. Jealous Ones’ Envy. Relativity, 1995. Don Cartagena. Mystic Records/Big Beats, 1998. Jealous Ones Still Envy. Atlantic, 2001. Funky Four Plus One More ‘‘Rapping and Rocking the House.’’ Enjoy, 1979. ‘‘That’s the Joint.’’ Sugarhill, 1980. Furious Five ‘‘Step Off.’’ Sugar Hill, 1984. Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five The Message. Sugar Hill, 1982. Kool Keith Sex Style. Funky Ass, 1997. Black Elvis/Lost in Space. Ruffhouse/Columbia, 1999. Matthew. Funky Ass, 2000. Kool Keith (As Dr. Octagon) Dr. Octagynecologist. Dreamworks, 1996.

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Kool Keith (As Dr. Dooom) First Come, First Served. Funky Ass, 1999. KRS-One Return of the Boom Bap. Jive, 1993. KRS-One. Jive, 1995. I Got Next. Jive, 1997. KRS-One and Marley Marl Hip Hop Lives. Koch, 2007. KRS-One and Buckshot Survival Skills. Duck Down, 2009. Lord Finesse and DJ Mike Smooth Funky Technician. Wild Pitch, 1990. Lord Finesse Return of the Funky Man. Giant/Reprise, 1992. Melle Mel and Duke Bootee ‘‘Message 2 (Survival).’’ Sugar Hill, 1982. Nice & Smooth Nice & Smooth. Fresh/Sleeping Bag, 1989. Ain’t a Damn Thing Changed. RAL/Columbia, 1990. Jewel of the Nile. RAL/Polygram, 1994. Blazing Hot, Vol. 4. Scotti Brothers, 1997. Nine Nine Livez. Profile, 1995. Showbiz and A.G. Soul Clap. Payday, 1992. Runaway Slave. Payday, 1992. Slick Rick The Great Adventures of Slick Rick. Universal/Def Jam, 1988. The Ruler’s Back. Def Jam, 1991. Behind Bars. Def Jam, 1994. The Art of Storytelling. Def Jam, 1999. T La Rock Lyrical King (From the Boogie Down Bronx). Fresh/Sleeping Bag, 1987. Terror Squad True Story. Universal, 2004. Tim Dog Penicillin on Wax. Ruffhouse, 1991. Do or Die. Ruffhouse, 1993. BX Warrior. Big City, 2006. Ultra (Kool Keith and Tim Dog) Big Time. Our Turn, 1996.

Hip Cats in the Cradle of Rap | 29 Ultramagnetic MCs Critical Beatdown. Roadrunner, 1988. Funk Your Head Up. Mercury/Polygram, 1992. The Four Horsemen. Wild Pitch, 1993. Various Artists Lyricist Lounge, vol. 1. Rawkus Records, 1998.

CHAPTER 2 Uptown, Baby!: Hip Hop in Harlem and Upper Manhattan David Shanks Harlem, New York, has been the center of African American culture and arts since the early twentieth century. Often referred to as the Mecca of Black America, Harlem’s roots run deep with tradition—this neighborhood has been home to some of the greatest artists in American history. From Sir Duke Ellington in the 1920s to Langston Hughes and James Baldwin during the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s and 1930s, Harlem has housed a virtual who’s who of poets, singers, musicians, writers, and performers. Harlem has always been the place to find whatever is new and happening in Black America. Whether it’s the newest fashion trend or slickest slang terminology, you can find it in Harlem before anywhere else in the world. It’s no surprise that Harlem played a key role in the origins and early development of hip hop music and culture. If the South Bronx is the birthplace of hip hop, then Harlem is where the newborn culture took its first steps. Many of hip hop’s pioneers took the short train ride into Harlem to spread the new phenomenon to their uptown neighbors at clubs like Harlem World and the legendary Apollo Theater (see sidebar: Apollo Theater). The first hip hop block parties, thrown by Kool Herc at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue and Cedar Park in the Bronx, drew from the routines of Harlem DJs Eddie Cheeba and DJ Hollywood, who wrote rhymes and call-and-response routines to keep the crowd hyped. Many of the second wave of artists who came after the undisputed founding fathers—the Bronx’s Grandmaster Flash, Kool Herc, and Afrika Bambaataa—were native Harlemites, and Harlem rappers in 2009 continue to bring something fresh to the culture. From the Treacherous Three to Dipset, Harlem MCs have always been the trendsetters.

HIP HOP’S FORGOTTEN FOREFATHERS Two names that are seldom mentioned in commercial recollections of hip hop’s early days but never forgotten by the other architects of the culture are Eddie 31

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APOLLO THEATER If Harlem is considered the ‘‘Mecca’’ of Black America then the Apollo Theater is the one true monument that signifies this distinction. Like Harlem itself, The Apollo has seen many ups and downs but has stood the test of time and is now in the midst of a major revitalization and reemergence to the forefront of African American and mainstream culture. The original structure was built at 253 W 125th street in 1914 and was home to one of the city’s most popular burlesque reviews. Ironically, The Apollo was a ‘‘whites only’’ establishment until 1934 when it began featuring its own ‘‘colored review’’ and a new live feature called ‘‘Amateur Night at the Apollo’’ founded and hosted by Ralph Cooper, Sr. Music legend Ella Fitzgerald was one of the first artists to perform at amateur night using her dazzling vocals to become a weekly staple at the venue. Billed as ‘‘the place where dreams are born and legends are made,’’ the Apollo and the amateur night feature would play a major role in launching the careers of some of the most popular African American artists in American history. Among them are Billie Holiday, Bessie Smith, James Brown, The Supremes, The Jackson 5, Gladys Knight, James Brown, Lauryn Hill, and countless others. The amateur night contest was adapted for television as Showtime at the Apollo, a long-running, nationally syndicated series. The Apollo Theater has also played host to a ‘‘who’s who’’ of hip hop artists. A live version of Big Daddy Kane’s ‘‘The Wrath of Kane’’ performed at the Apollo was included on his 1989 album, It’s a Big Daddy Thing. Legendary DJ Kid Capri recorded a dedication song called ‘‘The Apollo’’ in 1991 to show his respect to the famous venue. The Apollo was added to the U.S. National Registry of Historic Places in 1983 and is a city, state, and federal historic landmark.

FURTHER RESOURCE Apollo Theater Foundation, Inc. http://www.apollotheater.org/.

Cheeba and DJ Hollywood. The two friends, partners, and competitors are credited by many as the original ‘‘rappers’’ of the hip hop era. Hollywood and Cheeba’s rhyme routines predated and influenced Kool Herc in the Bronx, but their contributions tend to be grouped with the club scene of the 1970s and the dominance of disco music in some of the Manhattan clubs where they played. DJ Hollywood (born Anthony Holloway in 1954) began playing clubs across NYC in the early 1970s and soon gained a huge reputation and following for his unique crowd motivation techniques. Fellow pioneers such as Kurtis Blow credit

Uptown, Baby! | 33 Hollywood (or ‘‘Wood,’’ as he is often called) as the first person to use hip hop raps over recorded music and the inventor of the oft-used party phrases such as ‘‘throw your hands in the air and wave them like you just don’t care . . . .’’ Hollywood is also credited for spreading hip hop from the Bronx and Harlem to the boroughs in NYC and for attracting a more mature audience, bringing hip hop from the block party to the clubs. On some nights, Wood was playing two to three different clubs per night charging $500 for each appearance. Most deejays from that era were not making that much for one gig (Skillz). At the height of his popularity, DJ Hollywood was a featured act at the Apollo Theater, entertaining the crowds between sets of some the most popular performers of the time. Hollywood’s influence can be heard in many of hip hop’s original rap stars including Melle Mel (of the Furious Five), Kurtis Blow, and particularly the Sugar Hill Gang, specifically the hip hop classic ‘‘Rapper’s Delight.’’ Hollywood was also a pioneer of the mixtape. As early as 1972, he was selling eighttracks of his mixes for up to $20.00 on the streets of New York. Unfortunately, the original ‘‘King of Rap’’ (Kurtis Blow would later adopt the name as his own) did not record any music for a label, aside from one single, 1980’s ‘‘Shock Shock the House,’’ which left him behind as the groups he influenced were signed to major labels. Those who were there at hip hop’s beginning, however, have nothing but respect, admiration, and gratitude for his contribution to the art form. Like his contemporary, DJ Hollywood, Eddie Cheeba (born Edward Sturgis in Harlem’s Douglass Housing Projects) gained an early reputation as a disco DJ in clubs throughout NYC. Influenced by Hollywood, Cheeba began crafting his own crowd motivation raps, which added to his popularity. Cheeba was able to fuse the disco and hip hop worlds to create a style that would allow him access to clubs throughout the city, uptown, downtown, and across town. He played the venues that Kool Herc and Flash played such as Disco Fever but also played the more ‘‘classy’’ establishments such as Charles Gallery. Cheeba was considered by many to be the number one club DJ in the mid-1970s. He traveled with an entire show and crew, The Cheeba Crew, including seven female dancers and his DJ, Easy Gee. They played clubs in the Bronx, Harlem, Downtown Manhattan, Queens, and even Long Island. Hip hop legend, Kurtis Blow even served as an understudy of Eddie Cheeba before going on to make his own mark. Like Hollywood, and other pioneers like DJ Lovebug Starski, Cheeba’s style and rhymes were duplicated on what would become rap music’s earliest recordings, where the pioneer would receive no credit, or royalties, for his material.

HARLEM WORLD AND THE EARLY YEARS OF HIP HOP (1979–1985) In 1979, as hip hop began to move out of the parks and clubs and onto recordings, Harlem’s Paul Winley joined the first wave of rap records, along with The Fatback

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Kurtis Blow (Michael Ochs Archives/ Getty Images)

Band’s ‘‘King Tim III,’’ Sugar Hill Gang’s ‘‘Rapper’s Delight,’’ and Kurtis Blow’s ‘‘Christmas Rappin.’ ’’ Paul Winley recorded ‘‘Rhymin’ and Rappin’,’’ one of the earliest records by a female rap artist. Winley’s daughters Paulette and Tanya Winley released ‘‘Rhymin’ and Rappin’ ’’ in 1979, just after Philadelphia’s Lady B released her own debut single ‘‘To the Beat Ya’ll.’’ Winley, who produced Afrika Bambaataa’s first record, 1981’s ‘‘Zulu Nation Throwdown,’’ was also the first producer to create a break record. His Super Disco Brakes was the first albumlength compilation of the ‘‘break’’ parts of popular songs, which is the heartbeat of the party DJ, and the backbone of hip hop music. DJs, most notably Grandmaster Flash, would find the section of the song where there was some sort of breakdown in the original rhythm and then continuously loop that section using two turntables and two copies of the same record (the break section of the record would later be used to create brand new hip hop records with the aid of digital sampling). Winley gathered all of the popular breaks of the time and put them on Super Disco Brakes, making the DJ’s job that much easier. Winley is an important figure within Harlem’s DJ culture, which laid the foundation for many of the musical innovations that came with hip hop. Harlem’s first rapper to make it big on records, however, eschewed his Harlem roots for the borough of Queens. Born in Harlem in 1959, Curtis Walker made an early name for himself as a party DJ named Kool DJ Kurt. In 1976, he enrolled at City College of New York where he met fellow student and party promoter, the Queens native Russell Simmons. He soon joined Simmons’ group of promoters known as The Force and they promoted parties throughout Harlem before expanding their operation to Queens in 1977. Inspired by DJ Hollywood’s crowd

Uptown, Baby! | 35 motivation routines, Kool Kurt became an MC, and at the urging of Simmons, his new manager, changed his name to Kurtis Blow. Simmons set about promoting Blow as ‘‘The Number One Rapper in Queens,’’ and his popularity grew among the young fans of hip hop. One admirer of Blow was Simmons’s younger brother Joe, who would become Kurtis Blow’s DJ known as, DJ Run, Son of Kurtis Blow. DJ Run would become one third of Run-DMC, one of hip hop’s most influential groups. By the late 1970s, Kurtis Blow was making a name for himself in the streets and Russell Simmons was making connections in the music industry. These connections led to Kurtis Blow recording his first record, 1979’s ‘‘Christmas Rappin.’’ The success of the single eventually led to a monumental moment in hip hop history as Kurtis Blow became the first rapper to sign a contract with a major recording label. Blow followed up ‘‘Christmas Rappin’’ in 1980. The new ‘‘King of Rap’’ released his debut self-titled album that same year. Kurtis Blow released 10 albums in the next 11 years and cemented his position as hip hop loyalty with hits such as ‘‘Basketball,’’ ‘‘AJ,’’ and ‘‘If I Ruled The World’’ (the latter would resurface years later when Nas covered it, featuring Lauryn Hill on the chorus). Throughout the years and many changes in the genre, Kurtis Blow maintained his relevance as a pioneer and ambassador of the art form starring in films like Krush Groove (1985), producing artists, and lending his time and energy to many social causes. Kurtis Blow still resides in New York where he serves as founder, DJ, and worship leader at the first hip hop church, in Harlem. While Blow’s rhyme style was closer to the steady pace of the Bronx rapper Melle Mel, another Harlem group, The Treacherous Three, are credited with developing new, intricate rhyme styles that influenced many hip hop MCs. The Treacherous Three, consisting of Special K, L.A. Sunshine, Kool Moe Dee, and DJ Easy Lee, formed in the late 1970s and became one of the first rap acts to record on a major label. The Treacherous Three are credited with being some of the first true lyricists in hip hop; most notably, Kool Moe Dee who would go on to solo success and is regarded as one of the greatest emcees of his era. In 1980, The Treacherous Three recorded ‘‘The New Rap Language,’’ the B-side to rapper and friend Spoonie Gee’s classic single, ‘‘Love Rap,’’ on Enjoy Records. In the song, The Treacherous Three would employ a new style dubbed ‘‘speed rapping’’ that would influence many of the rappers that came after them including LL. Cool J, T La Rock, Kool G. Rap, and Big Daddy Kane. They followed that up with ‘‘Body Rock’’ and ‘‘At the Party’’ and then left Enjoy Records to join the legendary Sugar Hill records in 1981 where they released the classic singles ‘‘Feel the Heartbeat,’’ ‘‘Whip It,’’ ‘‘Yes We Can Can,’’ and ‘‘Action.’’ They also had a cameo performance in the 1984 movie Beat Street performing ‘‘Santa’s Rap’’ with Doug E. Fresh. The group disbanded shortly after that but reunited for the 1994 album Old School Flava. The Harlem-raised Doug E. Fresh (Douglass Davis, born 1966 in Barbados) began his music career at age 13. Legend has it that a young Doug E. Fresh (then

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Doug E. Fresh and the Get Fresh Crew (Photofest)

named Dougie Fresh) was booed several times at Harlem World until one distinct performance when he came with something the crowd had never seen before. He used his mouth to vocally simulate the sounds of drums and other instruments which is now known as the human beat box. Instead of trying to rhyme like a traditional MC, Doug became a crowd motivator and inventor of beatboxing, one of the five elements of hip hop. That night birthed the legend of the self-proclaimed ‘‘world’s greatest entertainer.’’ In 1984, Doug E. Fresh appeared in the movie Beat Street and made his solo recording debut with the singles ‘‘Just Having Fun’’ and ‘‘Original Human Beat Box.’’ Doug E. Fresh would truly make his mark on hip hop in 1985 after forming the Get Fresh Crew with DJs Chill Will, Barry B and a London, England born, Bronxbred rapper, MC Ricky D (hip hop legend, Slick Rick). The two-sided, multiplatinum singles ‘‘The Show’’ and ‘‘La Di Da Di,’’ are two of the most celebrated records in hip hop and are still party favorites over 20 years later. In 1986, the Get Fresh Crew released their full-length album Oh, My God! The 1988 follow up, The World’s Greatest Entertainer, featured the hit single ‘‘Keep Rising to the Top,’’ but is most noted for its lack of input from MC Ricky D who was reportedly removed from the group’s lineup by their record label. MC Ricky D would change his name to Slick Rick and release his debut album, The Adventures of Slick Rick, in 1989 on Def Jam Records. The album reached #1 on Billboard’s R&B/Hip Hop chart. Although Doug E. Fresh had countless cameos and single releases, he did not release another album until 1992 when he returned with Doin’ What I Gotta Do,

Uptown, Baby! | 37 on MC Hammer’s Bust It imprint. Although the album was not commercially successful, Doug E. Fresh continued to be a relevant force in hip hop lending his talents to a host of music’s best, including Chaka Khan, and rock group, Living Colour. In 1993, he released the hit single ‘‘I-Ight’’ which was followed up in 1995 with a successful LP titled Play on Gee Street Independent. The album featured a collaboration with former partner Slick Rick. Doug returned the favor, appearing on Slick Rick’s 1999 release The Art of Story Telling. The two have performed together on many occasions but never released another album as the Get Fresh Crew. Doug E. Fresh is recognized world wide as a hip hop ambassador and is among the first rap artists to perform in Africa and the Caribbean. His list of collaborations stretches across all genres of music and includes hip hop greats, Tupac, The Notorious BIG, Eminem, Dr. Dre, jazz legends, Grover Washington, Jr., and George Benson, as well as other greats such as Prince, Roberta Flack, Stevie Wonder, and reggae legends Sly and Robbie. He is also respected for his community activism, championing many causes including inner city violence, illiteracy, police brutality, and homelessness. He participated in rapper KRS-One’s Stop The Violence Movement and is a board member of The Artist Empowerment Movement.

LATE 1980S AND THE CRACK ERA Hip Hop culture has always grown from the streets. Whatever was going on in the neighborhoods was expressed in the music and culture. As much as the late 1970s and early 1980s were influenced by the b-boys, the clubs, and unique wardrobes; the late 1980s can be categorized as the ‘‘Crack era’’ in Harlem and in hip hop. The fly suits and gloves were replaced by tons of jewelry, Gucci sneakers, and foreign cars. The street hustler became the main influence for the emcee and three hustlers from Harlem became the primary influential source. Alberto ‘‘Alpo’’ Martinez, Richard Porter, Azie ‘‘AZ’’ Fasion became the poster boys for the underworld of the late 1980s and their influence extended far beyond Harlem. Alpo could be seen hanging out with the likes of LL Cool J, Eric B & Rakim and even Mike Tyson. The ‘‘dooky’’ rope chains, the clothes from Dapper Dans (clothing store in Harlem), and the Benzes (Mercedes Benz) and Beemers (BMW) became the signature look of the era. The style and influence is depicted in the 2002 film Paid in Full, starring Mekhi Phifer and Harlem rapper Cam’ron. The screenplay for the movie was written by Fasion and was loosely based on his life. When the music video show Yo! MTV Raps premiered in August 1988, hip hop music and culture was no longer contained to New York or New Jersey or Philadelphia, it was now available to kids across the country. The styles and images portrayed in many of these videos would carry the influence of the Harlem street culture. The music became less about partying and having fun and took on more combative themes flooded with the vernacular of the street. However, very few Harlem-bred artists were involved in this transition. Doug E. Fresh was a star

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and Kool Moe Dee had established his solo career, but both artists held on to their ‘‘old school’’ traditions of peace, unity and having fun. Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock emerged with one of the biggest hits of 1988, ‘‘It Takes Two.’’ The multiplatinum single was named one of the top 100 hip hop songs of all time by VH1 and the Harlem duo has toured the world for years off of its success. ‘‘It Takes Two,’’ however, was a throwback to the era of party rap, and Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock would not match the success of this song as a new, harder, breed of rap music took hold.

THE EARLY 1990S Further expansion of hip hop culture meant that no one place or region could hold on to it as its own. Hip hop now belonged to everyone and every region had its own interpretation. West Coast gangsta rap was the dominating force during this time with much credit for that belonging to Eazy E and N.W.A.. There were no torchbearers from Harlem that would emerge to carry on the traditions of the Harlem World era and the early 1980s until much later in the decade. From 1990 to 1995 there was a period of transition and the one voice from Harlem being heard was very loud but much more musically influenced than traditional hip hop music. This was the era of the ‘‘New Jack Swing’’ and the architect was a gifted musician and composer named Edward Theodore (Teddy) Riley. Riley performed as a youngster at Club Harlem World (see sidebar: Harlem World). and got his first production credit at age 15 producing the underground classic ‘‘Raps New Generation’’ by Classical II. With his ‘‘New Jack Swing’’ sound, Riley ruled the early to mid-1990s composing hits for rappers Kool Moe Dee, Heavy D & The Boys, Big Daddy Kane, and Redhead Kingpin, superstars such as Michael Jackson and Bobby Brown, and his own groups Guy, Wreckx ‘N’ Effect, and Blackstreet. Riley is a VH1 Hip Hop Honors inductee.

THE MID TO LATE 1990S It is arguable which period of time had the most impact and influence on hip hop music and culture. Many feel the late 1970s and early 1980s took hip hop from the streets to vinyl, from uptown to downtown, making what started in the parks of the Bronx and Harlem into a cultural phenomenon. Others would argue that the era that began in the mid-1990s was the birth of what is now a corporate machine and billion dollar industry in which rappers have parlayed their slick raps and unique styles onto Wall St., Madison Avenue, and Forbes Magazine. For better or worse, hip hop is now mainstream culture and there are two individuals who may be most responsible for this journey. Both are Harlem natives who emerged on the scene around 1994. One is most obvious and the other obscure. One is a story of triumph that is still being crafted, the other a story of tragedy, filled with ‘‘what-ifs’’ and lost promise. One is Sean Combs (aka Puff Daddy, P. Diddy, Puffy,

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HARLEM WORLD One of the centers of Harlem’s early hip hop scene was Club Harlem World, located on 116th Street and Lennox Avenue. Harlem World was the major hot spot for the hip hop partygoers. It also played host to some of the most historic battles in hip hop involving some of the great emcees and groups of the day, most notably the Cold Crush Brothers and The Fantastic Five. On one memorable night in 1981 a battle took place between Chief Rocka Busy Bee and Kool Moe Dee of the Treacherous Three. This battle is now considered one of the most significant in the history of hip hop and the recording is still being played around the world today. Many artists who would go on to superstardom received their first break performing for the Harlem World crowd including a young Teddy Riley (producer and founder of groups Blackstreet and Guy), Keith Sweat, New Edition (in their first New York City performance), and Doug E. Fresh. Harlem World also featured its own crew of ‘‘house emcees’’ called the Harlem World Crew. The crew consisted of Charlie Rock, Son of Sam, DJ Randy, DJ Kool D, and later on Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. They recorded the hit record ‘‘Rapper’s Convention’’ in 1980 for Tayster Records. Dr. Jekyll (real name Andre Harrell) would go on to start Uptown Records, discover talents like Mary J. Blige and Jodeci, and give a young Sean ‘‘P. Diddy’’ Combs his start in the music business. Harlem World would close its doors in 1985 due in part to financial woes and community pressure.

Shiny Suit Man, Mr. Vote or Die), and the other is Lamont Coleman, known simply as Big L. Combs began his career as an intern at Uptown Records under the watchful eye of the label’s president, Andre Harrell (of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde fame). The ambitious Combs was soon promoted to an A&R position within the company where he was responsible for launching the careers of R&B sensations Jodeci and Mary J. Blige. His ambitious nature would actually lead to him being fired from Uptown by Harrell which may be the catalyst that created the ‘‘monster’’ that is P. Diddy. Shortly after his demise at Uptown, Combs started his own record company which he named Bad Boy Entertainment. His first release, Craig Mack’s platinum selling debut Project: Funk the World, featured the 1994 hit ‘‘Flava in Your Ear.’’ Of course it was Bad Boy’s second release, the classic Ready to Die from The Notorious BIG that would cement Combs’ place in history and begin the reign of P. Diddy and Bad Boy. The year 1994 also marked the debut of another Harlem native son, Big L. Lamont ‘‘Big L’’ Coleman (May 30, 1974–February 15, 1999) was born and raised on 139th St and Lennox Avenue on Harlem’s Westside. It was evident at a very

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early age that ‘‘L’’ was a gifted lyricist with an undying love of hip hop. He would gain a name for himself battling emcees at the neighborhood park on 139th St and around Harlem. In the early 1990s, Big L formed a crew called Children of the Corn (COC). The group included a young Mason ‘‘Murder Mase’’ Betha, Cameron ‘‘Killa Cam’’ Giles, and Cam’s cousin, Derek ‘‘Bloodshed’’ Armstead (now deceased). Production was done by Darrell ‘‘Digga’’ Branch who would go on to produce hits for Jay-Z and 50 Cent. Mase and Cam were outstanding basketball players at Manhattan Center High School and both had dreams of the NBA. ‘‘L’’ by most accounts, was the only group member seriously pursuing a career in rap and his dreams would soon come true shortly after meeting rap veteran Lord Finesse who recruited Big L to join his Diggin’ In the Crates (DITC) Crew. His first official cameo appearance would come in 1992 on Lord Finesse’s ‘‘Yes You May’’ remix which was the B-Side to the single ‘‘Party Over Here.’’ Fresh off his cameo, Big L recorded a four-song demo which caught the ears of executives at Columbia Records who signed him soon after. Post high school plans would differ for the members of COC as Cam and Mase went off to college and Big L prepared his debut album for Columbia. In 1995, Big L released the critically acclaimed Lifestylez ov da Poor and Dangerous. While not a commercial success, the album showcased the superb lyrical talents of L who quickly became a favorite amongst hip hop fans nationwide. Big L left Columbia Records in 1996 soon after his debut citing the label’s lack of publicity and support. Ironically, Mase, while attending a music conference in Atlanta with hopes of meeting Jermaine Dupri (Founder of So So Def Music and Def Jam Records executive), met P. Diddy who signed him shortly after hearing him rap. Mase appeared on fellow Bad Boy artists 112’s ‘‘Only You (Remix)’’ and shot to stardom. In 1997, backed by the Bad Boy hit machine, Mase released the multiplatinum Harlem World and became a global star. Through his new found fame and connections he was able to land a solo deal for friend and former COC member Cam who dropped the ‘‘Killa,’’ changed his name to ‘‘Cam’ron,’’ and signed to Lance ‘‘Un’’ Rivera’s Untertainment. Jaded by the lack of success of his debut, many say Big L contemplated retiring from rap. It would take the start of a long awaited DITC (a hip hop supergroup made up of rapper/producer Lord Finesse, Fat Joe, OC, Showbiz & AG, rapper/ producer Diamond and producer Buckwild, along with Big L) project to bring Big L back to what he loved the most. In 1997, L resurfaced with heralded appearances on DITC songs ‘‘Internationally Known’’ and ‘‘The Enemy.’’ He also made a cameo appearance on DITC group member, OC’s 1997 release, Jewelz. Big L also went on tour with DITC leading up to what was supposed to be the release of their first group album. Big L also began working on his own solo material again, this time as CEO of his own label Flamboyant Entertainment. He dropped the classic single ‘‘Ebonics’’ for ‘‘Size ’Em Up’’ and the streets began listening and talking again. Big L soon

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Jim Jones at the VH1 Hip Hop Honors in New York City on October 2, 2008. (AP Photo)

caught the attention of Harlem native and Roc-a-fella Records CEO, Damon ‘‘Dame’’ Dash (who would later sign Cam’ron) who approached L with interest in signing him to the label. L initially declined due to Dash’s lack of interest in signing his friend and longtime collaborator Herb McGruff and his new prote´ge´, C-Town. Negotiations did not break off however and it is reported that Big L was very close to signing a label deal for his Flamboyant Entertainment imprint with Roc-a-fella when he met his tragic and untimely demise on February 15, 1999. The impact of Big L’s death was felt throughout the hip hop community as friends and collaborators including Mase and Cam’ron expressed their hurt over the tragedy. The eventual posthumous release of Big L’s second album The Big Picture not only served as a reminder of Big L’s lyrical prowess and influence on many of his associates, but it showed how quickly a promising life can be snatched away. Many critics, fans, and hip hop aficionados consider Lamont Coleman to be the greatest rapper from Harlem. Three months after Big L’s death, NYC police arrested Gerard Woodley, a childhood friend of Big L’s, for his murder.

DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY—2000 AND BEYOND Cam’ron, Jim Jones, Juelz Santana, Freekey Zeeky, JR Writer, 40 Cal, Hell Rell, Duke da God, comedian Kat Williams, and female artist, Jha Jha. Harlem’s Diplomats, or Dipset, originally consisted of childhood friends Cameron ‘‘Cam’ron’’ Giles, Joseph Guillermo Jones II or ‘‘Jim Jones,’’ and E-Zekiel ‘‘Freeky Zeeky’’ Jiles, who grew up together on Harlem’s Eastside. A young Laron ‘‘Juelz Santana’’

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James was recruited shortly after and the core of the group was formed. The Diplomats first appeared on Cam’ron’s sophomore album SDE, released in 2000 on Epic Records. It was in 2002, however, when Cam joined forces with friend and mentor Dame Dash’s Roc-a-fella Records that he and the Diplomats would become one of the premier collectives in hip hop. Cam’s first Roc-a-fella release Come Home with Me featured the hit singles ‘‘Oh Boy’’ and ‘‘Hey Ma’’ which both featured Juelz Santana. The hits would help secure a deal for the crew’s Diplomatic Records with Cam and Jim Jones serving as co-CEOs, and Freekey Zeeky as president. In 2003, The Diplomats released their first group album, Diplomatic Immunity, via their Diplomat/Roc-a-fella Records imprint and the ‘‘movement’’ was in full motion. The album further cemented Dipset’s growing popularity and introduced new members including Hell Rell. In 2004, Diplomatic Immunity 2 was released and the world was introduced to the likes of JR Writer, 40 Cal, and Jha Jha. Dipset now had a complete roster of artists with diverse backgrounds that stretch outside of Harlem. Dipset is one of the most influential collectives in hip hop putting out dozen’s of mixtapes and major releases, securing label deals with multiple record companies (Warner Bros., Koch, Def Jam, etc.), and creating new fashion crazes. In fact, Cam’ron single-handedly made the color pink a ‘‘must have’’ on men and women alike. Many say the Harlem Diplomats brought the famed and historic ‘‘Harlem swagger’’ back to the forefront of hip hop.

WHO’S NEXT? THE FUTURE OF HIP HOP IN HARLEM Many artists have begun to emerge with hopes to carry the torch for Harlem. Battle emcees Jae Millz, Posta Boy, and Murda Mook have been seen and heard from plenty on mixtapes, DVDs, and in the streets. Former Dipset/Byrdgang affiliate Max B has also garnered huge buzz in the streets and on the Internet. Charles Hamilton is a unique emcee/producer with a much cleaner image than his contemporaries but who seems to be on the cusp of superstardom. Ron Browz, a producer and artist, gained initial recognition as producer for Nas’s classic battle record ‘‘Ether.’’ In 2008, Ron Browz emerged as an artist with the popular club hit, ‘‘Pop Champagne,’’ featuring Dipset’s Jim Jones and Juelz Santana. This new wave of artists range from gangster rap to alternative but all maintain one common trait—the confidence that exudes from every emcee that claims Harlem as his home. There are also new institutions in place with the mission to keep alive the legacy and traditions that the fathers of hip hop culture created in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Rap legend and pioneer, Kurtis Blow, is founder and pastor of Greater Hood Memorial AME Zion Church (located at 160 West 146th Street), the first official Hip Hop Church in Harlem equipped with a choir and DJ. Grandmaster Caz works with Hush Tours, a company that conducts guided hip hop tours of Harlem giving visitors a first hand look at the landmarks of Harlem’s early hip hop scene. There is

Uptown, Baby! | 43 also the Hip Hop Cultural Center (located at the Magic Johnson Theater, 2309 Frederick Douglass Boulevard) founded by the Global Artists Coalition to help preserve the culture and offer events and activities for the youth of the inner city.

REFERENCES Morris, Colin. ‘‘Celebrating Harlem’s Hip-Hop History.’’ Columbia News, June 23, 2005. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/05/06/winley_paul_hiphop.html (accessed August 10, 2008). Skillz, Mark. ‘‘The Disco Side of Hip Hop.’’ Wax Poetics, July 2005.

FURTHER RESOURCES Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem. On the Shoulders of Giants: My Journey through the Harlem Renaissance. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007. Banks, William. Beloved Harlem: A Literary Tribute to Black America’s Most Famous Neighborhood: From the Classics to Contemporary. New York: Harlem Moon/Broadway, 2005. Bascom, Lionel C. A Renaissance in Harlem: Lost Voices of an American Community. New York: Bard, 1999. Boyd, Herb. The Harlem Reader: A Celebration of New York’s Most Famous Neighborhood, from the Renaissance Years to the Twenty-First Century. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2003. Faison, Azie, and Agyei Tyehimba. Game Over: The Rise and Transformation of a Harlem Hustler. New York: Atria, 2007. Lewis, David L. When Harlem Was in Vogue. New York: Knopf, 1981. Maurrasse, David. Listening to Harlem: Gentrification, Community, and Business. New York: Routledge, 2006.

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY Big L LifestylEZ ov da Poor and Dangerous. Columbia, 1995. Biz Markie Goin’ Off. Cold Chillin’, 1987. The Biz Never Sleeps. Cold Chillin’, 1989. I Need a Haircut. Cold Chillin’, 1991. Cam’ron Confessions of Fire. Untertainment, 1998. S.D.E. Diplomat Records, 2000. Come Home with Me. Diplomat Records/Roc-a-Fella, 2002.

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Purple Haze. Diplomat Records/Roc-a-Fella, 2004. Killa Season. Diplomat Records/Asylum, 2006. Cannibal Ox The Cold Vein. Definitive Jux, 2001. Children of the Corn Children of the Corn—the Collector’s Edition. Bullet Proof Records, 2003. Crash Crew ‘‘High Power Rap.’’ Mike & Dave Records, 1980. ‘‘We Want To Rock.’’ Sugar Hill Records, 1981. The Crash Crew. Sugar Hill Records, 1984. High Powered Rappers. Ol’ Skool Flava, 1996. Diplomats Diplomatic Immunity. Diplomat Records/Roc-A-Fella, 2003. Diplomatic Immunity 2. Diplomat Records, 2004. D.I.T.C. D.I.T.C. Tommy Boy, 2000. DJ Hollywood ‘‘Shock Shock the House.’’ CBS, 1980. Doug E. Fresh and the Get Fresh Crew Oh, My God! Reality/Fantasy, 1986. The World’s Greatest Entertainer. Reality/Fantasy, 1988. Eddie Cheeba ‘‘Looking Good (Shake Your Body).’’ Tree Line, 1980. Fearless Four ‘‘Rockin’ It.’’ New York Connection, 1982. Immortal Technique Revolutionary Vol. 1. Viper, 2001. Revolutionary Vol. 2. Viper, 2003. Kool Moe Dee I’m Kool Moe Dee. Jive, 1986. How Ya Like Me Now. Jive, 1987. Knowledge Is King. Jive, 1989. Funke, Funke Wisdom. Jive, 1991. Mase Harlem World. Bad Boy, 1997. Double Up. Bad Boy, 1999. Welcome Back. Bad Boy, 2004. MF Grimm MF EP (with MF DOOM). Brick, 2000. The Downfall of Ibliyis: A Ghetto Opera. Day by Day/Metal Face, 2002. Digital Tears: E-Mail from Purgatory. Day by Day, 2004.

Uptown, Baby! | 45 Scars & Memories. Day by Day, 2005. American Hunger. Day by Day, 2006. Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock It Takes Two. Profile, 1988. The Incredible Base. Profile, 1989. Ron Browz EtherBoy. EtherBoy/Universal Motown, 2009. Spoonie G (misprinted Spoonin’ G on the 12’’ label) ‘‘Spoonin’ Rap.’’ Sound of New York, 1979. ‘‘Love Rap.’’ Enjoy, 1980. The Treacherous Three ‘‘The New Rap Language’’ (b-side to Spoonie Gee’s ‘‘Love Rap’’). Enjoy, 1980. ‘‘Feel the Heartbeat.’’ Enjoy, 1980. ‘‘Body Rock.’’ Enjoy, 1980. The Treacherous Three. Sugar Hill, 1984. Old School Flava. Wrap, 1994. Vast Aire Look Mom . . . No Hands. Chocolate Industries, 2004.

CHAPTER 3 From Queens Come Kings: Run DMC Stomps Hard out of a “Soft“ Borough Ericka Blount Danois ‘‘People thought Queens was soft, point blank. Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan—everybody thought that Queens was soft. Even Staten Island. Until Run DMC came and put Queens on the map. Before that we were soft suburban kids. Even when we put out our first record, Melle Mel and even our idols the Cold Crush Brothers were like who are these kids from Queens?! We proved everybody wrong.’’ —Darryl ‘‘DMC’’ McDaniels, personal interview, October 2007. It was soft until we said it ain’t soft. Soft until we looked deeper under. —Rev Run, personal interview, October 2007.

When Run DMC debuted at the Bronx nightclub Disco Fever, wearing checkered jackets, white pants, and black and white shell-toe Adidas, they were greeted by laughter from the crowd. The mostly Bronx-born crowd found out that these kids from Queens could rock the mic and the feeling in the club that night was that Queens was trying to take over the rap scene. Then Run DMC performed their B-side hit ‘‘Sucker MCs,’’ from the single, ‘‘It’s Like That.’’ By then, there wasn’t anything anyone could do but throw their hands in the air and turn the Fever into one huge sweatbox. The crowd got a taste of what would become Run DMC’s legendary live show. On the cut, ‘‘Jam Master Jay,’’ Run DMC slyly announced that the Bronx may have started hip hop, but some new kids on the block had come to take it to new places: ‘‘The good news is there is a crew. Not five, not four, not three, just two.’’ According to DMC, this song was directed at Bronx legends the Furious Five, the Fearless Four, and the Treacherous Three. In 1984, Melle Mel, of the group Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, answered Run DMC’s boastful rap with one of his own, ‘‘The Truth,’’ which acknowledged their talent while at the same time denouncing the idea that they would ever match the originators: ‘‘You got a little bit of fame and wealth, now you think you did it all by yourself, hah!’’ 47

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Run DMC in Tougher Than Leather (1988). (New Line Cinema/Photofest)

For the hip hop pioneers that lived in the Bronx and Harlem, where hip hop had begun, the last thing on anyone’s mind was that the unassuming borough of Queens would be the one that would share it with the world. Run DMC was the first rap group to achieve a gold record, and they set the bar for a flood of Queens artists to come. DMC sums up Queens’s reign on hip hop: ‘‘We were in Hollis, five minutes from me was Farmers Boulevard where LL was, five minutes from Farmers Boulevard was Tribe Called Quest, five minutes from Tribe Called Quest on Francis Lewis Boulevard was Davy DMX, five minutes from them was Salt n Pepa, five minutes from them was Nas and them. We were so close, but we all portrayed a different characteristic of the community we lived in,’’ DMC remembers. ‘‘And that’s what was so beautiful, because what Nas said would teach me, what we said would teach LL, and on and on.’’ Although Run DMC became Queens’s first breakout group in 1983, hip hop in Queens got its start in the late 1970s. The members of Run DMC give credit to Queens DJ, Davy DMX (born David Reeves, aka Davy D), as one of the pioneers of hip hop in their borough. In a 1998 lecture at the United DJ Mixing School in Sydney, Australia, Jam Master Jay noted that DJ Davy DMX was to Queens what Afrika Bambaataa was to the Bronx. As a guitarist, Davy D worked with bassist Larry Smith and drummer Trevor Gale to form Orange Krush, a group that recorded singles and backing tracks for Run DMC, Sweet G, and Lovebug Starski. He also contributed to Kurtis Blow’s albums as a DJ and guitarist and had a few successful singles of his own, including the 1984 club classic, ‘‘One for the

From Queens Come Kings | 49 Treble.’’ Describing the impact of Davy DMX’s reputation across New York City, Run, in an interview for Hip Hop in America: A Regional Guide, said, ‘‘Bambaattaa even knew about Dave. Dave was so serious about his record collection that you would have to hear about him from all over if you’re in the game. You would realize that there’s this other dude that does what I do, pretty good from his hood, and maybe those couple of people will come to a Queens block party and hear an extra special beat.’’ Unlike Manhattan, the Bronx, and some parts of Brooklyn, in the 1970s Queens was a borough less suited for traveling to by public transportation. It would take two subway trains and often a bus to get to Hollis from Manhattan. Other boroughs were usually just a single train ride away. Queens’s image as a suburban borough was made that much stronger by this inconvenience. Still, despite the relative inconvenience of getting to Queens, there were some club goers who would make the trek to go to clubs like The Renaissance or The Encore on Jamaica Avenue, or The Fantasia on Linden and Merrick Boulevards, Le’ Chalet, or Olympia Palace. This came in large part to the work ethic of Russell Simmons who would bring the hip hop acts he managed to perform at these clubs in Queens. ‘‘Hollis Ave. was full of energy and night life,’’ remembers Danny Simmons, who is four years older than Russell and 11 years older than Run. ‘‘There were clubs up on Hollis Ave.—nightclubs, after hour spots, drug spots. It made for an environment for people to make a new music out of it. People would come from Manhattan to clubs in Queens. On Jamaica Ave. there was a bunch of hot clubs. That song, ‘Funkin for Jamaica’ [by Tom Browne], they were talking about the clubs on Jamaica Ave.’’ Outside of Queens, Russell Simmons would advertise his parties on New York subway cars with stickers that bore the logo ‘‘Rush Productions.’’ At the time there were few hip hop promoters, and Russell played a large part in bringing groups from Queens to the forefront. In 1976, two young college students, Hollis-born Russell Simmons (born October 4, 1957), and Manhattan-born Kool DJ Kurt (born Curtis Walker, August 9, 1959), formed a group called The Force, which Simmons moved from Harlem to Queens in 1977. Walker moved away from DJing and into MCing, and changed his name to Kurtis Blow. Simmons’ younger brother, Joseph, became Kurtis Blow’s DJ, billing himself as ‘‘DJ Run, the Son of Kurtis Blow.’’ Russell Simmons gave his brother Joseph his first job in the music business at age 13. ‘‘I would be sitting there when they came home from the club, deejaying from the attic from the little knowledge I had,’’ remembers Run. ‘‘They were like ‘Joey can deejay!’ ’’ Joseph ‘‘Run’’ Simmons (born November 14, 1964), became the black Stetson hat, and laceless shell-toe Adidas wearing lead rapper of Run DMC. Run and Darryl McDaniels or DMC (born Darryl Lovelace, May 31, 1964), literally shouted verses back and forth to each other, finishing each other’s lines like an old married couple. Jason Mizell, the third member of Run DMC, lived on 203rd Street with his father, a social worker, and his mother who was a schoolteacher. He spun records with neighbor Jeff Fludd, who was his MC. They called

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themselves Two-Fifth Down. Mizell was known in the area for participating in high risk robberies in well-to-do areas like Jamaica Estates. Unlike many rappers in the Bronx, a borough where the evidence of urban decay was more obvious, Run DMC’s journey started in a two-story home in what was then the mostly white enclave of Hollis, Queens. Queens, with its detached houses, finished basements, and manicured lawns in neighborhoods like Hollis and Jamaica, was far removed from the overcrowded tenements and city living of places like the Bronx and Harlem. It was seen as the ticket out, or a refuge from the chaos. But there was something innovative bubbling underneath all of the perceived suburban bliss. Daniel Simmons Sr., the father of the three Simmons brothers, was a social worker and youth counselor who worked at a neighborhood recreation center. Their mother, Evelyn, worked for the New York City Parks Department and painted in her spare time. The Simmons’ parents were both college educated and expected the same of their sons. The Simmons’ grandparents had moved to Queens with money earned from the GI Bill after World War I and bought their first house in Jamaica for $6,000. Their grandfather worked for the post office and their grandmother was a nurse. The Simmons’ parents lived in this house until they could afford to buy their own house in Hollis. They were part of the first wave of black families to move to 205th Street before white flight to the suburbs led Hollis to become virtually all black. The neighborhood was characterized with wildlife like snakes, rabbits, and raccoons. But there was another side to Hollis that was not as evident to outsiders. Hollis Avenue was a hub for after-hours spots, gangs, and heroin in the late 1970s. Run recalls, ‘‘It would seem that the Bronx or Brooklyn would be the crazier neighborhood, but a lot of times we had crazy people too. I didn’t go to the clubs [in Queens] a lot, but I would perform at some of them once Run DMC came out. But there was Encore in Queens and there were parties given in Queens by Russell years before, at Fantasia on the Southside, and crazy things would happen there. Queens was, at the end of the day, kind of crazy as well as obviously, Brooklyn and the Bronx. Queens was just as thugged out. We had gangs—the Savage Skulls and the Seven Immortals. [The drug dealer] Fat Cat lived up the block from me, and DMC knew Fat Cat. D would go out and play and see the drug dealers and crazy people. When Run DMC put Hollis on the map, we had a cool swagger, so people thought those dudes must be drug dealers, but we wasn’t. Those kind of rumors would roll—they don’t horseplay, Run carries a gun. That kind of stupid thought would go through somebody’s mind because of the way we carried ourselves with Jay and the way we folded our arms and had mean faces. The demeanor of Run DMC was how you were supposed to carry yourself in the street. Puffy [Sean Combs] said to me recently, ‘I thought you would walk like that in your bedroom the way you walked across the stage at the Garden. I thought that in your underwear in the morning, I thought you would walk to the bathroom like that. You was the coolest thing I ever saw, and the most b-boy.’ That was the

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demeanor I got from the people I saw getting out of jail or on Hollis Ave’s corner. I guess I was copying how you walk around there if you want to survive. Not that it was crazy crazy, but it was crazy enough. It was crazy enough.’’ Run-DMC grew up amid one of the most violent epochs in New York history, where drug kingpins had strongholds on formerly stable neighborhoods like Hollis, with little fear of retribution. Notorious drug kingpins and hustlers like Kenneth ‘‘Supreme’’ McGriff, the head of the crack dealing crew known as The Supreme Team, terrorized Southeast Queens, employing over 100 people to commandeer the Baisley Park Projects and its neighboring areas. Meanwhile, Fat Cat was ruling over 150th St. Ethan Brown’s book, Fat Cat, 50 Cent, and the Rise of the Hip-Hop Hustler, connects the dots between hustlers who looked to move from a life of crime into the music business when hip hop started to sell, and many hip hop artists who got their street style and swagger from local hustlers and used many local legends in their narratives on their records. Hustlers in the 1980s in Southeast Queens had the money, the girls, street credibility, the cars and clothes —all of the accoutrements that would later encompass gangsta rap and the material ‘‘bling’’ lifestyle of hip hop stars in the late 1990s and new millennium. With the onset of heroin in the 1970s, a street culture developed in Hollis. Danny, the oldest of the Simmons clan, became known in the area as T.O.D.—or Tripped Out Danny—because of his $50 a day heroin habit. By high school he was sent to live with his grandparents in St. Albans. Middle brother Russell was running with a street gang called the Seven Immortals. And the baby of the family, Joey, immersed himself in the musical sounds emerging from the South Bronx. Danny served two years in prison before eventually enrolling, first at Lincoln University, a historically black college in Pennsylvania, and then at New York University. Today, he is a world-renowned visual artist. Russell enrolled at the City College of New York in Harlem, where he connected with aspiring party promoters, including Kurtis Blow. Competition in Harlem forced him into the untapped hip hop markets of places like Hillside Avenue and clubs like the Renaissance in Queens. The turning point in his career as a party promoter came when he threw a jam at the Hotel Diplomat in Times Square. More than 2,000 hard rocks turned out to hear Grandmaster Flash spin and Kurtis Blow rhyme. On some occasions, Russell would lose money on his ventures and his family would be there to support him financially. This access to money allowed Russell to make mistakes without suffering major consequences. Still, his parents viewed his party promotions ventures as a hobby, while Russell saw it as the beginnings of his career. Eventually his parents grew tired of losing what amounted to thousands of dollars and they told him to finish his college studies. But Russell had other ideas. Russell managed Run DMC under his company, Rush Management, and helped broker their deal with Profile Records. Their first 12 inch single in 1983, ‘‘It’s Like That,’’ which featured the song, ‘‘Sucker MCs,’’ a track that relied only on electronic beats and was produced by Russell and Larry Smith and mixed by Kurtis Blow, would put Queens on the hip hop map.

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Russell’s entrepreneurial spirit and work ethic would later serve as a blueprint for producers like Sean ‘‘P. Diddy’’ Combs. In 1984, when Russell joined forces with NYU student Rick Rubin to create the most influential and longest running hip hop label, Def Jam, it became just one piece in Simmons’ corporation, Rush Communications, which grew to include a management company, Phat Farm clothing company, a movie production house, television shows such as Def Comedy Jam and Def Poetry Jam, One World magazine, and an advertising agency. P. Diddy would later imitate Simmons’ entrepreneurial spirit with Bad Boy, creating his own clothing line and television shows like Bad Boys of Comedy, among many other business ventures. Russell’s brother Run was one third of the group. His partner DMC was a mildmannered, straight ‘‘A’’ Catholic school student who enjoyed playing basketball and reading comic books and creating characters. He would sneak home from school and throw on his street gear so the public school kids wouldn’t see him with his uniform on and try to rob him. He had a basketball rim in his backyard and all of the neighborhood kids—including Run—would come over to his house to play. One day, in the eighth grade, he let Run into his house to get a drink of water (disobeying his mother who didn’t allow people in her house when she wasn’t at home) and let Run see his turntables that were set up in the basement for deejaying. By the next year DMC had traded his turntables for notebooks and showed Run about 50 notebooks filled with rhymes. Run promised him that if his brother, Russell, ever got him a record deal that he wanted DMC to join him. With their black Levis, leather outfits, thick gold chains, and ever-present Adidas footwear, Run DMC’s fashion statements, not to mention impact on retail cash registers, set a precedent for generations to come. Whereas earlier groups, like the Furious Five, dressed in elaborate costumes, Run DMC’s outfits were fly, b-boy minimalist. In his book, It’s Like That: A Spiritual Memoir, Run remembers watching Jam Master Jay as he walked down the streets of Hollis in leather pants, a leather jacket, Adidas sneakers, a gold rope chain, black hat, and Cazal glasses: ‘‘Jay was helping to create a nationwide trend and didn’t know it,’’ Run said. Encouraged by Russell Simmons, Jam Master Jay would become the mastermind behind their b-boy look. Run remembers that Jam Master Jay was the coolest out of the whole crew: ‘‘He would spend his extra dollars on something very cool like a hat and some sneakers. Russell would tell us that upon that rock, we are going to build our foundation. We kept our style straight from the hood.’’ Run DMC’s style signaled to their fans that they were regular guys that weren’t out of reach. They built their fashion, their swagger, and their look around Jay’s style. The group molded their image wearing black velour Stetsons with black leather suits and white laceless Adidas during the winter, and Adidas warm-up suits and terry-cloth Kangol hats when the weather got warmer. DMC, who wore glasses ever since he was a kid, thought that he should lose the glasses to look cooler. But it was Run that told him, ‘‘Those glasses are gonna make you famous!’’ Run’s prophecy came true—people all over the

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world started wearing his Cazal glasses, so big that they almost swallowed their faces. ‘‘People up until this day tell me that you make wearing glasses cool,’’ says DMC. They tried different looks throughout their career: wearing all black with calfhigh Army boots and bald heads and trading in their Cazals for crucifixes when Run became a Reverend. But their signature style would always be the b-boy image that embraced the everyman and allure of the slick, cutting edge style of street hustlers. In their songs, they would boast about their style, in some cases shunning brand name labels like Calvin Klein (‘‘no friend of mine’’) on the 1984 single, ‘‘Rock Box,’’—‘‘Don’t want nobody’s name on my behind’’—because that wasn’t a b-boy style, but then boast about their own particular brand name favorite on their 1986 single, ‘‘My Adidas,’’—‘‘Now the Adidas I possess for one man is rare. Myself, homeboy, got 50 pair.’’ Their love affair with their sneakers won them an endorsement deal with Adidas, the first in rap history. ‘‘That was easy,’’ Run remembers. ‘‘We wore them, we wore them, we wore them. They started selling like crazy ‘cause people loved us, so our managers figured it out that they make their way to corporate Adidas. Russell went to them, was like yo, come to a show, look at this, see how many people are wearing Adidas, did you know your sales went up, that’s cause of this group named Run DMC. And then they would go and negotiate and make it happen. So it was really on the behalf of Russell Simmons or Lyor Cohen or whoever our managers were at the time who could close these type of deals. Russell would close them. His job was to see who got our money.’’ According to Run DMC, some of the major hip hop acts out of the Bronx, like Melle Mel, Afrika Bambaataa, and the Treacherous Three, started their careers wearing b-boy clothes, but when they hit it big and starting opening for funk acts like Rick James and Parliament Funkadelic, they started dressing like those acts, with furs, cornrows, and chains, and other outlandish clothes. While the young group idolized these originators, they were turned off by their fashion choice when they saw them perform live. They made the decision that they would stay true to themselves and dress like they would if they were out on the corners of Hollis. ‘‘Our whole look came from those dudes that was 16 and older,’’ said DMC, ‘‘with the Adidas and the Lee suits and the mock neck and the gold chains and the medallions, and the gold chains, and the godfather hats and all of that. Our whole influence was what people in our neighborhood was already doing. Before Melle Mel, the Treacherous Three, the Sugarhill Gang started making records, before they made records, when they did their shows in the parks and Russell used to hire them to come to play the clubs in the PAL centers, they would dress like Run DMC, with the sheepskins, and the godfather hats, the Kangols. When they started making records, they were like, oh, we’re in show business now. We had the rappers to look up to. We dressed like Melle Mel and them used to dress before they got famous. Melle Mel and them only had Parliament Funkadelic, and Rick James as their idol, that’s why if you go back and look at those covers, they look like Rick James.

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Before they started making records, if you go back to all those flyers and pictures of the Cold Crush, they all got on sheepskins and leathers, and Adidas, just like Run DMC, cause we told Russell, we’ll figure out a costume, we’ll wear black leather blazers, and black leather pants with our Adidas, but we ain’t wearing that other stuff.’’ With their unlaced Adidas sneakers, fedoras, and b-boy stances, Run DMC brought hip hop into the living rooms of middle America while simultaneously keeping their fan base with hardcore hip hop heads. It was a risk that paid off and welcomed hip hop into a whole new audience. The song that alternately confused and delighted hardcore hip hop fans was the remake of rock band Aerosmith’s ‘‘Walk This Way’’ (1986). The idea to create this song originated with Def Jam record label founder Rick Rubin (born March 10, 1963 in Lido Beach, New York) and his soon to be partner Russell Simmons. ‘‘When Russell told us about the song, my first instinct was like, ‘What the hell?!’ ’’ remembers Run, now Reverend Run. ‘‘But Russell was worldly. He went to white clubs. He was like let’s make it full of guitars. Being open has been my biggest gift from God. A lot of good ideas would come to me through our partners and they were my biggest projects.’’ Run DMC made history with rock and rap genre mixing with the single, ‘‘Walk this Way,’’ a remake of Aerosmith’s single from their 1975 album, Toys in the Attic. The single from Run DMC’s 1986 Raising Hell album helped to resurrect Aerosmith’s career and catapulted Run DMC into the mainstream. It was the first rap single to reach Billboard’s Top 10. It peeked in the fall of 1986 at No. 4 and stayed on the chart for a total of 16 weeks. The group had already proven with their 1985 sophomore album, King of Rock, and their subsequent appearance on the Fresh Fest tour, that hip hop could draw arena sized crowds. They opened the doors for hip hop with their muscular rhyme style and transformed rap into a commercial entity with their fearless creativity. ‘‘All of these people are worried about what people think about them. All of these hip hoppers from the 80s, people say things started changing after Biggie and Pac died cause you don’t get good albums, you get good records. We don’t want you to like us. We didn’t want to make the same record we made a week ago. We weren’t afraid to be different. And keep it real and be who we are.’’

MARLEY MARL AND THE JUICE CREW In 1977, the same year that Russell Simmons and Kurtis Blow moved their hip hop endeavors from Harlem to Simmons’ home borough of Queens, Marley Marl (born Marlon Williams on September 30, 1962 in Queens), was forming a neighborhood rap crew called the Sureshot Crew. Across town in the 49-acre sprawl of the Queensbridge projects in a section of Queens called Long Island City, Marley Marl began experimenting on his brother’s turntables. He would spin disco classic instrumentals at River Park and the Jacob Riis Center. He worked as an intern at Unique Studios, where he learned from producer Arthur Baker who had done

From Queens Come Kings | 55 production for the likes of Afrika Bambaataa. He produced his first record, Sucker DJ’s for his girlfriend Dimples D, an answer record to Run DMC’s ‘‘Sucker MCs,’’ and used the proceeds to invest in a drum machine. In 1984, Marley Marl combined forces with Mr. Magic, a deejay made famous throughout the city with his Friday and Saturday night radio show, Rap Attack, the first radio show on a major station to exclusively air rap music. The show aired from 9 PM to midnight on 107.5 WBLS FM. During the same time slot Kool DJ Red Alert’s show on 98.7 KISS FM had rap fans switching back and forth between dials, fingers ready on the button for their pause tapes. At home, Marley Marl was converting his sister’s apartment in Queensbridge into a recording studio (see sidebar: Cold Chillin’ Records). He called the studio, The House of Hits. Here he pulled together an assembly of talent that would later be called The Juice Crew. The Juice Crew included Big Daddy Kane (born Antonio Hardy, September 10, 1968, in Brooklyn), Biz Markie (born Marcel Hall, April 8, 1964, in Harlem), Kool G. Rap (born Nathaniel Wilson, July 20, 1968, in Corona Queens), and DJ Polo (born Thomas Pough [birthdate unknown] in New York City), Masta Ace (born Duvall Clear, December 4, 1966, in Brooklyn), MC Shan (born Shawn Moltke, September 9, 1965, in the Queensbridge projects), Roxanne Shante (born Lolita Shante Gooden, November 9, 1969, in Queensbridge), and Craig G. (born Craig Curry [birthdate unknown] in Queens). From that basic studio Marley Marl would lay the foundation for what would be some of the finest hip hop to ever be heard in what can only be called the Queensbridge explosion, which would later come to include rappers like Nas, Cormega, and the group Mobb Deep. With his high-top fade and player style velour suits, Big Daddy Kane was to hip hop what Sam Cooke was to R&B, a sex symbol. He was a smooth, sometimes socially conscious lyricist with sex appeal to match. Kane followed the ideology of the Five Percent Nation, a religious sect that began in the early 1960s by Clarence Edward Smith, who believed that all black men were living Gods and that only 5 percent of the population were the chosen few that were enlightened enough to liberate the masses. He was introduced in junior high and as an adult became a member, inspired by rapper Rakim. But Kane was no anomaly in the contradictory nature of hip hop. In public appearances he sported gold medallions, heavy link chains, fedoras, and would be seen with attractive women fawning over him. He posed partially nude for a 1991 issue of Playgirl and for Madonna’s 1992 book, Sex. His lyrics bounced from fervent and enlightening to romantic and seductive to salacious and trivial. He signed with Marley Marl’s Cold Chillin’ Records as an artist in 1987. His rapidfire vocal style was heavily influenced by Grandmaster Caz of the Cold Crush Brothers. His 1989 album, It’s a Big Daddy Thing, produced by an all-star cast including Marley Marl, Mister Cee, Prince Paul, Easy Mo Bee, soon-to-be ‘‘New Jack Swing’’ King Teddy Riley, was a hit. (New Jack Swing was the fusion of hip hop and R&B that would take flight in the 1980s.) The album included ‘‘Pimpin Ain’t Easy,’’ which featured the Bronx duo Nice & Smooth, and

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COLD CHILLIN’ RECORDS Marley Marl first ran Cold Chillin’ Records out of his sister’s apartment in the Queensbridge Houses. Most of the label’s releases were by members of the Juice Crew. In 1988, they signed a five-year distribution deal with Warner Bros. Records. By the mid-1990s it was distributed by Epic Street/SME. Their subsidiary label, Livin’ Large, released Roxanne Shante’s second album and was distributed by former Warner Bros. subsidiary Tommy Boy Records. Tommy Boy would come to be known as another premiere hip hop label, like Def Jam before them, producing artists like Juice Crew members, Roxanne Shante and Biz Markie, and Queens natives, Capone-nNoreaga, among many notable hip hop stars.

showcased lyrics that would set the stage for the glorified pimp lifestyle that would dominate rap in the 1990s well into the millennium. In 1984, Kane met Biz Markie in downtown Brooklyn and soon joined him in the Juice Crew in Queensbridge. Kane co-wrote some of the Biz’s songs, like the 1988 classic ‘‘Vapors,’’ and the comically puerile ‘‘Pickin’ Boogers.’’ He also wrote rhymes for fellow Juice Crew member Roxanne Shante, like ‘‘Have a Nice Day’’ and ‘‘Go on Girl.’’ Though the Biz is actually a Harlem native (born Marcel Theo Hall on April 8, 1964 in Harlem), he gets love in every borough, especially in Queens where he got his start with the Juice Crew. His song, ‘‘Vapors,’’ was one of the first to introduce the concept of the gold digger turned groupie who catches the ‘‘vapors’’ once her man starts getting paid: ‘‘When Swan tried to kick it, she always fessed. Talkin’ bout nigga, please, you work for UPS!’’ His selfdeprecating humor in songs like ‘‘Just a Friend’’ and ‘‘Pickin’ Boogers,’’ endeared him to a rap public accustomed to macho posturing. He started out as a beat box artist and was one of Cold Chillin’ Records first acts that helped to put the company on the map. Roxanne Shante was another one of the original members of the Juice Crew and grew up in the Queensbridge Housing projects. She made a name for herself at age 14 with her Marley Marl produced release, Roxanne’s Revenge, an answer record to U.T.F.O.’s 1984 hit, ‘‘Roxanne, Roxanne.’’ It was a massive hit and sold over a quarter of a million copies in the New York area alone. It also set a trend for the answer record, spawning well over 100 answer records. By the time she was 25, she retired from the record industry. MC Shan, raised in Queensbridge, is the cousin of Marley Marl and got a record deal with Cold Chillin’ Records in 1983. His album, Down By Law, came out in 1987. But he became popular all over the world for his part in what would later be termed ‘‘The Bridge Wars,’’ a rivalry between the Juice Crew and Boogie Down Productions, headed by Bronx-born KRS-One (born Lawrence Krisna Parker on

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August 20, 1965) and DJ Scott La Rock (born Scott Sterling on March 2, 1962 and died August 27, 1987 in an unrelated incident). Scott La Rock, a social worker, met KRS-One in a homeless shelter in the Bronx where he was living. The feud started with the Marley Marl and MC Shan produced track, ‘‘The Bridge,’’ in 1985. Boogie Down Productions felt that the song implied that Queens created hip hop. KRS-One and Boogie Down Productions released ‘‘South Bronx’’: ‘‘So you think that hip hop had its start out in Queensbridge, If you popped that junk up in the Bronx, you might not live.’’ MC Shan and Marley Marl, denied that they were implying that hip hop started in Queens, and they were just talking about where they came from. Still, the singles kept coming. The Juice Crew came back with ‘‘Kill That Noise,’’ and KRS came back with ‘‘The Bridge is Over.’’ Other Queensbridge rappers joined in the fracas. Now, it is remembered as one of the classic hip hop rivalries that spawned many future MC battles. In the 1990s they appeared together in a commercial for Sprite soft drink where they exchanged battle rhymes inside a boxing ring. Kool G. Rap and DJ Polo are two of the less celebrated members of the Juice Crew, but influential and well-known to true rap connoisseurs. Kool G Rap (born Nathaniel Wilson on July 20, 1968) grew up in the Corona section of Queens. His multisyllabic rhyme patterns have proven to be influential to many rappers that came after him, including one of Queensbridge’s finest MCs, Nas. In the midst of the feud, Red Alert, a Bronx native, refused to play any Juice Crew records on his show. Meanwhile Marley Marl, a deejay for Mr. Magic’s show gave the Bronx no light on his show. Some blame Mr. Magic for igniting the rivalry when KRS and Scott La Rock approached him with a 12’’ single entitled ‘‘Success Is the Word,’’ which Magic dismissed. After they formed BDP, they decided to take out their ire on the entire Juice Crew. Thus began the commercialization of the art of the rap battle. Roxanne Shante had started the art of the answer record, and many artists now found that putting out rhymes where you are battling some of the biggest talents in hip hop was a surefire way to make a name for yourself. The beef itself was not a violent one and continued on with rappers like Poet, Roxanne Shante, Butchy B, Cool C, and MC Shan. Now, this battle is often shouted out on verses as one of the classic hip hop rivalries. In the mid-1990s KRS-One and Marley Marl appeared together in a Sprite commercial, exchanging battle rhymes inside a boxing ring. Since then, KRS-One and Marley Marl have officially retired the feud and in 2007 released a collaborative hip hop album entitled Hip Hop Lives.

LL COOL J Another artist on the Def Jam label was a young b-boy with a baby face and a body that looked like it was cut from stone. The man known as Ladies Love Cool James,

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LL Cool J on ‘‘Jimmy Kimmel Live’’ in 2004. (ABC/Photofest)

or LL Cool J (born James Todd Smith on January 14, 1968 in New York City, before his family moved to St. Albans, Queens) was almost a talent that the world may never have heard. In the winter of 1983, Rick Rubin, in his cramped dorm room produced what would be Def Jam’s first single, ‘‘It’s Yours,’’ by T La Rock and DJ Jazzy Jay. It caught the attention of other aspiring rappers around the city who started sending their demos to Rick’s dorm address listed on the back of the album. LL was one of those rappers that sent in his demo. The only problem was that Rubin let LL’s tape sit in a box, surrounded by papers and records and tapes in his notoriously junky dorm room. LL called him everyday asking him if he had received it and everyday he said that he didn’t. One day Adam ‘‘Ad-Rock’’ Horovitz from the Beastie Boys went rummaging through Rick’s box of tapes, fished out LL’s and popped it in the boom box for a listen. In her book, Def Jam, Inc.: Russell Simmons, Rick Rubin, and the Extraordinary Story of the World’s Most Influential Hip-Hop Label, Stacy Gueraseva reports that the music on LL’s demo caught Rick’s attention; though he says he didn’t think the quality of the music was that high, he thought the content was sort of funny and he felt compelled to listen to it over and over again. LL, at age 16, would become the first artist signed to Def Jam. He began a hip hop career that would span over 20 years and over a dozen albums, and a career as a Hollywood actor (38). By the age of 13, LL was furiously writing rhymes and making tapes in the basement where his bedroom was. Jay Philpot, a well-known deejay in the area, was like a big brother to LL and gave him his first opportunity to get on the mic

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at a block party on 113th Ave. where he surprised himself by rocking the crowd. He started hanging out in underground clubs in Queens, like the Brown Door, by age 14, and at house parties, block parties, and anywhere where he stood the chance of getting on the mic. By the age of 14, James Todd Smith was hanging on Merrick Boulevard in Jamaica, Queens, studying other rappers, and deciding what would be his name when he stepped onto the scene. Playboy Mikey D, who used to write rhymes with Smith, said he liked the idea of ‘‘Cool James,’’ but pondered what would work right in front of that. ‘‘How about Ladies Love?’’ he asked and in 1982, the name LL Cool J was born. LL and his mother moved to St. Albans, Queens in 1972, into LL’s grandparent’s home on Ilion Ave. in a lower-middle class enclave of African American families. His mother, Ondrea Smith, had moved back home to escape her husband and Todd’s father, James Smith, who was physically abusive towards her and her son. This was the house where he would change his life; where he found the unconditional love of his grandparents and where he began writing rhymes and found his own identity. It was here that his grandfather bought him his first set of turntables when he was 11 years old, and his grandmother, Ellen Griffith, would help him with his rhymes, urging to him to ‘‘put a little more bass’’ in some of his songs. But within a few months of living in the house, after futile attempts to win his wife back, James Smith decided to seek revenge. He followed her home with a 12-gauge shotgun. As she turned the key in the door of her parent’s home, he shot her in her lower back. Her father, Eugene Griffith, was sitting in the front room and was shot in the stomach. LL’s mother and grandfather survived, and believing in forgiveness, they did not press charges against his father. LL started sending demo tapes to labels like, CBS, Sugar Hill, Tommy Boy, and Enjoy and getting rejection letters as fast as he was sending them out. He copied down the address and phone number of a producer that was making a name for himself, Rick Rubin, a student at New York University. Rubin had produced ‘‘It’s Yours,’’ by T-La Rock and Jazzy J which had become a big hit. He called Rubin everyday to see if he had received his tape and had given it a listen. Finally Rick called him back and said, ‘‘I got it!’’ and told him to meet him at his office, which doubled as his dorm room. The first single they recorded together was, ‘‘I Need a Beat,’’ and Rubin let Russell Simmons listen to it. He liked it and soon after they formed Def Jam records with LL as their first artist. LL received a $50,000 advance for signing with Def Jam. He spent some of it buying his trademark Kangols at Revel Knox Hats on Jamaica Ave. (see sidebar: Jamaica Ave. Shopping Center). He also solidified his b-boy image with Sergio Valente or colored Lee jeans, shell-toe Adidas or Pumas, and Le Tigre jackets. His first album, ‘‘Radio,’’ was a hit. ‘‘Rock the Bells,’’ was put out as a single, and DC’s go-go band, Trouble Funk, put out their go-go version on the B-side

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(initial hip hop records usually put instrumentals on the B side). ‘‘Rock the Bells,’’ went platinum and debuted at number five on Billboard’s top R&B singles chart. His single, ‘‘I Need Love,’’ a rap ballad that was a risky venture for a selfdescribed b-boy, actually worked. Though he got flak from hardcore heads, he earned the title as a lady’s man from this song.

SALT-N-PEPA When Salt-n-Pepa arrived on the hip hop scene in 1985, they showed girls around the globe that sexiness with in-your-face lyrics did go hand in hand. The group featured Salt (born Cheryl James, born April 8, 1964 in Brooklyn) and Pepa (born Sandra Denton, November 9, 1964 in Kingston, Jamaica) and DJ Spinderella (Deirdre Roper, born Deidra Muriel Roper on August 3, 1971 in New York City). Salt-n-Pepa were nursing students at Queensborough Community College when they met. The concept of the all-girl group was conceived for a school project their co-worker, Hurby ‘‘Luv Bug’’ Azor, who worked with them at Sears on Fordham Road in the Bronx, had to create for a project at New York’s Center for the Media Arts. His idea, to create an answer record to Doug E. Fresh and Slick Rick’s hit, ‘‘The Show,’’ resulted in ‘‘The Showstopper,’’ an instant hit after it got radio play with Mr. Magic. Salt-n-Pepa, who dressed in b-girl gear, basketball sweatsuits, bamboo earrings, and asymmetrical haircuts, achieved multiplatinum success and carved the way, not just for other females in hip hop, but for many other rap acts that followed them.

Salt-n-Pepa (Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images)

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A TRIBE CALLED QUEST The Native Tongues Posse, which included A Tribe Called Quest, De La Soul, and The Jungle Brothers, brought a social and Afrocentric consciousness to rap with their lyrics that tackled controversial topics like date rape, misogyny, and the use of the word, nigga. A Tribe Called Quest, formed in 1988, featured rapper/producer Q-Tip (born Jonathan Davis on April 10, 1970 in Harlem, NY, before converting to Islam in the 1990s and changing his name to Kamal Ibn John Fareed), rapper Phife Dawg (born Malik Taylor on November 20, 1970 in Queens, NY), and DJ/producer Ali Shaheed Muhammad (born August 11, 1970 in Brooklyn, NY), and was the most commercially successful group to come out of the posse. The posse was later joined by Queen Latifah, Monie Love, Black Sheep, Chi Ali, and Leaders of the New School and they influenced rappers like Mos Def and Pharrell who would often stop by the studio. A Tribe Called Quest was honored at VH1’s Hip Hop Honors award show in October 2007. Their Afrocentric consciousness in their lyrics added an eclectic mix to the storytelling aspect of hip hop. Dubbed, ‘‘the flower children of hip hop’’ alongside De La Soul, they blossomed alongside a burgeoning gangster rap scene in L.A., showing the diversity of hip hop’s sound, style, and social consciousness. They were the first rap group to sample jazz which had a lasting impact on hip hop, and they also used a lot of 1970s rock. Their socially conscious, yet playful lyrics enticed a whole new audience to rap, particularly college students. They tackled such controversial subjects such as date rape and the use of the word ‘‘nigger.’’ Ironically they cited their inspiration as the West Coast hip hop that was dominating the airwaves at the time. They felt like they needed to top N.W.A.’s groundbreaking album, Straight Outta Compton.

JAMAICA AVE. SHOPPING CENTER On Jamaica Ave. and 165th St., a shopping area called the Coliseum by hip hop heads is akin to what used to be called Albee Square Mall in Brooklyn (now Fulton Street Mall) where Biz Markie hung out in the 1980s. Hip hop artists that come to Queens would be remiss if they didn’t stop at the Coliseum. It’s the place where the beef between Ja Rule and 50 Cent popped off and where Wu-Tang Clan filmed their classic video, ‘‘Ice Cream.’’ It’s where a young and unknown LL Cool J would shop to find hip hop records. The center is still home to hip hop specialty stores. Just a bus ride away is Andrew Jackson High school, where some of the finest in the game honed their lyrical skills: 50 Cent, Jam Master Jay, Salt-n-Pepa, LL Cool J, DMC, and Mikey D, to name a few.

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It was DJ Red Alert that introduced Q-Tip to the Jungle Brothers. In 1989, A Tribe Called Quest signed a demo deal with Geffen Records. The demo contained classics like, ‘‘Can I Kick It?’’ which used Lou Reed’s classic, ‘‘Walk on the Wild Side,’’ and made it work in a hip hop context. But after their demo Geffen refused to offer them a full recording contract. They were offered many deals by other labels, but opted for a modest deal by then independent rap label, Jive Records, which had a reputation for building longevity of the artist with grassroots fan bases, rather than with expensive marketing techniques that built a lot of hype which eventually fizzled out to hip hop’s fickle audience. Their debut album, People’s Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm, was not received well critically, but would later be heralded as a classic. But they were allowed to grow at a natural pace as artists on Jive Records, unlike their cousins in music, The Jungle Brothers, who signed to Warner Brothers with a hefty contract and were dropped when they failed to live up to expectations that were set forth by the record company. Their second album, The Low End Theory, has been called one of the best hip hop albums of all time. Q-Tip and Phife grew up together in St. Albans, Queens and attended school together. They met Ali Shaheed when they went to Murray Bergtraum High School in Queens. Their collaborators The Jungle Brothers consisted of Mike Gee (born Michael Small, in Harlem, NY), Afrika Baby Bam (born Nathaniel Hall, in Brooklyn, NY), and DJ Sammy B (born Sammy Burwell, in Harlem, NY). They formed the Native Tongues (The Jungle Brothers, De La Soul, and A Tribe Called Quest), a group that bonded together with the ambition of creating an alternative to the rap that was dominating at the time; hardcore and gangster rap. Their intention was to promote socially conscious lyrics, while still putting out an entertaining product. Later groups would either join the Native Tongues or were heavily influenced by them, including groups like Black Sheep, Da Bush Babees, and Leaders of the New School, and they promoted break-out stars like Busta Rhymes and Mos Def.

NAS In 1992, the West Coast was in the spotlight when the seminal debut album, The Chronic, dropped featuring former N.W.A. member Dr. Dre and teenage prodigy Snoop Doggy Dogg. The funk-laced, slow drawled lyrics, with slow bass beats and melodic synthesizers, topped by P-Funk samples, changed the face of hip hop from the high energy in-your-face New York style to something that was laid-back, but still hardcore. Meanwhile in Queensbridge, Nas (born Nasir Jones in Bed-stuy, Brooklyn, on September 14, 1973) was bringing the focus back to the East Coast, specifically the borough of Queens, and even more specifically the Queensbridge projects. (see sidebar: Queensbridge Houses and Park). Def Jam, the premier hip hop label at the time, initially shunned him. Twenty-two-year-old Bobbito Garcia, who came to fame as a deejay on Columbia University’s radio station, WKCR FM, 89.9, and

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Nas (Photofest)

later as a writer and sneaker aficionado, joined Def Jam’s staff as a messenger in 1989. While doing his radio show at Columbia he had gotten hold of a demo tape by Nas. He met with Nas and was impressed with him. He didn’t bother bringing Nas to Russell Simmons, because he knew he would turn him down. His prediction turned out to be right when months later MC Serch of the hip hop group 3rd Bass,

QUEENSBRIDGE HOUSES AND PARK The list of rappers who came out of Queensbridge reads like the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Everybody from old school artists like MC Shan, Marley Marl, Craig G, Roxanne Shante, to legends like Nas, Mobb Deep, Tragedy, and Capone, have all tested their skills in the gritty hallways and staircases of the projects and battled in the adjacent park. Queensbridge continues to birth the legends, with underground artists on the horizon, in the largest public housing complex in the nation (The 96 building complex spreads across six city blocks). The buildings have served as the landscape for many videos including Mobb Deep’s classic ‘‘Shook Ones,’’ where Prodigy and Havoc cruise past the 41st Side (41st Ave. and 12th St.). Queensbridge Park, which separates the Northside houses from the Southside houses, has been host to some of the greatest battles from the Juice Crew all stars, to Tragedy Khadafi, to Nas and Mobb Deep. By any account, Queensbridge is the most prolific hip hop producing area in the country.

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brought Nas to Russell who turned him down comparing him to a ‘‘wannabe Kool G. Rap’’ (Gueraseva 197). Nas later signed a deal with Columbia Records and released his debut album, Illmatic, often cited as one of the best hip hop albums of the 1990s. The album helped spearhead the artistic renaissance of New York hip hop in the post-Chronic era. Nas employed some of the jazz-rap producers that came out of the posse or were inspired by them, including Q-Tip, Pete Rock, DJ Premier, and Large Professor. In addition to eclectic beats that included live jazz, Nas was a storyteller with an attention to detail that was philosophical, journalistic, and prescient, and gave listeners a glimpse of the reality of life in the ghetto, while showing there are still good times to be had. For those who had the misconception that the borough of Queens was soft, Nas’ cinematic focus on the reality of life in the Queensbridge projects shattered that notion. Since then, hip hop out of Queens has donned a hardcore image.

MURDER, INC. One summer night in 1988, Irv Lorenzo managed to finagle his way onto the turntables at a park jam at 202nd St. and Jamaica Ave. He had one of the neighborhood thugs vouch for him and helped him get on the turntables and he turned it out. Buoyed by his success, he sold mix tapes as ‘‘DJ Irv’’ all over Queens. His mix tapes sold all over from Hollis to the 40 projects, to Lefrak City. He put together a group that won a talent show, hosted by Marley Marl, at a roller skating rink on Jamaica Ave. in Southeast Queens. Rhazel, beatboxer genius and Romeo, ghostwriter for Run DMC, and wordsmith and deejay Irv, eventually recorded at Marley’s Queensbridge lab, but a record deal for them was elusive. Lorenzo soon came across a young MC named Mic Geronimo at a talent show at Bayside High School, in Bayside, Queens. Lorenzo tracked Geronimo down at the Stearns department store in Long Island where he worked as a cashier and brought him into the studio to record some songs. Though Geronimo’s success was limited to the New York area, he introduced Lorenzo to a group of rappers known as the Cash Money Clique, which included Hollis native Jeffrey Atkins, who later became known as the gravelly-voiced Ja Rule. While shooting the Cash Money Clique’s ‘‘Get Tha Fortune’’ video on Guy Brewer Boulevard, Lorenzo was introduced to one of Southeast Queens premiere drug kingpins of the early 1980s, Kenneth McGriff, aka ‘‘Supreme,’’ who ran the notorious Supreme Team, known for taking over individual apartments at the Baisely Park Houses, telling the residents that their apartments were going to be the center for operations. Supreme and other members of the Supreme Team would cruise around in topof-the-line Mercedes Benzes, pointing their automatic rifles out of the windows at stunned residents. It was alleged that Supreme gave Lorenzo the seed money to start the record label Murder Inc., but Def Jam gave him a deal to start Murder, Inc.

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Def Jam hired him as an A&R executive due to his work with the Cash Money Clique. Lorenzo single-handedly turned around Def Jam’s waning popularity when he introduced the world to a gruff voiced, sometimes barking rapper named DMX. Lorenzo’s ability to have his finger on the pulse of hip hop enabled his prote´ge´ Ja Rule to secure an advantageous position in the introduction of his solo career after leaving the Cash Money Clique. Lorenzo’s contribution to Def Jam’s successful comeback earned him his own label imprint, Murder Inc. He was given a 50/50 partnership deal with Def Jam, sealed with a $3 million check. Lorenzo would find a talented competitor in 50 Cent (born Curtis James Jackson III on July 6, 1975 in South Jamaica, Queens). 50 Cent started his rap career, when a friend introduced him to Jam Master Jay of Run DMC who still worked out of his studio in Queens. Jay taught him how to structure songs, write hooks, and make a record. Jay produced 1950’s first album, but it was never released. He didn’t reach worldwide fame until 2002, when he was discovered by rapper Eminem and signed to Interscope Records. He became one of the highest selling rap artists in the world and in 2003 founded his own record label, G-Unit Records. The new millennium battle of 50 Cent (born Curtis James Jackson III on July 6, 1975 in South Jamaica, Queens) vs. Ja Rule (born Jeffrey Atkins February 29, 1976, in Hollis, 5 months after 50 Cent) rose to a war-level battle cry where at its height, 50 Cent was beaten and stabbed by Murder Inc. employees outside the Hit Factory studio on West 54th St. The resulting violence is indicative of how high the stakes in rap battles have risen. Their legendary feud infected hip hop employees everywhere; from journalists —The Source magazine (anti-50 Cent) against XXL (pro-50 Cent) which denounced each other in editor’s letters and burned copies of each other’s magazines— to a deejay in Durban, South Africa, who was threatened by a member of Ja Rule’s crew for playing 50 Cent’s song after a Ja Rule performance. The feud brought out mediators from the hip hop nation to the Nation of Islam. Ja Rule’s camp claimed that the feud was fueled by the fact the Ja Rule was stealing the spotlight from 50 Cent’s Queens fans. 50 Cent said the beef stemmed back to when a friend of his robbed Ja Rule for his jewelry. It wasn’t long after this robbery that 50 Cent was attacked outside of the Hit Factory. 50 Cent was treated for a laceration to the chest and a partially collapsed lung at St. Luke’s-Roosevelt hospital. The beef continued on wax. His 2003 album, Blood in My Eye, is filled with over the top threats against 50 Cent and other rappers. Meanwhile 50’s debut album, Get Rich or Die Tryin’ sold 872,000 copies in its first week and was Billboard’s number one album for the year. It could be a sign of how big Queens has become that intra-borough beef gets heard around the world, or how far it’s fallen that hip hop beefs have gone from verbal volleys to do-or-die confrontations. Still, the most recent beef in 2007 between Kanye West’s new album, Graduation and 50 Cent’s, Curtis, was a

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nonviolent, publicity-laden beef isolated to the media and explicitly set up to increase album sales. Either way, Queens has secured its place in the lexicon of hip hop history, setting trends like the art of the battle, making hip hop all-inclusive to all genders and races, and carrying raucous rhymes and street savvy fashion out of Queens and New York to countries all over the world.

THE FUTURE OF HIP HOP IN QUEENS In the new millennium, Run DMC has officially broken up after the murder of Jam Master Jay, who was shot and killed at age 37 on October 30, 2002, at the same Queens studio where he had recorded for years and where he nurtured up and coming hip hop artists like Onyx and 50 Cent (see sidebar: 24/7 Studios). ‘‘It was easy for Jay to still live in Queens,’’ Run recalls. ‘‘As a matter of fact I was still living in Queens too. When Jay got killed I was still living in Queens in Jamaica Estates. He lived in Jamaica Estates, not too far from me. We were performing and we could have moved, but it didn’t seem like we needed to move.’’ DMC shares a similar take on his fallen bandmate: ‘‘He could have had his studio in the city, [but] he had his studio five minutes from where he grew up. He went back to the same people to say I made it out, I got away for you to be able to come up. The very thing Jay got away from and went back to deliver other people from is what killed him. I am fighting for the consciousness for what caused the shooter to pull the trigger. If the consciousness of hip hop were what it was back from the old days, he would have never pulled the trigger. Hip hop was created to eradicate this kind of consciousness. We look at Jay’s situation, but there’s a Jason Mizell dying every day in the hood.’’ Run and DMC continue to record solo records independently of each other, and to engage in many other projects as well. DMC, diagnosed with spasmodic

24/7 STUDIOS Located in Jamaica, Queens, in the belly of the always-crowded Queens city bus station, Jam Master Jay’s 24/7 studios helped to shape the talents of artists like Onyx and 50 Cent, among many of his prote´ge´s. This studio, where Jay ran his struggling label, JMJ Records, was also where he took his last breath on October 30, 2002 when assailants came into the studio and opened fire on his friend Uriel ‘‘Tony’’ Rincon, shooting him in the leg, before fatally shooting Jam Master Jay in the back of the head. For several years his studio lay shuttered as police conducted the still unsolved investigation into his murder. There have been rumors that the building that houses the former studio will possibly be turned into a hip hop museum.

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5 POINTZ If you want to witness what life was like in the 1980s on New York City subway cars, just take a walk down Jackson Avenue at Crane Street and Davis Street in Long Island City in Queens. The whole block is a living homage to the art of graffiti featuring the art of famous and novice graffiti artists. When Giuliani pushed his quality of life programs, he started locking up all of the graffiti artists. 5 Pointz was created by Jonathan Cohen to offer a legal outlet for spray paint artists. Since then, old school graffiti artist legends from the 1970s come to show their skills, and so do artists from around the globe, including graffiti writers from Germany, Japan, Switzerland, and England. They are interviewed before they put their pieces up. Every few months new artists go over old art. But one side is reserved strictly for the reverie of the old school.

dysphonia, a vocal disorder which causes involuntary spasms of the larynx muscles, released a new album in 2008 and starred in DMC: My Adoption Journey, a VH1 special documentary of his journey to find his real parents after he learned that he was adopted. Run has became Reverend Run after being ordained as a reverend priest in Zoe Ministries. ‘‘I didn’t choose it,’’ he explains, ‘‘God chose me. So this, my life, we make plans and God laughs, period. I am following what’s available for my existence to create comfort. It’s a rough statement, but it’s true. I am trying to find out what I am supposed to be doing and becoming a Reverend kind of chose me and MTV chose me and Run DMC and ‘Walk this Way’ chose me. I am living and I am trying fix whatever for my contribution to this world. What you see me doing I am enjoying it because I am in the right place, the only time we suffer is when we are out of order. Out of order creates pain. You got pain, there must be something disconnected. You did something you wasn’t supposed to be doing. You’re having a financial problem, you wasn’t somewhere you was supposed to be where they paid you. I am just trying to get in where I fit in.’’ In the new, post-Run DMC era of Queens hip hop, 50 Cent, the self-proclaimed King of New York, has kept the light shining on the borough since he marked his territory with Get Rich or Die Tryin’ in 2003. In 2007, he not only battled Kanye West to see who could sell the most records, but he also went toe-to-toe with old schoolers like Fat Joe with his track, ‘‘Piggybank’’ where he also dissed Mobb Deep, Nas, Jadakiss, Ja Rule, and Shyne: ‘‘Jada don’t fuck wit me if you wanna eat, cause I’ll do ya little ass like Jay did Mobb Deep.’’ So it came as a surprise in 2006, when Mobb Deep signed to G-Unit records. They even went as far as receiving tattoos to pledge their loyalty. Prodigy had ‘‘G-Unit’’ tattooed on his right hand and 50 Cent had Mobb Deep tattooed on his wrist. They eventually

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had a falling out, but not before Mobb Deep’s album, Blood Money, was released in 2006. Prodigy went to Koch Records and Havoc went to an independent label, Nature Sounds. Irv Lorenzo is looking to making a comeback after he was exonerated for charges that alleged that he used drug money to start his label Murder, Inc. He is coming back with his artist that helped his label to make their mark: Ja Rule. When asked for his thoughts on the new generation of Queens hip hop artists, Run replied, ‘‘I love seeing Ja Rule win. I love seeing 50 Cent win. I don’t look at it in any way besides God blesses and gives talent and it will always be that way. I don’t judge it or judge what music is going through in this time period. I’m not a hip hop scholar who says it was better back then. The same parents that are mad at rap now, their parents were mad at them for wearing dashikis. I don’t get into that it was better back then. Their parents hated rock and roll. When people get old they always get mad at the new movement, and God is not half as mad at it as the old people are. That’s my take.’’

REFERENCES Adler, Bill. Tougher than Leather: The Rise of Run DMC. Los Angeles: Consafos, 2002. Ahearn, Charlie, and Jim Fricke. Yes, Yes, Ya’ll: The Experience Music Project Oral History of Hip Hop’s First Decade. New York: Da Capo, 2002. Brown, Ethan. Fat Cat, 50 Cent, and the Rise of the Hip-Hop Hustler. New York: Anchor, 2005. Chang, Jeff. Can’t Stop, Won’t Stop. A History of the Hip Hop Nation. New York: St. Martin’s, 2005. DMC. Personal Interview with the author. September 27, 2007. 50 Cent. From Pieces to Weight. New York: Pocket Books, 2005. Frere-Jones, Sasha. ‘‘Run DMC; Since Kindergarten I Acquired the Knowledge: Intro.’’ In The Vibe History of Hip Hop, edited by Alan Light, 61–68. Three Rivers, 1999. Gonzales, Michael A. ‘‘The Juice Crew, Beyond the Boogie Down.’’ In The Vibe History of Hip Hop, edited by Alan Light, 101–9. Three Rivers, 1999. Gueraseva, Stacy. Def Jam, Inc. Russell Simmons, Rick Rubin, and the Extraordinary Story of the World’s Most Influential Hip-Hop Label. New York: One World, Ballantine, 2005. LL Cool J with Karen Hunter. I Make My Own Rules. New York: St. Martin’s, 1997. Michel, Sia. ‘‘LL Cool J.’’ In The Vibe History of Hip Hop, edited by Alan Light, 81-89. Three Rivers, 1999. Reeves, Marcus. ‘‘Regional Scenes.’’ In The Vibe History of Hip Hop, edited by Alan Light, 217–27. Three Rivers, 1999. Reverend Run. Personal Interview with the author. October 10, 2007.

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Simmons, Danny. Personal Interview with the author. September 12, 2007. Valdes, Mimi. ‘‘Salt-n-Pepa.’’ In The Vibe History of Hip Hop, edited by Alan Light, 209–15. Three Rivers, 1999. Wood, Joe. ‘‘Native Tongues: A Family Affair.’’ In The Vibe History of Hip Hop, edited by Alan Light, 187–99. Three Rivers, 1999.

FURTHER RESOURCES Alim, H. Samy. ‘‘On Some Serious Next Millennium Rap Ishhh: Pharoahe Monch, Hip Hop Poetics, and The Internal Rhymes of Internal Affairs.’’ Journal of English Linguistics, March 2003: 60–84. Bogdanov, Vladimir, John Bush, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, and Chris Woodstra, eds. All Music Guide to Hip-Hop. The Definitive Guide to Rap and Hip-Hop. California: Backbeat Books, 2003. Cepeda, Raquel, ed. And it Don’t Stop, The Best American Hip-Hop Journalism of the Last 25 Years. New York: Faber and Faber, Inc., 2004. Forman, Murray, and Anthony Neal, eds. That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader. New York, London: Routledge, 2004. George, Nelson. Hip Hop America. New York: Penguin Books, 1999.

WEB SITES http://queens.about.com/od/thingtodo/ss/lic_art_2.htm http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1576088/20071207/jam_master_jay.jhtml

FILMS DMC: My Adoption Journey, VH1, Rock Docs. Get Rich or Die Tryin’, Paramount, A Viacom Company, 2005. NY 77: The Coolest Year in Hell, VH1, Rock Docs. Tougher than Leather, New Line Cinema, 1998.

TOUR Queensbridge and Hollis Tour Hush Tours, Inc. 292 Fifth Ave. Suite 608 New York, NY 10001 1800-987-9852.

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SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY 50 Cent P.I.M.P.. Aftermath, 2003. Get Rich or Die Tryin’. Aftermath, Interscope, 2003. 21 Questions. Aftermath, 2003. The Massacre. Aftermath, 2005. Curtis. Aftermath, 2007. A Tribe Called Quest People’s Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm. Avex Trax, 1990. The Low End Theory. Jive Records, 1991. Midnight Marauders. Jive Records, 1993. Beats, Rhymes, Life. Jive Records, 1996. Beatnuts Intoxicated Demons: The EP. Relativity/Violator, 1993. The Beatnuts: Street Level. Relativity/Violator, 1994. Stone Crazy. Relativity/Violator/Epic/Sony, 1997. Hydra Beats, Vol. 5. Hydra, 1997. A Musical Massacre. Loud/Sony, 1999. World Famous Classics. Sony, 1999. Take It or Squeeze It. Loud/Epic/Sony, 2001. Beatnuts Forever. Relativity, 2001. Classic Nuts, Vol. 1. Loud/Epic/Sony, 2002. The Originators. Landspeed, 2002. Milk Me. Penalty, 2004. U.F.O. Files. Pit Fight, 2008. Planet of the Crates Pit Fight, 2009. Craig G The Kingpin. Atlantic, 1989. Now, That’s More Like It. Atlantic, 1991. This is Now. D&D, 2003. Operation: Take Back Hip Hop (with Marley Marl). Traffic/Good Hands, 2008. Davy DMX ‘‘One for the Treble.’’ Tuff City, 1984. ‘‘The DMX Will Rock.’’ Tuff City, 1985. De La Soul 3 Feet High and Rising. Tommy Boy, 1989. De La Soul Is Dead. Tommy Boy, 1991. Buhloone Mind State. Tommy Boy 1993. Stakes Is High. Tommy Boy, 1996. Art Official Intelligence: Mosaic Thump. Tommy Boy, 2000. AOI II: Bionix. Tommy Boy, 2001.

From Queens Come Kings | 71 The Grind Date. Sanctuary, 2004. The Impossible Mission: TV Series Part 1. AOI, 2006. Eric B. & Rakim Paid in Full. 4th & Broadway, 1987. Follow the Leader. Universal Records, 1988. Let the Rhythm Hit ’Em. MCA Records, 1990. ‘‘Juice (Know the Ledge)’’ (12-inch). MCA Records, 1992. Paid in Full—The Platinum Edition. Island Records, 1998. Ja Rule Venni Vetti Vecci. Def Jam, 1999. Rule. Def Jam, 2000. Pain Is Love. Def Jam, 2001. Last Temptation. Def Jam, 2002. Blood in My Eye. Def Jam, 2003. R.U.L.E. Def Jam, 2004. Mirror. Motown, 2007. Kool G Rap and DJ Polo Road to the Riches. Cold Chillin’, 1989. Wanted: Dead or Alive. Cold Chillin’, 1990. Live and Let Die. Cold Chillin’, 1992. Kool G Rap 4, 5, 6. Cold Chillin’, 1995. Roots of Evil. Illstreet/Downlow, 1998. The Giancana Story. Koch, 2002. Half a Klip. Chinga Chang/Koch, 2008. Kurtis Blow ‘‘Christmas Rappin’ ’’ Mercury, 1979. Kurtis Blow. Mercury, 1980. Deuce. Mercury, 1981. Trouble. Mercury, 1982. The Best Rapper on the Scene. Mercury, 1983. Ego Trip. Mercury, 1984. Large Professor 1st Class. Matador, 2002. LL Cool J Radio. Def Jam/Columbia, 1985. Bigger and Deffer. Def Jam/Columbia, 1987. Walking with a Panther. Def Jam/Columbia, 1989. Mama Said Knock You Out. Def Jam/Columbia, 1990. 14 Shots to the Dome. Def Jam/Columbia, 1993. Mr. Smith. Def Jam/RAL/Island, 1995.

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Lost Boyz Legal Drug Money. Uptown, 1996. Love, Peace, and Nappiness. Uptown, 1997. LB IV Life. Uptown, 1999. Main Source Breaking Atoms. Wild Pitch, 1991. Marley Marl In Control, Vol. 1. Cold Chillin’, 1988. Hip Hop Lives (with KRS-One). Koch, 2007. Operation: Take Back Hip Hop (with Craig G). Traffic/Good Hands, 2008. MC Shan Down By Law. Cold Chillin’/Warner Bros, 1987. Born to be Wild. Cold Chillin’/Warner Bros, 1988. Play it Again, Shan. Cold Chillin’/Warner Bros, 1990. Mobb Deep Juvenile Hell. Island, 1993. The Infamous. Loud, 1995. Hell on Earth. Loud, 1996. Murda Muzik. Loud, 1999. Infamy. Loud, 2001. America’s Nightmare. Jive, 2004. Blood Money. G-Unit, 2006. Mr. Cheeks John P. Kelly. Uptown, 2001. Back Again! Uptown, 2003. Ladies and Ghettomen. Legal Drug Money/Contango, 2004. Nas Illmatic. Sony, 1994. It Was Written. Sony, 1996. I Am . . . . Sony, 1999. Nastradamus. Sony, 1999. Stillmatic. Sony, 2001. God’s Son. Sony, 2002. Street’s Disciple. Sony, 2004. Hip Hop Is Dead: The N. Sony, 2007. Onyx Bacdafucup. Def Jam, 1993. All We Got Iz Us. Def Jam, 1995. Shut Em Down. Def Jam, 1998. Organized Konfusion Organized Konfusion. Hollywood Basic, 1991. Stress: The Extinction Agenda. Hollywood Basic, 1994.

From Queens Come Kings | 73 Pharoahe Monch Internal Affairs. Hollywood/Rawkus, 1999. Desire. Street Records, 2007. Prince Po The Slickness. Lex, 2004. Prettyblack. Nasty Habits, 2006. Public Enemy Yo! Bumrush the Show. Def Jam, 1987. It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold us Back. Def Jam, 1988. Fear of a Black Planet. Def Jam, 1990. Apocalypse ’91: The Enemy Strikes Black. Def Jam, 1991. Muse Sick-n-Hour Mess Age. Def Jam, 1994. There’s a Poison Goin’ On. Play it Again Sam, 1999. Rakim The Book of Life. Universal, 1997. Run DMC Run DMC Profile, 1984. King of Rock. Profile, 1985. Raising Hell. Profile, 1986. Tougher than Leather. Profile, 1988. Back from Hell. Profile, 1990. Together Forever: Greatest Hits 1983–1991. Profile, 1991. Down with the King. Profile, 1993. Crown Royal. Arista/Profile, 2001. Salt-n-Pepa Hot, Cool, & Vicious. Next Plateau, 1986. Salt with a Deadly Pepa. London Records, 1988. Blacks’ Magic. London Records, 1990. Very Necessary. FFRR, 1993. Brand New. London, 1997.

CHAPTER 4 Brooklyn Beats: Hip Hop’s Home to Everyone from Everywhere Jennifer R. Young Jay-Z’s song ‘‘Brooklyn’s Finest’’ (1996) may be about his and Notorious B.I.G’s lyrical prowess, but the title also speaks to their place among the pantheon of Brooklyn hip hop, the influence of which is felt in hip hop music around the world, even as Brooklyn benefits from the influence of the variety of cultures that make up its neighborhoods. Brooklyn is New York City’s largest borough and one of its most diverse, with more than two million residents representing Dutch, English, German, Italian, Asian, Orthodox Jewish, African American, and Caribbean heritage. One of the long-standing slogans for Brooklyn is ‘‘Home to Everyone from Everywhere.’’ Brooklyn is a place that many hip hop artists call home, even if they are not originally from the borough. Named after the Dutch town Breukelen, Brooklyn is New York City’s most populous borough. Brooklyn has more than a dozen neighborhoods—including Clinton Hill, Flatbush, Bushwick, Bedford-Stuyvesant, and Fort Greene—all filled with cultural diversity that is reflected in the music and culture. Brooklyn hip hop brought us the beatboxing sounds of the Fat Boys, as well as the speed raps and rap ballads of Big Daddy Kane. Producers like Large Professor and DJ Premier have worked with several Brooklyn artists, using samples from blues, rock, and jazz genres to fuse with the lyrics. Brooklyn has the largest African American population of the New York City boroughs, and, according to statistics released from Brooklyn Borough Hall, the nation’s largest Caribbean population. Borough President Marty Markowitz said, ‘‘Brooklyn’s current renaissance would have been impossible without Caribbean Americans’’ (‘‘BP’’). Caribbean Americans include families who reared Brooklyn notables like graffiti artist Jean-Michael Basquiat (whose parents were Puerto Rican and Haitian), lyricists Biggie Smalls and Busta Rhymes (both with Jamaican heritage), and Foxy Brown (of Afro-Trinidadian descent). The Caribbean, and Jamaica in particular, continues to have a profound effect on American rap music and Hip Hop culture in general. Arguably, the most famous Hip Hop figure to 75

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emerge from the Caribbean is Kool DJ Herc, the Kingston, Jamaica-born father of Hip Hop in the Bronx. The mobile sound systems of early hip hop DJs like Kool Herc reflected those used by Jamaican DJs since the 1960s. The art of ‘‘toasting’’—or an emcee talking during a song to keep the crowd hyped—also carried over from the Caribbean. Toasting is not as prevalent in American rap music as it was in the 1970s, now that the early call-and-response routines of DJ Hollywood, Eddie Cheeba, and Kool Herc have been replaced by more complicated rhyming and storytelling, but MCs such as Mos Def still exhibit Caribbean influence in their blend of patois with hip hop slang, and the influence of reggae is also seen in the rhyme flows of MCs like Heavy D, Brooklyn’s Chubb Rock (who was born in Jamaica), or Busta Rhymes, who rap really fast. In Brooklyn, Caribbean-Americans saw their musical traditions mixed with influences from American jazz, funk, and rock and roll in the creation of an entirely new form of music: hip hop. During most of the twentieth century, ethnic groups in Brooklyn had established enclaves: Anglo Americans in Park Slope; Italians in Bensonhurst; Latinos in East Williamsburg; Jewish worshippers in West Williamsburg; Islamic worshippers in Crown Heights; African Americans in Brownsville; Caribbean descendants in East Flatbush; and Asians in Sunset Park. Today, however, Brooklynites live with less experiential, linguistic, religious, and civic restrictions. Hip Hop in this borough is a product of its diverse environment, a microcosm of the global population itself.

LEGACY OF BROOKLYN HIP HOP 1970s Brooklyn was part of Hip Hop from its inception in the 1970s. Before the 1979 singles ‘‘King Tim III (Personality Jock)’’ by The Fatback Band (Spring Records) and ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ by Sugar Hill Gang (Sugar Hill Gang Records), youth in the tri-state area (New York, Connecticut, New Jersey) were in the beginning stages of rocking, dancing, toasting, and deejaying. They demonstrated their skills wherever possible—street corners, subways, clubs, parks, recreational centers, and block parties. Brooklyn was no exception. The youth were exposed to the same 1970s musicians who were regularly played in other urban centers around the nation. James Brown, Booker T. and the MG’s, Isaac Hayes, the Staple Singers, Rick James, Sly and the Family Stone, the Fatback Band—R&B, soul, and funk groups like these proved a desirable alternative to disco music for many young people growing up in Brooklyn. In addition to the ever-evolving sounds of Detroit Motown music, the Memphisbased company Stax Records helped expose East Coast audiences to blues, funk, and soul (see sidebar: Brooklyn Hip Hop Festival). Just as young people had block parties, competitions, and battles hosted by pioneers like Kool DJ Herc,

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BROOKLYN HIP HOP FESTIVAL Support, celebrate, and represent hip hop—that is the mantra that the festival organizers have shouted out since the festival’s inception in 2004. Swiftshot Shorty, one of the organizers, activists, and artists in his own right, likens the Brooklyn Hip Hop Festival to the grassroots movement that politicians like President Barack Obama and New York Congressman hopeful Kevin Powell inspire people to keep moving: ‘‘Depend on those who matter—the people. The people are why we do this. It was the people who stood in the rain in 2006 to see Lupe and Kane, the people who bailed us out when Amp’d went bankrupt last year, and it was the people who believed in this pipe dream in 2005’’ (‘‘Bodega’’). The fifth annual Brooklyn Hip Hop Festival was held in June 2009. Executive Director Wes Jackson talks about the festival reflecting the gender and demographic that he has always seen at hip hop events: young men and women who are also fathers and mothers, who almost always come with some relatives, including their children and their children’s grandparents. The festival has a philanthropic message. The organizers remind everyone that donations and volunteerism are vital elements to keeping the event accessible to people of all backgrounds and classes. By providing entertainers of yesterday and today, their goal is to entertain and educate the crowd. Whether from Brooklyn or not, the artists come and perform in peace and solidarity. Following in the tradition of Brand Nubian, Big Daddy Kane, and Ghostface, KRS-One (from the South Bronx) headlined the festival in 2008. DJ Premier, Ladybug Mecca, and Black Moon were just a few of the invited guests at the festival who claim Brooklyn as their home. Though the festival is named after the borough, the events scheduled to occur in Empire Fulton Ferry State Park will not be about territory.

REFERENCE Brooklyn Bodega. (Post by Swiftshot Shorty) ‘‘Brooklyn Hip Hop Festival.’’ April 20, 2008. www.brooklynbodega.com (accessed April 2008).

Afrika Bambaataa, Grandmaster Melle Mel, and Grandmaster Caz (just to name a few) who spearheaded hip hop in the Bronx. Marley Marl, Run DMC, Davy DMX, and others from Queens were forming their own unique style in the late 1970s, as were pioneers like Grandmaster Flowers in Brooklyn.

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It was hardly the sounds of black soul music that sparked interest for Brooklyn youth who helped begin what is known today as hip hop. Gang life—followed by or in conjunction with ‘‘tagging’’ or graffiti—was prevalent in New York neighborhoods. Building and subway graffiti was commonplace by 1971. On July 21, 1971 the New York Times published a profile on Taki, the 17-year-old ‘‘writer’’ known for his infamous tag, ‘‘Taki 183.’’ Other writers were responding to Taki’s art by creating their own graffiti, so much in fact that Manhattan Mayor John Lindsay—who was mayor from 1966 to 1973—created a graffiti task force to abolish such illegal actions (Castleman 21). Hundreds of thousands of dollars were spent cleaning the subways, thousands of teenagers were arrested, local and national plans were drawn, and local and national press coverage was abundant. Still, daring writers continued to spray paint words, symbols, and elaborate art on subway trains throughout the five boroughs. Graffiti hit the international stage when art galleries began showcasing aerosol art and when films like Wild Style (1982), Breakin (1984), and Beat Street (1984) began heralding it. Music and art were significant to hip hop’s early years in Brooklyn, but it is critical to also note the dozens of rocker crews that existed. In the first part of the decade, dancers were called rockers, a term relating to the rock and soul funk era. Rockers battled against their rivals in groups, others battled solo. Some crew members were affiliated with neighborhood gangs, others were not. Bushwick, Brooklyn was a hotbed for rockers, who, thanks to a dancer named Rubberband, would begin uprocking. Rubberband added ‘‘jerks’’ and freestyle to his rock routine. Another dancer, Apache, would later add hand movements to uprock, a style known as ‘‘burns’’ (Break Easy). A popular song for uprockers was James Brown’s ‘‘Give It Up or Turn it Loose.’’ In the six minute (nonradio) version, the song shifts from the organ and base to a conga beat and hand clap. Brown sings, ‘‘Clap your hands! Stomp your feet!’’ In his article ‘‘Breaking: The History,’’ Michael Holman describes the necessity of Brown to the beat and what media would soon call break dancers. Explains Holman, ‘‘James Brown created the ultimate dance music because it had unrelenting repetitive beats and rhythms that could make you dance forever. The James Brown sound doesn’t speak to your head, it speaks to your body, to your arms and legs, your hips and your rear end, directing, supporting, moving you like a current’’ (35). Other popular songs to rock to included James Brown’s ‘‘Sex Machine’’ and ‘‘It’s Just Begun’’ by Jimmy Castor. Native Brooklynite Crazy Rob is identified as having organized ‘‘rock’’ concerts, competitions, and battles in the Bushwick neighborhood. While rocking was originally associated with gang culture in the late 1960s, by the early 1970s, contributors who liked the dance but not the fight had honed their skills. Independent uprockers and crews like Touch of Rock and Dynasty brought a great deal of fame to Bushwick. Their stage was the Brooklyn streets. Their materials included rubber shoes and track suits, boom boxes, original jerks and burns, and the quintessential flattened cardboard boxes.

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1980s Since the 1980s, audiences have had access to hip hop culture via television. Video Music Box, which aired (c. 1984–1996) on local New York television channels, WNYE-TV then WNYC-TV, is credited as the first show to focus primarily on hip hop. While the format may have resembled previous shows like American Bandstand or Soul Train, Video Music Box had a raw appeal for the school-age crowd with studio interviews, videotaped segments from parties, and rap video releases. Created and produced by Brooklyn natives Ralph ‘‘Uncle Ralph’’ McDaniels and Lionel Martin (just one of their many projects), Video Music Box helped reflect the developing culture of hip hop, and it remains a valued

ODES TO BROOKLYN Roy Ayers’ song ‘‘We Live in Brooklyn, Baby’’ (He’s Coming, 1971) is a blend of funk, jazz, and spoken word. Samples of this song creep up in contemporary odes to Brooklyn. The pioneers of hip hop did not leave Brooklyn out since many come from or currently reside there. Cut Master D’s ‘‘Brooklyn Rocks the Best,’’ Stetsasonic’s ‘‘Go Brooklyn,’’ and Beastie Boys’ ‘‘No Sleep Til Brooklyn’’ are classics. Also hear Audio Two’s ‘‘Top Billin’ ’’ (originally 1988, rereleased featuring MC Lyte in 1998). In the song’s background, listeners hear the crowd chanting ‘‘Go Brooklyn! Go Brooklyn!’’ In ‘‘B-Boy Bouillabaisse: Hello Brooklyn’’ (1989), the Beastie Boys scream, ‘‘You know the Bronx is up, but I’m Brooklyn down!’’ The Beastie Boys (comprised of Mike D, MCA, Ad-Rock, and Mix Master Mike) make ‘‘An Open Letter to NYC’’ (2005) a dedication to all that live in the greater metropolis of New York City. From their album To the 5 Boroughs: 2002– 2006, the crew raps, ‘‘Brooklyn, Bronx, Queens and Staten/From the Battery to the top of Manhattan.’’ In ‘‘Hello Brooklyn 2.0’’ (2007) Jay-Z and Lil Wayne reference the city as the respected woman that she is. ‘‘Like a Mama you birth me, Brooklyn you nursed me/Schooled me with hard knocks, better than Berkeley.’’ Kel Spencer’s recent song ‘‘Dear Brooklyn (#5)’’ also uses the city as its object of affection. Spencer’s ballad starts out with these lines: ‘‘My Beloved, I wake up to you/I breathe you, I taste you, Let me hold you.’’ Also hear Spencer’s jazz/rap rendition, ‘‘This is Brooklyn (#6).’’ Other songs about Bucktown include (but are not limited to): ‘‘Brooklyn’’ by Fabolous; ‘‘BedStuy Parade and Funeral March’’ and ‘‘Brooklyn’’ by Mos Def; ‘‘Brooklyn Zoo’’ by Ol’ Dirty Bastard; ‘‘Crooklyn’’ by the Crooklyn Dodgers; ‘‘Bucktown’’ by Smif-N-Wessun; ‘‘5 Boroughs’’ by KRS-One and ensemble; ‘‘JFK to LAX’’ by Gang Starr; ‘‘Live from New York’’ by Raekwon; ‘‘New York’’ by AZ; and ‘‘New York Shit’’ by Busta Rhymes.

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predecessor for the cable television shows: Music Television (MTV)—Yo! MTY Raps (1988–1995), Total Request Live (1998 to present), Black Entertainment Television (BET)—Video Soul (1983–1997), Planet Groove (1996–1999), and 106 & Park (2000 to present). As Brooklyn came into its own as a borough known for hip hop, artists began to shout out the borough in lyrics (see sidebar: Odes to Brooklyn). For instance, on 1987’s ‘‘Top Billin’,’’ Audio Two chant, ‘‘Go Brooklyn! Go Brooklyn!’’ Audio Two’s song is such a Brooklyn anthem that its impact continues to be felt. As stated on the Priority Records Web site, Audio Two’s song continues to influence music: For over two decades ‘‘Top Billin’ ’’ remains the most-sampled (second only to James Brown) and covered song by some of music’s most popular artists including Dr. Dre, Mary J. Blige, Wyclef, P. Diddy, Snoop Dogg, R. Kelly, Notorious B.I.G., All Saints and most recently 50 Cent on his smash hit ‘‘I Get Money.’’ (‘‘Artists’’) ‘‘Top Billin’ ’’ was a song that made the borough of Brooklyn shine. The group was signed to an independent music label, First Priority, which set a precedent for aspiring hip hop moguls. Nat Robinson—one of the founders of First Priority in the early 1980s—is one of the earliest executives to start an independent hip hop label. Not only was Robinson’s upstart label beneficial for his sons (Gizmo and Milk D of Audio Two) and his daughter, MC Lyte, but he also used the marketing concept that was popular with Motown Records in the 1950s and 1960s: a musical family. While hip hop artists have always collaborated, Robinson’s music label became an example for future hip hop labels—cross promotion of artists, products, and performances. First Priority artists included Audio Two, The Alliance, and MC Lyte. By 1986, Robinson made the pioneer move of partnering his label with the parent company Atlantic Records. This landmark partnership would prove profitable for hip hop labels to come. Hip hop labels who are subsidiary to multigenre music companies have certainly contributed to the American economy. The hip hop music and product industry is a multibillion dollar enterprise. First Priority continues to produce artistic work by current lyricists including June Luva, Tarsha Vega, and platinum recording artist Eamon whose hit song, ‘‘F**K It. I Don’t Want You Back’’ is ‘‘the highest charted song with an expletive in the title in recording history’’ (‘‘Artists’’). From their humble beginnings, First Priority did what many record label owners are criticized for doing today: representing family talent. Not only was First Priority one of the earliest successful family Hip Hop owned businesses, but it also showed that the employees could thrive behind and in front of the microphone (see sidebar: ‘‘Who’s Who in the County of Kings’’) In addition to production, lyricism, and showmanship, artists out of Brooklyn have elevated the overall business of hip hop. One of the biggest executives to be

WHO’S WHO IN THE COUNTY OF KINGS After legends like Jackie Robinson, Lena Horne, and Shirley Chisholm, Brooklyn seemed to make room for a different lot of public figures: those in hip hop. Big Daddy Kane and Masta Ace helped bring Brooklyn hip hop to the rest of the city, the nation, and the world. Though from Brooklyn, Kane and Ace were part of the Queens-based Juice Crew, a collaborative posse of lyricists that Marley Marl produced songs for individually and in group settings. Listen to ‘‘The Symphony’’ (Cold Chillin Records, 1988) that stars several of the Juice Crew members. See the Old Wild Western-inspired music video. The rumble happens in Brooklyn, after all. Big Daddy Kane and Masta Ace went on to have successful careers and to help launch the careers of others. For instance, a young, prerecorded Jay-Z impressed Big Daddy Kane enough to be invited to tour with him. There are many emcees that either live in Brooklyn or got their early influences there, including Dana Dane, Prince Markee D of the Fat Boys, Audio Two, MC Lyte, Nathaniel Hall of the Jungle Brothers, Gang Starr, the late Ol’ Dirty Bastard, Busta Rhymes, Jay-Z, Biggie Smalls, Aaliyah, Junior M.A.F.I.A., Lil’ Kim, Foxy Brown, Red Cafe´, Mos Def, Papoose, Lil Mama, Saigon, Mos Def, and Talib Kweli. Many of these notable natives are specifically from the Bedford-Stuyvesant area. Many of Spike Lee’s films have Brooklyn neighborhoods as the backdrop, especially She’s Gotta Have It (1988), Do the Right Thing (1989), Mo’ Better Blues (1990), and Crooklyn (1994). Comedian and activist Dave Chappelle chose the Clinton Hill neighborhood as the setting for his documentary and soundtrack Dave Chapelle’s Block Party (2006). Chappelle dedicated the project to the life and memory of J Dilla, a well-known music producer, MC, and member of the Soulquarians (a hip hop/neo soul collective that represented artists from several cities including Brooklyn, Philadelphia, and Chicago). Also see Nelson George’s Life Support (2007) which uses Brooklyn neighborhoods as setting for the story based on true events of a health-care counselor (his sister), performed in the film by Queen Latifah, who has a passion for spreading awareness, education, and tangible solutions for the pandemic HIV/AIDS. The underground music pulses on. Hear Jim Jones’s single ‘‘Ballin’ ’’ (2006) or ‘‘We Fly High’’ (Hustler’s P.O.M [Product of My Environment]) and its many remixes. Hear Kel Spencer’s mixtape Brooklyn Spartans (2008), a concept street album based off the Hollywood film 300 (director Zack Snyder 2007). One of his songs, ‘‘This Is Brooklyn,’’ appears on the Life Support soundtrack. Veteran groups like Black Moon (the acronym for Brothers Who Lyrically Act and Combine Kickin Music Out On Nations), Digable Planets (or associates of theirs), Boot Camp Clik, or the newer group Dinero (United States/Jamaican) are hardly out of reach. For an international twist, check out the production company Nomadic Wax. Their songs focus on lyricists from African countries, especially Senegal whose hip hop culture and marketplace is one of largest outside of the United States, Japan, and France.

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in association with Brooklyn is DJ Premier (aka Preem, Primo, born Christopher E. Martin). Representing Gang Starr, DJ Premier owns two music labels, YearRound Records and Works of Mart. He bought Manhattan’s famous D&D studios in 2003 and renamed it HeadQcourterz Studios (in honor of a fallen friend) (‘‘Premier Interview’’). Artists who recorded at D&D studios included Premier, The Notorious B.I.G., Nas, Jay-Z, KRS-One, Black Moon, and Da Beatminerz. In addition to creating the sound of jazz rap with Guru, DJ Premier all but patented the style of making ‘‘clean version’’ songs easier to listen to by replacing curse words with sound effects rather than the other version of bleeping out or silencing words that interrupt the song’s flow. He helped build the contemporary East Coast sound of rap music as he experimented with all sorts of instruments and sounds. Not all of DJ Premier’s songs sound like R&B or rap songs. That alone has opened up the subgenres of hip hop, garnering greater audience appeal. Known for his unique melodies, knowledgeable samples, and use of drums, he was one of the earliest hip hop producers to set market cost for tracks. Appearing in the film Scratch, then, is not just showing his craft. DJ Premier’s business savvy has led him to sustain the music, to extend it into global markets, and to enliven the beats for ever-evolving modern sounds. Listen to any of the Gang Starr albums, or the hundreds of singles that DJ Premier has produced for other artists of rap, jazz, rock, and R&B.

ARTIST PROFILES Many Brooklyn artists have made a significant impact on hip hop. Gang Starr (consisting of Guru—originally from Boston, and DJ Premier—originally from Texas) revolutionized the sound of rap by adding jazz and swing rhythm to it. In her poem ‘‘Writer’s Delight,’’ Tracie Morris praises such ingenuity: ‘‘Improvising on a/ Miles Trane melody/Nat Duke Turner Cole/freedom rings’’ (88). Lil’ Kim, as a group performer and solo star, redefined young urban womanhood, making third wave feminists squeal. Lil’ Kim’s graphic lyrics sparked debates on what female empowerment means to a post Civil Rights generation. Writer Joan Morgan talks about an evolution of feminism, an ideology that is somewhere shy of female gangsterism yet beyond her ‘‘foremother’s feminism’’ (280). In the underground, Boot Camp Clik (consisting of Da Beatminerz, Black Moon, the duos Smif-N-Wessun and Heltah Skeltah, and the members of O.G.C.) have represented Brooklyn since the early 1990s. While they may not have the commercial success that others attained, their underground following, as seen in the large crowds that show up to see them at the annual Brooklyn Hip Hop Festival, is undeniable. The Crooklyn Dodgers are another Brooklyn-based group that made a significant contribution. The group originally consisted of Masta Ace, Buckshot, and Special Ed. Their 1994 single, ‘‘Crooklyn,’’ recorded for the soundtrack to Spike Lee’s film Crooklyn by Spike Lee (1994), includes radio clips from a sportscaster covering a Brooklyn Dodgers game. ‘‘Brooklyn wins! Brooklyn wins!’’ the

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commentator shouts. Those who watch the music video for‘‘Crooklyn’’ will see images of the legendary baseball player, Jackie Robinson. Transitioning from Negro League Baseball to Major League Baseball, this athlete joined the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947, a move that desegregated the Major Leagues after almost eighty years of segregation. The Crooklyn Dodgers impart Brooklyn legacy on the listener, reminding everyone of the famous people who got their start there, including Michael Jordan and Mike Tyson (and Spike Lee, the director of the project). The group’s lineup changed entirely for its second release, when Spike Lee recruited a new trio of Brooklyn luminaries—Chubb Rock, Jeru da Damaja, and O.C.—to record the single ‘‘Return of the Crooklyn Dodgers’’ for his film Clockers (1995). While hundreds of lyricists are from Brooklyn, it is worth highlighting five of them who have left indelible marks on the movement, music, and culture: MC Lyte, Busta Rhymes, Biggie Smalls, Jay Z, and Mos Def. This chapter profiles these five artists because of their national and international influence on hip hop music: they represent a cross-section of Brooklyn hip hop, far from the totality of it.

MC Lyte (Lana Moorer) MC Lyte was born and raised in Brooklyn. She shouts out her neighborhood in songs such as ‘‘Kickin’ 4 Brooklyn’’ (Lyte as a Rock, 1988) and ‘‘Brooklyn’’ (Ain’t No Other, 1993). From her debut Lyte as a Rock in 1988, she has proven to be a skilled solo female rapper (although she often gives credit to her skilled deejay who was a part of her earlier albums: DJ K-Rock). Lyte’s lyrics empower women to be women, men to be men, and the two to respectfully coexist. With songs like ‘‘I Cram to Understand You (Sam)’’ (Lyte as a Rock, 1988), ‘‘When in Love’’ (Act Like You Know, 1991), ‘‘Keep On, Keepin’ On’’ (Sunset Park Soundtrack, 1996), and ‘‘Girlfriend’s Story’’ (2004), Lyte links love to the complexities of life. In the case of ‘‘Cram to Understand,’’ she renounces drug addiction for being the antithesis to healthy relationships. When younger female emcees, such as Lil’ Kim and Foxy Brown, emerged in the 1990s with more lascivious lyrics, Lyte kept her style, remaining alluring in her own right with songs like ‘‘Ruffneck’’ (Aint No Other, 1993) and ‘‘I Wanna Be Down’’ (Brandy, 1994). In ‘‘Ruffneck,’’ she blasts in on the listener, demanding respect for her way of loving another person: ‘‘if he ain’t ruff, well then he’s all wrong for the Lyte.’’ Lyte asserts her femininity while at the same time never backing away from the aggression of rap battles. In ‘‘10% Dis’’ on her debut album, she engages in battling Antoinette and her crew on vinyl. Antoinette responded with her single ‘‘Lights Out, Party’s Over’’ (1988); Lyte returns with ‘‘Shut the Eff Up! (Hoe)’’ on her sophomore album (Eyes on This, 1989), where she comes back at rival Antoinette. Lyte is one of the earliest emcees to use songs as platform for discussions regarding community and personal health. She’s consistent with this activist

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strategy considering all of her albums have songs that confront serious issues. Lyte’s songs cover a range of topics from depression, suicide, alcoholism, STDs, HIV/AIDS, domestic abuse, and street terrorism. In ‘‘Poor Georgie’’ (Act Like You Know, 1991), the protagonist grapples with her lover’s self-destructive behavior. A cast of characters in ‘‘Cappuccino’’ (Eyes on This, 1989) include a cafe´ patron, a gunman, drug addicts, innocent gun victims, a drunk driver, and a dedicated social worker who gets caught up in the middle of it all. Lyte continues this trend of mixing life issues with spirituality and philosophy in other songs including ‘‘Eyes Are the Soul’’ (1992), ‘‘Druglord Superstar’’ (1997), ‘‘King of Rock’’ (1998), and ‘‘God Said Lyte’’ (2003). In addition to her lyrical prowess, MC Lyte’s marketing strategies have kept her in the spotlight for over two decades. She has collaborated with dozens of artists in hip hop and other music genres on record projects and film soundtracks. Appearing on television and in magazines, and touring internationally, Lyte cleared the path for many female solo and group acts to flourish. Lyte has received nominations from MTV Awards, Soul Train Music Awards, and the Grammy Awards. MC Lyte’s Grammy nominated song ‘‘Ruffneck’’ was the first gold single ever achieved by a female rap artist. She was the first female rapper to perform at Carnegie Hall in 1990. She was the first rapper to perform for the U.S. Organizations (USO), performing for sailors, marines, and their families in Italy, Greece, Sicily, and Sardinia in July 1997 with a second USO tour in Germany in 1998 (‘‘USO’’). In 2006 she became the first rap female solo artist to be an honoree of the VH1 Hip-Hop Honors. In 2007 she mentored Shar Jackson on the first season of ‘‘Celebrity Rap Superstar’’ (aired on MTV network). There were many other contending rap legends including Redman, Warren G, and Too $hort, but Lyte’s mentee proved victorious. Beyond her career accomplishments, MC Lyte seems to have a passion for community healing. Lyte participates in multiple philanthropic projects: nonviolent campaigns, Rock the Vote, and AIDS benefits. From her involvement with KRSOne’s Stop the Violence Movement in 1988/89, including her appearance on the song ‘‘Self Destruction’’ to her current projects with her inspirational book Just My Take (self-published, 2007), Lyte continues to prove that she is as forceful with her action outside of the music as her characters are within her intricate, yet highly entertaining narratives.

Busta Rhymes (Trevor Smith) Some rap listeners might argue that Busta Rhymes is not a Brooklyn rapper. Yet, a person’s formative years are critical to his adulthood, and Rhymes spent his wonder years in Brooklyn. Although his career began with the Long Island-based Leaders of the New School, listeners would be remiss to ignore the great effects that Brooklyn had on shaping Busta’s early musical tastes. Busta Rhymes spent part of his childhood in Flatbush, Brooklyn, but it is important to be specific here

Brooklyn Beats | 85 considering that Flatbush contains several neighborhoods and communities, with large populations of Italians, Jews, and West Indians. East Flatbush, where Busta Rhymes originated, remains predominately African American and black West Indian. It would have been hard for a young Busta Rhymes to miss the annual Labor Day Carnival (aka West Indian Carnival) that includes the West IndianAmerican Day Parade. Known as the ‘‘Caribbean Capitol of the USA,’’ Brooklyn would naturally represent some of Busta Rhymes’ heritage. Many of Busta’s songs include some reference to West Indian culture, a presence and awareness he acquired from his family and no doubt from the neighborhood in which he was raised. Such vibrancy of culture might explain his elaborate style of rapping, his taste for costume design, and his brilliant showmanship. ‘‘I was ecstatic last year [2006] when June was finally designated as National Caribbean-American Heritage Month,’’ said Brooklyn Borough President Markowitz. ‘‘Brooklyn’s current renaissance would have been impossible without Caribbean Americans’’ (‘‘BP Marty,’’ 2007). This sentiment can apply to Busta Rhymes as well. His lyrics which blend witticism with the whimsical, his business acumen with Flip Mode Squad, and his acting (in films such as Higher Learning, 1995 and Full Clip, 2004) are treasured contributions for hip hop. And in the tradition of Brooklyn hip hop appealing to global audiences, this region would not be the same without Busta. Philosophical Lyrics and Heritage Rhymes, who from an early age asserted pride in his culture and Jamaican roots, added a texture to hip hop that was both American and International. He proudly showed his locked hair. He used Jamaican patois and speed in his lyrical delivery; he called out predecessors, such as the Wailer’s reggae musician Peter Tosh (‘‘Scenario,’’ The Low End Theory, 1991). From the start, Rhymes has been consistent with his argument. His lyrics insist that people revisit their ways of thinking, to be properly informed. Years later, Rhymes still gets to his point with ‘‘Touch It’’ (The Big Bang, 2006). There are at least five versions of this song. ‘‘Touch It Remix Part 5,’’ for instance, includes Eminem, Nee-Yo, and Jae Millz. The refrain in ‘‘Touch It’’ resembles his verse in ‘‘Scenario.’’ What you think, both songs suggest, has the capacity to be rethought in a whole new way. A robotic female voice demands in the song, ‘‘Touch it, bring it, pay it, watch it/turn it, leave it, stop, format it.’’ Like Busta Rhymes, this single is a veritable go-getter that remixes and remixes and remixes again. A necessary contributor in shaping and maintaining hip hop culture, Rhymes was never reticent about his influences from his fellow lyricists in Leaders of the New School, A Tribe Called Quest, and from the vast amount of members that comprise the afrocentric, culturally conscious Native Tongues Posse (Jungle Brothers, De La Soul, Tribe Called Quest, Queen Latifah, Monie Love, Chi Ali, and Black Sheep, to name a few).

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Best Supporting Lyricist Busta Rhymes seems to have a golden touch for remix and collaboration songs. Perhaps this can be attributed to his respect for music in the collective. Even on his solo albums, Rhymes almost always has another lyricist present or he gives shout-outs to others, especially the Flipmode Squad, a production crew and musical family started by Busta Rhymes in the early 1990s. Spliff Star, Rampage, and Chauncey Black are among the members who are still part of the Squad. Former members include Rah Digga, Papoose, and Lord Have Mercy. In a time when many crews have gone defunct, it is a testament to Busta Rhymes’s music and spirit for collaboration that listeners are still treated to grooves from the Flipmode Squad. Rhymes works with artists of all sorts. Returning to the earlier example, watch the Arsenio Hall Show episode when Busta performs ‘‘Scenario’’ with the other rappers from Quest and Leaders. He has a kinetic effect on the others who share the stage with him, which in turn makes everyone sound and look better as a performing cast (‘‘Arsenio’’). Busta Rhymes was also collaborating with R&B artists before it became standard in the late 1990s. Listen to his ‘‘Interlude’’ on TLC’s album Crazysexycool (1994) or his duo with Mariah Carey (‘‘I Know What You Want,’’ 2003). And, his ensemble efforts are numerous. Hear how he enlivens Boyz II Men (‘‘Vibin Remix,’’ 1995) and gives the rock band Linkin Park a different sound (‘‘We Made It,’’ 2008). Perhaps these collaborations can describe his sustainability through three record company representations—Elektra in the 1990s, J/Arista/BMG for four years, and Aftermath/Interscope since 2004. Rhymes’s first solo hit ‘‘Woo-Hah! Got You All in Check!’’ (The Coming, 1996) is as raw and distinctive as his later ones. Don’t be mistaken by the simple keyboard melody. His yelling and wordplay are far from jibberish: ‘‘Just feed off dynamic flows an’ take heed.’’ He’s a multiplatinum recording artist who has been nominated for more than 35 awards, including nine Grammy nominations. Other nominations include ECHO Awards in Germany, and MTV Awards in Europe and Australia. Here are the four that he has won to date (‘‘Busta’’): • 1999 Source Award Music Video of the Year—‘‘What’s it Gonna Be’’ with Janet Jackson; • 2000 Soul Train Music Award R&B/Soul/Rap Music Video—‘‘What’s it Gonna Be’’; • 2006 BET Hip-Hop Award Best Collabo—‘‘Touch It (Reward)’’; • 2006 BET Hip-Hop Award Best Live Performer

The Notorious B.I.G. (a.ka. Biggie Smalls or Christopher Wallace) Like Jay-Z, and Mos Def, the Notorious B.I.G. (who is referred to as Biggie in this article) was raised in the Bedford-Stuyvesant area of Brooklyn (see sidebar ‘‘Tour

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Notorious B.I.G. (Photofest)

de Brooklyn’’). In his brief life, he went from hustling on the streets at age 17 to helping launch his career and that of at least ten other artists (Sean Combs, Mary J. Blige, Total, 112, Junior M.A.F.I.A. and their solo acts, Faith Evans, and Mase). As a lyricist, performer, collaborator, producer, Biggie definitely deserves credit for helping to build the Bad Boy Entertainment industry. Sean Combs was critical in signing Biggie to Uptown Records in 1992, and then to Combs’s new label, Bad Boy Records, in 1993. Before his solo debut, Biggie paid his dues by collaborating, remixing, and songwriting. He appears on two singles by Mary J. Blige—‘‘Real Love’’ and ‘‘What’s the 411?’’ (1992); on Super Cat’s ‘‘Dolly My Baby’’ (1993) along with Busta Rhymes, Biggie appears on Craig Mack’s 1994 remix of ‘‘Flava in Ya Ear.’’ By the time Ready to Die is released, audiences are well aware of Biggie. In Blige’s song ‘‘411’’ Biggie fantasizes about all the divas who were hot of the time: Patti Labelle, Regina Belle, Jasmine Guy, SWV, and TLC. And then, of course, since it’s Mary’s song, Biggie strategically gives all props to the new, up and coming R&B soloist: ‘‘Wait a minute, what about my honey Mary . . . I had a crush on you since Real Love.’’ In one fell swoop, Blige’s What’s the 411 album shifted the perception of R&B and rap music as separate entities. According to the Recording Industry of the Association of America, Blige’s debut album was certified gold within months of its release. By 1993, the album was certified triple platinum, a lot for a new artist blossoming in a new genre. As Blige’s audience grew, so did Biggie’s, mainly due to their close affiliation with Sean Combs who produced most of the songs on Mary’s first two albums: What’s the 411? (1992) and My Life (1994). For awhile, Mary J. Blige’s music served as

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TOUR DE BROOKLYN According to the U.S. Census Bureau, more than 2.4 million people reside in Brooklyn, compared to the estimated eight million living in the neighboring northern borough of Manhattan (‘‘Factsheet’’). Brooklyn can be seen by numerous methods: walk by foot through the 100 plus neighborhoods; take an 18-mile bike tour (known as Tour de Brooklyn); see a film in the one of the hip cinemas (check out the annual Brooklyn Underground Film Festival in Park Slope); patronize record shops (go to EAT, the cafe´/record spot on Meserole in Greenpoint or Somethin’ Else on Fifth Ave in Park Slope); visit street vendors; walk across the East River on the 125-year-old Brooklyn Bridge; eat from one of the multiethnic eateries (try the Cakeman Raven’s Bakery on Fulton Street or Junior’s on the corner of Flatbush and Dekalb); or marvel at the tree-lined streets in Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood. Once known as the place where the fictitious 1950s/1960s television characters The Honeymooners lived, Bed-Stuy is better known today for the setting of Spike Lee films and Chris Rock’s comedy Everybody Hates Chris. Read local papers or ask passersby about many weekend street festival and club celebrations at the Sputnik in Clinton Hill, Puppets Jazz Bar in Park Slope, or other spots showcasing talent (Sisario 2007). The Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn Museum of Art, and Prospect Zoo are places not to be missed. This, of course, is a different zoo from the one to which Ol’ Dirty Bastard refers in his song ‘‘Brooklyn Zoo.’’ The fate of the U.S. Basketball League (USBL) is unknown, but this borough and their home field at the Long Island University campus in Brooklyn will always be home for the Brooklyn Kings. Women in full costume with feather headdresses, men at the drums, children performing to the beats, and food, food, food—the West IndianAmerican Day parade is just one of the activities during the Labor Day West Indian Festival. However, the parade is the largest draw, attracting millions and millions of spectators who line the Eastern Parkway to be amazed and dazzled. Hear the Jackie Robinson Steppers Marching Band. A part of a larger initiative at the Robinson Center for Physical Culture, the 180+ band is under the direction of Tyrone Brown. Some of the members were even featured in the film Our Song (Beach Films, 2000). There are also a lot of award winning writers who live and write in Brooklyn including Colson Whitehead and Jhumpa Lahiri. (Some critics link Richard Wright with the Fort Greene neighborhood. They say he may have penned Native Son there in 1945 before moving to Harlem.) Stop by a local bookstore. Perhaps you’ll get to hear Suheir Hammad read her poetry about living in America and loving her native Palestinian land. Or, go to the annual Brooklyn Book Festival that stretches from Borough Hall into Columbia Park Plaza. You may just bump

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into Toni Blackman there. She is the first poet-activist-rapper-peacemaker to be chosen by the U.S. Department of State to serve as an American Cultural Specialist. In the past five years, she has traveled to over 20 countries running cypher workshops and other lyrical forums on the transformative power of hip hop.

REFERENCES Blackman, Toni. Inner-Course: A Plea for Real Love. New York: Villard Books, Random House, 2003. ‘‘Factsheet for Brooklyn borough.’’ U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000. http:// factfinder.census.gov/ (accessed April 2008). Ol’ Dirty Bastard. ‘‘Brooklyn Zoo.’’ Return to the 36 Chambers. Elektra, 1995. Our Song (film). Dir by Jim McKay. Beach Hill Films, 2000. Patel, Joseph. ‘‘Brooklyn Kids Earn Trophies, Scholarships, Fans like Jay-Z.’’ Mtv.com, May 30, 2004. Sisario, Ben. ‘‘Brooklyn Next.’’ New York Times, February 16, 2007. http:// nytimes.com (accessed April 2008).

the flagship for hip hop soul; Biggie Smalls’ music was the pace car for the transformative East Coast hip hop sound. Conspiracy, the 1995 debut album by Junior Masters at Finding Intelligent Attitudes (Junior M.A.F.I.A), was not produced under the Bad Boy label, but Biggie appears on several of the tracks. Two of the tracks that feature Biggie, ‘‘Get Money’’ and ‘‘Player’s Anthem,’’ were Junior M.A.F.I.A’s two hottest charttopping singles. Lil’ Kim (former member of Junior M.A.F.I.A) was also mentored by Biggie. Her first two albums enjoyed large success. Hardcore (1996) shows Biggie’s influence on Kim. The beats, lyrical delivery, and gangsta subject matter resemble his style. He appears on two songs ‘‘Crush on You’’ and ‘‘Drugs.’’ The Notorious K.I.M (2000) continues to hail Biggie. On that album Kim credits herself, Sean Combs, and Christopher ‘‘Biggie’’ Wallace as the executive producers. The R&B quartet, 112, had three albums with Bad Boy Records. Biggie had multiple roles in cultivating their success as well. Hear him on two versions of ‘‘Only You’’ (1996), the song that continues to be one of 112’s most well known singles. Elegies Biggie sings the hook, ‘‘You’re Nobody ‘til Somebody Kills You’’ on his Life After Death album. Sadly, he was murdered on March 9, 1997, and his album was released sixteen days after his murder. His musical family responded with an elegy of their own: ‘‘I’ll Be Missing You’’ (No Way Out, 1997). The song continues to be one of the most famous rap elegies to date. An ensemble piece, the elegy is harmonized by 112, rapped by Sean Combs (known as Puff Daddy at the time),

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and sung by Faith Evans, Biggie’s widow. Also a singer and songwriter, Evans has credits on Usher’s debut Usher (1994) and Mary J. Blige’s My Life (1994). She also has six solo albums of her own. The hook of ‘‘I’ll Be Missing You’’ comes from The Police’s ‘‘Every Breath You Take’’ (1983). Combs reminisces, ‘‘Seems like yesterday . . . I laced the track, you locked the flow.’’ Evans croons, ‘‘What a life to take, what a bond to break, I’ll be missing you.’’ The single and album soared to multiplatinum status in the United States, and several other countries including Australia, Austria, and France. Song writing credit goes to Brooklyn rapper Sauce Money, who at one point was in a trio with Jay-Z and Jaz-O. Thanks to Sauce Money’s ghostwriting, the song won the Grammy for ‘‘Best Rap Performance for a Duo or Group’’ in 1997. Other elegiac songs with similar titles exist. Diana Ross’s song ‘‘Missing You’’ (1984) was written by Lionel Richie as a tribute to Marvin Gaye who was murdered earlier that year. Aaliyah’s song ‘‘Miss You’’ (2002) is also an elegy. It was originally sung by Aaliyah as a ballad about a lovesick partner. Unfortunately, due to Aaliyah’s untimely death in a fatal plane crash, her friends convert the meaning of the song into a musical tribute. Other elegiac songs were dedicated to Biggie, such as Junior M.A.F.I.A’s ‘‘Biggie’’ (Born Again, 1999; Best of Junior M.A.F.I.A., 2004): ‘‘Like BIG said, we do the real things . . . Still ride, still die for BIG’s name.’’ Most of the song focuses on the role Biggie played in their lives as artists, as thinkers, as businessmen. Lil’ Kim—who never denied her romantic links to Biggie in her songs—has a verse where she mourns, ‘‘Keep my man name out your mouth/Or get this shit right, check it, it’s the B-I, double G-I, E.’’ Biggie died within months after Tupac Shakur was killed on September 13, 1996. It is worth noting here that Tupac had numerous elegies, many of which were posthumous releases. With heavy samples from the rock music genre, Tupac’s song ‘‘Changes’’ (Greatest Hits 2Pac, 1998) has samples from ‘‘The Way It Is’’ by Bruce Hornsby and the Range. ‘‘Changes,’’ which appears shortly on the heels of ‘‘I’ll Be Missing You’’ (which won a Grammy barely two years earlier), was nominated for Best Rap Solo Performance at the Grammy Awards in 2000. Two songs released so close to the deaths of two prominent lyricists had a sobering effect on millions of listeners. The elegiac song ‘‘Runnin’ (Dying to Live)’’ was recorded by Tupac featuring Biggie in 1994 though it is not released until the Resurrection soundtrack (2003), a film about Tupac’s life. The sample from Edgar Winter’s song ‘‘Dying to Live’’ haunts the listener: ‘‘Why am I dying to live if I’m just living to die?’’ (Edgar Winter’s White Trash, 1971). Tupac’s ‘‘God Bless the Dead’’ is similarly haunting because it was released after he and Biggie were killed. More Money Biggie Smalls’ legacy helped revive East Coast hip hop during a time when rappers from other regions were gaining in popularity. For instance, Master P (aka Percy Miller) was doing more than gaining record sales in New

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Orleans in the mid-1990s. By 1998 this University of Houston graduate—turned National Basketball Association (NBA) player—turned CEO of No Limit Records ‘‘ranked 10th on Forbes Magazines 1998 list of America’s forty highest paid entertainers with an estimated income of $56.5 million’’ (Miller 1999). Fortune Magazine’s issue ‘‘Forty Richest Under Forty’’ featured Master P on the October 1999 cover. Debuting at number 28 (at age 29) Master P was listed as having a net worth of $361 million. Retired Chicago Bulls basketball player Michael Jordan was the only other African American on the list, coming in at number 29 with a net worth of $357 million (Johnson 1999; ‘‘List’’ by Borden 1999). It was not just the records that got this net worth; it was Master P’s company expanding into films, toys, shoes, and sports management that solidified his fiscal success. In his book Hip Hop Matters S. Craig Watkins writes about 1998 being a banner year for hip hop overall. ‘‘That year rap’s certified numbers,’’ Watkins writes, ‘‘units sold, multiplatinum status, and chart-topping performances—confirmed that the genre, long considered a cultural force, had become a major economic force, too’’ (62). Almost 10 years after Sean Combs started his Bad Boy Records label, Forbes Magazine estimated that in 2006, the CEO made estimated personal earnings of $28 million (Goldman 2007). Figures on the net worth of his companies were not noted. Some of these earnings can be attributed to his lucrative partnership with Biggie Smalls.

Jay-Z (aka Shawn Carter) Industry Influence Jay-Z, who was mentored by Jaz-O in the early 1990s, is credited for the sustainability and success of his independent record label RocA-Fella Records. Reasonable Doubt (1996) was certainly a grassroots effort considering the lyricist had difficulty getting a record company to endorse him. Reasonable Doubt shows the wide range of support that he gets from fellow Brooklyn and New York artists. DJ Premier, Clark Kent (Dana Dane’s former DJ), and Biggie contributed to songs on the album. Rappers Memphis Bleek and Sauce Money also appear on tracks. Premier produced ‘‘D’evils,’’ ‘‘Friend or Foe,’’ and ‘‘Bring It on’’; Kent also produced three songs—‘‘Brooklyn’s Finest,’’ ‘‘Cashmere Thoughts,’’ and ‘‘Coming of Age.’’ ‘‘Brooklyn’s Finest’’ features Biggie, a helpful collaboration considering the artist was pretty well known from his bestselling singles with Mary J. Blige, Craig Mack, and his critically acclaimed album Ready to Die. It is as if Jay-Z set out to prove with Reasonable Doubt that he deserved an admirable position in the rap game. His bravado certainly contributes to his rap prowess and success. In Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America, Tricia Rose discusses the necessity of power play in music, which seems to bode well for hip hop. Rose writes, ‘‘These wars of position are not staged debate team dialogues; they are crucial battles in the retention, establishment, or

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Jay-Z (Photofest)

legitimation of real social power’’ (102). In ‘‘Brooklyn’s Finest’’ Jay-Z announces himself, separating ‘‘the Platinum from the Bronze,’’ loving the slums but not being confined to them. To Jay-Z and many more, the finest are from the housing districts Marcy, Bed-Stuy, Crown Heights, Brownsville, Bushwick, Fort Greene, Flatbush, Red Hook, East New York, Clinton Hill, and on. The hook shouts, ‘‘Brooklyn going out to all! You don’t stop. You won’t stop!’’ Jay-Z’s influence in the industry can be attributed to his hard work. For one thing, he becomes one of the most consistent rappers to produce albums, annually (In My Lifetime, Vol 1, 1997; Hard Knock Life, Vol 2, 1998; Life and Times of S. Carter, 1999, etc.). His business partnership with Damon Dash helped bring more clients and artists into the Roc-A-Fella family, and it also helped expand the company into other entrepreneurial areas. Between 1996 and 2008, Roc-A-Fella went from an independent record label to a record company to multienterprise companies to negotiating deals with other million dollar companies. His business acumen is duly noted. His signature style is a mix of street experience with a self-learned/ self-taught corporate swagger. Listeners can count on Jay-Z’s ‘‘rag to riches’’ stories that star him as the heroic protagonist, the self-made man. While some may see him as arrogant, Jay-Z’s tone and message reveal the larger point: He is defensive when directing his lyrics at certain professional foes, but his range is not limited to a vendetta motif. In ‘‘30 Something’’ (Kingdom Come, 2006) he describes his maturation process, ‘‘I’m young enough to know the right car to buy/yet grown enough not to put rims on it.’’ He imparts his wisdom, having gone through the range of poverty and wealth.

Brooklyn Beats | 93 In rapping about having good credit, carrying no guns, and balling with professional basketball players, Jay-Z directs the point to the lessons he’s learned. Economic stability leads to the riches, he suggests. His lesson suggests that chasing the spoils will continue to lead people to economic ruin. ‘‘Baby boy, now I’m all grown up!’’ the hook says. Hear other songs with similar themes—‘‘Takeover’’ (2001); ‘‘Numb/Encore’’ with Linkin Park (2004); ‘‘99 Problems’’ (2004); or his tribute to his mother, ‘‘I Made It’’ (2006). For Jay-Z’s version of ballads, hear ‘‘Ain’t No Nigga’’ featuring Foxy Brown (1996); ‘‘Song Cry,’’ some versions feature Mary J. Blige (2001); ‘‘Girls, Girls, Girls’’ (2001); ‘‘I Know’’ (2007); or ‘‘Hello Brooklyn’’ (2007) featuring New Orleans rapper Lil Wayne with beats from Beastie Boys’s ‘‘B-Boy Bouillabaisse’’ (Paul’s Boutique, 1989). Last, notice his major influence on contemporary vernacular. For instance he has several variations of his name, which become universal words of their own. Words such as ‘‘jigga,’’ ‘‘izzo,’’ ‘‘izza,’’ and ‘‘H.O.V.A.’’ create a set of vocabulary and references that audiences get to figure out. Fiscal Legacy In addition to his lyrics and award winning albums (he has earned seven Grammy awards to date), Jay-Z qualifies as a mogul, because most of his multimillion dollar business deals effect audiences beyond hip hop. While he was making business moves from the start of his career, since 2005 he has expanded things even further. In 2007 he sold his Rocawear apparel label for $204 million. Since 2004, he has co-owned upscale sports bar lounges called 40/ 40 Club in New York, Atlantic City, and Las Vegas, with two more soon to open in Tokyo (Japan) and Macau (China). And in 2008 his corporate team linked with the concert giant Live Nation, a $150 million package deal that will increase JayZ’s overall revenue as it pertains to recordings, concert tickets, and market merchandise (Goldman 2007; Leeds 2008). Jay-Z is one of the few to go from independent lyricist to multibillion dollar executive. Here are some of his other profitable ventures: • He was the CEO of Def Jam Recordings (c. 2005–2007) and CEO of Roc-AFella Records (with many executive roles, including cofounder from 1996 to 2008); • He has ownership in a number of brand companies: Rocawear, Roc Films, Armadale Vodka, and Roc La Familia; • He co-owns the New Jersey Nets NBA team; • And for his philanthropy, he has been recognized by the United Nations for helping to improve water and sanitation around the world. Jay-Z also appeared in Wall Street Journal and Forbes Magazine for his acumen to make million-dollar deals (Nizza 2007). Forbes Magazine has an annual list of the

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top grossing people in the entertainment industry. Jay-Z finished at the top of the list with an estimated $34 million grossed in 2006.

Mos Def Lyrics ‘‘B-Boy Apostle’’—that’s what Black Star calls themselves on their 1998 single ‘‘Definition,’’ part of their album Most Def and Talib Kweli Are Black Star. Black Star is part of the new generation of the Native Tongues Posse. In ‘‘Definition’’ the refrain, after explicitly calling attention to the danger of being an emcee, goes on to exclaim, ‘‘They shot Tupac and Biggie/Hold your head when the beat drop, Y-O!’’ Actually, there are several editions of this song, as with other songs by Mos Def and Talib Kweli. What makes them unique is that the music, sung live on television, rapped in the studio, or improvised on concert stage, Black Star’s music lends itself to organically changing lyrics. For instance, the last line of the previously quoted song is also heard as this: ‘‘They shot Tupac and Biggie/Too much violence in Hip Hop, Y-O!’’ ‘‘Definition’’ serves as homage to hip hop and especially Brooklyn. They have several references to areas in Brooklyn, and the lyrics are accompanied by samples from ‘‘The P is Free’’ by Boogie Down Productions (BDP). BDP is universally associated with the KRS-One, a well-known lyricist, teacher, writer, and preacher of the boom bap. ‘‘Definition’’ might remind listeners of the song ‘‘Stop the Violence’’ (1988), the ensemble antigun single that was spearheaded by BDP. Black Star educates right from the start with the title of their group, which is the name of a shipping line founded by the 1920s leader Marcus Garvey who inspired a global movement to focus on uplifting and reempowering life on the African continent. Black Star made only one album together, but fans have come to expect Mos Def and Talib Kweli to sustain hip hop through integrity, intelligence, and profound rhymes. There are multiple actions that distinguish Mos Def. Education is a huge focus in his lyrics, and he delivers such messages by marrying types of music that are often not seen in rap. Black on Both Sides (Rawkus 1999) has several songs that are both contemporary and classic. The single ‘‘Umi Says’’ has a 1970s groove of electric piano and organ making the words shine as they would during a poetry or spoken word reading. Chosen as the first track on this album is ‘‘Fear Not of Man,’’ a fiesta mix of congas, percussion, and beats by Fela Kuti, the famous Nigerian musician and human rights activist. DJ Premier produced ‘‘Mathematics,’’ a song that cries out for listeners to see the ignorance in illiteracy, murder, underachievement, and other sorts of selfimposed oppression. ‘‘Mathematics’’ gives statistics about inadequate jail sentences for low amounts of drug possession, inadequate compensation to rap artists (15%) considering the multibillion dollar industry, underserved black populations in major U.S. cities like New York, Los Angeles, Houston, and Chicago, and over 60 billion dollars spent on national defense. The song reads like a census report,

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telling listeners the cold, hard incomprehensible conditions under which people live. And, the lyrics even target the individual, asking what people will do for themselves. ‘‘Young bloods can’t spell but they can rock you in Playstation’’— lines like these are meant to arrest the listener. Such themes resurface on his four solo albums and dozens of collaborations (i.e. Lyricist Lounge and Ghostface Meets MF). He also has guest appearances on film soundtracks (especially Brown Sugar, Lackawanna Blues, and Bamboozled, films in which he also had roles). His four-disc CD set, We Are Hip Hop. Me. You. Everybody (2006) is teeming with veterans and new school lyricists who tout the same messages of self-empowerment, self-actuality, and community art for self-love to endure. Politics and World Issues It seems that most if not all of Mos Def’s music is political, but he doesn’t just focus on larger issues. He keeps his finger on the pulse of national atrocities that affect people locally. During the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina which devastated New Orleans and other areas along the Gulf of Mexico, many rappers served with their voices, their dollars, and their foundations. Mos was one of the many to speak out against the lag in relief efforts for families evacuating the more than 80 percent of New Orleans that flooded due to the levees giving way to Lake Pontchartrain. In ‘‘Katrina Clap (Dollar Day)’’ released in September 2005 shortly after the Katrina devastation which started the week of August 23, Mos Def addresses the institutional racism that denied Katrina survivors the prompt rescue, shelter, healthcare, and money they needed, all while the world witnessed such negligence. He roars in the song. Listeners are supposed to be bothered, if not agitated to action. ‘‘Don’t talk about it. Be about it,’’ he says at the end of the ‘‘Katrina Clap’’ video, which has contrasting images of government officials and news headlines with scenes of the displaced, distressed survivors in the hours and days after the flood. His sings the opening lines as if it is a lullaby. Then the words sink in: ‘‘water, water everywhere and people dead in the street, and Mr. President, he ‘bout that cash.’’ For other political issues, listen to ‘‘The Rape Over’’ (2004). The song samples the same beats from The Doors that Jay-Z’s ‘‘The Take Over’’ (2001) does. Jay-Z’s ‘‘Take Over’’ is about the influence, power, and wealth of the Roc-A-Fella family. Considered a parody of ‘‘The Take Over,’’ the ‘‘The Rape Over’’ addresses the inequities of the rap industry. Mos Def sheds light on those who make money off the billion dollar rap industry and the writers, performers, and producers who do not. Both songs are charged with violent militaristic images, though Mos Def’s version takes things one step further by adding sexual denigration and emasculation to the mix. His graphic language describes the way rap has been violated and dispossessed by corporations, drugs, and money-hungry schemes. The multiple versions of ‘‘Bin Laden’’ (2004) accuse the Bush administration of being responsible for 9/11. The song rapped by Immortal Technique, Mos Def, and later Eminem, continues to be highly controversial. Al Qaeda and Bin Laden are

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depicted as monsters created and funded by the U.S. government. Perhaps lesser known, Immortal Technique (aka Felipe Coronel) is an activist and emcee representing for the Diaspora. Raised in Harlem, New York, he is of Afro-Peruvian descent. Most of his songs resemble motivational speeches that address issues of racism, classism, and fascism. Immortal has done collaborations and three albums to date: Revolutionary Vol 1., Revolutionary Vol 2., and The 3rd World. In their poem, ‘‘Dearest Hip Hop,’’ Walidah Imarisha and Not4Prophet praise lyricists like Immortal Technique, writing, ‘‘We made ragtime and blues, jazz, be-bop, and rock-and-roll and soul and funk and ska and reggae and salsa and more, music designed to blow minds, while the Man built factories to manufacture our minds’’ (68). As Mos Def sings in ‘‘Umi Says,’’ ‘‘I ain’t no perfect man/I’m trying to do the best that I can.’’ As a rapper with much more visibility than many, Mos Def takes courageous steps in using his pen, notepad, lyrics, and microphone as his methods of activism. There is a tough balance between gaining popularity and maintaining individuality in one’s lyrical content. Eric Watts writes about the demise of hip hop in the face of American ‘‘spectacular consumption’’: ‘‘The street code gets explosively commodified and artists get juiced beyond their maddest dreams, they are compelled to maintain their celebrity status by ‘authenticating’ their selfpresentations in increasingly grittier street terms’’ (601). What fans find appealing about Mos Def is his proven and consistent habit of truth-telling. Film Mos Def gets a lot of screen time as the host of Def Poetry Jam—an HBO television show produced by Rush Communications CEO Russell Simmons. However, it is the work that Mos does on the silver screen that continues to push the boundaries of how Blacks are portrayed in entertainment storylines. Many rappers have appeared in feature-length films. Tupac Shakur had film roles in Juice (1992), Poetic Justice (1993), and Above the Rim (1994); Heavy D was in the Oscar winning film The Cider House Rules (1999); Queen Latiah (who also has her own film/music production company) earned an Oscar nomination for her role in Chicago (2002) and won the Golden Globe (Best Performance by an Actress in a mini-series or Motion Picture Made for Television) for her role in Life Support (2007); Eldris Elba (known for his deejay skills as Big Dris) starred in the Oscar nominated film American Gangster (2007). The list goes on. In addition to his developing music career, Mos Def’s acting career has soared. He has had a role in at least ten films, many of which have ranked high in box office sales and in critical acclaim. His characters have been diverse in nature. In Bamboozled (2000) and Brown Sugar (2002) he plays characters who are struggling to be understood as rap artists. In Monster’s Ball (2001) he plays a protective father who does not cower in the presence of anyone, especially people in the racially charged southern town. The film turned out to be a landmark project for his career since one of his costars, Halle Berry, won the best actress Academy Award. Berry became one of two Black actors to win best actor awards that year.

Brooklyn Beats | 97 The other was Denzel Washington who won for Training Day. No Black actor had won best actor award since Sidney Poitier won in 1963 for Lilies of the Field. Mos Def had a leading role in Something the Lord Made (2005) for which he received an Emmy and Golden Globe nomination. He plays Vivien Thomas, the African American genius who becomes a surgical assistant to the famous surgeon Alfred Blalock. Thomas eventually invents instruments, helps to pioneer surgical procedures, and instructs surgeries later in his career at Johns Hopkins University. Mos Def goes from playing a medical professional in the Jim Crow era to a fasttalking witness in the thriller 16 Blocks (2006). This is also the supporting lead role. He brings integrity to the character Eddie Bunker, a young man of the streets who is caught up in overwhelming circumstances where corrupt policemen are out to get him. The other lead actor, Bruce Willis, plays a detective who tries to protect him; although neither the audience, nor Eddie, can be sure how credible or reliable the detective really is. Mos Def does great work as character actors also. Look for him as Chuck Berry in Cadilac Records (2008), a film about the 1950s Chicago-based record company. He will also be in Toussaint (2009), a film about the Haitian revolutionary who helped establish Haiti as the first free black nation in 1804. (As a result of their independence, Haiti becomes the first country in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery.) Produced by veteran actor Danny Glover, Toussaint also stars Don Cheadle (as Toussiant L’ouverture) Angela Bassett, and Chiwetel Ejiofor.

THE FUTURE Not only do artists and lyricists live in Brooklyn, they also embody it in artistic mediums through song, canvas, film, or other methods (see ‘‘Brooklyn’s Treasure’’). And like other towns to which people have an affinity, the places in Brooklyn are great because the people say so. Emcees and deejays and producers out of Brooklyn are not monolithic. Some styles represent East Coast gangsta. Others are alternative; others are soul-music oriented. What is refreshing about these people and this city is how they continue to reference it and each other, so that their causes are passed on; their concerns are heard beyond any one messenger. Brooklyn’s diverse setting is reflected in its hip hop shapers and lovers of the culture. Some, like Busta Rhymes and the Notorious B.I.G., integrate their West Indian heritage into their musical performance, style, and consciousness. Other innovators like DJ Premier come as transplants, mixing their influences from other places with Brooklyn’s splendor. Others like MC Lyte and Black Star are born and raised in the city but use their education and empirical experiences to inform their artistry. Whatever the case may be, these artists do not separate themselves from one another based on ethnicity or nationality or whether people hail from which project housing in which neighborhood. A rapper hemmed up in the gangster world will sing the blues to you with violins in the background. Another who’s into beats and rhymes might blast through your speakers with contemporary heavy

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BROOKLYN’S TREASURE: JEAN-MICHEL BASQUIAT (1960–1988) Arguably the most worldwide known postgraffiti artist, Jean-Michel Basquiat, was born and raised in Brooklyn. Graffiti ‘‘writing’’ in the streets as a teenager, Basquiat was discovered by a wealthy patron in his early adulthood. Basquiat’s graffiti tag, Samo, was short for Same Old Shit. He was part of a growing community of artists who used street canvases (buildings, subways, busses) for their artistic license. In 1980, Basquiat exhibited his work in a group exhibition called the ‘‘Time Square Show.’’ Between the ever present taggings on the subway lines by writers like TAKI 183 and the Fashion Moda art gallery in the South Bronx that started exhibiting graffiti in the late 1970s, cultural critics and exhibit goers had opportunities to cultivate their graffiti preferences. The art world soon took notice of Basquiat due to magazine articles that featured him as well as local art galleries in New York that garnered the attention of international art critics and journalists. Writers like Daze, Pink, Crash, and Fab Five Freddy who composed art on the streets became known as post-graffiti writers in the studio. They exhibited their work in several galleries, starting especially with the Fun Gallery (whose curator is known as one of the first to exhibit ‘‘writers’’ in June 1983), Sidney Janis Gallery, New York Society for Ethical Culture, and the Tony Shafrazi Gallery. By age 24, Basquiat began exhibiting his work internationally, making several trips for solo exhibits around North America, Europe, Africa, and Asia. He befriended many writers, actors, artists, and musicians in his short life time, including fellow artists Andy Warhol and Keith Herring. Unfortunately, he died prematurely of a drug overdose in August 1988. Basquiat’s paintings are a reflection of his poetic, philosophical, and spiritual interests about people of the African Diaspora from America, the Americas, and Europe. Fluent in several languages including those spoken by his Haitian father and his Puerto Rican mother, Basquiat seems to fuse jazz/rock/rap rhythm, folk dialect, and political commentary into his work. One hundred twenty pieces by Basquiat were exhibited at the Brooklyn Museum in summer 2005 before traveling to Los Angeles and Houston. Basquiat was greatly influenced by the burgeoning hip hop movement, and should also be credited for helping to shape the wonderful face of hip hop as it pertains to people of varying backgrounds, ethnicities, and tastes.

REFERENCES Ahearn, Charles (dir). Wild Style (film). Rhino, 1983. Basquiat, Jean-Michel, Keith Herring, and Luca Morenzi. Jean-Michel Basquiat. Charta, 1999.

Brooklyn Beats Queenan, Joe. ‘‘Koch World. It’s a Scary Place.’’ New York Times. Region section. April 3, 2005. Ricard, Rene. ‘‘The Radiant Child.’’ Artforum Magazine, 1981. Schnabel, Julian (dir). Basquiat (film). Miramax, 1996. Silver, Tony (dir). Style Wars (film). Plexifilm (orig. 1983 on PBS), DVD Revisited 2006. ‘‘Street to Studio: The Art of Jean-Michel Basquiat.’’ Brooklyn Museum Exhibit, 2004–2007. http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/exhibitions/ basquiat/street-to-studio/english/explore.php (accessed April 2008).

rock music. The unpredictability is what’s most consistent. Mos Def sums it up in his aptly fitted song about Bucktown: ‘‘From the tree-lined blocks to the tenements . . . ain’t a place that I know that bear resemblance/That’s why we call it The Planet’’ (‘‘Brooklyn,’’ Black on Both Sides 1999). 2008 marked the 125th anniversary of the Brooklyn Bridge. Hip hop in Brooklyn has not quite reached fifty years, but the culture’s fundamentals are well built, well supported, and showing no signs of weakness. The annual summer Brooklyn Hip Hop Festival is increasing in popularity among artists who perform and families (from babies to grandparents) who attend. There are also film (including a segment of the Hip Hop Festival), book (Brooklyn literary festival in downtown Brooklyn), and photography (Powerhouse Books in DUMBO) festivals that draw attendees and participants from all over the world. And, since hip hop has had a global audience for decades now, it is not unusual for organizers in Brooklyn to get sponsors and participants who are favored in the hip hop industry for their events. For instance, The Freestyle Union (FSU) is an artist development organization that is now based in Brooklyn, originally started in Washington, D.C. FSU has many initiatives, including the Cipher Workshop that helps participants improve their spontaneous writing, speaking, and performance skills. Founding director Toni Blackman is known to attend neighborhood festivals as a invited participant—to help emphasize art as self and community empowerment. As the first hip hop artist to work as an American Cultural Specialist for the U.S. Department of State, Blackman continues to do work in this capacity; to date, she has traveled to over 50 countries performing poetry, conducting workshops, and educating others on the rich history of hip hop culture (‘‘Blackman’’). Blackman’s poem, ‘‘The Feminine Voice in Hip Hop,’’ speaks to her beliefs in art as transformative. Her interests in maintaining the essence of hip hop is an initiative to which other Brooklyn artists subscribe. Blackman writes (and performs) these lines: ‘‘I am an invisible woman/They know I am here, because I was there’’ (100). The future of Brooklyn hip hop is bright. Even when record-label artists from the borough are not en vogue, the music and culture will continue to exist and

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flourish, off the radar. Too many well-intentioned lovers of the music are inhabiting clubs, bars, parks, lecture spaces, basements, classrooms, recreation rooms, subway stations, and everywhere in between. And, it is these lovers who push the music in new directions, and insist on revering pioneers like ‘‘Uncle’’ Ralph McDaniels, not simply for posterity sake, but for the eternal integrity of the music from Kings County.

REFERENCES ‘‘About Toni Blackman.’’ 2008. http://www.toniblackman.com/ (accessed October 2008). ‘‘Arsenio Hall Show (1989, TV Show).’’ A Tribe Called Quest and Leaders of the New School perform in 1992. TV Guide, April 27, 2008. ‘‘Artists.’’ First Priority New Music Group official Web site. 2007. www .firstprioritymusic.com (accessed April 2008). Blackman, Toni. Inner-Course: A Plea for Real Love. New York: Villard, 2003. Borden, Mark et al. ‘‘America’s Forty Richest Under Forty.’’ Fortune Magazine. CNNmoney.com, September 27, 1999. http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1999/09/27/266173/index.htm (accessed April 2008). ‘‘BP Marty Markowitz and Deputy BP Yvonne Graham Host Historic Day-Long Celebration of Caribbean Heritage.’’ Press Release President of the Borough of Brooklyn Marty Markowitz. June 28, 2007. http://www.brooklyn-usa.org/ Press/2007/june28.htm (accessed April 2008). Break Easy. ‘‘United Brooklyn Uprocks’’ 2005. Rocking and Breaking History. http://hometown.aol.com/WEPAMAN/uprock.html (accessed May 2008). ‘‘Busta Rhymes Awards’’ AceShowBiz. 2005–2008. http://www.aceshowbiz.com/ celebrity/busta_rhymes/awards.html (accessed April 2008). Castleman, Craig. ‘‘The Politics of Graffiti.’’ In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 21–30. New York: Routledge Press, 2004. ‘‘DJ Premier Interview.’’ Interviewed by Theformula.com. Tribe Magazine, April 6, 2003. http://www.tribemagazine.com/board/showthread.php?t=36255 (accessed April 2008). Goldman, Lea (with Jake Paine). ‘‘Hip-Hop Cash Kings.’’ Forbes Magazine Special Report. Forbes.com, August 16, 2007. http://www.forbes.com/2007/08/15/ hip-hop-millionaires-biz-cx_lg_0816hiphop.html (accessed April 2008). Holman, Michael. ‘‘Breaking: The History.’’ In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 31–39. New York: Routledge Press, 2004. Imarisha, Walidah, and Not4Prophet. ‘‘Dearest Hip Hop.’’ In Letters from Young Activists, edited by Dan Berger, Chesa Boudin, and Kenyon Farrow, 65–69. New York: Nation Books, 2005.

Brooklyn Beats | 101 Johnson, Roy S. ‘‘Diamond in the Rough. What Sets Master P Apart?’’ Fortune Magazine. CNNmoney.com, September 27, 1999. http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1999/09/27/266176/index.htm (accessed April 2008). Leeds, Jeff. ‘‘In Rapper’s Deal, a New Model for Music Business.’’ New York Times (Music Section), April 3, 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/03/ arts/music/03jayz.html?_r=1&oref=slogin (accessed April 2008). Miller, Robert G. ‘‘We’ve Got the ‘Hook-Up’ With Master P.’’ Black Collegian, February 1999. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3628/is_199902/ ai_n8836948 (accessed April 2008). Morgan, Joan. ‘‘Hip-Hop Feminist.’’ In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 277–81. New York: Routledge Press, 2004. Morris, Tracie. ‘‘Writer’s Delight.’’ In Listen Up! Spoken Word Poetry, edited by Z. Anglesey, 87–89. New York: One World, 1999. Nizza, Mike. ‘‘In One Fell Swoop, Jay-Z Impresses Critics, Fans, the U.N. and Wall Street.’’ The Lede Section. New York Times Online, November 19, 2007. http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/11/19/ (accessed April 2008). Rose, Tricia. Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America. Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1994. ‘‘USO to Bring MC Lyte to Troops in Germany.’’ USO Media Room, April 15, 2006. http://uso.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&item=55&print=1 (accessed April 2008). Watkins, S. Craig. Hip Hop Matters. Boston: Beacon Press, 2005. Watts, Eric. K. ‘‘An Exploration of Spectacular Consumption: Gangsta Rap as Cultural Commodity.’’ In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 593–610. New York: Routledge Press, 2004.

FURTHER RESOURCES Cobb, William Jelani. To the Break of Dawn: A Freestyle on the Hip Hop Aesthetic. New York: New York University Press, 2008. Forman, Murray. ‘‘ ‘Represent’: Race, Space, and Place in Rap Music.’’ In That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader, edited by Murray Forman and Mark Anthony Neal, 201–22. New York: Routledge Press, 2004. Good, Karen. ‘‘Ill Na Nas, Goddesses, and Drama Mamas.’’ In The Vibe History of Hip Hop, edited by Alan Light, 373–85. New York: Vibe, 1999. Lee, Spike (dir). Crooklyn (motion picture). California: Universal Studios, 1999 (original release 1994). Morgan, Joan. When Chickenheads Come Home to Roost: A Hip-Hop Feminist Breaks it Down. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000.

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Nelson, George (dir). Life Support (motion picture). New York: HBO Home Video, 2007. Perkins, William, ed. Droppin’ Science: Critical Essays on Rap Music and Hip Hop Culture. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996. Perry, Imani. ‘‘Stinging Like Tabasco: Structure and Format in Hip Hop Compositions.’’ In Prophets of the Hood: Politics and Poetics in Hip Hop (by the author), 58–101. Duke University Press, 2005. Peterson, James Braxton. ‘‘The Hate U Give (T.H.U.G.): Reflections on the Bigger Figures in Present Day Hip Hop Culture.’’ In Dialogue 2: Richard Wright’s Native Son, edited by Anna M. Fraile Marcos, 203–24. Amsterdam: Rodopi Press, 2007. Pray, Doug (dir). Scratch (documentary). California: Palm Pictures, 2002. Rampersad, Arnold. Jackie Robinson: An Autobiography. New York: Random House, 1998. Toop, David. The Rap Attack: African Jive to New York Hip-Hop. Boston: South End Press, 1984. Wood, Joe. ‘‘Native Tongues: A Family Affair.’’ The Vibe History of Hip Hop, edited by Alan Light, 187–201. New York: Vibe, 1999.

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY Aaliyah Hits and Unreleased: The Ultimate Collection. Polydor Records, 2002. Angie Martinez Up Close and Personal. Elektra/Wea, 2001. Audio Two What More Can I Say? First Priority, 1988. Big Daddy Kane Long Live the Kane. Cold Chillin’/Warner Bros. Records, 1988. It’s a Big Daddy Thing. Cold Chillin’/Reprise/Warner Bros. Records, 1989. Black Moon Enta Da Stage. Nervous, 1993. Diggin’ in Dah Vaults. Nervous, 1996. War Zone. Duck Down, 1998. Total Eclipse. Duck Down, 2003. Boot Camp Clik The Last Stand. Duck Down Records, 2006. Buckshot and 9th Wonder Chemistry. Duck Down Records, 2005. The Formula. Duck Down Records, 2008. Busta Rhymes (with Leaders of the New School) A Future without a Past. Elektra, 1991.

Brooklyn Beats Busta Rhymes The Coming. Flipmode/Elektra, 1996. When Disaster Strikes. Flipmode/Elektra, 1997. E.L.E. (Extinction Level Event). Flipmode/Elektra, 1998. Genesis. Flipmode, 2001. The Big Bang. Flipmode/Aftermath/Interscope, 2007. Back on my B.S. Flipmode/Universal Motown, 2009. Chubb Rock Chubb Rock. Select, 1988. And the Winner Is . . . . Select, 1989. The One. Select, 1991. I Gotta Get Mine Yo. Select/Elektra, 1992. The Mind. Select, 1997. Chubb Rock and Wordsmith Bridging the Gap. Unruly, 2009. Cocoa Brovas (see Smif-N-Wessun) Da Beatminerz Brace 4 Impak. Rawkus, 2001. Fully Loaded w/Statik. Copter, 2004. Unmarked Music Vol. 1. Raw Deal, 2007. Dana Dane Dana Dane with Fame. Profile, 1987. Dana Dane 4 Ever. Profile, 1990. Digable Planets Reachin’ (A New Refutation of Time and Space). Pendulum Records/Elektra Records, 1993. Blowout Comb. Capitol Records, 1994. EMC The Show. M3 Records, 2008. Fat Boys Fat Boys. Sutra, 1984. Fat Boys Are Back. Sutra, 1985. All Meat, No Filler: The Best of Fat Boys. Rhino Records, 1997. Foxy Brown Ill Na Na. Def Jam/Violater, 1996. Broken Silence. Def Jam, 2001. Brooklyn’s Don Diva. Black Rose Entertainment/Koch, 2008. Gang Starr No More Mr. Nice Guy. Wild Pitch/EMI Records, 1989. Full Clip: A Decade of Gang Starr. Noo Trybe/Vibe/EMI Records, 1999. Gang Starr Foundation Ahead of the Game. Gambit Entertainment, 2005.

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Guru Jazzmatazz, Vol 4: The Hip Hop Jazz Messenger: Back to the Future. 7 Grand Records, 2007. Heltah Skeltah Nocturnal. Duck Down, Priority, EMI, 1996. Magnum Force. Duck Down, Priority, 1998. D.I.R.T. Duck Down, 2008. Ill Bill Ill Bill Is the Future. Uncle Howie, 2003. What’s Wrong with Bill? Psycho+Logical, 2004. Ill Bill Is the Future, Vol. 2: I’m a Goon! Uncle Howie, 2006. The Hour of Reprisal. Uncle Howie, 2008. Jay-Z Reasonable Doubt (1996). EMI America Records, 1999. MTV Unplugged. Roc-A-Fella, 2001. Collision Course (with Linkin Park). Warner Brothers/WEA, 2004. American Gangster. Roc-A-Fella, 2007. Jaz-O and the Immobilarie Kingz Kounty. D&D Records, 2002. Jean Grae Attack of the Attacking Things. Third Eart, 2002. Jeanius. Blacksmith, 2008. Jeru the Damaja The Sun Rises in the East. Payday/FFRR/PolyGram, 1994. Wrath of the Math. Payday/FFRR/PolyGram, 1996. Still Rising. Ashenafi Records, 2007. Junior M.A.F.I.A. Conspiracy. Undeas/Big Beat Records, 1995. Just-Ice Back to the Old School. Fresh/Sleeping Bags, 1986. Kool & Deadly. Fresh/Sleeping Bag, 1987. Kel Spencer Who Is Kel Spencer, the Mixtape. L. Bennett, 2005. Ladybug Mecca Trip the Light Fantastic. Nu-Paradigm Entertainment, 2003. Lee, Spike (producer) Crooklyn Soundtrack. MCA Records, 1995. Lil’ Kim Hard Core. Undeas/Big Beat Records, 1996. The Naked Truth. Atlantic Records, 2005. Ms. G.O.A.T. Money Maker Company, 2008.

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Lil Mama VYP (Voice of the Young People). Jive Records, 2008. Masta Ace Take a Look Around. Cold Chillin’, 1990. Disposable Arts. JCor, 2001. A Long Hot Summer. M3, 2004. Masta Ace Incorporated Slaughtahouse. Delicious Vinyl, 1993. Sittin’ on Chrome. Delicious Vinyl, 1995. MC Lyte Lyte as a Rock. First Priority Records, 1988. Act Like You Know. First Priority Records, 1991. The Very Best of MC Lyte. Elektra Entertainment and Rhino Entertainment, 2001. The Shit I Never Dropped. Unda Ground Kings, 2003. Memphis Bleek Coming of Age. Roc-A-Fella, 1999. The Understanding. Roc-A-Fella, 2000. M.A.D.E. Get Low Records/Rock-A-Fella Records/Def Jam, 2003. Milk Never Dated EP. American, 1994. M.O.P. (Mash Out Posse) To the Death. Select, 1994. Firing Squad. Relativity, 1996. First Family 4 Life. Relativity, 1998. Ghetto Warfare. Coppertop Records, 2006. Mos Def (with Talib Kweli) BlackStar. RAWKUS/UMGD, 1998. Black on Both Sides. RAWKUS/UMGD, 1999. True Magic. Geffen Records, 2006. We Are Hip Hop* Me* You* Everybody (4 CD box set), 2006. Mos Def The Ecstatic. Downtown, 2009. Life After Death. Bad Boy, 1997. Duets: The Final Chapter. Bad Boy, 2005. Notorious B.I.G. Ready to Die. Bad Boy, 1994. O.C. Word . . . Life. Wild Pitch, 1994. Jewelz. Payday, 1997. Ol’ Dirty Bastard Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version. Elektra Records, 1995.

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Nigga Please. Elektra, 1999. The Definitive Ol’ Dirty Bastard. Elektra Records, 2005. Queen Pen My Melody. Interscope, 1997. Sauce Money Middle Finger U. Priority Records, 2000. Sean Price Jesus Price Supastar. Duck Down, 2007. Smif-N-Wessun (aka Cocoa Brovas) Dah Shinin’. Wreck, 1994. The Rude Awakening (as Cocoa Brovaz). Duck Down, 1998. Smif-N-Wessun: Reloaded. Duck Down., 2005. Smif-N-Wessun: The Album. Duck Down, 2007. Talib Kweli Quality. Rawkus/UMVD Records, 2002. The Beautiful Struggle. Rawkus/Geffen, 2004. Eardrum. Blacksmith Music/Warner Bros. Records, 2007. UTFO UTFO. Select, 1985. Skeezer Pleezer. Select, 1986. Lethal. Select, 1987. Doin’ It! Select, 1989. Bag It & Bone It. Jive, 1991. Various Artists ‘‘The Real Hip Hop: Best of D&D Studios, Vol 1.’’ K-Tel/D&D Records, 1999. Brown Sugar (film) Soundtrack. MCA Records, 2002. Dave Chappelle’s Block Party (film soundtrack). Geffen Records, 2006. Whodini Whodini. Jive/Arista, 1983. Escape. Jive/Arista, 1984. Back in Black. Jive/Arista, 1986. Open Sesame. Jive/Arista, 1987. Bag-A-Trix. MCA, 1991. Six. So So Def, 1996.

CHAPTER 5

“Brooklyn Keeps on Takin’ It!“: A Conversation with Bushwick, Brooklyn’s Da Beatminerz Mickey Hess When I met brothers Mr. Walt and DJ Evil Dee at their home overlooking Irving Square Park in Bushwick, Brooklyn, I was standing in the middle of hip hop history. Walt greeted me at the front door, and called down the stairs to his brother. ‘‘We’ll do the interview in here in the kitchen,’’ Walt said, leading me down the hall past a living room decorated with gold records and family photographs. One floor beneath this kitchen was the recording studio where Da Beatminerz first created the grimy beats that came to be known as the Brooklyn Sound. The world first heard Da Beatminerz’ dark, bass-heavy production on the 1992 single, ‘‘Who Got Da Props?,’’ from Evil Dee’s group Black Moon. The single was an underground sensation in New York City before it was included on Black Moon’s 1993 debut Enta da Stage, where each track was produced by Da Beatminerz. Walt and Evil Dee also produced the majority of Smif-N-Wessun’s 1995 album Dah Shinin’, several tracks from the collective Boot Camp Clik—which includes Black Moon and Smif-N-Wessun, along with Heltah Skeltah and O.G.C —and have recorded three Beatminerz albums, which include vocals from MCs ranging from Naughty by Nature to Dilated Peoples. DJ Evil Dee and Mr. Walt have become one of the most sought-after production teams in hip hop, and have produced songs for artists such as Bahamadia, Mos Def and Talib Kweli’s Black Star, and Eminem. As I set up my recorder, Evil Dee emerged from the basement studio and joined Walt and me in the kitchen. ‘‘One of these chairs is broken,’’ he warned me. ‘‘Here, you sit in this one. Let me take the broken chair. You want something to drink? We got Vitamin Water. It’s our sister’s, but I’ll leave her two dollars.’’ Their house felt so much like a home that I could almost forget that so many classic hip hop albums were made here, one floor beneath this kitchen, but Da Beatminerz told me that home is where they do their best work.

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DJ Evil Dee of Da Beatminerz (Getty Images)

Mr. Walt: We never strayed from home base, from day one. We tracked all of Enta Da Stage in this house. We did all of Dah Shinin’ in this house. The music was done here. Every beat we made, except for one or two, was made in this house. We was always at home base. Evil Dee: This is our house. I book all my shows here. My kitchen is my office. I’ll stand in my kitchen, and at the same time I’m baking a cake, I’m booking a show. Walt walks around with his headset on. I walk around with my Bluetooth headset on. We both got studios in this house—it’s a three-floor house. And except for this floor where we’re doing this interview, it’s three floors full of records. Mr. Walt: We got a studio downstairs that Evil Dee works in. We record all the vocals down there. Then this middle floor is our family floor. The only hip hop on this floor is the plaques on the wall. Evil Dee: Even this floor I call the hip hop floor, because this is the waiting room. If one of us is in session downstairs, you’ll be waiting on this floor for us to get finished. Mr. Walt: And you got the third floor where I work at, I made that into an office, and I got all my records up there. That’s how we keep it going. It’s running a business. I put my son through school with hip hop. Evil Dee: Same with me. All their expenses and everything, all that money comes from hip hop. And what better way to pay the bills than with your hobby?

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Mickey Hess: Tell me about the first time you heard hip hop. DJ Evil Dee: I first heard hip hop coming from his room. Mr. Walt: I’m the oldest brother. When I first heard my god-brother Charles Gaskin—he was a DJ in ’77—and when I saw him DJ, I knew exactly what I wanted to do. And when I first heard Sugar Hill Gang’s ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ in ’79, I was in the fourth grade, and I was like, Whoa—this is something new. This is something different from the Jackson Five and James Brown. And I got hooked from Day One. I studied every second of that record, and I knew it by heart. We used to sit in school at lunchtime and recite the lyrics to ‘‘Rapper’s Delight.’’ Ev il Dee: I would see different DJs at block parties, but when I heard ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ I started to pay attention. What really made me get into it was being jealous of Walt. Cause I seen him DJ and I was like, I could do that too. The first exposure I got to it was from Walt. Mr. Walt: For junior high we both went to Brooklyn’s I.S. 383 Intermediate School. In my graduating class was Gizmo from Audio Two. My brother here is three years younger than me, so he graduated with Milk Dee from Audio Two. And in the class underneath him, it was DJ Spinna and Mos Def. Evil Dee: I think 383 is where I really said to myself, yo, it’s about to happen. That’s where I really got into DJing. I used to make my tape of me cutting up a break, and take it to school and sit in the yard and play it. Walt was already rocking parties, so I had to prove myself as the little brother, you know, keep the legacy going. Mr. Walt: We had our local crews in Brooklyn back then. But we were young, so we didn’t get to travel around Brooklyn. We stayed in our one part of Brooklyn: Bushwick. Around here there was an MC named Ice Cream, who is the rapper O.C.’s uncle. We also had Monzie D. Monzie D was our LL. He was Bushwick’s LL Cool J. He was the first one to make a record, the first big MC out here. We had other crew in different areas. We had a crew called Grand Slam. We had a dude named Steve whose crew was Park Sounds. Evil Dee: Who had the loudest system. Mr. Walt: His equipment was incredible. Every couple blocks had one DJ who was their core DJ. When the DJs played outside they used to take a rope and wrap it around the speakers. It was like a police line: Do Not Cross. So when the DJ let you come underneath the rope, that was the big thing right there. That was like going backstage at a show. Mr. Walt: Uptown had its crews, Bronx and Manhattan, but we couldn’t go up there, so we had our own crews to simulate them. So when I couldn’t go see Cold Crush live in the Bronx, I’d go down the block, see Grand Slam perform in front of their house! If I couldn’t go see Spoonie Gee, I’d see Monzie D. They were like the same guy. Grandmaster Flowers was Brooklyn’s equivalent to Grandmaster Flash.

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We had a guy named Jazzy Jeff who used to say the same line at every block party, how some Puerto Rican guys beat him up with a baseball bat. That’s what his rhymes consisted of—just getting beat up with a baseball bat. But people loved it. People waited for those lines. Evil Dee: So it was like their records—their shows were their records. These dudes wasn’t on records we could buy, so we said, ‘‘I wanna hear that rhyme about you getting beat up.’’ Mr. Walt: Bushwick had its neighborhood stars. We had Kid Jordache. We had a crew called QPSL. Over on Bushwick Avenue there was another crew called Universal Sounds. These were real hip hop names: Universal Sounds, Grand Slam, these were hardcore names. When you hear Universal Sounds, you just know it’s going to be something. Evil Dee: It just sounds like I gotta be there, yo! Mr. Walt: The Disco Stompers—those were great names. Mr. Walt: Uptown and the Bronx is the home of hip hop—this is where hip hop started. And Queens was rockin’ MCs. They had the best MCs: Run DMC—that’s the greatest group of all time—they’re from Hollis; LL is the king—he’s from Farmer’s Boulevard; you got A Tribe Called Quest—Tribe is from 192nd and Linden. Then if you incorporate Long Island with Queens, you got Rakim, and De La Soul, and EPMD. So Brooklyn, we needed a niche. For years we were still going around claiming Rakim was from Fort Greene, when Rakim was really from Wyandanche, Long Island. But listen, we said, fuck it, let’s take it—we’ll say Rakim’s from Fort Greene. Evil Dee: Brooklyn keeps on takin’ it! Mickey Hess: But KRS-One used that line as a dis against Brooklyn [on ‘‘The Bridge is Over’’]: ‘‘Manhattan keeps on makin’ it, Brooklyn keeps on takin’ it.’’ How did that line become a Brooklyn slogan? Evil Dee: Funny thing, when I went out on tour last month, one of the promoters was telling me a story: ‘‘I came out to Brooklyn last month, and yo, they robbed me! Cause Brooklyn keeps on takin’ it.’’ He was on tour with us for like five shows, and it became like a joke between us. He kept saying ‘‘Brooklyn keeps on takin’ it, because every time I go out to Brooklyn I get robbed.’’ Mr. Walt: But we had our stars. Before Black Moon and Boot Camp Clik, Brooklyn had Chubb Rock, Special Ed, Big Daddy Kane. We knew Biggie, but he came a little bit later. Masta Ace, Izzy Ice, Freddy B and the Mighty Mic Masters, Divine Sounds (R.I.P. Mike Music), UTFO, Whodini, and the Fat Boys—they were the biggest stars out of Brooklyn. Evil Dee: Audio Two, MC Lyte, The Alliance . . . no disrespect to anybody we forgot. There’s a lot of unknown cats that deserve their credit too. They did their thing.

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Mickey Hess: What artists from Brooklyn deserve more credit? Evil Dee: Da Beatminerz! I’m just kidding. Mr. Walt: I’m not kidding. Da Beatminerz deserve more credit. A lot of people credit Nas and Biggie with bringing music back to the East Coast, but it wasn’t them. It was Black Moon’s Enta da Stage and Wu-Tang Clan’s ‘‘Protect Ya Neck.’’ Evil Dee: I remember going to Cali with Black Moon. I took Wu-Tang’s record with me and gave it to [radio show hosts] Sway and Tech. And it’s ill because it was a local record and it was hot. Next thing you know, it’s Wu-Tang and Black Moon in L.A. I’ve had Kanye West, who’s the most arrogant person in the world, be like ‘‘Oh my God, you made Enta da Stage and Dah Shinin’!’’ But who else out of Brooklyn? Mister Cee should be bigger than what he is today. Mr. Walt: He brought Biggie to the game. And when he was with Kane, they didn’t give him no kind of respect. He was known as ‘‘the Nasty African.’’ Evil Dee: DJ Johnny T was the guy who taught me how to sell. He said forget about selling your mixtapes on the corner. You need to sell them in stores. I went to Johnny T’s house and it was the first time I ever saw a 24-cassette duplicator. This guy was really doing it big. He taught me how to run it like a business. Johnny T was taking our tapes and selling them—our mixtapes blew up from that. He showed me how to go into stores and put my tapes on consignment. And I started doing that, so I had stores on lock. Then one day I go downtown to the record store, and I see a sign in the window: ‘‘Mister Cee, 120-Minute Tape,’’ and I was like No! Whoa, 120 minutes? Cause I was doing 60 minutes. Mister Cee was dropping 120minute mixtapes, and was winning. I give him credit, because Mister Cee made me step my game up. When I seen his sign, I was heated. I was like, ‘‘This guy, he DJs for Big Daddy Kane. He don’t need to be making tapes!’’ But he changed the game. He was the first one to drop a 120-minute mixtape, so then I was the first one to drop a mixtape box set. The first mixtape box set, and I’m glad to tell you this, was Evil Dee One. It was three 90minute tapes: Evil Dee One. Mr. Walt: You can’t leave out PF Cuttin. A lot of DJs out in Brooklyn didn’t get the love. Mister Cee should be bigger than he is. PF Cuttin is another dude that no one talks about. Production-wise, Easy Mo Bee doesn’t get the credit he deserves. Easy Mo Bee was the Bad Boy Sound. Easy Mo Bee is the only producer who officially worked with both Biggie and Pac. Evil Dee: And he was the last to work with Miles Davis before he died. I think he’s a genius on the SP-1200. He’s a genius. Evil Dee: Kane was ahead of his time. Mr. Walt: All this pimp shit that people talk about now, Kane was talking about it back then.

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Mickey Hess: What about all the rappers from Brooklyn who became part of other crews, like Big Daddy Kane and Masta Ace in the Juice Crew from Queens, or GZA and Ol’ Dirty Bastard in Staten Island’s Wu-Tang Clan? Mr. Walt: Well, GZA and Ol’ Dirty were RZA’s cousins. Kane knew Biz Markie, who knew Marley Marl, the man who started the Juice Crew. And Ace won a contest to record a verse with Marley. Evil Dee: I used to go pick up Buckshot [one of Black Moon’s MCs] from the mosque on Bushwick and Hart, and when I used to come by to pick him up, these were the people who were outside also: RZA, GZA, Ol’ Dirty, Onyx, Jay-Z, and Jazz. These are the people that I would see every time I went to the mosque. And that was the crew right there. Mr. Walt: Mace from De La Soul is from Bushwick. Mace used to live like six blocks away from us, on Madison Avenue. Evil Dee: Same thing with Ali Shaheed Muhammad from A Tribe Called Quest. Ali Shaheed lived on Madison: [sings a line from Tribe’s ‘‘I Left My Wallet in El Segundo’’] ‘‘490 Madison, we here, Shah.’’ We would see each other, and it wasn’t like an industry What’s up, it’s a ‘‘Hey, what’s going on?’’ It’s funny, because I saw Jay-Z up at D&D Studios when he came out with his first joint, and he said, ‘‘I ain’t seen you since I used to go pick up Jazz at the mosque.’’ That was our conversation. Mickey Hess: Tell me about D&D Studios. Evil Dee: Oh, man, D&D was our home. Monday and Friday, you’d find Beatminerz in the A Room, you’d find DJ Premier in the B Room. Walt: Occasionally you’d see a naked crackhead in the elevator. Evil Dee: But that was the element. But let me start from the beginning: we went to D&D after we were recording at Calliope and we had a disagreement with the owner. Mr. Walt: Havoc tripped the alarm. The owner came to the studio, we had like twenty-five percent of Enta Da Stage done, and he said, ‘‘You guys cannot record here anymore.’’ Evil Dee: He thought we were working on a demo. But then when he found out we were working on an album, he called us back. I remember I scheduled some time, but we never went back. I ran into DJ Premier, and he said, ‘‘I’m in this studio right now, and I’m the only hip hop producer there. Everybody else is making dance music.’’ So I went to go see D&D. I walked in and Doug of D&D showed me the A room, then showed me the B room. And I walked straight back to the A room and said ‘‘Yo, this is it right here.’’ And we stayed in that A room for 12 years. We did so many records in that room. 95 percent of all the records we ever did.

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D&D was our home. Doug and Dave [studio owners Douglas Grama and David Lotwin] gave us the keys. We recorded so much stuff there. I would take a box of records, go to the studio, and bang something out. Walt likes to work at home where he can breathe, but I work better under pressure. D&D was home. They had graffiti on the walls. They had Philly Blunts in the candy machine. Whenever somebody came to D&D, they’d be amazed. Mr. Walt: I met the weirdest people in D&D. I met Shaquille O’Neal in D&D. I met Sheena Arnold, Kevin Garnett. So many people who didn’t even belong in there. Evil Dee: If D&D hadn’t closed, we would still be there. Mr. Walt: No, we wouldn’t, because Doug was cheap. I love D&D, but Doug would never spend money. I was telling Doug, you gotta get ProTools. Everyone else has ProTools and it’s killing your studio. He didn’t get it until two years after I said it, but by then it was too late. We found out they didn’t even own the studio. They rented it. I love D&D. I love Doug and Dave. But Doug was always cheap. Evil Dee: Premier bought it [in 2004] and turned it into HeadQcourterz Studios. Mickey Hess: Da Beatminerz, and DJ Premier, are credited with developing the Brooklyn Sound. Evil Dee: Thank you. A lot of people say that, yeah. Mickey Hess: So what is the Brooklyn Sound? Mr. Walt: The Brooklyn Sound is the real grimy, throw your hood on, type of records. There are records that have the Brooklyn sound that were not even made in Brooklyn. Like Brand Nubian’s ‘‘Punks Jump Up to Get Beat Down’’—that’s a Brooklyn anthem, and they’re not even from Brooklyn! Sadat lives in Brooklyn now, but Sadat wasn’t from Brooklyn. Diamond D made the beat, but he’s not from Brooklyn. Lord Jamar’s not from Brooklyn. But it became a Brooklyn record. Certain records, if it has that grime to it and that old . . . I just feel like pumpin’ weights to it, that’s a Brooklyn record. Evil Dee: We came in the game straight off of Black Moon’s ‘‘Who Got Da Props?’’ and ‘‘How Many MCs,’’ and we come into ‘‘I Got Cha Opin’’ and SmifN-Wessun’s ‘‘Bucktown.’’ Our sound on the first album, Enta Da Stage, how it was so bass-heavy, the way that came about was we were in my man’s Jeep, and Diamond D’s Stunts, Blunts, and Hip Hop had just came out, and when we heard ‘‘Sally Got a One-Track Mind’’ and how it sounded in the Jeep, we said, ‘‘This is it! This is hip hop. This is how we got to make our record.’’ To me, when you think of Brooklyn, you think of crews. Brooklyn always rolls deep. Me, my man, and everybody on my block is comin’ to the party. Even when Black Moon first came out, we’d have situations where it would be a 100 of us going to a club. And it looks scary from the outside, but from the inside, that’s Brooklyn.

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If you look at cats from Brooklyn, everybody had a crew. Biggie had Junior Mafia. And Junior Mafia wasn’t only the dudes that rhymed. Junior Mafia was a crew. Same with M.O.P. It’s not just Billy and Fame—it’s all kinds of people in M.O.P. Brooklyn is the biggest borough. We have the most people. And this is a reason why people fear Brooklyn. Queens is spread out. Queens—you might as well think of Queens as the country. You have a house here, a house here, and a house here. The Bronx is packed and spread out. Manhattan is for tourists, except Uptown, which is small. But Brooklyn is bigger than all the boroughs, and we’re all thrown in next to each other. We got the most projects, and the most hoods. There’s so many people in Brooklyn. Now Brooklyn’s changed. My neighborhood used to be crazy. Now my neighborhood, we have everybody here. Everybody’s buying property, everybody’s living here, and anybody can walk down the block. Back in the day, you could walk down the block and it’d be like You ain’t from around here. Me and Walt, we could be archenemies, but if you come along, you’re not from around here, so we’re gonna beat you up, then we’re going to start fighting again. But until we beat you up, we’re teamed up. And that’s a Brooklyn thing. Mickey Hess: So what are Brooklyn’s hip hop landmarks? Evil Dee: Albee Square Mall, but that’s not there anymore. Mr. Walt: Empire Roller Rink. That’s not there anymore either. I first saw Funky 4 + 1 More there. I saw Dr. Rock and the Force MCs—not the Force MDs. Before they were the Force MDs, they were the Force MCs. It was a battle with one of the neighborhood crews out here, the Wiz Kids. At the Empire Roller Rink. Funky 4 + 1 More were just performing, but Dr. Rock and them was in the battle, and I was like ‘‘you guys [The Wiz Kids] do not have a chance.’’ It’s different now. A lot of white people move in the hood and it’s different. They’re buying property out here. Used to be, back in the days, the white people would only go to Park Slope, and Williamsburg—not even Williamsburg—Greenpoint. Areas like that. Everything else was predominantly black. Now I look at Bed-Stuy and white people are walking around and they’re talking to everybody and everybody’s cool. The money is coming in. We’re getting an NBA team. The Nets are moving to Brooklyn. Flatbush Avenue, they’re putting a stadium in. The Nets are leaving Jersey. And once they come to Brooklyn, a lot of people aren’t going to be going to Madison Square Garden to see the Knicks anymore, because you know what—The Knicks could be the worst team in basketball, but that Garden is always packed. People don’t want to go all the way out to Continental Arena to see the Knicks. Because if you don’t have a car, you’re assed out. You see, on Flatbush where they’re building the stadium, you have Long Island Railroad, you have all kinds of trains.

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Evil Dee: It’s a terminal out there. They’re about to have a New Jersey Transit extension come down there. You go regular subway service. You got crazy buses, so many different buses out there. It’s a hub. I sit on my step, and there’s cats skateboarding by. Now it’s more diverse here, and it’s cool because you don’t want to get old and still be fighting old wars. The neighborhoods are getting better. So I’m not mad at that, but back in the day it wasn’t like that. Mickey Hess: How do you think all this gentrification will affect the future of hip hop in Brooklyn? Mr. Walt: If the guys want to keep making good music, you got to keep that Brooklyn mentality, because that’s what we did. We had that Brooklyn mentality. You keep that Brooklyn mentality, and hopefully the music won’t change. Hopefully the music will reflect your community. Evil Dee: No matter what, we’re all doing the same thing. New York had its shine. L.A. had its shine. The South is having its shine right now. Canada’s going to have its shine, and London. All we have to do is just come better.

CHAPTER 6 A Black Sheep Borough, an Island of All White People: Staten Island Steps Up Matthew Brian Cohen When listeners consider the importance of New York City to hip hop, Staten Island is often hip hop’s forgotten borough. During hip hop’s early years, Staten Island was ignored, underplayed, or, at worst, derided. In my interview with him for Hip Hop in America: A Regional Guide, Stevie D, of the Staten Island group The Force MDs, recalled that rappers and hip hop fans alike looked at Staten Island as ‘‘an island of all white people’’ (Lundy). To its critics, Staten Island was the odd borough out in an otherwise thriving New York hip hop community. Staten’s lack of status in the 1980s is evident on Boogie Down Productions’ 1987 track ‘‘The Bridge Is Over,’’ where KRS-One and Scott La Rock don’t even mention Staten Island in their shout out to New York City’s boroughs. Yet the forgotten fifth borough of Staten Island deserves to go down in hip hop history as the birthplace of some of the most important, most influential hip hop acts of all time. Staten Island is inevitably linked to its premier group, Wu-Tang Clan. This supergroup, founded in Staten Island but composed of the finest MCs from across New York, changed the face of not only East Coast hip hop, but hip hop across the globe. But before the Wu-Tang Clan asserted its dominance in the 1990s, the 1980s saw Staten Island fight for its right to be recognized as a true player in New York City hip hop. Groups like the Force MDs, the UMCs, and Wu-Tang precursors the All In Together Now Crew began to make noise throughout the island, attempting to get themselves heard and put Staten Island on the hip hop map. The history of Staten Island hip hop can be divided into three eras: Pre WuTang, Wu-Tang, and Post-Wu Tang. Pre Wu-Tang sees Staten Island attempt to assert itself in hip hop by merging Rhythm and Blues vocal stylings with straight-up hip hop beats, as well as taking hip hop elements and fusing them into pop hits. The Wu-Tang Era sees Staten Island become the mecca of East Coast hip hop, with the formation of Wu-Tang Clan in 1993. With their fresh, edgy lyrics, strong, unique personalities, and drastic, daring business model, Wu-Tang made Staten Island home to a supergroup mega-power never before seen in hip hop. 117

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The Post Wu-Tang era sees the Wu-Tang Clan diversifying, taking on prote´ge´s, and revitalizing old Staten Island acts that came before them.

PRE WU-TANG In the 1970s, when hip hop was born and Kool Herc was spinning records at block parties all throughout the Bronx, Staten Island was silent. All eyes and ears on Staten Island were focused on this new developing genre coming out of their fellow borough. Who from Staten Island would be the first to take this new genre and make a name for themselves? The question remained unanswered until 1981, when the Force MDs unleashed themselves upon the world. Their unique mixture of doo-wop and a capella vocals over hip hop beats caught the attention of not only Staten Island, but the entire country. Their singles ‘‘Tender Love’’ and ‘‘Love Is a House’’ had huge commercial success, the former appearing in the movie Krush Groove and the latter reaching #1 on the R&B charts in 1987. Though in the 1990s they would be usurped as the dominant Staten Island hip hop group by the Wu-Tang Clan, they had unquestionably left their mark on hip hop. The group breathed new life into R&B, while also expanding hip hop’s horizons to include ideas and elements from other forms of music. Biz Markie, a hip hop DJ and MC who got his start in the 1980s with the Queens-based Juice Crew, says of The Force MDs that ‘‘they put that funk from the 70’s and blended it with that hip hop element from the 80’s’’ (Force MD’s Relived). The Force MDs single-handedly pioneered the R&B/hip hop fusion; as famed hip hop artist Doug E. Fresh states, ‘‘Any group that has merged hip hop and R&B are children of the Force MDs’’ Force MD’s Relived. It took years, however, for the Force MDs to reach that level of success and influence. Before they were even the Force MDs, they were the L.D.s, and long before that, they were a family—brothers Stevie D and Antoine ‘‘TCD’’ Lundy, and their uncle, Jessie Lee Daniels. Growing up in Staten Island, they saw the Jackson 5 on television and felt inspired to make pop music. The Lundys fell in love with the Jacksons’ infectious pop grooves and could personally relate to a family of musicians. Daniels and his nephews realized they wanted to sing and perform just like the Jackson 5 and write songs that drew from all their favorite genres—funk, soul, doo-wop, R&B, and rock and roll. They wanted to have the voices of James Brown, Elvis Presley, Sam Cooke and Little Anthony and The Imperials. They immediately started singing and practicing all over New York—Staten Island, Harlem, Manhattan, the Bronx, and Staten Island ferry (see sidebar: Staten Island Ferry). As they developed as singers and performers, they named themselves the Fantastic L.D.’s, and they sang everywhere they could, honing their skills and piecing together a crowd-pleasing, eye-catching live act. They would sing in the styles of their heroes—Elvis and Michael Jackson being two of their most popular imitations. They created routines from melodies and rhymes that formed a musical skit. They would often base their routines off popular television theme songs, like

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STATEN ISLAND FERRY Since its inception in 1905, the Staten Island ferry has been the easiest and most reliable way for Staten Islanders to travel to Manhattan. It travels between stations in St. George, Staten Island, and Whitehall Terminal in Manhattan—right next to Battery Park. It originally cost riders five cents per trip, which was raised to 25 cents for a round trip in 1975, which was raised again to 50 cents round trip in 1990, before becoming free of charge in 1997. Ferries run every 15 minutes during rush hour, every half hour during off-peak hours, and every hour on late nights. In hip hop, the ferry is known as a place to hone skills by performing for money. The Force MDs would perform on the ferry like troubadours, performing renditions of popular songs for spare change. Since a one-way ride is roughly 25 minutes, this gave the Force MDs a sense of stage presence and timing, and taught them how to engage the audience and hone their act into a tight, accessible show. It also gave them a public venue, allowing them to freely showcase their talent. Their ferry performances got them noticed by Mr Magic’s daughter, which got them a meeting with Tommy Boy Records and launched their career.

Happy Days, The Brady Bunch, and The Addams Family. This act connected with the crowd and gave them a sizeable fanbase, as they won over people who were previously quick to dismiss the Staten Islanders. Stevie D recalls, ‘‘when we first went uptown to Manhattan . . . everybody started laughing . . . haha, Staten Island, go back on the Staten Island Ferry! . . . then we did The Addams Family [routine], and that had them going crazy.’’ (‘‘Force MDs Memories’’) From the Staten Island Ferry to Manhattan’s Greenwich Village to Harlem’s Harlem World to Zulu Nation shows in the Bronx, the L.D.s were catching on. However, the group saw they needed to expand themselves musically to stand out from the other doo-wop acts. Stevie D, who was also rapping up and down New York City on the side with his own group, sought to diversify the L.D.’s sound, and invited his rap partners Charles ‘‘Mercury’’ Nelson and DJ Dr. Rock to join the Fantastic L.D.’s. The two brought a strong hip hop element to the L.D. ’s, and rebranded the group as ‘‘doo-wop hip hop.’’ And with that came the birth of a new genre, and a rechristening to reflect the change in sound. The Fantastic L.D.’s became the Force MCs, and they took their doo-wop hip hop all over New York. The crowds loved them—the combination of Dr. Rock’s beats and scratches, tight vocal harmonies, and the ‘‘silky smooth, Smokey Robinson voice of TCD’’ (Lundy) was exactly what people wanted to hear. As Kool G. Rap of the Juice Crew puts it, ‘‘Mercury, Stevie D and all them niggas was rappers man and they was nice. They wasn’t just average, they was bananas. Them niggas battled Cold Crush Four and all that’’ (JButters and Marcus).

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Force MDs (Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images)

Mr. Walt, of the Brooklyn production team Da Beatminerz, provides a similar account of the Force M.C.s: ‘‘I saw Dr. Rock and the Force MCs—not the Force MDs. Before they were the Force MDs, they were the Force MCs. It was a battle with one of the neighborhood crews out here [in Bushwick, Brooklyn], the Wiz Kids. At the Empire Roller Rink. Funky 4 + 1 More were just performing, but Dr. Rock and them was in the battle, and I was like ‘you guys [The Wiz Kids] do not have a chance’ ’’ (Da Beatminerz). Performing live and going up against some of New York City’s finest rap crews was the catalyst the Force MCs needed to truly break out and make a name for themselves. Now all they needed was the opportunity to take it to the next level. Then, magic happened. Mr. Magic, a wildly popular DJ for 107.5 WRLX (see sidebar: Mr. Magic), happened upon the Force MCs by way of his daughter, who had heard them perform on the Staten Island Ferry. Mr. Magic went out to see them and loved what he heard—‘‘they were hip hop . . . and they just knew how to sing’’ (Force MD’s Relived). He immediately introduced himself and wanted to bring the group to Tom Silverman, CEO of the upstart label Tommy Boy Records. Literally, on that same boat ride to Tom Silverman’s apartment, The Force MCs recruited a new member-rapper Trisco Pearson from the recently disbanded rap group Cook Corporation, who was also on the ferry to Manhattan. Trisco, who was close friends with TCD, was a baritone singer, and the group felt he would round out their harmonies.

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MR. MAGIC Mr. Magic was the first man to play hip hop on the radio, and the first man to have an all-hip hop show (Rap Attack, with DJ Marley Marl) on the radio. Debuting in 1983 on WBLS-FM, Mr. Magic monopolized the airwaves, making his show the best (and for a while, the only) place to listen to hip hop. He was one of the founding members of the Juice Crew, along with DJ Marley Marl, Big Daddy Kane, Roxane Shante´, Kool G Rap, and Masta Ace, amongst others. He was rivaled by DJ Red Alert, who had his own hip hop show on WKRS-FM, which jockeyed with Rap Attack for ratings for most of the 1980s. Mr. Magic and DJ Red Alert competed as part of the Bridge Wars—the rap feud over where hip hop truly got started between Queensbridge’s Juice Crew and the Bronx’s Boogie Down Productions, of which DJ Red Alert was a member. In the 1990s, after discovering and introducing the Force MDs to Tom Silverman of Tommy Boy Records, he had a brief stint as a producer on their tracks ‘‘Let Me Love You’’ and ‘‘Forgive Me, Girl.’’ Recently, he was featured as a DJ of the hip hop radio station in the video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City. He has been referenced in lyrics by noted artists such as Nas and Biggie Smalls, who praise Mr. Magic as a pioneer who exposed hip hop to a mainstream audience. Mr. Magic died of a heart attack on October 2, 2009.

At Silverman’s apartment, The Force MCs didn’t have any demo tapes to play. Instead, they went through their entire live act, and as Stevie D puts it, ‘‘we blew him away’’ (Lundy). Silverman recalls that ‘‘they had all of the appeal of the R&B singing groups of the day, but they were really inspired by hip hop. They had their own DJ, MCs, and vocalists, and the vocals were really good’’ (Force MD’s Relived). Silverman immediately offered them a deal. It had taken three years, but the Force MCs, now officially the Force MDs, (which stood for Musical Diversity) had a record deal. Immediately after The Force MDs signed to Tommy Boy Records, they started recording. That same year, they released their first album, Love Letters (1984). Their biggest single off the record, ‘‘Tears,’’ went to #5 on the R&B charts. ‘‘Tears’’ is a very soulful, R&B track, yet it has little of the hip hop influence that gave the Force MDs their big break. Their next record, 1985’s Chillin, continued to emphasize the Force MDs a capella, doo-wop roots. Silverman brought in famed writer/producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, who had penned many R&B hits for artists such as Gladys Knight and Janet Jackson. They worked with the Force MDs to produce ‘‘Tender Love,’’ a soft, piano-driven ballad, which hit #10 on the Hot 100 charts, and went to #4 on the R&B charts. The song was also featured in the major motion picture Krush Groove. ‘‘ ‘Tender Love’ blew up so big,’’ Stevie D recalls.

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This newfound mainstream success gave Tom Silverman the idea to repackage the Force MDs as an R&B singing group. The hip hop factor of the Force MDs was pushed to the background, away from their singles. Gone were the rhymes and the beats that made The Force MDs such a unique and entertaining act. Out came the sweater vests, the fried out hair—the preppy collegiate look that Tom Silverman wanted to promote. The Force MDs went along with this new image, overwhelmed by promises of national exposure and hit records, yet internally, there was discord. Stevie D, looking back on the shift in image, remembers, ‘‘I wish we could have kept that [original] style, people might remember us more . . . it was a marketing thing’’ (Lundy). The group also wanted to record more songs they had written, instead of doing other people’s songs. However, Tom Silverman wanted to push songs he felt would be hits. Because of this, The Force MDs saw very little money from their own records, for which they did not own the publishing rights. Stevie D recalls, ‘‘we didn’t know much about publishing and all that so they got us. We got a little publishing [money], but we should have gotten more than what we got’’ (Quan). There were also creative differences. Jesse wanted a percussion track on ‘‘Tender Love,’’ in an attempt to get at least a small amount of hip hop on the single. When he was ultimately overruled by Jimmy Jam, he realized just how much influence he had lost to Tommy Boy. Though the song was a hit without drums, Jesse left the group soon after to pursue a solo career. Perhaps the biggest problem the Force MDs had was Silverman’s willingness to cut the budget, even when it was at the expense of the group’s popularity and commercial success. Even though ‘‘Tender Love’’ was the Force MDs’ biggest hit, Silverman refused to pay Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis to write another song. ‘‘He tried to go the easy way out and not pay the money,’’ Stevie D recalls, ‘‘We had a good chemistry with Jimmy and Terry, and could have made more hits, but Tom didn’t wanna pay.’’ (Quan) Though the Force MDs continued to perform on the road and ‘‘light up the stage pretty hard’’ (Lundy) with their doo-wop hip hop, their records were dominated by R&B. The shift continued to bring success—the 1987 record Touch and Go gave the Force MDs their biggest achievement to date—a #1 hit single. ‘‘Love Is a House’’ shot all the way to the top of charts. The Force MDs also won the New York Music award for Best Vocal Group. This award would be the peak of the Force MDs’ career. Their next album, 1990’s Step to Me, failed to make much of an impact, despite joint efforts with Brooklyn R&B group Full Force and hip hop legend and Juice Crew member Marley Marl. Two singles—‘‘Are You Really Real?’’ and ‘‘Somebody’s Crying’’— topped off at #23 and #34 on the R&B charts. Besides being the indicative point of decline for the Force MDs, Step to Me also marks the group’s deterioration. The same year, Mercury and Trisco parted ways with the Force MDs, citing creative differences. After Rodney ‘‘Khalil’’ Lundy and Shawn Waters replaced the two ex-members, the new, reimagined Force MDs went to work in the studio,

A Black Sheep Borough, an Island of All White People | 123 releasing the full-length Moments in Time in 1994. The album was not as well received as previous efforts, failing to make a significant impact on the charts. The rest of the 1990s remained unkind to the Force MDs. Beyond their slumping popularity, the end of the 1990s would see a series of personal tragedies for the Force MDs. Antoine ‘‘TCD’’ Lundy was diagnosed with Lou Gherig’s Disease and died January 21, 1998. Mercury suffered a heart attack and died soon after, as did DJ Dr. Rock, who passed away due to unknown circumstances. Despite their sad and unfortunate downfall, the fact remains that the Force MDs set the tone for all Staten Island hip hop to come. Thanks to them, the borough would be known as the place to look to for freshness and originality in hip hop. Future R&B singing groups like Boyz II Men, Blackstreet, and even N*Sync and the Backstreet Boys are clearly heavily inspired by the Force MDs. The Force MDs set the tone for Staten Island, getting the borough noticed as a potential breeding ground for hip hop. ‘‘We are the forefathers of Staten Island,’’ says Stevie D. ‘‘There were no other groups out of Staten Island . . . we were the first to put Staten Island on the map.’’

THE UMCS The UMCs were Staten Island’s first pure hip hop group. They were composed of rappers Kim ‘‘Kool Kim’’ Sharpton and Hassan, or Hass G as he was sometimes referred to. Kool Kim first met Hassan when they both worked summer jobs in the Statue of Liberty gift shop. Interestingly, they were not the only rappers on staff—future Wu-Tang Clan members U-God and Method Man worked at the same gift shop. Kim and Hassan hit it off, and Hassan introduced Kim to his rap group Universal Stepping Strong. Kim and Hassan were more seriously into hip hop than the other members of Hassan’s group, and broke off to form a duo called the Universal MC’s—or UMCs, for short. They quickly wrote and recorded two tracks, ‘‘Fruit Basket’’ and ‘‘Party Stylin’,’’ and promoted them around Staten Island. Though they failed to get any major label attention, they were noticed by DJ Premier, of the Brooklyn-based hip hop group Gang Starr. Premier introduced the UMCs to Stu Fine, owner of Wild Pitch records. They signed to the label and released their debut album, Fruits of Nature, in 1991. Originally meant to be titled Fruits Uv Nature (to create the acronym F.U.N), Fruits of Nature was a record that celebrated fun and the joys of hip hop. It had a very jazzy, soul influence, with many samples of several jazz artists from the legendary Blue Note record label—artists such as Charles Mingus, John Coltrane, Charlie Parker, and Thelonious Monk. It had clever and verbose lyrics, and was poppy without being mundane. The first single, the high energy, spunky ‘‘Blue Cheese’’ was the #1 rap single on the Billboard charts, and the second single, ‘‘One to Grow on’’ reached the #2 slot. The two songs emphasized the quirky, intellectual movement in hip hop, popularized by the Native Tongues collective of Queen Latifah, De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, and the Jungle Brothers.

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The UMCs’ second album, Unleashed (Wild Pitch, 1992) was much less commercially successful, and was critically panned for being more of the same. In disputes over payment, the UMCs physically assaulted Stu Fine, and left Wild Pitch on poor terms. The UMCs split up soon after. History would not be kind The UMCs. They were in the unfortunate position of coming out right before the Wu-Tang Clan’s insurgence. While the Force MDs found their niche as a doo-wop/hip hop fusion group, it was impossible for a straight hip hop act like the UMCs to assert themselves with the giant of WuTang looming over their shoulders. Stevie D recalls that the UMCs were ‘‘his boys . . . they had high potential, but it was hard to overshadow Wu-Tang’’ (Lundy). Kool Kim claims that the industry worked against him, failing to allow him to showcase his true creative vision. He writes, ‘‘I feel like the UMCs were faced with the trial of Job’’ (Kool). The UMCs remain the last of a dying breed, the last of the laid-back, fun-loving hip hop acts before artists like Nas, Biggie Smalls, and of course, Wu-Tang Clan, redefined hip hop’s thematic structure. The UMCs had little chance to survive as hip hop hardened and celebrated crime over frivolity and violence over friendship, and remain forgotten relics of an antique era of hip hop. The Pre Wu-Tang era comes to a close with the immediate predecessor to the Wu-Tang Clan—the All In Together Now crew. The crew was composed of Robert F. Diggs, aka Prince Rakeem (later the RZA), Gary Grice, aka the Genius (later the GZA), and Russell Jones, aka Ason Unique, or the Professor (later Ol’ Dirty Bastard). The three were cousins and shared similar interests growing up—hip hop, kung fu movies, and Islam. They quickly got together and formed a crew. Though originally entitled Force of the Imperial Master, the trio changed their name to All In Together Now after a song of theirs of the same title became a huge hit around Staten Island and parts of the rest of New York, even getting the attention of Biz Markie. Even with the strength of this single, All In Together Now were unable to get a record deal. Frustrated, the trio split up, and Rakeem and the Genius pursued solo careers, while remaining close friends. Prince Rakeem went to Tommy Boy Records, and in 1991, recorded the single ‘‘Ooh, We Love You Rakeem.’’ The song was moderately popular as a novelty song, but failed to further Prince Rakeem’s career. He attempted to pitch an early idea of Wu-Tang to Tommy Boy Records, but they chose to sign the group House of Pain instead, and dropped Rakeem from the label. Also in 1991, the Genius signed to Cold Chillin’ Records, and released the full-length Words from the Genius. The Genius faced creative differences with label executives, and he left Cold Chillin’ after his debut album flopped. Frustrated with the music industry as a whole, Prince Rakeem and the Genius decided to team back up together with Ason Unique, but no longer would they be All In Together Now. They would form a new identity, recruit the best MCs in New York City, and make the kind of records they wanted to make. They would become a super crew. They would become the Wu-Tang Clan.

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WU-TANG ERA To complete their transformation from All in Together Now Crew to Wu-Tang Clan, the trio needed new names and a distinctive style. Around Staten Island, Prince Rakeem had picked up the nickname ‘‘Rza Rza Rakeem’’—a combination of the neighborhood hit of his called ‘‘Pza Pza Pumpin’’ and his graffiti tag, Razor. The name RZA (pronounced ‘‘Rizz-uh’’) appealed to him, but as he learned more and more about Islam, he understood that the letter Z held a special significance— it meant the highest level of human consciousness, Zig-Zag-Zig, which means Knowledge, Wisdom, and Understanding. Prince Rakeem officially became the RZA—Ruler, Knowledge-Wisdom-Understanding, Allah. The Genius, also a student of Islam, changed his name to Allah Justice, but quickly began shortening it to JIZZA, or GZA (pronounced Jizz-uh)—which also happens to be the sound the word ‘‘genius’’ makes when scratched on a record by a DJ. He began to become extremely assertive with his vocal presence, evoking a sense of power, even fear. As RZA writes, ‘‘You caught real drama off his rhymes and his style . . . it’s slow, deliberate, and fierce’’ (9). Ason Unique became Ol’ Dirty Bastard. He took the name from the 1980 kung fu film, Ol’ Dirty & the Bastard. He perfected his unorthodox delivery—an erratic half-rapped, half-sung, mumble. ‘‘ODB, you can’t tell where his rapping stops and his singing begins,’’ (208) RZA writes. ODB’s unique syncopated phrasings and extreme vocal range, led to a second meaning of his stage name, as many critics and fans insisted there was no father to his style. The trio then sought out the best MCs New York had to offer. However, the three found it difficult to recruit members. GZA and Ol’ Dirty Bastard were living in Brooklyn and could not drum up interest, and RZA only had one MC who was willing to commit to the group—Ghostface Killah (real name Dennis Coles), who lived with RZA in the Stapleton Projects (see sidebar: Stapleton). Ghostface named himself after the villain in the 1979 kung fu movie The Mystery of Chess Boxing. In the film, the Ghostface Killer would leave a mask near every one of his victims. As an homage, Ghostface Killah wore a mask for most of his early performances. ‘‘[Ghostface is] known for his ferocious mic techniques, emotional dramatics, and some of the most bizarre, impenetrable language of all Wu-Tang MCs,’’ writes RZA (22). Together, the two recorded the first official Wu-Tang song by themselves, entitled ‘‘After the Laughter.’’ The song made its way around the neighborhood, and RZA found two more MCs willing to join the new group—Method Man (real name Clifford Smith), who earned his nickname by smoking more Methtical (slang for marijuana) than anyone else, and Inspectah Deck (real name Jason Hunter), who received the nickname ‘‘Inspector’’ from Inspector Clouseau from the film The Pink Panther. Method Man was young, but extremely talented and highly versatile, proving himself more than able to hold his own with the rest of the group. RZA writes, ‘‘he has more flows than any other MC I’ve ever met. He has more styles, more ways of

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STAPLETON The largest projects in Staten Island (or Shaolin, as nicknamed by the Clan), Stapleton was home to RZA and Ghostface Killah before Wu-Tang got started. The two roomed together in 1991, and their place became the spot where all the future Wu-Tang members would hang out, watch kung fu movies, play chess, write rhymes, and make beats. It was here that RZA and Ghostface came up with the idea of a supercrew comprised of the best MCs that they knew. The idea of making the crew into a tight, familial bond came when watching the kung fu movie ‘‘Eight Diagram Pole Fighter.’’ The story of eight brothers banding together to save their family from a treacherous general resonated with them, and convinced them to stay loyal to each other, in both life and in music. ‘‘Ghost was the first one to say, ‘that’s WuTang, I’m Wu-Tang,’ ’’ RZA remembers. (63). Like Park Hill, Stapleton was a tough neighborhood, known for violence and crime. RZA writes, ‘‘Stapleton niggas will rob you and beat the shit out of you . . . a Stapleton nigga will walk up to you with a fucking tank top and a doorag on and beat the shit out of you’’ (59–60). The hard times the Clan survived in Stapleton are explicitly recreated in their lyrics, and give the group their patented ultra-aggressive style.

REFERENCE RZA, and Chris Norris. The Wu-Tang Manual. 1st ed. New York: Penguin Group, 2005.

flowing over the beat than just about anyone. He’s just got mad grace . . . when he’s on the mic, it still sounds like dancing’’ (17). Deck was known around the block as ‘‘the eyes of the streets’’ (17) who knew everything that was going on in Staten Island. He lived in the 160 Park Hill apartment building (see sidebar: Park Hill), which gave him access to the goings on of Staten Island’s criminal underbelly. Inspectah Deck used this knowledge in his lyrics, often rapping about the harshness of the streets from a distant, observational perspective. ‘‘He was saying things that only a news reporter would have said. You could see and feel the reality in his verse,’’ RZA writes in the Wu-Tang Manual, ‘‘I like to call him the set-off man because he always sets it off right. He lights the wick that leads to the bomb and once that wick is lit there’s no turning back’’ (29). The joining of Method Man and Inspectah Deck brought two more into the WuTang fold—Raekwon the Chef (real name Corey Woods) and U-God (real name Lamont Hawkins). Raekwon, who was named after the Chef character in old kung

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PARK HILL Park Hill Apartments was home to Inspectah Deck, Method Man, and Raekwon when Wu-Tang got started. Park Hill was known for being at the epicenter of violence and crime in Staten Island, along with its neighbor to the north, Stapleton. It was known as ‘‘Crack Hill’’ or ‘‘Killer Hill’’ for all the drug deals and shootings that went down from its foundation in the 1960s to the present day. Over 80 percent of Park Hill residents have no health insurance, and as a result, the death rate for Park Hill residents is over 25 percent higher than the rest of New York City. Inspectah Deck lived in the 160 building—a building infamously known as the place to go to buy drugs, not just on Staten Island, but all across New York. RZA writes, ‘‘if you smoked weed, you went to 160. We hung out in front of 160, a lot of people did business there, a lot of people got shot there. But Deck—he lived there’’ (28–29).

REFERENCE RZA, and Chris Norris. The Wu-Tang Manual. 1st ed. New York: Penguin Group, 2005.

fu movies, not only literally cooked very well (‘‘He was known for cooking up some really good fish,’’ writes RZA [20]), but he also had ‘‘flavor,’’ as RZA writes—‘‘He had the Gumby haircut, the Gucci shoes, and he had the freshest slang of anybody’’ (21). Raekwon was a lyrical innovator, coming up with slang terms and metaphors never before heard in hip hop. ‘‘To me, Raekwon was the ultimate abstract poet,’’ RZA writes (21). U-God was nicknamed after an abbreviation of his Muslim name, which stands for Universal God Allah. It was also derived from all of his personal possessions—cars, clothes, drugs, etc. RZA writes, ‘‘When there was a drought on something—he got it. So part of his name, to me, is from asking him, ‘You got that? U got it? U-got?’ ’’ (33). U-God brought a deep, bass voice to the Clan, richening and rounding out their sound. ‘‘He’s just got that dope-ass low voice . . . he can kill it in four bars,’’ writes RZA. Now six strong, the Clan recorded their first song as a group—‘‘Protect Ya Neck.’’ They packaged ‘‘Protect Ya Neck’’ with ‘‘After the Laughter’’ as a single, pressing, marketing, and selling it by themselves. It was widely successful, netting the group a record deal with Loud Records, a subsidiary of RCA, as well as a ninth member—Masta Killa (real name Elgin Turner). His nickname is derived from Gordon Liu’s character in the 1979 kung fu movie ‘‘The 36th Chamber of Shaolin.’’ In the film, the Master Killer studies with Shaolin monks to ascend to the 36th chamber—the highest rank in martial arts. Masta Killa paralleled his

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namesake’s journey—having never rapped before joining Wu-Tang, Masta Killa went under the wing of the GZA to learn and grow as an MC. ‘‘In a lot of ways Masta Killa really is like that character because he’s like the ultimate Shaolin student,’’ RZA writes, ‘‘He came, he studied, he hung out with us all . . . he was the original disciple who was brought into the fold’’ (36). Together, Wu-Tang was one of the biggest collections of MCs in New York City. They were the Wu-Tang Clan—named after the 1981 kung fu movie ‘‘Shaolin and Wu Tang,’’ in which a sole monk breaks off from the Shaolin tradition and uses the invincible Wu-Tang sword style to defeat the Shaolin monks. By naming themselves Wu-Tang, the group was effectively saying that ‘‘our lyrics are the best— we’re invincible,’’ as RZA writes (64). They were an amalgamation of all of their influences—Islam, martial arts and Asian philosophy, comic book superheroes, chess, and their Staten Island neighborhood—yet they were more than that. They were a clan and a family, bound to protect each other and look after each other’s careers and well beings. They had one goal—to take over hip hop, and they were going to do it in five years. RZA concocted a revolutionary business model for the Wu-Tang Clan known as the Five Year Plan. This plan, according to RZA, would take Wu-Tang to the top of the music industry. It involved a then unheardof record deal, in which the Wu-Tang Clan as a group would be signed to one label, but each individual member could sign to another label of his own choosing. This, RZA thought, would allow the Wu-Tang brand to diversify and flourish, and ultimately, make money from solo projects as well as Wu-Tang collective efforts. ‘‘I wanted the industry to work for me . . . to have friendly competition with my product . . . to have artists placed in different locations and get those different labels to work together for my brand,’’ RZA writes (76). To do this, RZA needed absolute control over the Wu-Tang Clan. For five years, each member would need to relent to RZA’s strategy, and when they finally reached their zenith, he promised he would concede power. With each member’s approval, RZA assumed the helm of all creative and financial elements of Wu-Tang and set the group to record a proper full-length album. Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers) was released on November 9, 1993, on Loud Records, and swiftly cemented the Wu-Tang Clan as hip hop’s most dominant group. The debut album sounded like nothing else before it, and is easily the most important album for Staten Island hip hop, and arguably for the hip hop genre as a whole. It set the tone for the 1990s, marking the artistic shift from jazzy, light hearted hip hop to full-blown ‘‘gangsta’’ rap. Its dark, heavily reverbed beats and scary-yet-true stories about life in the streets stood out from the rest of the West Coast style sounds saturating the airwaves—synthesizers, upbeat rhythms, and more melodic song structures. With one album, Wu-Tang changed the face of the hip hop game, bringing their own, East Coast style of hyper-aggression and realism to the forefront. As Stevie D said in my interview with him, ‘‘Wu-Tang had that new sound, rhyming about other things, talking about real street life, that

A Black Sheep Borough, an Island of All White People | 129 raw sound . . . [they] stamped Staten Island on the map with a Timberland boot’’ (Lundy). Perhaps the most unique and ground breaking aspect of 36 Chambers is the production. It was recorded entirely at Firehouse Studios on 28th Street in Manhattan, and was produced, mixed, and arranged entirely by the RZA, as per the Five Year Plan. The sound of the record was dark and sparse—the drums were dingy and heavily muffled, in stark contrast to the clean and layered percussion typically found in hip hop at that time. The minimalism was partially due to the limited budget, but RZA intentionally wanted dirty acoustics to establish the atmosphere of the Staten Island projects. He writes, ‘‘the sparseness leaves more ideas for the mind . . . you hear the aggression and the violence of the hood in the music itself’’ (RZA 201, 204). RZA’s use of sampling was revolutionary as well—he would chop up and mix many different samples together inside of one phrase, instead of using one whole sample for a phrase. RZA describes this synthesis of sound as ‘‘bugged-out . . . there’s no rules to it’’ (190, 191), breaking the notion that a sampler needs to be used just to provide a quick, identifiable hook. ‘‘I’ve always been into using the sampler more like a painter’s palette than a Xerox,’’ (192) RZA writes. Just as unique as the way he sampled was what he sampled. RZA refused to restrict himself to the old funk records of James Brown and ilk, reaching out instead to obscure, diverse sounds that sometimes weren’t even music. ‘‘You can take anything with a sampler—cartoons, children’s records, French lessons—and make it musical’’ (RZA 190). But most notable of his samples are the dialogues from classic kung fu movies such as Shaolin and Wu Tang and Five Deadly Venoms. These samples distinguished Wu-Tang from every other artist, introducing an Asian aesthetic to hip hop that had never been heard before. Lyrically, both the content and delivery on Enter the Wu-Tang were nothing like any other record. Few were rhyming about stealing, doing drugs, or the hard, seemingly inescapable life of the ghetto, and none managed to do so as succinctly, or as poetically as Wu-Tang. The group mixed abstract slang with clever metaphor, while also delivering an ‘‘explosive, straight-out-the-box style’’ (RZA) previously only seen in battle raps (competitions where MCs ‘‘fight’’ to see whose rhymes are better) on the street. Witty darts such as GZA’s shot at the career-killing tactics of his former Cold Chillin’ label off ‘‘Protect Ya Neck’’ (‘‘The Wu is too slammin’ for these Cold Killin’ labels’’) and Raekwon’s description of his neighborhood on ‘‘C.R.E.A.M’’ (‘‘I grew up on the crime side, the New York Times side’’) targeting everyone and everything while painting a vast, verbal landscape of their lifestyle. The Wu-Tang Clan’s competitive nature didn’t stop there—RZA would have Wu-Tang members battle each other in the studio to win the ‘‘right’’ to appear on each song. This kill-or-be-killed attitude pushed each member to write the best lyrics possible, so they could have the most time to show off their skills and win over critics and fans. The Wu-Tang Clan had more MCs than any other crew before it, and each one had an unmistakable flair that RZA expertly captured and

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accentuated in production. ‘‘They [members of Wu-Tang] were instruments I used to compose . . . in my studio, each Wu-Tang MC had their own compressor set to a certain setting . . . everybody sounds like themselves’’ (RZA 206, 208). The WuTang Clan had unique style, but they were also heavily influenced by their Staten Island predecessors, the Force MDs—they had their tapes and listened to them religiously, trying to emulate Stevie D and Mercury’s rhythm and flow. ‘‘Method Man, Raekwon, all of them looked up to us,’’ Stevie D recalls (Quan). But perhaps the most amazing thing about Enter the Wu-Tang was its universal appeal. Fans loved it—it reached #41 on the Billboard 200 list, #8 on the R&B/hip hop charts, and was certified platinum in 1995. Critics loved it—Blender Magazine put it on their list of ‘‘500 Albums You Must Own Before You Die,’’ Pitchfork Media rated it number 36 on their list of favorite records of the 1990s, Spin put it at number 20 for their ‘‘Top 100 Albums of the Last 20 Years’’ list, and The Source put it on their list of their 100 best rap albums. Even nonfans loved the Wu-Tang Clan—as critic Wasim Muklashy writes, ‘‘[they were] embraced by everyone from computer geeks to Australian pop-rock bands to every hood this side of the prime meridian . . . [they] managed to build not only a hip-hop supergroup composed of nine of the most talented MC’s on the planet but also a multifaceted crossgenerational superpersona that has spawned an entire industry’’ (Muklashy). With their nine members, there seemed to be something for everybody to like, no matter what you preferred in an MC. Spin magazine writer Chris Norris comments, ‘‘Raekwon and Ghostface Killah appeal to the thugs, RZA to the intellectuals, and Method Man to everyone’’ (Norris 142). It was Method Man that stood out among the rest as the clan’s first breakout solo star. Fans, especially girls, loved his personality, dubbing him the ‘‘heartthrob’’ of Wu-Tang. Incredibly, instead of feeling jealous and sabotaging Method’s popularity (as many other artists have done to the most popular member of their group), the Wu-Tang clan encouraged Method Man to achieve solo success. They knew that if one member branched off and succeeded, the Wu-Tang clan would succeed as a whole along with him. The group gave him his own track on Enter the WuTang—‘‘Method Man.’’ This track saw Method Man introduce himself and his style to the world, and made him a bona fide superstar. Every verse had Method switching his flow, showcasing his versatility and highlighting his undeniable charisma. The final stroke to capitalize on Method Man came when Wu-Tang packaged ‘‘Method Man’’ as a b-side to the already successful ‘‘Protect Ya Neck.’’ The single sold over 10,000 copies—huge numbers, especially considering they had already released ‘‘Protect Ya Neck’’ as a single previously. To no one’s surprise, Method Man signed to Def Jam records to record the first solo Wu-Tang album,Tical (1994). RZA produced and arranged the entire album, offering Method Man hooks and sounds he did not feel went with the theme of 36 Chambers. Despite near catastrophe when a freak flood wiped out all of their work, the album saw massive sales, debuting at #4 on the Billboard 200. RZA’s remix of

A Black Sheep Borough, an Island of All White People | 131 Tical’s ‘‘All I Need’’ and Mary J. Blige’s version of ‘‘I’ll Be There for You’’ went on to win a Grammy in 1995 for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group. Tical’s sound was more relaxed than Enter the Wu-Tang, having more of a hazy, party vibe, emphasizing getting high, hanging out with friends, and falling in love. Though it was not the first Wu-Tang side project (RZA joined the horror-core rap group Gravediggaz, whose record Six Feet Deep [Gee Street/Island/PolyGram Records] came out several months prior), Tical was the catalyst to an inundation of Wu-Tang solo albums in 1995. In March, ODB, arguably the second most popular MC (and easily the most eclectic), signed to Elektra Records to release his solo debut Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version. Singles ‘‘Shimmy Shimmy Ya’’ and ‘‘Brooklyn Zoo’’ were big hits, replicating the minimalist, hyperaggressive style of Enter the Wu-Tang. In August, Raekwon released his solo album, Only Built 4 Cuban Linx (Loud/RCA) and single-handedly married the worlds of hip hop and the Italian mob in a way that is still prevalent in hip hop today. RZA recalls—‘‘when Raewkown came with Cuban Linx, he started everyone in hip hop fiending for that mafia shit. It was an explosion . . . the way it mixed parables with real-life stories from Rae and Ghost [face Killah]’s time in the street game’’ (RZA 101). With Only Built 4 Cuban Linx, Raekwon developed a mafioso fantasy akin to popular movies like The Godfather, Scarface, and Goodfellas—a highly emotional, epic, semiautobiographical narrative of rags to riches, with orchestral-esque acoustics and RZA’s signature grimy beats, peppered with fresh, inventive slang that instantly ingrained itself in hip hop’s consciousness. For the record, Raekwon asked the Wu-Tang Clan to assume new aliases, in line with the mobster concept. Raekwon the Chef became Lex Diamonds (a reference to Lex Luther, Superman’s arch-nemesis), and Ghostface Killah (who appeared the most on the album) became Tony Starks (a reference to the real life identity of comic book superhero Iron Man). Only Built 4 Cuban Linx boasted about the Wu-Gambino family—a criminal partnership between the Wu-Tang Clan and Staten Island’s own Gambino crime family. Brought to fame and power by Carlo Gambino in 1957, the Gambino family is one of the richest and most influential criminal empires in the United States. Growing up, the Wu-Tang clan admired and respected the Gambinos and their then-boss Paul Castellano’s mansion sitting on top of nearby Todt Hill (which they nicknamed the White House), and were influenced by the family to dabble in the drug trade and organized crime. With Cuban Linx, Raekwon mirrored the conflict and drama of the drug wars beautifully, detailing the struggles of trying to succeed in life by any means necessary, and the complex relationship between good and evil. GZA signed to Geffen and released Liquid Swords in November 1995. The record is hailed as one of the finest hip hop records of all time, and is mentioned, along with Only Built 4 Cuban Linx, as the best Wu-Tang solo album ever. Called ‘‘the story of the Clan’s Exodus-like wanderings through the burnt-out patches of all five boroughs during the crack-ravaged Reagan years,’’ by critic Jeff Weiss (Weiss), it serves as an almost prequel to Enter the Wu-Tang, following the Clan

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as they attempt to make something of themselves. Liquid Swords features sharp, intense rhymes, and chilling, stark beats—a definite, wintery vibe. ‘‘I want people to be in their cars, just shivering,’’ writes RZA (RZA). GZA dominates the mic, verbally decimating his foes with calculated precision. ‘‘Labels’’ sees GZA target the music industry, taking shots at all the labels that mishandled Wu-Tang members, including one particularly blunt insult to RZA’s former label, Tommy Boy —‘‘Tommy ain’t my motherfucking boy.’’ The titular opener ‘‘Liquid Swords’’ has one of the most memorable hooks in Wu-Tang history, with GZA and RZA elongating each line’s final syllable. Liquid Swords is perhaps the epitome of the Wu-Tang style—sharp and unrelenting, ferocious and succinct in approach, and ultimately, irresistibly compelling. In 1996, Ghostface Killah entered the fold with a proper solo album, Ironman (Razor Sharp/Epic). This was the first album released on RZA’s new subsidiary label, Razor Sharp Records, and it made Ghostface into a true personality. The album fleshes out Ghostface and makes him more than a character, but a human being. Behind his invincible thug persona (the Ironman) is a vulnerable, sweet man who cares about his loved ones. ‘‘Wildflower’’ is a hard, viscerally misogynistic track, where Ghostface tears apart a woman who cheated on him. ‘‘All That I Got Is You’’ (featuring Wu-collaborator Mary J. Blige) is a loving ballad about Ghostface’s life growing up, and the heartbreaking strength of his family through hard times. Ironman shows multiple sides to Ghostface Killah, showcasing him not merely a sidekick to Raekwon, but a star in his own right. Though the Wu-Tang clan did not tour extensively to promote their records (‘‘We were always more of a recording group, like the Beatles,’’ [RZA 219]), when they did, they did hard, bringing their intensity with them to the stage. Early in their careers, Wu-Tang shows would usually involve huge brawls in the crowd and severe damage to the building. Oftentimes, Wu-Tang themselves got in the mix, fighting off rowdy fans and destroying property. ‘‘Most Wu-Tang shows had at least two or three fights in them . . . we eventually got banned from New York . . . as a group and as individuals, we weren’t even allowed in these New York nightclubs,’’ RZA remembers (223). One particular show at the Culture Club in Manhattan saw Ol’ Dirty Bastard using a unique method of crowd control when fans started to riot before the show even began. ‘‘[The fans] broke all the windows, busted the whole bar down . . . ODB pulled out a gun and started firing, hitting the ceiling. Then we jumped into the crowd and broke out’’ (RZA 220). What Wu-Tang did do extensively, however, is merchandising. Wu-Tang extended their brand beyond hip hop in an unprecedented fashion, putting the Wu-Tang name in all sorts of different markets. First came Wu-Wear, the official Wu-Tang clothing line, in 1995. Wu-Tang wanted a company to make the kind of clothes that they wear, clothes that were popular on the street but difficult to find in stores. They hired Mitchell ‘‘Divine’’ Diggs (RZA’s brother) and Oli ‘‘Power’’ Grant (a childhood friend) to head all Wu-Tang business ventures, and the two hired tailors and quickly put the Wu insignia on shirts, jackets, hats, and more.

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Wu-Tang Clan (Getty Images)

When those sold in major outlets, they opened up four official Wu-Wear stores around the country, starting with one in their home of Staten Island. With the clothing line a success, Wu-Tang stamped their logo on a variety of products. There was Wu-Tang cologne. There was the Wu-Nails store, a nail salon run by RZA’s sister, located right next door to the New York Wu-Wear store. There was the Wu-Tang comic book and the Wu-Tang video game, ‘‘Wu-Tang: Shaolin Style.’’ ‘‘All this was brand diversifying,’’ RZA writes, ‘‘So instead of just Nestle Quik, you’ve got Nestle Quik, Nestle Strawberry Quik, Diet Nestle Quik’’ (83). These products were huge money makers for the Wu-Tang Clan, but internally there was some debate about the loss of integrity for the Wu-Tang label. Method Man claimed the Wu-Wear clothes were ‘‘shoddy’’ and that he ‘‘never rocked that shit’’ (Weiner). RZA writes that he was ‘‘moving more toward looking at the integrity of the brand,’’ but admits that ‘‘Every little gadget they put that W on, it sold’’ (82, 81). To handle their growing empire, Wu-Tang needed to bring in more associates. Divine and Power helped keep the business end of Wu-Tang running and profitable, while Cappadonna (real name Darryl Hill) was brought in as a heavily featured and unofficial tenth member. Other groups, such as Killarmy and Sunz of

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Man, were brought under the Wu-Tang umbrella, along with many other fledging groups from all over New York. These splinter groups allowed Wu-Tang to have their eggs in many different baskets, controlling a sizeable portion of the hip hop industry. ‘‘Divide and conquer . . . what about unite and conquer? What happens if we unite different people to conquer another?’’ RZA writes (83). All of the merchandising, associates, and solo albums created a perfect storm of Wu-Tang, culminating in 1997, when the group’s second LP, Wu-Tang Forever (Loud/RCA Records). The two disc album sold over 600,000 copies in only its first week, entering the Billboard charts at #1. This kind of success was unheard of for a ‘‘hardcore’’ hip hop group, deemed too extreme to be played on radio and television. RZA recalls, ‘‘when Wu-Tang Forever came out, we were the number one group—in sales, influence, everything’’ (78). Everything about the record was bigger than Enter the Wu-Tang. The production, the size, the scope- everything was grandiose. Lyrics were less about street life and more metaphorical, with descriptions of the apocalypse and other religious (both Eastern and Western) iconography, as well as musings about nihilism and the future of humanity. The single, ‘‘Triumph’’ saw Inspectah Deck deliver one of the best, most visceral verses in hip hop history. The verse rapidly chains together a narrative of a robbery, Wu-Tang’s rise to power, and the surreal yet all too real mayhem that ensues at a Wu-Tang show. Writes GZA, ‘‘[it’s] a classic example of straight-out-the-box devastation . . . after I heard that, I didn’t even want to get on the song . . . you need to go searchin’ to find somebody that’s sayin’ something so visual’’ (RZA 212). Beyond Deck’s unbelievably poetic verse, Wu-Tang Forever innovates lyrically by having Wu-affiliate Cappadonna appear in several verses, marking the first time a non-Clan member had a verse on a Wu-Tang ensemble album. The album broke ground musically as well, featuring lush keyboards, strings, even a fiddle line on ‘‘Reunited.’’ Wu-Tang Forever had made it clear that the battle for hip hop supremacy was over. Wu-Tang was the best—lyrically, musically, and financially. They had conquered the industry, all according to RZA’s Five Year Plan.

POST WU-TANG By 1997, it was obvious to the entire world that Wu-Tang was the most powerful force in hip hop. So what was left to do? By this time, RZA’s five year plan had expired, and RZA, true to his word, relinquished his power. Wu-Tang became more democratic—RZA no longer oversaw production on every Wu-Tang-related album. He handed the mantle over to his students—Mathematics (real name Ronald M. Bean), 4th Disciple (real name Selwyn Bougard), and True Master (real name Derek Harris). The move allowed RZA to focus on other projects, such as his own solo records, recorded under his superhero persona Bobby Digital, and scoring films such as 1999’s ‘‘Ghost Dog: Way of the Samurai.’’ However, RZA’s absence had a notable effect on the group’s solo albums. Post-Forever projects

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were universally panned, labeled lackluster, and average at best by critics and fans, who missed RZA’s uncanny ability to capture the essence of each clan member. The exception to this was Ghostface Killah’s Supreme Clientele (Razor Sharp/Epic 2000), a record detailing the life and times of Ghostface’s ‘‘true identity’’ Tony Starks. It featured numerous renowned producers, including ex-UMCs member Hassan, and was hailed as the one Wu-Tang solo record that found life after RZA’s passing of the torch. The new century seemed to usher in the end of Wu-Tang, but the group silenced its critics with the release of a new ensemble album—The W (Loud/Columbia 2000). The album was snapped up by hip hop fans, eventually going platinum. The W was a tighter, more accessible record than Wu-Tang Forever, and showed sparks of that fire and raw passion of Enter the Wu-Tang. The W saw RZA return as head producer, with only a select few tracks produced by his prote´ge´s. RZA’s presence ignites the Clan—tracks like ‘‘Gravel Pit’’ and ‘‘Protect Ya Neck (The Jump Off)’’ radiate familiar Wu-Tang sounds, but richer and cleaner, utilizing the more eclectic sampling and instrumentation RZA had been experimenting with in his Bobby Digital work. It seemed that after a sophomore slump of sorts, Wu-Tang was back to old form. The illusion would be shattered, however, with 2001’s Iron Flag (Loud/Columbia), a resounding disappointment amongst the Wu faithful. The record received lukewarm reviews, chiding it for sounding tired and overdone, with surprisingly weak lyrics and overly simplistic rhythms. Where The W and Wu-Tang Forever pushed Wu-Tang forward with strange, daring beats and lyrical content, Iron Flag took steps back, stripping the sound to its bare minimum bass and drums, and the lyrics to the same old stories about street life heard on Enter the Wu-Tang. Though the experimentation of Forever and The W didn’t always work, it was always interesting to listen to—by reducing the complexity and sonic innovation, Iron Flag loses artistic merit. Though some tracks, like ‘‘Uzi (Pinky Ring),’’ are full of Wu-Tang’s signature vitriol and accented horn hits, the majority of the songs don’t offer anything beneath the surface. Another disappointment on Iron Flag is the absence of Cappadonna and Ol’ Dirty Bastard. Cappadonna, who was now credited with the rest of the Clan and no longer distinguished as a guest appearance, took a strange and sudden sabbatical from the group to drive taxis in Baltimore. The reasons for his departure are unknown—however, it is speculated his manager was an FBI informant sent to keep tabs on the Clan’s connection to the Gambino crime family. Ol’ Dirty Bastard’s presence was also sorely missed—he was serving jail time and could not record. Sadly, unlike Cappadonna, ODB would not return to the Wu-Tang family, as he passed away in 2004 (see sidebar: Ol’ Dirty Bastard). Post-Iron Flag saw another decline in Wu-Tang, and RZA pulling back even further from the group, returning only to produce 2007’s 8 Diagrams (SRC/Universal Motown Records). Though it was an overall improvement from Iron Flag, with a diverse and experimental sound (single ‘‘The Heart Gently Weeps’’ features a sample of a cover of the Beatles’ ‘‘While My Guitar Gently Weeps,’’ with added

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OL’ DIRTY BASTARD The tale of ODB is tragic, laced with crime, excessive drug use, mental instability, and erratic, self-destructive tendencies. Though his career was lined with signs of genius and potential, such as his collaboration with Mariah Carey to produce the sleeper hit ‘‘Fantasy’’ and his clothing line ‘‘My Dirty Wear,’’ his artistic talent was ultimately inhibited by a long arrest sheet and a series of bizarre stunts. In 1996, while being filmed for an MTV biography, he picked up a welfare check in a stretch limousine. In 1997, he was arrested for failing to pay child support. In 1998, he rushed the stage at the Grammy Awards, interrupting artist’s Shawn Colvin’s acceptance speech for Song of the Year with claims that Wu-Tang should have won because they were ‘‘for the children.’’ Later in the year, he pled guilty to charges of assaulting his wife and missed several court appearances concerning missed child support payments and had a bench warrant issued for his arrest. The same year, he was charged with shoplifting a pair of 50 dollar sneakers in Virginia (despite having over 500 dollars of cash on him at the time) and was arrested in Los Angeles for making terroristic threats on two separate occasions (once after being kicked out of a concert for disorderly conduct, he returned and threatened to shoot security, the other after threatening to shoot an ex-girlfriend). The rap sheet continued in 1999 with multiple charges of marijuana possession, crack/cocaine possession, driving without a license, and failing to appear in court. In the midst of all of this, ODB found time to record a new album, Nigga Please (Elektra 1999). In January of 2000, during a hearing for his numerous possession charges, Ol’ Dirty Bastard cited unfair persecution by the authorities, referred to a female District Attorney as a ‘‘sperm donor,’’ and then took a nap in the courtroom. Miraculously, he avoided jail time, but was sentenced to rehab for six months. Yet with only two months left on his sentence, ODB broke out of rehab and became a fugitive, hiding out with fellow Wu-Tang members (presumably, since he is featured on The W track ‘‘Conditioner’’). He resurfaced on stage at a record release party for The W at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York, oddly managing to enter and leave the premises without being arrested. Yet months later, he met a strange and anticlimatic end to his days as a fugitive when he was caught signing autographs at a McDonald’s in Philadelphia. This time, he was sent to state prison, where he served his time until he was released in 2003. He signed to Roc-A-Fella records, and was working on a new solo record when he collapsed and died in Wu-Tang’s New York recording studios on November 13, 2004. The cause of death was an accidental overdose—a sad end to the life of one of hip hop’s oddest and most memorable performers.

A Black Sheep Borough, an Island of All White People | 137 guitar by the Red Hot Chili Peppers’ John Frusciante), fans and critics thought it was too incohesive and alien. Even Raekwon, Ghostface, and U-God agreed, citing problems with RZA’s new direction. However, there are a few bright spots in this modern era. Ghostface Killah’s Fishscale (Def Jam 2006) was well received, with its up tempo beats and Ghostface’s classic melodic flow. Masta Killa showed himself to have fully developed as a rapper on par with any other Wu-Tang member with his long-awaited solo debut, No Said Date (Nature Sounds 2004). Though Method Man’s later solo records have been uninspired (by his own admission), he has found success in Hollywood, teaming with Redman to star in a sitcom, Method and Red, and a feature length film, How High, with a sequel on the horizon. On his own, he has been featured in the hit HBO original drama, The Wire, and the film Garden State, among others. RZA has also gone Hollywood, scoring films such as Quentin Tarantino’s kung fu homage Kill Bill and appearing with GZA opposite Bill Murray in Jim Jarmusch’s Coffee and Cigarettes. Though they have faltered slightly in later years, the importance and influence of the Wu-Tang Clan cannot be overstated. The Wu-Tang Clan set the mark for how all other hip hop crews operate. Present day collectives like G-Unit model themselves after the Wu-Tang Clan, both artistically, with hard, edgy production, and financially, with extensive merchandising and brand diversification. Artists from all over the hip hop spectrum have cited Wu-Tang as enormously influential to their careers—Busta Rhymes, Kanye West, Notorious B.I.G., and many more pay tribute to Wu-Tang’s groundbreaking style. Never before had anyone heard the sounds Wu-Tang was making, or the ideas they were expressing. Their uncompromising attitude, lo-fi production, and gritty, complex rhymes made them household names, not just among hip hop fans, but mainstream America. Their use of Asian and Mafia culture fostered hip hop’s love affair with both Eastern and Mafioso imagery, which to this day still continue to appear over and over again. There has been no other group in hip hop who has made more of an impact than the Wu-Tang Clan. They helped push hip hop into the mainstream, and wrote the blueprint for success in the music industry. There is no one else like them. They are the Wu-Tang Clan from Staten Island—the only group that didn’t just change the industry, or become the industry, but transcended the industry. Staten Island has come a long way from struggling to find an identity in the 1980s. In the past 20 years, it has lifted itself from obscurity, proving itself to be artistically on par with the rest of New York’s boroughs. But Staten Island is not content. It has proven itself to be an equal, but it wants to be the best. The Force MDs are still on the road, playing shows around the country, and almost ready to release a documentary of their story. They are also looking to manage a new version of the Force MDs with their younger relatives, called the Force L.D.’s. Though the UMCs have gone their separate ways, they remain important figures in hip hop. Hassan has become a respected producer, overseeing hits like ‘‘Magic Stick’’ for 50 Cent. Kool Kim has reinvented himself as NYOIL—a mysterious, edgy rapper with the mission statement to violently eliminate subpar artists. The

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video for his song ‘‘Y’all Should Get Lynched,’’ which featured still images of 50 Cent and Young Joc, among others, was banned from Youtube within 48 hours of posting for being too graphic. On the Wu-Tang front, Raekwon is poised to release his follow up to Only Built 4 Cuban Linx, appropriately named Only Built 4 Cuban Linx II. A new, RZA-less Wu-Tang album, fronted by Raekwon and Ghostface, titled Shaolin vs. Wu-Tang, is also rumored to be nearing the final stages of production. GZA has plans to release a tell-all documentary entitled ‘‘Wu-Tang Revealed,’’ and has collaborated with DJ Muggs with to make Grandmasters (Angeles Records 2005), hip hop’s first (and most likely only) chess-themed album. In the same vein, Wu-Chess, an online chess program, recently went live, giving hip hop fans a place to play chess with each other (and even Clan members) around the world. Wu affiliates from Staten Island, like Streetlife and Ghostface’s spinoff group Theodore Unit, continue to make records and tour across the country. But despite Wu-Tang’s mighty grip on Staten Island’s hip hop scene, some artists, such as up-and-comer Crucial Tactics, act independently of Wu-Tang, playing shows and recording demos all around the island, as well as the larger New York area. Staten Island is through clawing at the heels of the other boroughs. It stands on its own, stepping up as a true hip hop pioneer in its own right.

REFERENCES Da Beatminerz. Personal Interview with Mickey Hess. October 15, 2008. ‘‘Force MDs Memories.’’ Youtube, July 7, 2007. http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=2qM88zwOcoc&feature=related. Force MD’s Relived. Wisemen Productions, 2007. JButters and Marcus. ‘‘Kool G Rap Interview.’’ Urban Smarts Hip Hop Iconz Series, September 7, 2008. http://www.urbansmarts.com/interviews/koolgrap .htm. Kool Kim. ‘‘UMCs—Hip Hop Sucks Because of You.’’ Unkut, September 3, 2006. http://www.unkut.com/2006/09/umcs-hip-hop-sucks-because-you/. Lundy, Steve. Personal Interview with Matthew Brian Cohen. June 6, 2008. Muklashy, Wasim. ‘‘Wu-Tang Clan: Shaolin Secrets.’’ Remix Magazine, November 1, 2007. Norris, Chris. ‘‘Ghetto Superstar.’’ In Spin: 20 Years of Alternative Music, edited by Will Hermes with Sia Michel. New York: Crown Publishing Group, 2005. Prince, Frazier, Steve Lundy, and Rodney Lundy. ‘‘The Force MDs Relived.’’ Youtube, October 25, 2006. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X43kuR3Oqg8. Quan, Jay. ‘‘Stevie D of the Force MDs.’’ http://www.jayquan.com/stevied.htm. RZA, and Chris Norris. The Wu-Tang Manual. 1st ed. New York: Penguin Group, 2005. Weiner, Jonah. ‘‘Dear Superstar: Method Man.’’ Blender, November 2003. http:// www.blender.com/guide/articles.aspx?id=512.

A Black Sheep Borough, an Island of All White People | 139 Weiss, Jeff. ‘‘GZA’s Liquid Swords of Truth.’’LA Weekly, March 26, 2008. http:// www.laweekly.com/music/music/gzas-liquid-swords-of-truth/18592/.

FURTHER RESOURCES ‘‘A Trip Down Memory Lane with Kool Kim of the UMCs.’’ Platform 8470, February 2006. http://www.platform8470.com/artists/ai_koolkim.asp. ‘‘A Wu-Tang Guide to Staten Island.’’ Gridskipper, December 2006. http:// gridskipper.com/59258/a-wutang-guide-to-staten-island. Breihan, Tom. ‘‘Return of the Ruckus.’’ Village Voice, January 31, 2006. http:// www.villagevoice.com/2006-01-31/music/return-of-the-ruckus/. Concepcion, Mariel, and Jonathan Cohen. ‘‘Return of the Wu.’’ Billboard 119 (2007): 26–29. Erlewine, Stephen Thomas, and Steve Huey. ‘‘Wu-Tang Clan Biography.’’ All Music Guide. http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11: dxfyxqwgldse~T1. ‘‘Force MC’s Biography.’’ Old School Hip Hop. http://www.oldschoolhiphop.com/ artists/emcees/forcemcs.htm. Horowitz, Steven J. ‘‘Last No Longer: An Interview with Wu-Tang Clan’s Masta Killa.’’ September 2006. http://www.popmatters.com/music/interviews/mastakilla-060908.shtml. Kurutz, Steve. ‘‘Mr. Magic Biography.’’ All Music Guide. http://www.allmusic .com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:73820r1ay48p~T1. Leckart, Steven. ‘‘Wu-Tang Clan’s RZA Breaks Down His Kung Fu Samples by Film and Song.’’ Wired, October 23, 2007. http://www.wired.com/ entertainment/music/magazine/15-11/pl_music. Mueller, Gavin. ‘‘The Wu-Tang Story.’’ Stylus Magazine, November 15, 2004. http://www.stylusmagazine.com/articles/weekly_article/the-wu-tang-storyreprint.htm. Sharpton, Kim. ‘‘Kool Kim.’’ [Weblog Myspace] http://www.myspace.com/ koolkimumc. Smooth, Jay. ‘‘Mr. Magic and Mister Cee: Hip Hop History 101.’’ HipHopMusic.com, 1995. Staten Island Ferry. www.siferry.com. ‘‘Staten Island Ferry Information.’’ MYCDOT. NYC Department of Transit. http:// www.nyc.gov/html/dot/html/ferrybus/statfery.shtml#facts. Wallenrod, Werner Von. ‘‘(Werner Necro’d) Shadow Government (UMCs Interview).’’ November 30, 2007. http://journals.aol.com/wvwalenrod/werners/ entries/2007/11/30/werner-necrod-shadow-government-umcs-interview/1327. Wolf, Mike. ‘‘Lynch Pin.’’ Time Out New York, January 4, 2007. http:// www.timeout.com/newyork/articles/music/3063/lynch-pin (accessed July 28, 2008).

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SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY The Force MDs Love Letters. Tommy Boy, 1984. Chillin’. Tommy Boy/Warner Bros., 1985. Touch & Go. Tommy Boy/Warner Bros., 1987. Step to Me. Tommy Boy/Warner Bros., 1990. Moments in Time. Tommy Boy/Warner Bros., 1994. Ghostface Killah Ironman. Razor Sharp/Epic Records, 1996. Supreme Clientele. Razor Sharp/Epic/SME Records, 2000. The Pretty Toney Album. Def Jam, 2004. Fishscale. Def Jam, 2006. More Fish. Def Jam, 2006. The Big Doe Rehab. Def Jam, 2007. GZA Words from the Genius. Cold Chillin’/Warner Bros., 1990. Liquid Swords. Geffen/MCA, 1995. Beneath the Surface. MCA, 1999. Legend of the Liquid Sword. MCA, 2002. Grandmasters. Angeles, 2005. Pro Tools. Think Differently Music/Babygrande Records, 2008. Inspectah Deck Uncontrolled Substance. Relativity Records, 1999. The Movement. Koch Records, 2003. The Resident Patient. Urban Icon Records, 2006. Masta Killa No Said Date. Nature Sounds, 2004. Made in Brooklyn. Nature Sounds, 2006. Method Man Tical. Def Jam, 1994. Tical 2000: Judgment Day. Def Jam, 1998. Tical 0: The Prequel. Def Jam, 2004. 4:21 . . . The Day After. Def Jam, 2006. Ol’ Dirty Bastard Return to the 36 Chambers: The Dirty Version. Elektra, 1995. Nigga Please. Elektra, 1999. Raekwon The Chef Only Built 4 Cuban Linx. Loud Records/RCA, 1995. The Lex Diamond Story. Universal Music Group, 2003. RZA Bobby Digital in Stereo. Gee Street/V2/BMG Records, 1998.

A Black Sheep Borough, an Island of All White People Digital Bullet. Koch Records, 2001. The World According to RZA. Virgin, 2003. Birth of a Prince. Wu/Sanctuary/BMG Records, 2003. Digi Snacks. Koch Records, 2008. U God Golden Arms Redemption. Priority Records, 1999. Mr. Xcitement. Free Agency Recordings, 2005. The UMCs Fruits of Nature. Wild Pitch Records, 1991. Unleashed. Wild Pitch Records, 1994. Wu Tang Clan Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers). Loud/RCA/BMG Records, 1993. Wu-Tang Forever. Loud/RCA/BMG Records, 1997. The W. Loud/Columbia/SME Records, 2000. Iron Flag. Loud/Columbia/SME Records, 2001. 8 Diagrams. SRC/Universal Motown Records, 2007.

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CHAPTER 7 The Sound of Philadelphia: Hip Hop History in the City of Brotherly Love Mickey Hess On January 8, 2008, Philadelphia Mayor Michael Nutter celebrated his inauguration by performing Sugar Hill Gang’s ‘‘Rapper’s Delight,’’ backed by Questlove from the Roots on drums. When the new mayor kicked off his first term by performing a classic hip hop track with one of the icons of Philadelphia hip hop, he exemplified the importance of hip hop to Philadelphia’s culture, and underscored the importance of Philadelphia to the culture of hip hop. Philly made more contributions than any city outside New York to the development of hip hop culture in the 1970s and early 1980s, and remains a hotbed of hip hop in 2009. The Roots are currently one of the most iconic rap groups to represent Philadelphia, along with DJ Jazzy Jeff (Jeff Townes, born January 22, 1965) and The Fresh Prince (Will Smith, born September 25, 1968), who were the first group to bring Philly’s hip hop culture fully into the mainstream, propelled by Jeff’s talents on the turntables and the humor and charm that would lead to roles in the NBC sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air (1990–1996) and later launch Will Smith’s career in Hollywood films like I am Legend and Men in Black. Before the group hit the airwaves, though, Jazzy Jeff was a local legend and turntable virtuoso who performed with Southwest Philly’s Network Crew, comprised of DJ Jazzy Jeff, Rockwell, JT, Mo Roc, and Rally Rap. As a DJ, Jeff worked with local MCs Spicy T and Ice-C before he picked up The Fresh Prince from another Philly crew, The Hypnotic MCs. In a 1997 interview, DJ Jazzy Jeff explained that in the 1980s, Philadelphia’s focus on the DJ distinguished its rap scene from New York’s: ‘‘New York was a town predominantly made up of rappers. Not that Philadelphia didn’t have rappers, but Philadelphia was a DJ-based town. We put emphasis on DJing. The rappers here kinda catered to the DJs, you know’’ (Spady). In a 2008 issue of Philadelphia’s Two One Five Magazine devoted to local hip hop culture, Angela Carter wrote that as early as 1985, ‘‘every ’hood throughout Philly had a DJ crew—most notably, Cosmic Kev and MC Perry P from Germantown; DJ Cash Money and Marvelous from Yaden; Grandmaster Nell and MC 143

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Robby B from South Philly; the Hypnotic MCs from Wynnfield; and two crews from the southwest—the Network Crew, and DJ Master Vik and the Super MCs’’ (15). Philadelphia’s wealth of local DJ talent garnered national attention in 1986, when DJ Jazzy Jeff won the New Music Seminar DJ Battle for World Supremacy, bringing attention to the vibrant DJ scene in his hometown. Philly’s DJ scene is still thriving today, with a mix of turntablists and club DJs ranging from the Illvibe Collective, the Skratch Makanics, King Britt, Rich Medina, Hollertronix, DJ Ultraviolet, to Questlove, who performs DJ sets at the nightclub Fluid when he isn’t on tour with the Roots. Even as Philadelphia hip hop has spread worldwide, artists tend to be staunchly local-minded in the ways they choose to represent their hometowns and connect themselves to a legacy of talent in the city they call home. For Jazzy Jeff, Philadelphia is so central to his music that he left Hollywood and moved back to his hometown. When Jeff was asked in a 1997 interview why he returned to Philadelphia rather than staying in Hollywood to work in film and television like his partner Will Smith, he replied: Philly’s my home. I honestly believe the reason for who I am today and a lot of the accomplishments—and I honestly believe that the sound that I have and that Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince as a group had—is based on our location. I never wanted to change my location because if I change my location, I’m going to change my sound. I don’t know if that’s superstitious, but that’s something that I firmly believe. (Spady) Hip hop artists who hail from the City of Brotherly Love often express a local pride in Philly’s hip hop milestones. Although hip hop culture was born one hundred miles north in New York City’s Bronx borough, Philadelphia is home to several hip hop firsts: the style of spray-paint graffiti art that has come to be associated with hip hop was born in Philly in the 1960s, Philly’s DJ Cash Money invented the transform scratch, Jazzy Jeff invented the chirp scratch, Schoolly D recorded the first gangsta rap records, and in 1979 two of hip hop’s earliest records were recorded by Philadelphians: Jocko Henderson’s ‘‘Rhythm Talk’’ and Lady B’s ‘‘To the Beat, Ya’ll,’’ which was the first hip hop single by a woman emcee. In further milestones, 1985 MC Breeze recorded ‘‘Discombobulatorlator,’’ the first rap song to be banned from radio airplay, and in 1998 DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince won rap’s first Grammy for He’s the DJ, I’m the Rapper, which was also hip hop’s first double-LP. Yet even with these milestones, Philadelphia tends to remain in the shadow of New York, and Philly’s artists often express resentment toward the lack of recognition of Philadelphia as a unique and thriving hip hop scene of its own. MC Breeze reminded his listener that ‘‘It Ain’t New York,’’ on his 1986 song of that name, and Reef the Lost Cauze complains on 2007’s ‘‘Sound of Philadelphia’’ that ‘‘the shadow of New York we’re still under,’’ and argues that the chip on

The Sound of Philadelphia | 145 Philadelphians’ shoulders makes them ‘‘kill them every summer’’ and ‘‘walk a little tougher.’’ Philadelphia’s reputation as a dangerous, crime-ridden city has earned it the nickname Killadelphia. The city’s murder rate consistently places it in the top 10 major American cities for per-capita murder rate, and local newspapers and Web sites print ‘‘murder maps’’ that pinpoint the locations of each slaying. Along with a high murder rate and violence associated with the drug trade, Philadelphia is further known for police brutality against black citizens, and for the murder of police officers by black citizens, both of which were prevalent in 2007–2008 (see Sidebar: Murder Rap). This social context created a vibrant and varied hip hop scene in Philadelphia. Philly hip hop is not defined by any one sound. From the early days of rap music, Philadelphia produced standout artists ranging from the proto-gangsta rhymes of Schoolly D to the radio-friendly pop rap of DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince. Schoolly D and the Fresh Prince were contemporaries, but their styles and content are at opposite ends of the spectrum. Schoolly D rhymed about gun violence and drugs while the Fresh Prince rhymed about more radio-friendly topics such as shopping for back-to-school clothes with his mom on hit singles like ‘‘Parents Just Don’t Understand.’’ These two artists, different as they were, helped usher in the era of the MC in Philadelphia. Schoolly D and DJ Code Money developed a production style centered on high-hat cymbals and lots of bells that would influence Rick Rubin’s production on the Beastie Boys’ 1986 debut Licensed to Ill, and the Fresh Prince was backed by Philly’s legendary DJ Jazzy Jeff and a beatboxer named Ready Rock C, but the two MCs stepped into the spotlight to personify the different directions hip hop was heading in the mid-1980s. Schoolly D invented gangsta rap and the Fresh Prince pioneered rap’s crossover to the pop charts. That diversity has carried throughout the eras in Philadelphia. Philly has brought us the smoothed-out sounds of Boys II Men and The Roots, as well as the hardcore rhymes of Cassidy and Beanie Sigel. At one end of the current spectrum, Philly rap artists form a strong contingent on Roc-A-Fella Records: Beanie Sigel, State Property, Young Gunz, and Freeway all are signed to the Roc. At the other end, the underground hip hop contingent includes acts ranging from Last Emperor, Reef the Lost Cauze, Hezekiah, Jedi Mind Tricks, Writtenhouse, and Chief Kamachi. Philly has also been a haven for women artists. Lady B, after recording hip hop’s first single by a female MC, went on to produce a longrunning radio show. Monie Love, an old-school MC, member of the Native Tongues, and a Philly transplant by way of London, had a radio show as well. Eve, first lady of the Rough Riders crew, hails from Philly, as do Jill Scott, Ethel Cee, Ice Cream Tee, DJ Ultraviolet, and Princess Superstar. Philly’s connections with other cities is important as well. Boston transplant Mr. Lif now represents Philadelphia. The Myspace page of the group Shape of Broad Minds lists its hometown as Housta-delphia, recognizing the fact that the group is comprised of Philly’s Dr. Who Dat and Houston’s Jneiro Jariel. Gillie da Kid began his career with New Orleans’ Cash Money Records, and has more recently

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MURDER RAP Philadelphia’s rap stars have been notoriously tied to the social problems of the city, from the 1987 murder of Sean G, the first Philadelphia rap star to sign a deal with a major record label, to the more recent charges of assault and attempted murder against rap artists Beanie Sigel and Cassidy, and Alton ‘‘Ace Capone’’ Coles, a Philadelphia hip hop movie producer and alleged cocaine kingpin who is accused of using his films to tell the story of his life in the drug trade. In 2007, Coles was arrested after a lengthy investigation by the Philadelphia office of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF). Along with the ATF wiretaps and videotaped surveillance footage, authorities included the film New Jack City: The Next Generation (2003) as part of their investigation. Capone had produced and starred in the film, playing a character who shared his nickname, ‘‘Ace Capone,’’ and ran a Southwest Philadelphia drug ring that thrived because of its ruthlessness toward anyone who posed a threat to the operation. Prosecutors charged that Ace Capone was writing his autobiography into the film, and he was sentenced to life plus 55 years in April 2009. Most shocking, however, are the 1996 convictions of Philly old-school legends Cool C and Steady B, who remain in prison for their involvement in a 1996 bank robbery and the murder of Philadelphia police officer Lauretha Vaird. Major-label recording artists in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Steady B and Cool C were members of the Hilltop Hustlers, a Philadelphia rap crew. Cool C released a pair of albums on Atlantic Records in 1989 and 1990, and Steady B released five full-length albums on Jive Records between 1986 and 1991. Steady B and Cool C united, along with Ultimate Eaze, in 1993 to produce an album as C.E.B. (Countin Endless Bank). However, the comeback of these icons of Philadelphia hip hop was short-lived, and their hip hop careers are now overshadowed by their convictions for bank robbery and the shooting of Lauretha Vaird, the first female Philadelphia police officer to be murdered in the line of duty. For his role in the robbery, Steady B was sentenced to life in prison. In October 1996, Cool C, who allegedly was the triggerman, was sentenced to the death penalty, and in 2008 was still awaiting execution. In a music culture where rappers boast about their criminal activity and their time behind bars, Cool C remains the only major rapper on death row.

waged a war of words with Cash Money artist Lil Wayne, for whom he claims to have ghostwritten several albums. King Britt and Doodlebug, two members of the jazz-influenced NYC hip hop group Digable Planets, hail from Philly, and King Britt has returned home to forge a successful solo career as a club DJ. Philadelphia’s Eve began her recording career as a member of DMX’s New York-based

The Sound of Philadelphia | 147 Ruff Riders collective, and Bahamadia’s work flourished through her connections with DJ Premier and Guru of the Brooklyn group Gang Starr. Monie Love, a member of the Native Tongues posse who hails from London, England, moved to Philly and hosted a radio show on WPHI-FM (see sidebar: Monie Love). DJ Jazzy Jeff’s production work, and his studio, A Touch of Jazz, have drawn hip hop artists to the city as well. The list of Philadelphia’s contributions to hip hop history also includes several stars who grew up in Philly but left town to find stardom with a group. Money B, a native of North Philadelphia, moved to California in 1987 and joined the group Digital Underground, best known for their classic party single ‘‘The Humpty Dance,’’ and for launching the career of Tupac Shakur. Money B also recorded with the group Raw Rusion and has released a solo album. Kurupt left Philadelphia in 1986 to form Tha Dogg Pound with his partner Daz Dillinger and sign to Dr. Dre and Suge Knight’s Death Row Records. Tha Dogg Pound was featured on ‘‘What’s My Name,’’ Snoop Doggy Dogg’s debut single as a solo artist, and their own debut album was one of the most anticipated rap albums of 1995. Lisa ‘‘Left Eye’’ Lopes, a singer and emcee from the R&B group TLC, also signed to Death Row Records as a solo artist before her death in a car crash in Honduras in 2002. The production team The Aphilliates, although based in Atlanta, was formed by three

MONIE LOVE Monie Love, a transplant from London to Philadelphia, originally made connections with U.S. hip hop groups in her teens when she wrote a fan letter to Public Enemy, and PE member Professor Griff responded. Monie Love was an original member of the Native Tongues Posse, which consisted of Afrika Bambaataa, De La Soul, the Jungle Brothers, A Tribe Called Quest, Black Sheep, and Queen Latifah. Monie’s best-known verse remains her guest appearance on Latifah’s ‘‘Ladies First’’ (1988), but she is also known for her own singles, such as ‘‘Monie in the Middle.’’ In Philadelphia, Monie continued to record sporadic releases, such as 2000’s Slice of da Pie EP, but she was better known for her radio show on Philadelphia’s WPHI-FM. The show ran from 2004 to 2006, and was canceled only a few months after Monie’s much-publicized on-air confrontation with southern rapper Young Jeezy. On December 7, 2006, Monie and Jeezy got into an argument stemming from their opposite reactions to Nas’s 2006 album Hip Hop Is Dead: The N. Jeezy argued that hip hop has evolved rather than died, but Monie sided with Nas, and took Jeezy to task for his lyrical content. She complained that in 2006 MCs rhymed only about ‘‘struggles, street hustling, and coming up.’’ Monie Love now hosts ‘‘Ladies First Radio with Monie Love,’’ on XM Satellite Radio.

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Philadelphia natives: DJ Drama, Don Cannon, and DJ Sense. DJ Drama’s Gangsta Grillz mixtape series has featured Lil Wayne, T.I., and a host of other southern rap stars. More recently, in 2008, Don Cannon and DJ Drama returned to their Philadelphia roots to record The Greenhouse Effect with Asher Roth, a white rapper from the Philly suburb of Morrisville, Pennsylvania.

A CITY OF HISTORY Philadelphia’s contributions to the global movement of hip hop are as varied as the artists who hail from the city. Hip hop music and culture are born out of a revolutionary spirit, and Philadelphia is a city of revolution. Beyond the tourist destinations of American Revolution sites such as Independence Hall, Benjamin Franklin’s grave, and the Liberty Bell, Philadelphia has a long and complex history of struggle for racial equality. In the late 1890s, the University of Pennsylvania sponsored W.E.B. Du Bois’s pioneering sociological study The Philadelphia Negro, first published in 1899. In his study, Du Bois interviewed members of black families living in Philadelphia’s seventh ward, which at the time held the city’s highest concentration of black citizens (today this area contains Rittenhouse Square and Washington Square West, two of Philadelphia’s more expensive neighborhoods). Du Bois’s study traced the history of black Philadelphians from slavery, emancipation, and the rise to freedom, and covered family size, income, poverty, religion, education and illiteracy, and alcoholism, and attended to the problem of crime among black citizens of Philadelphia, attributing crime to a problem of adjustment on the Negro from life in Africa, to slavery, to emancipation, to an exodus from southern farms to northern industrial cities. Du Bois found at the root of black crime a ‘‘lack of harmony with the social surroundings’’ (64). During the Great Migration of the early twentieth century, Philadelphia saw an influx of southern-born African Americans who moved north. From the 1940s through the 1960s, Philadelphia became home to civil rights protests, boycotts, and walkouts in protest of unfair labor practices. The motto ‘‘don’t shop where you can’t work’’ was promoted among the black citizens of the city. Matthew J. Countryman’s Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, presents a history of Philadelphia’s key involvement in the civil rights movement. This history has tended to be overshadowed by the civil rights histories of southern cities like Birmingham, Montgomery, and Atlanta, but black activism in Philadelphia made significant contributions, particularly in the realm of labor rights and community control of the schools. Philadelphia’s African American community also fostered a social scene that included lodges, saloons, social clubs, and house parties where people came together and danced. John W. Roberts has traced Philadelphia’s dance culture from its roots in African society through the heyday of American Bandstand in the 1950s and on to hip hop today. For his book From Hucklebuck to Hip-Hop: Social

The Sound of Philadelphia | 149 Dance in the African American Community in Philadelphia, Roberts conducted a series of interviews with Philadelphians who remember the Philadelphia-based dance show American Bandstand more for its discriminatory policies than its influence on American popular culture. The show, which was filmed in a predominantly black West Philly neighborhood, initially excluded black teens from dancing on the show, although many of the dances showcased on American Bandstand had been created by African Americans (Roberts 36–37). Although Bandstand changed its policy in 1955 in response to community protest, many black teens moved on to The Mitch Thomas Show, another locally produced dance program that showcased African American dancers and was a precursor to the long-running dance show Soul Train, which began filming in Chicago in 1970. The same Philadelphia communities that supported local dancers fostered a musical heritage as well. Philly was home to the opera singer Marian Anderson, who broke racial barriers in 1939 when she sang on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, and again in 1955 when she became the first black singer to perform with the New York Metropolitan Opera. Philadelphia also contributed to jazz music, in the years following World War II, when musicians like John Coltrane, Dizzy Gillespie, and the Heath Brothers moved from the south to Philadelphia, creating a vibrant jazz scene in the city. Outside of hip hop, though, Philly is best known for its contributions to soul music. In 1971, Kenneth Gamble and Leon Huff founded Philadelphia International Records, which released records from The O’Jays and Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes, as well as one of the first rap records—Douglas ‘‘Jocko’’ Henderson’s 1979 single ‘‘Rhythm Talk.’’ Henderson was a rhyming radio DJ who began broadcasting in Philadelphia in 1950. Although he was not the first radio DJ to make rhyming a part of his on-air personality, he was known in the 1950s for rhymes like ‘‘Hello, Daddy-O and Mommy-O, This is Jocko,’’ and ‘‘Oo-poppa-doo, how do you do,’’ leading some hip hop fans to refer to him as the original rapper. In 1957 Henderson began commuting between Philadelphia and New York, producing a show that aired from 6–9 AM on WLIB New York, and a second show that aired 4–7 PM on WDAS Philadelphia. Henderson’s flair and rhyming boasts influenced hip hop, although he is best remembered, along with Alan Freed, as a rock and roll pioneer who promoted the music on his radio shows as well as frequent rock n roll showcases at venues like Harlem’s Apollo Theater. He ended his New York show after seven years, but maintained his show in Philadelphia through the 1970s. In 1970, he founded a magazine, Philly Talk, dedicated to promoting local music and culture. This history laid the foundation for hip hop to take hold in Philadelphia in the 1960s and 1970s, when graffiti took hold in the city and was soon followed by rap music. Hip hop in Philly emerged into a social context of government corruption, police brutality, and black protest that had disconnected black citizens in West Philadelphia, South Philadelphia, and North Philadelphia from the downtown’s governmental and commercial heartbeat, the area known to locals as Center City. In the 1960s and 1970s, Mayor James Tate (1962–1972) and his police

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commissioner and successor as mayor, Frank Rizzo (1972–1980), further alienated black Philadelphians from Center City. As police commissioner, Rizzo was criticized for his force’s rough treatment of black Philadelphians (Feffer 795), and as mayor, he continued Tate’s efforts to revitalize Center City. The American Bicentennial Celebration of 1976 charged these mayors with revitalizing Center City and in particular its Society Hill neighborhood, which was home to many historical sites important to the American Revolution. Plans for Society Hill called for new construction, and rejuvenating the area as a tourist destination, in the hopes of bringing white, middle-class residents back to the area (Feffer 795), which meant pushing out black residents as the city demolished low-income housing in Society Hill, which would become the historical center of Philadelphia. While focused on preserving the city’s history, however, The Society Hill Civic Association blocked the African American museum proposed for the neighborhood. Neighborhood groups objected to the museum on the grounds that placing the museum in Society Hill would take away from the neighborhood’s residential feel, and that the museum’s size violated zoning laws, but black groups sensed racism at the heart of these objections that would once again distance black Philadelphians from the city’s push for tourism and commerce in Center City (Feffer 802). The museum’s project manager, Gerard Williams, claimed that, ‘‘They would be against it even if it were the size of a matchbox’’ (Gould 1B). Because of the objections to the original proposal, Philadelphia’s African American museum was instead built several blocks north of Society Hill, near Chinatown. Along with the tensions between Center City government and areas of Philadelphia with higher black populations come tensions between black Philadelphians and the police. As police commissioner and mayor, Frank Rizzo targeted black citizens and was criticized for racial profiling and police brutality. The violence enacted by Philadelphia police officers was soon met by violence against these same officers. Most famously, Philadelphia police officer Daniel Faulkner was shot and killed on December 9, 1981. Journalist and black activist Mumia Abu-Jamal was charged with and sentenced to die for the crime, sparking an international ‘‘Free Mumia’’ movement that has lasted for nearly thirty years as Abu-Jamal awaits execution. Abu-Jamal’s supporters cite evidence that suggests that Abu-Jamal did not commit the crime and should be freed, but government officials stand firm. Currently, both Abu-Jamal and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania have appeals under review in the U.S. Court of Appeals. Racial tensions in Philadelphia rose even further on May 13, 1985, when Philadelphia police bombed a house in a standoff with members of MOVE, a largely black organization devoted to bringing a back-to-nature lifestyle to their life in the city. The movement was founded by John Africa, and according to some reports had been active since as early as 1968. MOVE rejected government law in favor the natural law of man. They were especially opposed to the law enforcement tactics of the Philadelphia police department and Mayors Frank Rizzo and Wilson Goode. MOVE was centered in West Philadelphia’s Powelton Village, near

The Sound of Philadelphia | 151 the campuses of the University of Pennsylvania and Drexel University. Problems began when neighbors complained about the smells coming from the MOVE house. John Africa and his followers were animal lovers and vegetarians. They kept several dogs in the house, and dumped vegetables in their back yard, which created a rat problem in the neighborhood. The problems escalated when Philadelphia police responded to complaints from MOVE’s neighbors. In March 1976, police officers were involved in an altercation at the MOVE headquarters. MOVE members claimed that police had trampled and killed an infant in the struggle. Later that same year, police barricaded the MOVE headquarters and refused to let any food through to its members. A Philadelphia newspaper ran the headline ‘‘Rizzo: Get out or die.’’ In 1978, MOVE members killed a Philadelphia police officer in a shootout. In 1985, police bombarded the MOVE house, firing 10,000 rounds from automatic weapons and dropping a bomb from a helicopter, killing five MOVE members, including its founder, John Africa, and six children. The fire started by the bomb destroyed 61 houses and damaged about 110, leaving 250 Philadelphians homeless. These conflicts between black Philadelphians and the police coincided with the releases of some of Philadelphia’s contributions to hip hop music and culture, in particular graffiti art and the development of gangsta rap.

1967–1985: EARLY HIP HOP HISTORY Philadelphia’s earliest contribution to hip hop came in the form of graffiti art. Graffiti is one of the four central elements of hip hop culture—along with MCing, DJing, and b-boying (breakdancing)—and the element that came into existence first (although some graffiti writers, such as Lady Pink, insist that graffiti was a movement of its own, and should not be considered part of hip hop culture). By many accounts, it originated in Philadelphia. Although New York City became known for the train-bombing style of writing graffiti on subway cars that was featured in 1980s hip hop films such as Wild Style and Style Wars, the graffiti style that came to be associated with hip hop was born in Philadelphia. Graffiti, in the form of inscriptions and paintings on public walls and monuments date back to Ancient Rome, when graffiti was used to spread political messages, as well as literary quotations, curses, and spells. Widespread urban American graffiti originated in North Philadelphia, where street gangs in the 1960s used graffiti to mark territory. The materials were spray-paint and paint markers, and the effect was artistic vandalism. Graffiti’s detractors saw its vandalistic nature more than they saw its aesthetic sensibilities, but graffiti writers prided themselves both on their art and their crime. As Philadelphia’s Darryl ‘‘Cornbread’’ McCray put it in a 2001 interview with Philadelphia Weekly, ‘‘I was mad at the world. [Graffiti] was my way of getting even. This was my payback to the world’’ (Haegele). Cornbread and other early Philadelphia graffiti writers, such as Sub and Cool Earl, trace their artistic origins back to the mid-1960s, when they developed what became known as the Philadelphia style, marked by its tall, skinny letters, large,

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one-color wall tags, and Cornbread’s signature use of the arrow. The Vibe History of Hip Hop credits another Philly writer, TOP CAT, with introducing the Philly-style skinny letters to New York City graffitists when he moved to NYC in the early 1970s (Reeves 219). By the 1970s, graffiti art had evolved from basic tagging to more complex designs and murals. It had spread from North Philly to Center City, and was no longer limited to gang territorialism. Rather than mark walls to designate their turf, graffiti writers like Cornbread made the city their canvas. In a July 25, 1971 issue, the New York Times referred to Philadelphia as the ‘‘Graffiti Capital of The World’’ (31:3). In 1972, the Camden Courier-Post reported that it cost $1,000 a day to remove graffiti from Philadelphia’s City Hall complex. A graffiti writer called KAP the Bicentennial Kid even tagged the Liberty Bell in the weeks preceding the Fourth of July Bicentennial celebration in 1976. In response to what many citizens saw as a growing urban problem, the Philadelphia Museum of Art launched an initiative to commission murals to cover up graffitied walls around the city. Following the disbanding of the Art Museum outreach program in 1983, the City of Philadelphia, under the leadership of Mayor Wilson Goode, formed the Philadelphia Anti-Graffiti Network (PAGN) in 1984. In 1986, the Mural Arts Project extended the work of PAGN and created a more sustainable version of the Art Museum’s earlier effort to beautify Philadelphia. Both PAGN and the Mural Arts Program remain in existence in 2007, and have produced over 2,700 murals throughout Philadelphia, which the Mural Arts Program Web site boasts is ‘‘more murals than any other city in the world.’’ While the Mural Arts Program was designed not only to counter vandalistic graffiti but to provide graffiti artists with a sanctioned space for their work and apprenticeships with established artists, the program’s murals preserve neither the Philadelphia style of graffiti nor graffiti’s original criminal element. Oldschool Philly graffiti is still preserved in murals in North Philly, tags in the Spring-Garden El station, and in the Philadelphia Folklore Project’s 1995 ‘‘Keep it Real’’ exhibition, which featured work from Philly graffiti luminaries like Enem, Dan One, Nope, and Kraz. Also, Philly is represented in film documentaries such as Doug Pray’s Infamy (2005), which features interviews with Enem, a graffiti writer from North Philly’s Germantown neighborhood and the curator of the Center City art gallery Union 237, a space devoted to urban art, including graffiti. Still, Enem shares a perspective with many other graffiti purists and critics of programs that seek to provide city-sanctioned spaces for creating art. As he says in Infamy, ‘‘If you are truly a graffiti writer, you cannot deny the fact that you are committing crimes,’’ and ‘‘Graffiti to me was war with the establishment, bombing corporate and government, big money stuff. I sure as hell got a big kick out of painting the City Hall annex building.’’ As graffiti kept Philadelphia officials busy repainting city walls and creating new regulations, hip hop’s other elements were heating up in Philly as well, and were no less controversial. During the 1980s, Philadelphia hip hop accomplished

The Sound of Philadelphia | 153 several firsts. In 1980, Lady B, one of the most influential radio DJs in hip hop, released ‘‘To the Beat Y’all,’’ making her the first solo female artist to release a rap single. Lady B’s greatest contribution to hip hop, though, is her work in bringing rap music to the radio. In fact, DJ Bobbito Garcia calls Lady B ‘‘arguably the most prominent female voice ever in hip hop radio’’ (73). Lady B began her radio career on Philadelphia’s WUSL, but is best known for her show ‘‘Street Beat’’ on Philly’s Power 99 FM, where she fought for the right to play controversial groups like Public Enemy. Her radio career spans three decades, and has earned her the Douglas ‘‘Jocko’’ Henderson Award. Currently, she broadcasts a show on Sirius Satellite Radio, and frequently hosts local hip hop events in Philly. Along with being home to the first woman to produce a hip hop record, and one of the first hip hop radio shows, Philadelphia is also the birthplace of gangsta rap, in that many rap artists, scholars, and music journalists agree that Schoolly D’s ‘‘Gangster Boogie’’ (1984) and ‘‘P.S.K. (What does it mean?)’’ (1986) were the first gangsta records ever released. These songs predated the use of the term ‘‘gangsta’’ to designate a subgenre of rap music, but Schoolly D (born Jesse B. Weaver, Jr, June 22, 1966) was the first MC to record lyrics devoted to guns and gang violence, two markers that would go on to distinguish the gangsta rap of artists like N.W.A. and Ice-T from other forms of rap music.

Schoolly D (Getty Images)

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In 1984, Schoolly D released the 12-inch single, ‘‘Maniac b/w Gangster Boogie’’ on his own Schoolly D Records. This single was a precursor to gangsta rap, but it was Schoolly’s 1985 single ‘‘P.S.K. (What does it mean?),’’ an ode to a street gang called the Park Side Killers, that inspired a new movement of West Coast rappers. Ice-T is often credited with initiating the hip hop subgenre of gangsta rap with his 1986 single ‘‘Six in the Morning,’’ but in an interview published in Canada’s Props Magazine, Ice-T spoke of Schoolly-D’s influence on his song: The first record that came out along those lines was Schoolly D’s ‘‘P.S.K.’’ Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made ‘‘Six In The Morning.’’ The vocal delivery was the same: ‘‘ . . . P.S.K. is makin’ that green,’’ ‘‘ . . . six in the morning, police at my door.’’ When I heard that record I was like ‘‘Oh shit!’’ and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. (qtd in Davey D) Schoolly-D’s rhythm on ‘‘P.S.K.’’ became a hallmark of early gangsta rap. In the same interview, Ice-T traces Schoolly-D’s lineage forward to N.W.A’s ‘‘Boyz-NThe Hood,’’ where Eazy-E uses a similar syncopation to the one Ice-T borrowed from Schoolly-D. The influence of Schoolly D and DJ Code Money can also be heard on The Beastie Boys’ seminal rap album Licensed to Ill. The Beastie Boys sample Schoolly’s ‘‘Gucci Time’’ on their ‘‘Time to Get Ill,’’ and use the beat from ‘‘P.S.K. (What Does it Mean?)’’ when they play their song ‘‘The New Style’’ live. Initially, Schoolly D’s records were independent releases. Schoolly handled every aspect of his first two records, 1985’s Schoolly D and 1986’s Saturday Night, including production, distribution, and cover art design. These first two albums were reissued by Jive Records when Schoolly D signed with that label in 1986. Schoolly recorded four more albums for Jive, from 1987’s The Adventures of Schoolly D to 1991’s How a Black Man Feels. More recently, Schoolly has gone on to record the theme song for Cartoon Network’s Aqua Teen Hunger Force, a show for which he also provides narration and voices characters. While Schoolly D was developing the rhyme style that would become a hallmark of gangsta rap, his fellow Philadelphian MC Breeze (Joseph Ellis) earned the distinction of having the first rap song banned from the radio. Like Schoolly D, MC Breeze started his own record label, Breeze Records, and released the Discombobulatorlator EP in 1985, with money he had saved from a job delivering pizzas. With a nasal delivery that lay somewhere between Schoolly D and fellow old-schoolers Slick Rick and Dana Dane, Breeze opened ‘‘Discombobulatorlator’’ with the classic line ‘‘Every day I wake up and eat Cap’n Crunch . . . .’’ A controversial line in the song suggested that Chinese restaurants used dogs and cats in their food, and with tensions running high surrounding the issue of Asian businesses moving into black neighborhoods, Philadelphia’s mayor demanded the song be removed from radio playlists. Before it was banned, ‘‘Discombobulatorlator’’ was receiving over 500 requests per day at Philly’s Power 99 FM (MC

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Breeze Bio). MC Breeze, who went on to sign with MC Hammer’s Bust It Records in 1991, changed his recording name to Joey B. Ellis after Atlantic Records signed another artist named Breeze. On the strength of his Philadelphia roots, Joey B. Ellis recorded three songs for the soundtrack for Rocky V, an installment in the long-running film series about a Philadelphia boxer. One of these songs, ‘‘Go for It,’’ became the number 2 single in Germany. Before he became an international star, though, Breeze extended his fame beyond Philly when he beat New York rapper Just-Ice at the 1987 New Music Seminar, where Philadelphia DJs Cash Money and DJ Jazzy Jeff won the DJ competitions in a three-peat years from 1986 through 1988. At this point in hip hop history, no other city outside of New York was making the contributions that Philly was making to hip hop music.

1986–1990: THE GOLDEN ERA: PHILLY MAKES A NAME FOR ITSELF During the 1980s, Philly MCs and DJs were making a name for themselves at home and in New York City, the birthplace of hip hop music. Philadelphia’s proximity to New York City gave these new artists easy access to clubs in the Bronx, Queens, and Brooklyn, and thus kept Philly connected to the heartbeat of hip hop as an emerging industry. Yet Philadelphia had its own style, slang, and swagger that distinguished it from hip hop in the five boroughs. At the same time Schoolly D was writing the gangsta stories that would influence Ice-T and N.W.A, Philly’s DJs were innovating new techniques that expanded on the groundwork laid by Grandwizzard Theodore and Grandmaster Flash in NYC. Most importantly, Philadelphian DJs and MCs were winning battles against New York’s elite, and nowhere was this more evident than at the hip hop industry’s premier event for up-andcoming artists, the annual New Music Seminar Battle for World Supremacy. In his memoir, Sentences: The Life of MF Grimm, underground rap star MF Grimm relates the story of performing onstage at the 1989 New Music Seminar Battle for World Supremacy: If there was such a thing as the Super Bowl for emcees, it was the annual BATTLE FOR WORLD SUPREMACY. I remember seeing everyone from Treach to the GZA to Master Ace pay their dues at the battle. I knew if I wanted to be considered not only a REAL emcee, but one of the BEST, THIS was where I had to prove it. (51) Early victories in the Battle for World Supremacy by several Philadelphia artists certify the strength of Philly hip hop in the 1980s. Philadelphia DJs had a particularly strong showing, winning the New Music Seminar DJ Battle for World Supremacy three years in a row from 1986 to 1988. In 1986 DJ Jazzy Jeff won the DJ Battle, and he was succeeded in 1987 by his fellow Philadelphian DJ Cash Money, who was succeeded in 1988 by Philly’s DJ Miz. In other Philly showings at

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the 1987 Battle for World Supremacy, MC Breeze defeated Just Ice, and Disco C defeated Kool Keith of the Bronx group Ultramagnetic MCs. DJ Cash Money went on to win the DMC World Championship, another important battle, in 1988. Philadelphia’s DJs repeatedly defeated New York DJs to take home top honors at DMC and the New Music Seminar. DJs had long been at the center of neighborhood crews across Philly. During the 1970s and early 1980s, the DJ was the focus of attention at block parties and live hip hop events, but in the late 1980s, as hip hop took on a larger market share on commercial radio, and with the advent, in 1988, of the popular video program Yo! MTV Raps, the DJ was taking a back seat to the MC, who was becoming the face of rap music on radio and television. Will Smith, the Fresh Prince, had the charm and humor it took to succeed on MTV. Yo! MTV Raps brought hip hop into suburban homes across the country, and the teenage themes of the 1988 hit single ‘‘Parents Just Don’t Understand,’’ by DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince, made for a poppy, accessible hit song. So did their hit ‘‘Girls Ain’t Nothing but Trouble,’’ which sampled the theme song from the television sitcom ‘‘I Dream of Jeanie.’’ When DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince won rap’s first Grammy in 1989, they joined in a boycott of the ceremony along with LL Cool J, Public Enemy, and Salt-N-Pepa. These rappers were upset because the 1989 Grammys was the first to include rap and heavy metal—the metal awards were to be included in the televised portion of the ceremony while the rap awards were not. Although DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince were taking their music nationwide, and worldwide, they remained close to their Philly roots and represented Philadelphia in their songs and music videos. The video for ‘‘I Think I Can Beat Mike Tyson’’ featured Will Smith running up the steps of the Philadelphia Museum of

DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince (Photofest)

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Art, an homage to the film Rocky, which was set in Philly and featured a training montage that popularized running up the art museum steps for generations of tourists to come. Further, they collaborated with fellow Philadelphian Ice Cream Tee on ‘‘Guys Ain’t Nothing but Trouble,’’ an answer record to ‘‘Girls Ain’t Nothing but Trouble.’’ Today, The Fresh Prince (Will Smith) is best known as an actor. In launching his career as a television sitcom actor and then a major motion picture star, Will Smith took hip hop further into the mainstream and brought Philadelphia with him. ‘‘In West Philadelphia, born and raised’’ begins the theme song to the television sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, the series that helped Will Smith make the transition from one half of the Philadelphia rap duo DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince to one of Hollywood’s biggest movie stars. West Philadelphia is home to University City and the main campuses of the University of Pennsylvania and Drexel University, yet West Philadelphia’s two districts are also the most dangerous in the city, with 51 murders in 2006. The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air addressed the dangerous nature of West Philadelphia in the pilot episode, in which Smith’s character, at the insistence of his protective mother, moves from West Philly to his wealthy uncle’s home in a posh Bel-Air neighborhood. Although the series acknowledged Philadelphia’s problems, especially as they faced young black men, it made clear Smith’s devotion to and love of the city that he had called home. The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air ran from 1990 to 1996, and was a fish-out-of-water story that followed Will Smith’s character, Will, as he was sent away from the rough West Philly neighborhood where he grew up to live in safer environs of his rich uncle’s house in L.A. Will Smith was the sitcom’s star, but Jazzy Jeff played a recurring role as Jazz, Will’s friend who was continually ejected from the mansion by Uncle Phil. Throughout its six-year run, the show maintained a focus on Will’s nostalgia for the Philly he left behind. The show launched Will Smith’s career as a Hollywood actor, while DJ Jazzy Jeff turned away from opportunities in L.A.’s music scene to return to Philly and concentrate on production work and his studio, A Touch of Jazz. In 2006, DJ Jazzy Jeff released a comeback album, featuring vocals from Method Man, De La Soul’s Posdnous, and many other rap luminaries. DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince have become synonymous with Philadelphia hip hop in the 1980s and early 1990s, often to the exclusion of their contemporaries who did not see such nationwide success. One recent release, however, is dedicated to preserving the history of those forgotten groups. In 2008, the British group Aroe & The Soundmakers collaborated with DJ Too Tuff and L.A. Kid from the 1980s Philly rap group the Tuff Crew to create a mixtape called The Wreckshop Philly Golden Era Vol. 1. The mixtape is a retrospective collection of songs from 31 different Philadelphia hip hop artists from the 1980s and early 1990s. From the more familiar sounds of The Roots, DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince, and Schoolly D, to the more obscure songs from groups like the Dominating MCs

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and Intellectuals of Rhyme, The Wreckshop provides a comprehensive crosssection of the various sounds to come out of Philly during this golden era. Late 1980s contemporaries of DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince include Steady B, Cool C, Three Times Dope, Larry Larr, Too Brown, Plush Brothers, Prelitique & MC Sweet, Von Love, 3rd Dynasty, Hip City Swingers, Mac Money, Bizzy B, Mobb Sqwad, Baritone Tip Love, Phill Most Chill, Another 1 4 U 2 N V, Rock Hard Delegation, Todd 1, Lightnin’ Lee & Poppy P, Jewel T, Ice Cream Tee, and Tuff Crew—a group made up of DJ Too Tuff, Tone Love, Monty G, Ice Dog, and L.A. Kid. Tuff Crew’s 1987 debut, Phanjam, a collaboration with Camden, New Jersey’s Krown Rulers, featured production work by Ced Gee and Kool Keith, members of the legendary New York group Ultramagnetic MCs. Listeners familiar with Ultramagnetic will hear the similarities in Tuff Crew’s production and rhyme styles, although Tuff Crew brought distinct Philadelphia themes to their music with songs like ‘‘My Part of Town.’’ Just as DJ crews dominated Philadelphia in the early 1980s, MC crews carried forward this tradition of the collective, whether in formal groups such as Tuff Crew or in looser collectives such as The Hilltop Hustlers, which consisted of solo artists like Cool C and Steady B, who recorded for Hilltop Hustlers Records. The Wreckshop includes Cool C’s ‘‘Juice Crew Dis,’’ with which the Philly artist weighed in on the Bronx vs. Queens dis records such as Boogie Down Productions’ ‘‘South Bronx’’ and MC Shan’s ‘‘The Bridge.’’ Bronx artists challenged Queens’s Juice Crew over which New York borough was the true home of hip hop, and Cool C entered the fray from the Philadelphia hotbed of hip hop 100 miles south of New York. Aside from Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince, most of the artists included on The Wreckshop stopped releasing music by 1992. Will Smith was concentrating more on his career in television and film, and The Roots—avatars of the next wave of Philly hip hop—had not yet released their debut album, 1993’s Organix. The early 1990s saw Philadelphia hip hop briefly move out of the limelight it had enjoyed in the 1980s. The hip hop market was changing across the United States: the unprecedented sales achieved by MC Hammer in 1990, and Vanilla Ice in 1991, met with a backlash when a Dallas journalist revealed that Rob ‘‘Vanilla Ice’’ Van Winkle had fabricated his official artist bio to make himself look like he came from a rougher background than he actually did. The reaction against the polished, flashy pop rap of artists like Hammer and Vanilla Ice caused many listeners to turn toward more street-oriented sounds that they associated with hip hop’s origins in impoverished neighborhoods. This shift in sound and style left behind Philly artists like MC Breeze, Ice Cream Tee, and even DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince, who were becoming more known for their sitcom than for being musical innovators. The Fresh Prince’s brand of pop rap was being pushed aside in favor of the grittier sounds of New York groups like Das EFX, and the burgeoning g-funk sound that L.A.’s Dr. Dre had begun to develop on N.W.A’s 1991 album Efil4zaggin and the 1992 single, ‘‘Deep Cover,’’ which

The Sound of Philadelphia | 159 debuted Snoop Dogg and the laid-back Cali-bama rhyme flow that would make him famous. Two Philly groups that did hit the airwaves between 1990 and 1992 were loosely connected with hip hop. The first group, Boyz II Men, was a singing group with hip hop production. In their own words on their song ‘‘Motownphilly,’’ the group describes its sound as ‘‘hip hop smoothed out on the R&B tip, with a pop feel, appeal, to it.’’ They were managed by Michael Bivins (Biv of Bell Biv Devoe), and part of the East Coast Family, along with Bell Biv Devoe and the child rappers Another Bad Creation. The second group, The Goats, were a precursor to the rap-rock styles of Limp Bizkit, who would dominate the airwaves later in the decade. They were a multiethnic group. They were very political. Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar credits their 1992 album Tricks of the Shade as ‘‘one of the most feministoriented hip-hop CDs to date’’ (100). The Goats broke up after their second album, 1994’s No Goats, No Glory. One Goats MC, Maxx Stoyanoff-Williams, moved to Berlin, Germany and released an album under the name Hack Tao, before returning to Philly to record with the group Black Landlord.

1993–1998: THE GREAT ROOTS MOVEMENT 1993 was a turning point for hip hop in Philadelphia; it marked the end of the old school and the emergence of The Roots. Although the lineup of the group has changed over time, the two consistent and most iconic members of the Roots are drummer and producer Questlove (Ahmir Khalib Thompson, born January 20, 1971), and MC Black Thought (Tariq Luqmaan Trotter, born October 3, 1972).

The Roots (Getty Images)

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Both raised in Philadelphia, Questlove and Black Thought met while attending the Philadelphia High School for the Creative and Performing Arts, where Questlove received some formal musical training to add to his years of practice at home. Questlove’s father was a member of the doo-wop band Lee Andrews and the Hearts, and Questlove had gotten an early musical education playing percussion with this band. Black Thought became involved in music at an early age as well; he attended the same elementary school as Beanie Sigel, and the two MCs performed together in their first rap group as youngsters. Before releasing an album in 1993, The Roots began performing on Philadelphia’s South Street (see sidebar: South Street), near the intersection of South and Broad. The Roots are best known for breaking hip hop tradition and its rules of production to create albums, such as their 1993 debut, Organix, without the use of digital sampling technologies. Rather than using the samplers and drum machines that had formed the basis of hip hop production since the 1970s, The Roots featured an MC, Black Thought, backed by a band of live musicians on drums, upright bass, and guitar. In their early days, most of The Roots musicians played acoustic instruments, but they later added keyboards, an electric bass, and various other instruments. Since the late 1990s, the group has increasingly employed the hip hop sampling that they originally eschewed. The Roots debuted in the era of jazz-rap, following the release of Guru’s Jazzmatazz and A Tribe Called Quest’s The Low End Theory, an album which featured jazz musician Ron Carter on bass. Along with other hip hop musicians such as Nashville’s Count Bass D, the Roots were both criticized and applauded for incorporating traditional instrumentation with hip hop. The very approach to making music that drew the critics to their work also alienated hip hop purists who felt that The Roots were moving away from hip hop’s original aesthetic. Since The Roots debuted, however, many other rap artists such as Wyclef Jean, Andre 3000, and Lil Wayne have picked up guitars. Although their organic approach to making music is what first drew the critics’ attention to The Roots, Black Thought’s MC skills cannot be ignored. Veteran MC Masta Ace includes Black Thought in his list of The 24 Most Overlooked MCs in Hip Hop in Greenwood Press’s Icons of Hip Hop: An Encyclopedia of the Movement, Music, and Culture. Ace writes that, ‘‘Thought’s lyrical ability sometimes gets overshadowed and often drowned out by the great Roots movement’’ (605). Black Thought’s skill is perhaps lost in the attention given to the group’s live instrumentation, and the revolving cast of Roots members and collaborators, including Rahzel—a beatboxer who brought back this element of hip hop culture that had been neglected or considered outdated since the mid-1980s—and keyboardist Scott Storch, who went on to become a producer in his own right. The Roots are also notable for their inclusion of women. Bahamadia guest starred on ‘‘Put Your Lighters Up’’ and ‘‘Da Jawn.’’ On the Grammy-winning ‘‘You Got Me,’’ Erykah Badu sang a chorus written by Philadelphian Jill Scott.

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SOUTH STREET Long known as a stronghold of African American businesses, Philadelphia’s South Street is the border between Center City and South Philadelphia. This border plays a key role in neighborhood identity and the history of race relations in Philadelphia, where Center City is a safe enclave from the high rates of violent crime in West Philly, North Philly, and South Philly. The historically Italian South Philadelphia neighborhoods such as Bella Vista, Southwark, and the Italian Market have opened up to more black, Latino, and Asian populations, making the area very ethnically diverse, as is evidenced by the plethora of different food choices around South Street and South Philadelphia. The Italian Market, a few blocks from South Street, now houses Italian cheese shops and bakeries along with Mexican grocery stores, Asian fish markets, and competing cheesesteak spots, including Pat’s and Geno’s. The tension between groups in the area is evidenced by the recent controversy over a sign at Geno’s Cheeseteaks, which reads, ‘‘This is America: When Ordering Please ‘Speak English.’ ’’ South Street is also a musical landmark. Black Thought and Questlove of the Roots played on South Street regularly throughout the 1990s. South Street housed Philadelphia’s now-defunct Tower Records, as well as local record stores Repo Records, and now-defunct Cue Records (one block from South Street on Fourth). Hip hop groups often perform at the Fillmore at the TLA (Theater of Living Arts), a small venue which hosted an exclusive, intimate show from Jay-Z in 2008. Beginning in the 1990s, South Street has emerged as a popular nightlife spot, with new bars, clubs, and restaurants opening among the African hair-braiding shops, occult shops, and reggae record stores. The diversity of businesses along South Street testifies to the power South Street has in bringing groups of people together. In a late 2007 issue of Philadelphia Weekly, Jim Sutcliffe reminisced about his favorite moment in Philadelphia music history: the Roots’ Saturday afternoon shows on South Street in the early 1990s. ‘‘It’s hard to remember that in 1990 hip hop was not ubiquitous like it is today,’’ Sutcliffe wrote. ‘‘It was marginalized, and the Roots just did it so well and then insisted on taking it to the people. All the people: the hip-hop heads, the skate punks, the old hippies, Goths. I can’t remember how long that went on. But that was a moment where you felt like something new, different, and real could happen on the streets of Philadelphia’’ (McManus 21).

REFERENCE McManus, Brian. ‘‘Of Sound Mind: Philly Music Insiders Remember Their Favorite Moments.’’ Philadelphia Weekly, December 26, 2007–January 1, 2008, 20–26.

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Jill Scott grew up in North Philadelphia and began her career as a spoken word artist. Philadelphian and Live Nation Director of Marketing Jim Sutcliffe calls Jill Scott the ‘‘Greatest Philadelphia performer of my generation, hands down.’’ In a late 2007 issue of Philadelphia Weekly, Sutcliffe described Scott’s 2001 twonight hometown shows at the Tower as ‘‘something beyond a normal concert experience, where the relationship between performer and audience is changed. All of a sudden, you’re not in a concert hall or theater—you’re part of something greater. A mini-community is formed for the night, and we’re all going on this poetic, inspiring, soulful, boundary-pushing journey together’’ (McManus, ‘‘Of Sound Mind’’ 24). The Roots continue to be a force in hip hop. 2008’s Rising Down was one of the most anticipated albums of the year.

1999–2008: PHILLY MEETS THE RUFF RYDERS AND ROC-A-FELLA The wealth of rap artists to come out of Philadelphia in the past decade includes a strong contingent from New York’s Roc-a-Fella label, which signed Philadelphians Beanie Sigel, Freeway, Young Gunz, State Property, and O & Sparks. Outside these Roc-A-Fella artists, MCs like Eve, Cassidy, Major Figgas, and Gillie da Kid have risen to the top of Philadelphia’s hip hop scene. Lady B brought hip hop to Philadelphia’s airwaves in the 1980s, and the city’s hip hop scene has supported women MCs and DJs ever since. Eve Jihan Jeffers’ (born November 10, 1978) music career started like so many Philadelphia artists, in high school. Her career started with the all-girl group, Dope Girl Posse, or D.G.P. Shortly after, she joined the all-girl rap group, EDGP (Egypt). Eve’s success as a female MC is paralleled by few . . . Foxy Brown, Lil Kim, and Missy Elliott. Eve has sold more than seven million records. Initially a member of The Ruff Ryders, Eve’s first album, Let There Be Eve . . . Ruff Ryders’ First Lady (1999), entered the charts at #1. Her second album, Scorpion (2001), scored her a # 2 single and a Grammy with ‘‘Let Me Blow Ya Mind’’ featuring Gwen Stefani. Eve’s third ablum, Eve-Olution (2002), peaked at #6 on the Billboard charts, but was considered an overall commercial flop. She has since released two singles, including the hit ‘‘Tambourine’’ (2006), off her highly anticipated album, Here I Am. Jay-Z provided a guest verse for a remix of ‘‘Tambourine’’ that same year. Like Will Smith before her, Eve has had several successful forays into other commercial realms outside music. Her clothing line, ‘‘Fetish,’’ has done well, and she did voice over work for the Spiderman cartoon (2003), and the video game XIII. However, it is her acting career that has garnered her the most attention, outside of music. Eve has appeared in the successful films: XXX (2002), Barbershop (2002), Barbershop 2: Back in Business (2004), The Cookout (2004), and The Woodsman (2005). Further, she starred in her own sitcom, Eve (2003–2006).

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Eve (Lucas Jackson/Reuters/Corbis)

Along with Eve, Philadelphia’s major contingent in mainstream hip hop since 2000 has been the several artists and groups signed to Roc-A-Fella Records, the influential label founded by Damon Dash and Jay-Z that brought new Philadelphia artists into the mainstream. Beanie Sigel (Dwight Grant, born March 6, 1974), aka ‘‘Beans’’ and the ‘‘Broad Street Bully,’’ took his stage name from Sigel Street, the South Philadelphia street where he grew up. Sigel’s consistent legal troubles and frequent incarcerations notwithstanding, he has released four albums in his 10-year career: The Truth (2000), The Reason (2001), The B. Coming (2005), and The Solution (2007). While Roc-A-Fella’s Web site describes the The B. Coming as Sigel’s ‘‘most pondering and lyrically gripping opus,’’ Sigel prefers his most recent album, The Solution, because, ‘‘I give you both sides. In order to find the solution you have to find what the problem is first’’ (DeLuca). Most of the tracks from The Solution were recorded with live musicians, and cover topics such as teen pregnancy, poverty, and crime. With the release of The Solution in 2007, Sigel, one of Philadelphia’s most recognized artists, became the city’s most conflicted and contradictory figure in regards to hip hop’s relationship to crime. Sigel recorded a public service announcement and launched a television campaign to urge Philly’s black youth to stop killing each other. Sigel himself, however, has served jail time and been

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charged with attempted murder (in 2003). Plus, his lyrics call attention to his criminal history, a feature of his music that Sigel links to the fictional stories told in action films and mafia pictures. Sigel claimed that although his own lyrics would seem to promote violence, that his songs are fictional in nature, and should not be heard as his advocating violent crime. Comments from Sigel on BET’s Hip Hop vs. America blog drew the ire of Philadelphia Weekly Music Editor Brian McManus, who pointed out the contradictions between Sigel’s statements that his violent lyrics are fictional in the same vein as films that depict the Italian mafia, and his comments on VH1.com’s Hip Hop vs. America blog, where Sigel wrote that rappers must live out the stories told in their lyrics because fans will investigate their backgrounds and discredit them for telling stories about a violent culture if they didn’t grow up in one. McManus further criticizes Sigel for his hypocrisy in issuing an anti-violence PSA while opening his 2007 album The Solution with the song ‘‘All the Above,’’ in which Sigel boasts, ‘‘Mr. Beat the Case is back!’’ McManus asserts that although Sigel claims that his lyrics are as fictional as a Hollywood screenplay, this line is ‘‘made much more effective when you consider Sigel has, in fact, beaten a real-life case (for attempted murder, no less)’’ (McManus, ‘‘Full Metal Racket’’ 29). During Philadelphia’s Peace Week in 2007, Sigel teamed up with comedian and Philly native Bill Cosby to lead an anti-violence march through the streets of Philadelphia. Visiting North Philadelphia’s Bartram High School with his prote´ge´ Freeway in December 2007, Sigel told the students, ‘‘You know why I call myself gangsta? Cause I go home and do homework with my children.’’ The apparent contradiction between this message and the stories Sigel tells on his albums made the speech a tough sell to the 9th and 10th graders at the assembly (Gregory 9). Sigel’s claim to have turned over a new leaf was further complicated when he violated his parole in traveling to Atlantic City. Although he was sentenced to only one day in prison for the parole violation, it was ironic that Sigel’s crusade against crime ended with his return to prison. Since signing to Roc-A-Fella in 2000, Sigel has promoted State Property, a hip hop group, label, and clothing company he founded. As a group, State Property includes Beanie Sigel, Freeway, the Young Guns (Young Chris and Neef), Peedi Crakk, Oschino, and Omillio Sparks. State Property’s first official release was the 2002, Roc-A-Fella soundtrack to the movie, State Property, starring Sigel, Sparks, Memphis Bleek, and Damon Dash. The album’s gritty nature represents Philadelphia’s rough streets, with the song ‘‘Bitch Niggas’’ following the city’s strong anti-snitching stance. The Chain Gang Vol 2 (Def Jam 2003) is the second, and final State Property album. Beanie Sigel is noticeably absent from the album, as he was incarcerated on a federal weapons charge. There was discord within the band when Sigel planned to move the group to the Damon Dash Music Group following Dash’s split from Roc-A-Fella. The decision went against the other member’s desire to stay on Roc-A-Fella with Jay-Z. Sigel officially disbanded the group in 2005 after the group’s failure to visit him while

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he was in jail. Recently, members of the group have reunited, and are working on a new album, State Property III. Aside from Beanie Sigel, the most visible member of State Property is arguably Freeway (Dexter Collins, born July 8, 1979), who, like Miami’s Rick Ross, took his name from the notorious drug trafficker ‘‘Freeway’’ Ricky Ross. Freeway is known for his long beard, which is in keeping with his Muslim faith. Freeway became a member of the Roc-A-Fella crew in 2000, and made his debut on ‘‘1-900-Hustler’’ from Jay-Z’s album, The Dynasty: Roc La Famillia. Freeway’s discography consists of two albums: Philadelphia Freeway (2003), and Free at Last (2007). He has collaborated with Kanye West, Jay-Z, The Diplomats, Paul Wall, DJ Khaled, and Nelly. Another member of State Property and a group in its own right, Young Gunz is comprised of Young Chris (Christopher F. Ries) and Young Neef (Haneef Muhammad). The rap duo grew up in the northern Philadelphia neighborhood of Nicetown, Chris & Neef sold drugs in an attempt to get their families out of the ghetto. After they decided to become rappers, though they continued to sell drugs on the side. They had garnered the interest of several rap labels by high school, eventually signing to Roc-A-fella records. After several guest appearances on tracks by Jay-Z, Beanie Sigel, Freeway and more, they released their debut album, Tough Luv (2003). The album features the top 20 single, ‘‘Can’t Stop, Won’t Stop,’’ while the album peaked at #3 on the Billboard Hot 100. Young Gunz followed Tough Luv with the less successful album, Brothers from Another (2005). In 2007, Young Chris released a flurry of mixtapes, including Killadelphia: More Bodies than Days and Young Chris-mas. Young Gunz have also created their on label, Young Gunz Media, which released their latest album, Rapid Fire (January 2008). The final members of State Property were Peedi Peedi and O & Sparks (Oschino Vasquez and Omillion Sparks). O& Sparks signed to Roc-A-Fella in 1999, but have since broken up and left Roc-A-Fella. Vasquez has collaborated with Jay-Z, Jadakiss, Kanye West, Just Blaze, and Timbaland, and is currently unsigned. Omillion Sparks is CEO of Colossal Entertainment under the Koch Records imprint. He released his solo debut album, The Payback, on August 28, 2007. Peedi Peedi (Pedro Zayas, born September 25, 1978), formerly known as Peedi Crakk, was another member of State Property. Peedi’s debut single, ‘‘One for Peedi,’’ was featured on the 2002 Paid in Full soundtrack. Peedi’s career has been limited by legal trouble, including a weapons charge in 2002. Recently, he has completed his debut album, and is due out mid-2008. However, Peedi was recently dropped from RocA-Fella, which may delay the album’s release. Outside of the Roc-A-Fella and State Property contingents, one of Philly’s most visible stars is Cassidy (born Barry Adrian Reese on July 7, 1982), who started rapping in Philadelphia at the age of 13. Known for his 2006 hit ‘‘I’m a Hustla,’’ in which he sampled Jay-Z’s voice and mimicked Jay’s line ‘‘you made it a hot line, I made it a hot song.’’ Jay originally used this line to dis his then-rival Nas,

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but Cassidy effectively redirected Jay’s own dis back at himself. In 2004, Cassidy released his first album, Split Personality, which debuted at #2 on the Billboard 200. The lead single, ‘‘Hotel,’’ featured R Kelly. The song was a top 10 hit, and Cassidy went on to be nominated for ‘‘Lyricist of the Year’’ at the Source Awards. Cassidy’s second album, I’m a Hustla, reached #5 on the Billboard Hot Rap Tracks. The ringtone, ‘‘I’m a Hustla,’’ was one of the first to be certified platinum. The second single, ‘‘The Message,’’ was released as charity to support the Millions More Movement, a coalition lead by Minister Louis Farrakhan. Cassidy’s third album, B.A.R.S. The Barry Adrian Reese Story, featured the hit single ‘‘My Drink N’ My 2 Step.’’ The album reached #10 on the Billboard 200. Cassidy’s personal life has been filled with strife. He was arrested on June 8, 2005 for a murder that occurred in the Philadelphia neighborhood, West Oak Lane. Cassidy was eventually convicted of involuntary manslaughter and two counts of aggravated assault. He served 15 months in the Curran-Fromhold Correctional Facility. Cassidy was also seriously injured on October 5, 2006, when a large truck collided with his SUV. He suffered a fractured skull, and several broken bones. Although he has not reached Cassidy’s level of mainstream success, fellow Philadelphian Gillie da Kid’s career has also been overshadowed by his personal struggles. Gillie (Sar’d Nasir) has been arrested multiple times, one instance involving almost one million dollars in seized marijuana. He was also shot three times (twice in the arms, once in the leg) while exiting his vehicle on June 12, 2007. Gillie is perhaps best known not for his music, but for his claim to have ghostwritten lyrics for the rap superstar Lil Wayne. Gillie was originally signed to Cash Money Records, but he left the label due to alleged publishing and payment issues. His claim has been vehemently denied by Wayne and Cash Money, most famously on 2007’s Da Drought 3 (on ‘‘I Can’t Feel My Face,’’ Wayne refers to a ‘‘shirt softer than Gillie’’), and in a BET Rap City Basement freestyle in which Lil Wayne rhymed, ‘‘I don’t have time to deal with Willie the Squid.’’ Along with his solo releases, Gillie also records as a member of the North Philadelphia group, Major Figgas, which originally consisted of Gillie da Kid and Bumpy Johnson rapping together while enrolled at Cabrini College. Members slowly started joining the group, first Dutch and Spade, followed by Ab Liva, The 1st Lady Bianca, and Lil Ruckie. The group released a series of mix tapes, which brought them major label attention. However, Major Figgas chose to release their debut album, Figgas 4 Life (1999), independently. Shortly afterward, the album was remixed and re-released by RuffNation Records. In 2000, the group had their first and only hit, ‘‘Yeah That’s Us.’’ In 2008, Gillie Da Kid released King of Philly on his own label, Figga 4 Life Entertainment, and released the single and music video ‘‘Get Down on da Ground.’’ The song samples dialogue from the 1987 Coen brothers film Raising Arizona, creating a memorable hook that Gillie blends into his verses, letting the sampled dialogue finish his lines and creating multiple contexts for the sampled line ‘‘Get down on the ground.’’ The song was produced by Philly’s Barry ‘‘Slim’’

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THE UNDERGROUND SOUND OF PHILADELPHIA Although Cassidy, Eve, Beanie Sigel, Young Gunz, and the other Roc-A-Fella groups from Philadelphia have achieved more mainstream attention, Philly is also home to a thriving underground hip hop scene. Hip hop lives in Philadelphia, in small venues such as Silk City, Fluid, the M-Room, Johnny Brenda’s, and the Kyber. Philadelphia’s underground scene includes Last Emperor, the selfproclaimed ‘‘underground rapper who lives in a Hobbit hole’’ (on Pack FM’s ‘‘Complex Simplicity’’). Last Emperor has recorded tracks with rap luminaries such as RZA, Cocoa Brovaz, and Da Beatminerz, and appears with KRS-One and Zach De La Rocha of Rage Against the Machine on ‘‘C.I.A (Criminals in

URBAN X-PRESSIONS The long-running hip hop television show Urban X-pressions deserves credit for exposing Philadelphians to new hip hop artists, both local and national, over the past 15 years. Hosted by comedian Keith from up da Block, the show features a mix of exclusive live performances, open mic competitions, profiles of area artists, and interviews with hip hop stars, athletes, politicians, and film actors. Broadcast across the Delaware Valley, Urban X-Pressions is a vital part of the broader hip hop community surrounding Philadelphia. Although the show travels to cover events such as The Million Women March, it maintains rooted in the local music scene, and provides exposure to hip hop artists in Philly and Delaware, as well as Trenton and Camden, New Jersey, and other suburbs. The show is also known for its dedication to youth outreach. Producer Shelly Williams founded X-pressions, Inc., a mentoring program that brings local teens into the Urban X-Pressions studio to experience working in TV production. The show also sponsors a ‘‘Teen Talk’’ segment, educational public service announcements, and tours of area high schools and middle schools. In 2007, Urban X-pressions developed and produced a spin-off show, Club UX, a dance show with teenage hosts. Urban X-pressions began broadcasting in April 1993 on WGTW TV 48, and held the same 11:30–1:00 AM time slot for 11 years, until the show moved to WYBE TV 35, where it currently airs twice a week: Wednesday nights from 12:30 AM to 1:30 AM and Saturday afternoons from 2 to 3 PM.

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Action)’’ on the Rawkus Records Compilation Soundbombing. Other new artists include Hezekiah, 84, Joey Jihad, Dave Ghetto (from across the river in Camden, New Jersey), Writtenhouse, and Reef the Lost Cauze. Reef’s 2005 album Feast or Famine runs the gamut from a dis against the nerdrap of white artists like MC Paul Barman and Deuce Leader, to ‘‘How to Lose Your Mind,’’ a humorous story of what happens when Reef’s character drops out of college and is forced to move back in with his mother. Although Kanye West’s College Dropout was a bigger hit, Reef’s ‘‘How You Lose Your Mind’’ also addresses the repercussions of dropping out of college. ‘‘Eyes of my Father’’ revises the typical hip hop ‘‘cliche´, Daddy, I miss you songs’’ as recorded by rap luminaries from Tupac to Jay-Z. Reef is at the center of the current hip hop scene in Philly. Aside from his solo releases, he has recorded with the group Army of the Pharaohs and belongs to the collective Juju Mob, along with Chief Kamachi. Philly has been home to hip hop collectives since the 1980s and the reign of neighborhood DJ crews, such as the Network Crew and DJ Master Vik and the Super MCs. Groups like the Hilltop Hustlers and Tuff Crew ruled Philly in the 1980s, and more recent groups like State Property extend this tradition. In 2008, underground crews like Juju Mob, Skratch Makanics, Illvibe Collective, and the supergroup Army of the Pharoahs provide a support system to MCs and DJs trying to forge a career in rap music. Such crews and collectives are central to hip hop, from Brooklyn’s Boot Camp Clik to Staten Island’s Wu-Tang Clan to the Twin Cities’ Headshots collective. On ‘‘Rock Co. Kane Flow,’’ De La Soul calls out the ‘‘camps and cliques, units, squads, crews, and clans’’ that imbue hip hop with a team mentality. In the current underground scene in Philly, the mega-collective Army of the Pharaohs includes the group Jedi Mind Tricks, along with Chief Kamachi, Reef the Lost Cauze, Doap Nixon, Outerspace, Celph Titled, and former member Virtuoso. Philly’s DJ scene remains vital as well. In 2008, for the inaugural issue of Two One Five Magazine, contributor Adam Garcia conducted a roundtable discussion with several of Philly’s most recognized DJs. Hollertronix is a combination of Diplo and Low Budget, who made their name by combining several unlikely genres of music, including a wide range of international music, into their Hollertronix mixtapes and parties. The wealth of underground artists in the current Philadelphia scene indicates that hip hop is far from dead in the City of Brotherly Love. In hip hop, ‘‘underground’’ is more of a stylistic designation, and is not synonymous with local and unheard-of outside of Philly. In 2007, Hezekiah debuted a video on MTV, and in 2008, Philly’s hip hop scene received international attention on at least three albums. Along with London’s Aero and the Soundmen, who released The Wreckshop Philly Golden Era Vol. 1, the Brooklyn-to-Philly transplant Traum Diggs released The Essential Traum Diggs Mixtape, produced by DJ Knew Rulz in London. And in what may be the greatest testament to the future of Philadelphia hip hop, the German production team The Snow Goons traveled to Philadelphia to record with local MCs Reef the Lost Cauze, Chief Kamachi, Equinox, and Maylay

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BACK2BASICS Back2Basics is a popular and long-standing event in the Philadelphia club scene. Founded by DJs King Britt and Dozia, Back2Basics began in 1990, running two nights a week: Monday featured a DJ and live band, and Saturday featured DJs. King Britt founded Back2Basics at Silk City, a club on Spring Garden Street, in 1990, while he was working at Tower Records, playing at another event called Vagabond, and taking classes at Temple University. Back2Basics became so successful that Britt dropped out of Temple, quit his day job, and turned down rapper Butterfly’s (Ishmael Butler) request to join his group Digable Planets, which included the Philadelphia rapper Craig ‘‘Doodlebug’’ Irving, as well as Ladybug Mecca (Mary Ann Vieria), from Washington D.C. Butterfly himself hailed from Seattle, making Digable Planets one of the first rap groups made up of musicians from multiple cities. Butler was persistent in his pursuit of King Britt. Digable Planets was signed to a major label and he wanted King Britt in the group. Britt relented and joined Digable Planets, taking on the name Silkworm to fit with the insect-themed stage names of his new bandmates. Digable Planets went on to tour internationally, win a Grammy award for their 1993 debut album Reachin’ (A New Refutation of Time and Space), and reach number 15 on the Billboard singles chart with their song ‘‘Rebirth of Slick (Cool Like Dat).’’ The group broke up shortly after the release of its 1994 sophomore album, Blowout Comb. King Britt returned to Philadelphia and kept his Back2Basics party running until 2000. In 2007, after a long hiatus, Back2Basics started back up on Monday nights at Silk City.

Sparks. Much of the album was recorded by the Philly-area producer Stress at Chop Shop Studio in the suburb of Langhorne, Pennsylvania, and at Found Sound Recording in Philly. With this international attention to the past, present, and future of Philadelphia hip hop, Philly’s legacy is ensured.

REFERENCES Anastasia, George. ‘‘The Takedown of Ace Capone.’’ Philadelphia Inquirer. November 10, 2007. http://www.philly.com/inquirer/special/20071110_The _Takedown_of_Ace_Capone.html (accessed August 11, 2008). Assefa, Hizkias, and Paul Wahrhaftig. The MOVE Crisis in Philadelphia: Extremist Groups and Conflict Resolution. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990. Carey, Percy, and Ronald Wimberly. Sentences: The Life of MF Grimm. New York: DC Comics, 2007.

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Carter, Angela. ‘‘Touch and Go: How DJ Jazzy Jeff’s Studio Spawned a Musical Legacy.’’ Two One Five Magazine 1, no. 2 (2008): 15–20. Countryman, Matthew J. Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006. Davey D. ‘‘Ice T Speaks.’’ Davey D’s Ultimate Interview Directory. Davey D with eLine Productions. http://www.daveyd.com/iceprops.html (accessed June 7, 2008). DeLuca, Dan. ‘‘Beanie Sigel Says He Has ‘The Solution’ for Hip-Hop.’’ Pop Matters, December 13, 2007. http://www.popmatters.com/pm/news/article/52043/ beanie-sigel-says-he-has-the-solution-for-hip-hop/ (accessed August 2, 2008). Devereaux, Andrew. ‘‘ ‘What Chew Know About Down the Hill?’: Baltimore Club Music, Subgenre Crossover, and the New Subcultural Capital of Race and Space.’’ Journal of Popular Music Studies 19, no. 4 (2007): 311–41. Du Bois, W. E. B. The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1899. Feffer, Andrew. ‘‘Show Down in Center City: Staging Redevelopment and Citizenship in Bicentennial Philadelphia, 1974–1977.’’ Journal of Urban History 30, no. 6 (September 2004): 791–825. Forman, Murray. The ’Hood Comes First: Race, Space, and Place in Rap and HipHop. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2002. Garcia, Adam. ‘‘Top Spin: The DJ Roundtable Raw Interview.’’ Two One Five Magazine 1, no. 2: 32–39. Garcia, Bobbito. ‘‘Hip Hop Radio.’’ Vibe History of Hip-hop, edited by Alan Light, 72–73. New York: Vibe, 1999. Gould, Harry. ‘‘Black Museum Assailed; Racism Charged.’’ Philadelphia Inquirer, February 14, 1975, 1B. Gregory, Kia. ‘‘Peace Out: Rapper’s Antiviolence Message Gets Lost at Bartram.’’ Philadelphia Weekly, January 2–8, 2008, 9. Haegele, Katie. ‘‘No Rooftop Was Safe.’’ Philadelphia Weekly, October 24, 2001. http://www.philadelphiaweekly.com/view.php?id=730 (accessed April 7, 2008). King Britt. ‘‘A Brief Personal History: King Britt.’’ Two One Five Magazine 1, no. 2 (2008): 40–41. Marshall, Wayne. ‘‘Giving up Hip-Hop’s Firstborn: A Quest for the Real after the Death of Sampling.’’ Callaloo 29, no. 3 (2006): 868–92. Masta Ace. ‘‘Afterword: The Twenty-Four Most Overlooked MCs in Hip Hop.’’ In Icons of Hip Hop: An Encyclopedia of the Movement, Music, and Culture, edited by Mickey Hess, 603–7. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2007. MC Breeze Bio. http://www.mcbreeze.com/breezebio.html (accessed April 7, 2008). McManus, Brian. ‘‘Full Metal Racket: Beanie Sigel, Actor for the Ages.’’ Philadelphia Weekly, December 19–25, 2007, 29.

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———. ‘‘Of Sound Mind: Philly Music Insiders Remember Their Favorite Moments.’’ Philadelphia Weekly, December 26, 2007–January 1, 2008, 20–26. Mural Arts Program. http://www.muralarts.org/. (accessed September 7, 2008). Ogbar, Jeffrey O. G. Hip-Hop Revolution: The Culture and Politics of Rap. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007. ‘‘Philadelphia, Graffiti Capital of the World.’’ New York Times, July 25, 1971, 31:3. Pray, Doug, Dir. Infamy. Perf. Enem, Claw, Joe Connolly. 1171 Production Company, 2005. Reeves, Marcus. ‘‘Regional Scenes.’’ In Vibe History of Hip-hop, edited by Alan Light, 217–27. New York: Vibe, 1999. Roberts, John W. From Hucklebuck to Hip-Hop: Social Dance in the African American Community in Philadelphia. Philadelphia: Odunde, 1995. Spady. ‘‘Interview with DJ Jazzy Jeff.’’ http://www.jazzyjefffreshprince.com/interviews/dj-jazzy-jeff/spady-interview.htm (accessed April 7, 2008).

FURTHER RESOURCES Abrahams, Roger D. Deep Down in the Jungle: Negro Narrative Folklore from the Streets of Philadelphia. Chicago: Adline Publishing Company, 1973. Spady, James, Stefan Dupres, and Charles Lee. Twisted Tales in the Hip Hop Streets of Philly. Philadelphia: Black History Museum Umum/Loh, 1995.

WEB SITES http://www.215hiphop.com http://www.215hiphop.com http://www.illvibe.net http://www.mcbreeze.com http://www.okayplayer.com http://www.phillyhiphop.com http://www.readyrockc.moonfruit.com http://www.thelastemp.com

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY Army of the Pharaohs The Torture Papers. Babygrande, 2006. Ritual of Battle. Babygrande, 2007. Aroe & The Soundmakers The Wreckshop Philly Golden Era Vol. 1. Sleeping Giants, 2008.

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Bahamadia Kollage. Chrysalis, 1996. BB Queen. Good Vibe, 2000. Good Rap Music. REECE, 2007. Beanie Sigel The Truth. Roc-A-Fella, 2000. The Reason. Roc-A-Fella, 2001. The B. Coming. Def Jam, 2005. The Solution. Def Jam, 2007. Black Landlord Munf ta Munf Lease. Black Landlord, 2008. Cash Money and Marvelous Where’s the Party At? Traffic/Sleeping Bag, 1988. Cassidy Split Personality. J-Records, 2004. I’m a Hustla. Full Surface, 2005. B.A.R.S. The Barry Adrian Reese Story. RCA, 2007. C.E.B (Steady B, Cool C, and Ultimate Eaze) Countin’ Endless Bank. Ruffouse, 1993. Chief Kamachi Cult Status. Eastern Conference, 2004. Black Candles. Eastern Conference, 2005. Concrete Gospel. Babygrande, 2006. Cool C I Gotta Habit. Atlantic, 1989. Life in the Ghetto. Atlantic, 1990. DJ Jazzy Jeff The Magnificent. Rapster, 2002. The Return of the Magnificent. Rapster, 2007. DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince Rock the House. Word-Up/Jive/Zomba, 1987. He’s the DJ, I’m the Rapper. Jive/Zomba, 1988. And in this Corner . . . . Jive/Zomba, 1989. Homebase. Jive/Zomba, 1991. Code Red. Jive/Zomba, 1993. Before the Willennium. BMG, 2000. Don Juan ‘‘The Prime Minister.’’ Concrete, 1987. Eve Let There be Eve . . . Ruff Ryders First Lady. Ruff Ryders/Interscope, 1999. Scorpion. Ruff Ryders/Interscope, 2001.

The Sound of Philadelphia Eve-Olution. Ruff Ryders/Interscope/Aftermath, 2002. Here I am. Geffen, 2008. Freeway Philadelphia Freeway. Roc-A-Fella, 2003. Free at Last. G-Unit/Roc-A-Fella/Def Jam, 2007. The Goats Tricks of the Shade. Sony, 1992. No Goats, No Glory. Sony, 1994. Ice Cream Tee Can’t Hold Back. Strong City, 1989. Jedi Mind Tricks The Psycho-Social, Chemical, Biological & Electro-Magnetic Manipulation of Human Consciousness. Superegular, 1998. Violent by Design. Superegular, 2000. Visions of Gandhi. Babygrande, 2003. Legacy of Blood. Babygrande, 2004. Servants in Heaven, Kings in Hell. Babygrande, 2006. Jill Scott Who Is Jill Scott? Words and Sounds Vol. 1. Neo Soul, 2000. Experience: Jill Scott 826+. Hidden Beach, 2001. Beautifully Human: Words and Sounds Vol. 2. Hidden Beach, 2004. The Real Thing: Words and Sounds Vol. 3. Hidden Beach, 2007. Jocko Henderson ‘‘Rhythm Talk.’’ Philadelphia International Records, 1979. Krown Rulers (from Camden, NJ) Paper Chase. Warlock, 1988. Lady B ‘‘To the Beat, Ya’ll.’’ Tec Records, 1979. Larry Larr Da Wizzard of Odds. Ruff House, 1991. Last Emperor Music, Magic, Myth. Raptivism, 2003. Palace of the Pretender. Penalty, 2004. MC Breeze aka Joey B. Ellis MC Breeze. Discombobulatorbubalator (EP). Breeze Records, 1985. Joey B. Ellis. ‘‘All You Gotta Do Is Sing.’’ Rocky V Soundtrack. Universal, 1990. Joey B. Ellis. ‘‘Go for It! (Heart and Fire!)’’ Rocky V Soundtrack. Universal, 1990. Monie Love Down to Earth. 1990.

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In a Word or 2. 1993. Slice of da Pie EP. 2000. Omillion Sparks The Payback. Colossal, 2007. Reef the Lost Cauze The High Life. 2001. Invisible Empire. Gladiator Films, 2003. Feast or Famine. Good Hands/Eastern Conference, 2005. The Roots Organix. Remedy, 1993. Do You Want More?!!!??!. DGC, 1994. Illadelph Half Life. DCG, 1996. Things Fall Apart. MCA, 1999. The Roots Come Alive. MCA, 1999. Phrenology. MCA, 2002 Game Theory. Def Jam, 2006. Rising Down. Def Jam, 2008. Schoolly D Schoolly D. Schoolly D Records, 1985. Saturday Night! The Album. Schoolly D Records/Jive, 1986. The Adventures of Schoolly D. Jive, 1987. Smoke Some Kill. Jive, 1988. Am I Black Enough for You? Jive, 1989. How a Black Man Feels. Jive, 1991. Shape of Broad Minds Craft of the Lost Art. Lex, 2007. Snow Goons Black Snow. Babygrande, 2008. Steady B Bring the Beat Back. Jive, 1986. What’s My Name? Jive, 1987. Let the Hustlers Play. Jive, 1988. Going Steady. Jive, 1989. Steady B V. Jive, 1991. Three Times Dope Original Stylin’. Arista, 1988. Too Brown Takin’ No Shorts. Vibe, 1989. Traum Diggs The Essential Traum Diggs Mixtape. 623 Entertainment, 2008. Tuff Crew Phanjam. Soo Def, 1987.

The Sound of Philadelphia Danger Zone. Warlock, 1988. Back to Wreck Shop. Warlock, 1989. Still Dangerous. Warlock, 1991. Will Smith Big Willie Style. Columbia, 1997. Men in Black Soundtrack. Columbia, 1997. Willennium. Columbia, 1999. Born to Reign. Columbia, 2002. Lost and Found. Interscope, 2005.

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CHAPTER 8 The Bricks and Beyond: Hip Hop in Newark and Northern New Jersey Andrea Roberts ‘‘Represent . . . Represent,’’ proclaimed Nas on his debut album, Illmatic (1994). It is impossible to be a hip hop artist without representing the place you call home, and being from the small state of New Jersey means you had better represent big. Newark, New Jersey has long held its own stable of hip hop talent, but being so close to New York City, the Mecca of Hip Hop, Newark has been overshadowed. Newark, the state of New Jersey’s largest city, has a story to tell that oozes crime, poverty, struggle, gangs, political corruption, murder, and the desire to overcome these conditions, which permeate the lyrics of many rap artists from Newark and its surrounding cities. Whether you are representing Newark (aka Brick City), Irvington (aka Hooterville), or East Orange (aka Illtown), you still represent Newark. The spotlight on the city of Newark has not always been a pleasant one, from the near destruction of the city during the riots of 1967, to Newark’s title of stolen car capital of the world, to surviving a corrupt city hall, with the former mayor Sharpe James being convicted of fraud, to the 2007 shooting of four college students in Newark. With these social conditions, any artist from Newark has plenty of material for their work. Newark has a swagger and a style that separates it from any city out there, including its neighbors in New York. Newark has experienced many changes, positive and negative, that are a part of this city’s rich history. Newark’s ongoing metamorphosis has not been an easy one. Several decades ago, as Newark continued to evolve and attracted more African Americans, the racial composition of Brick City changed drastically (see sidebar: Brick City). Kevin Mumford, in his book, Newark. A History of Race, Rights, and Riots in America, addresses this change, stating that ‘‘in every major city undergoing renewal particularly in the transitional areas of racial diversity, many whites had already fled to the all-white suburbs’’ (55). Much of Newark’s white population (specifically a large Jewish and Italian segment) fled from the city of Newark to the neighboring suburbs of West Orange, South Orange, and Livingston; these cities remain predominately white in 2009. 177

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BRICK CITY Most cities boast a nickname. Anyone from Illinois, for example, knows that ‘‘Chi-town’’ could only be Chicago. Philadelphia, previously known as the ‘‘City of Brotherly Love,’’or simply Philly, has now been renamed ‘‘Killadelphia’’ due to the increasing murder rate. Atlanta, Georgia has several nicknames, but is most commonly identified as A-town or ATL. Newark has always been known as ‘‘Brick City’’; however, the meaning behind the name depends on which Newark native you talk to. Older historians indicate that Brick City refers to a large segment of the downtown business area that was formed by towering buildings made of bricks (Cummings). Other historians imply the name is due to the original streets of Newark that were paved with actual bricks. Younger Newark residents on the other hand, like Newark DJ DATKID, insist that Brick City refers to Newark’s style. ‘‘It’s brick, hard, gritty, grimy,’’ DATKID told me during an interview for Hip Hop in America: A Regional Guide. ‘‘It’s represented in the walk, the talk, and the we don’t give a fuck attitude about anything.’’ Others believe Brick City could also refer to the toughness and hardness that encompasses the city represented by several brick housing projects (i.e., Prince Street Projects) which have now been replaced by affordable townhomes in an effort to change the image of Newark (Jones).

REFERENCES Cummings, Charles F. ‘‘Gateway? Renaissance? A Reviving City Earns Its Nicknames.’’ Starledger.com, December 8, 2005 (accessed September 2008). Jones, Charisse. ‘‘Years Later, Lessons from Newark Riots to Be Learned.’’ USA TODAY, November 19, 2006.

By 1967, the white population in Newark had plummeted to approximately 158,000 from 363,000 in 1950 and 266,000 in 1960 (Herman). As quickly as the whites left the city, the African American population skyrocketed. Between 1940 and 1970 the black population increased from 45,760 to 207,458, from less than 20 percent to more than 50 percent (Mumford 3). The new residents of Newark had become fed up with police brutality, political exclusion, urban renewal, inadequate housing, unemployment, poverty, and rapid change in the racial composition of neighborhoods (Herman). The Newark Riots of 1967 were sparked by the police arrest and beating of a black cab driver, stoking the anger of many African Americans (Jones). Linda Caldwell Epps, president of the New Jersey Historical Society, believes that ‘‘all American cities have had to struggle to regain their

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footing after that time, and people don’t want to revisit that; it’s an unhappy part of our history’’ (qtd in Jones). Even after the riots, the city of Newark was determined to rebound, especially under the guidance, decades later, of Mayor Sharpe James. Sharpe James took office in 1986 and sought to revamp the city’s reputation. During his 20 years in office he can be credited with the creation of new homes throughout the city, the culmination of the NJ Performing Arts Center, and prior to his departure from office (and his 2008 incarceration) he laid the ground work for the Prudential Center. James was as controversial as he was politically astute. While the world watched in disbelief as Newark gained notoriety as the stolen car capital of the world, Sharpe James was determined to protect the image of Newark, by barring director Nick Gomez from filming 1995’s New Jersey Drive in the city of Newark. Gomez’s film highlighted the troubled city and placed emphasis on a problem that plagued the city and tragically ended many innocent lives. Chief spokeswoman Pamela E. Goldstein echoed James’ sentiment as she told Clifford Levy of the New York Times, ‘‘Over my dead body will they film this in Newark.’’ Perhaps the reason for rejecting the filming, ‘‘despite the money it might have pumped into the limping local economy,’’ could have been because the storyline was based loosely on a real life case. According to Levy, Newark teenager Howard Caesar was shot and seriously wounded in a confrontation with officers in 1992 after parking a stolen car. One officer was convicted of aggravated assault. Surprisingly, Sharpe James chose not to run again for mayor in 2006, and the residents of Newark spoke out loud and clear that they wanted and needed a change. In a voting landslide the city residents elected Cory A. Booker (whom James had defeated in the previous election). As Booker took the reigns of the city projecting his new ideas to turn the city around, Newark was rocked by the senseless shootings of four college students. Tragically, three died, and one survived with serious injuries. In the wake of this tragedy Mayor Booker announced that, ‘‘the victims were Newark success stories; this breaks the heart of our city and we must all come together’’ (qtd in Collins). Hip hop artists from Newark and surrounding cities draw from the area’s rich history, as well as the social problems that continue to plague this section of New Jersey. The following artist profiles, while far from comprehensive, provide a cross-section of the mainstream and underground icons of hip hop in Newark, East Orange, and Irvington, New Jersey.

ARTIST PROFILES Redman During the 1990s, as the beef between the East and West Coasts exploded, Newark’s Redman (born Reggie Noble 4/17/1970) claimed his spot in the rap game and fed us with his comedic, raw lyrics over banging beats. He didn’t join in the

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Redman (Carl Posey/Corbis)

attack on the West, but he made the East proud. He is private and keeps a low profile—Redman explains to The Source, ‘‘I don’t need a lot and I don’t expect a lot.’’ This formula works. Despite the content of his lyrics, which often highlight drug use and running with a crew that can cause damage (‘‘the PPP keep they fingers on the trigger’’), Vibe magazine notes that he hasn’t made news for run-ins with the law or spats with other rappers. Redman, aka Funk Doctor Spock, was born and raised in Newark, New Jersey. He has never achieved mainstream success equal to that of some of his Jersey peers such as Queen Latifah and Naughty by Nature, but he doesn’t care. In fact, he devotes a song, 1998’s ‘‘I Don’t Kare,’’ to saying just that in response to the material wealth shown off by other rappers: ‘‘You got a Benz and a Range? I don’t care.’’ ‘‘He doesn’t judge his worth by his heavy rotation on MTV or his commercial success’’ (Sanchez). In a Vibe interview Redman claims that he ‘‘only seeks the approval of the streets . . . the streets will always let you know.’’ Redman started from humble beginnings but always credited ‘‘Da Bricks’’ for his character. Redman was discovered by the now defunct New York group EPMD, who showcased the Newark MC on their songs ‘‘Hardcore’’ and ‘‘Brothers on my Jock’’ in 1991. Seven years later, Redman, Eric Sermon, and Keith Murray would form the short-lived group Def Squad, releasing an album, El Nin˜o, in 1998.

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DATKID remembers Redman ‘‘starting out as a DJ around 1989–1990, but later moving to New York briefly after being discovered by EPMD. At that time Redman was looking for his own DJ.’’ The intensity and creativity with which he flows has always remained constant. From his debut Whut? Thee Album to his present releases you can count on Redman for that same energy. DATKID refers to ‘‘the background sounds . . . the screaming and laughing, giving that same Jersey energy.’’ Redman credits a college creative writing teacher for encouraging him to develop his own style (Sanchez). Even though he did not earn a college degree before dropping out of Montclair State College (now Montclair University) he pokes fun at himself in ‘‘Green Island’’ a song from his sophomore release, Dare Iz a Darkside, announcing that he has ‘‘a degree in physics on how high I can get.’’ Redman further celebrates marijuana on the songs ‘‘How to Roll a Blunt’’ and ‘‘Jersey, Yo!’’ His marijuana use caused a rift at home and subsequently caused his mother to kick him out of the house (Sanchez). The only other thing that appears as consistently as weed in Redman’s lyrics is his beloved city of Newark; he makes references throughout several songs, such as ‘‘Welcome to the Bricks’’ and ‘‘Brick City Mashin’.’’ His lyrics create a vivid and accurate account of his hometown; from the weed spots on Hawthorne Ave. to the stolen cars riding up and down Avon Ave. He captures you with lines like ‘‘I’m from N to the E W-A-R-K, Newark NJ . . . got the AK . . . .’’ Nothing is off limits to Redman, not even the train service out of Newark. On ‘‘Green Island’’ (Dare Iz a Darkside) he brags that ‘‘my style flows local like NJ Transit.’’ Over the years Redman has continued to expand his loyal fan base. He continues to tour locally and abroad with Method Man (Clifford Sparks) of Staten Island’s Wu-Tang Clan. These two have remained close since their early collaborations which include the album Blackout (1999.) They went on to the big screen and Redman costarred with Meth in a modern day Cheech and Chong marijuana comedy, How High. For someone who keeps a low profile, Redman is not only featured on a variety of songs with many other artists including Wyclef Jean, Snoop Dogg, Scarface, Gorillaz, 2Pac, Jodeci, De La Soul, and KRS-One, he has expanded to television along with Method Man and had a short-lived show, Method and Red on Fox during the 2004–2005 season. He also can be seen and heard on the video games Def Jam Vendetta and True Crime: New York City. He continues to blaze (with weed and rhymes) on mix tapes and shows no signs of slowing down on the latest Method Man and Redman album, Blackout 2 (2009).

Queen Latifah Queen Latifah (born Dana Owens March 18, 1970) is Newark’s first lady, exhibiting that Brick City hustle mentality. She had a vision and allowed nothing to get in her way. Of course her road to fame had a few more obstacles to clear than her male peers, but that did not stop her. Latifah, which is Arabic for ‘‘delicate’’ and ‘‘sensitive,’’ was a name given to her by a Muslim cousin. She added ‘‘Queen’’

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Queen Latifah (Michael Ochs Archives/ Getty Images)

as a reflection of who she is. In her earlier days Latifah was just as musically diverse then as she is now. She was actually singing before she began rapping. Latifah began singing at Shiloh Baptist Church in Bloomfield, New Jersey before being captivated by rap music in high school. At Irvington High, Latifah and her two best friends, Tangy B and Landy B, formed a group called Ladies Fresh. The group eventually changed their name to Flavor Unit. DJ Mark the 45 King (Mark James) heard about the group and shopped their demo to Tommy Boy, who were only interested in signing Latifah. By the time her single ‘‘Wrath of My Madness’’ was released she was attending Manhattan Community College. The song was extremely successful and the release of her 1988 debut album All Hail the Queen led to a European tour. ‘‘Wrath of My Madness’’ and ‘‘Princess of the Posse,’’ with their hypnotic basslines, focused on the strong, no nonsense image Latifah portrayed in her appearance and her lyrics. Latifah did not allow herself to be pigeonholed. She took control of everything from her appearance to her rhymes. For years she sported her trade mark queen’s crown. As an artist she was one of the few female emcees of that period whose rhymes were not laced with foul language and sexually explicit lyrics. In Wrath of My Madness she summed up the fact that she was what the rap game needed: you’ve been beggin’ ‘n’ dyin’ For somebody’s rhymin’

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Other rappers, out of respect, have used Latifah’s rhymes in songs of their own. Yo-Yo, a West Coast female rapper, used a line from ‘‘Wrath of my Madness,’’ ‘‘don’t try to play me out,’’ as the hook on her 1990 debut single ‘‘You Can’t Play wit’ my Yo-Yo.’’ The album’s second single, ‘‘Ladies First,’’ introduced a virtually unknown British rapper, Monie Love, who would later join Latifah along with other artists such as the Jungle Brothers, De La Soul, and A Tribe Called Quest as part of a conscious clique called the Native Tongues. All Hail the Queen has been described as ‘‘a diverse collection combing hiphop, reggae and jazz. The album espoused a number of socio-cultural themes including apartheid, women’s rights, and poverty’’ (Cooksey and Elyse). Despite her rising popularity and success of her debut album she never forgot about home. DATKID remembers ‘‘doing a party for the football team of East Orange High Varsity [jocks], a cool little gathering [at] a small block off of Central Ave off of Halsted Street (between where Dunkin’ Donuts and Rite Aid now sits . . . ) I’m in the kitchen playing music and someone comes in the party and yells out ‘Hey y’all, the Queen is here.’ ‘Wrath of my Madness’ was killing the airwaves back then so I put it on out of respect . . . and that touched [her] to come to where I was at just to say thanks!’’ The song would become a rap classic, eventually named by the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as one of the 500 songs ‘‘That Shaped Rock ’n’ Roll.’’ By the time Latifah’s third album was released she had separated from Tommy Boy due to contract conflicts, and Nature of a Sista was released by Motown Records, in 1993. This would prove to be an extremely trying time for Queen Latifah as her brother Lance was tragically killed in a motorcycle accident the previous year. In his memory she not only dedicated the album to Lance (aka Winky), but for years she wore the key to his motorcycle around her neck as a testament of her undying love for her brother. Latifah continued to explore other options, because she realized she couldn’t rap forever. She created Flavor Unit Records and Management (along with long time friend Shakim Compere) which handled Naughty by Nature. Latifah also experimented with acting beginning with television and her highly successful sitcom, Living Single. Many roles came her way but the most memorable and dramatic was her portrayal of Cleo, a lesbian bank robber in the film Set it Off (1996). Unfortunately, controversy overshadowed her exceptional performance, ‘‘the nature of the role of Cleo Simms . . . left the public at large to speculate impertinently about Latifah’s real life sexuality’’ (Cooksey and Elyse). Unbeknownst to her, the harsh criticisms had been foreshadowed in a song she had written years prior, ‘‘Latifah’s had it up to here’’ this song was for the ‘‘haters’’ who had issues with her sexuality and popularity back then as well: ‘‘some of these commercial entertainers . . . Tryin’ to dis Dana.’’ Latifah began acting more and rapping less. After receiving a slew of awards and starring in several movies, The Bricks and the world took note of her Oscar nominated performance of Chicago (2002). The albums that followed now showed

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a softer side of Dana, the albums displayed more of her singing ability and focused on jazz and R&B, showcasing her beautiful vocals. She would go on to produce movies including Bringing Down the House with Steve Martin (produced by her production company, Flavor Unit Entertainment). She also starred in My Wife Is a Gangsta, Beauty Shop, Bad Girls, Last Holiday and the animated smash hit, Ice Age 2: The Meltdown. Her genuine beauty and magnetic personality has also expanded her resume to now include spokeswoman for both CoverGirl and Jenny Craig. While she hasn’t put out a rap album in quite some time, she continues to sing, and occasionally makes a guest appearance on a rap record.

Artifacts The Artifacts, one of Newark’s most versatile groups, show love by representing three of the four elements of hip hop: Deejaying, Emceeing, and Graffiti (the fourth is breaking). Both Tame One and El da Sensei are proficient at all three. The original group members El da Sensai (William Elliot Williams) and Tame One (Rahem Brown) developed reputations as ‘‘outstanding graffiti artists in the 1980’s by ‘bombing’ which is replacing blighted walls with smooth graffiti murals’’ (Taylor). As students at Arts High School, in Newark, they continued their love of bombing throughout Essex County (which includes Newark, East Orange, and Irvington). As graffiti artists they called themselves the ‘‘Boom Skward’’ and later became the ‘‘Da Bomb Squad’’ (Taylor). Those who don’t share an affinity for hip hop will never understand the depth, beauty, and story that graffiti can express. Tame One explained to the Newark Star Ledger, that his neighbors consider them to be artists . . . wall art [graffiti] is frequently the only . . . art that inner city children see’’ (Walker). Tame confesses that is first love, graffiti will never die. He admits that he has too many priors [convictions] to be as active in the artform. ‘‘I’m still piecing; I’m not bombing.’’ It is probably long gone by now, but Tame admits his work could be seen down in Bedrock (on Avon and Clinton Ave, in Newark) ‘‘but the city paint over it so quickly . . . If we paint . . . Tuesday, by Friday it’s gone. Graffiti is like roaches . . . it ain’t going nowhere’’ (Tame One). As the city of Newark focuses on fighting graffiti, Tame and El focused on their second love, emceeing. Originally the Artifacts were called ‘‘That’s Them’’ (which would later be the title of their sophomore album). The name was derived from the fact that ‘‘kids used to shout ‘That’s Them!’ when they saw the duo on the street’’ (Taylor). DATKID recalls attending school with El da Sensei ‘‘back in ’88 . . . and one of my NNS [No Name Society] brothers was cool with Tame One, so I knew of those guys, when they were called That’s Them. We all had affiliates from one another’s crews . . . I still talk to them today . . . .’’ Even though Redman is Tame’s cousin, the Artifacts pressed hard to make it independently, turning to Lord Jamar of the Brand Nubians, who helped the group record the original demo for ‘‘Wrong Side of Da Tracks’’ (Taylor). The Artifacts

The Bricks and Beyond | 185 were never considered mainstream and as El da Sensei explained to The Source magazine, the band was content being labeled ‘‘underground.’’ There was a time when you could turn on the radio and hear artists like the Artifacts, but not anymore. Tame laments that ‘‘Stretch Armstrong and Bobbito Show [went off the air] and there’s no more fuckin’ Pete Rock and Marley Marl in control. This forces fans to look elsewhere for their music. If that’s what you’re into [underground hip hop] you’ll know where to find it’’ (Taylor). Radio has since been reserved for the mainstream, yet he credits other Jersey rappers Redman, Naughty, and Latifah with representing Jersey to the best of their ability, even though some listeners have mistakenly assumed they were NY artists. He attributes that to the close proximity of Newark and New York. ‘‘We’re always overshadowed by New York . . . it’s nothing that can be done about it . . . ’cause that’s the home of Hip Hop’’ (Tame One). As the group continued to make a name for themselves riding on the success of their first album, they toured the country and spent a year to complete their second album, 1997’s That’s Them. At this time the groups third member, DJ Kaos (Virgshawn Perry) was added. Even with production from Mr. Walt from Da Beatminerz and VIC of the Beatnuts, That’s Them was not nearly as successful (Di Bella). The Artifacts split in 1997 after failing to resolve a dispute. DATKID explains that he was happy to see them reunite (briefly): ‘‘I got footage of their reunion (1st onstage appearance together since ’97 at the Rock Steady 31st Anniversary).’’ Tame and El da Sensei haven’t let their split slow them down. They both continue to release music as solo artists. Tame specifically joined an underground group, The Weathermen, who released the highly criticized The Waterworld album in 2004. Despite their differences, and solo paths, the Artifacts will always be one of NJ’s finest.

Rah Digga Born in Newark, Rah Digga (Rashiya Fisher) was raised in a two-parent home (her parents remain married today). She attended a private boarding school in Maryland before returning home after graduation to attend the New Jersey Institute of Technology majoring in electrical engineering. Yet even with these opportunities in her education and career, Digga’s love of the streets and hip hop continued to grow. In the early 1990s, she formed a group with her best friend, called Twice the Flava. DATKID recalls DAS EFX as the first crew to attempt to sign the duo. Even though Newark hails as Jersey’s largest city, the circles are small and everybody knows everybody. Rah Digga later gained entrance into the all-male Outsidaz clique. It wasn’t long before she was discovered, by Q-Tip of A Tribe Called Quest, during her performance at the NYC-based Lyricist Lounge. Digga was eight months pregnant at the time. Tip introduced her to Busta Rhymes, who asked her to join his Flipmode Squad for their debut album, Flipmode Imperial, which went gold. In an industry where many female artists flaunt their sexuality,

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Rah Digga remains steadfast on doing the opposite, delivering hard rhymes that are closer to the style of 1980’s women MCs like MC Lyte than Digga’s contemporaries Lil’ Kim and Foxy Brown. Rah Digga has continued to deliver time and time again, collaborating with crews outside Flipmode. She has a verse on the Fugees’ ‘‘Cowboys,’’ and her guest verse on Bahamadia’s ‘‘Be Ok’’ appeared on the Lyricist Lounge: Vol 1. Considered a trailblazer in her own right, she set the stage with her debut solo release Dirty Harriet, in 1999. According to Rah Digga, her album is as multifaceted as she is, and she makes that clear on one track in particular, the highly personal ‘‘Brother, Brother’’ (Rah Digga). This song emphasizes the fate of black men. She says, ‘‘It’s the story of me being a little sister and having 3 brothers. One is good . . . but gets locked up . . . one gets killed . . . the third is just one bad brother who nothing happens to.’’ She explains the first verse was inspired ‘‘by a friend [of hers] who snapped on the job and killed his co-workers . . . 2nd verse is about [the late MC] Slang Ton . . . the third . . . is inspired by the people who really do lead bad lives and get away with it’’ (Rah Digga). As a new school leader, she gives credit where credit is due thanking rappers of the ‘‘golden age’’ such as Kool G Rap, Rakim, and Queen Latifah for their inspiration. Perhaps her affiliation with all male cliques has led to her crusade to ‘‘take gender out of the game and put skills back in’’ (Rah Digga).

Naughty by Nature Naughty by Nature jumped on the scene with their attention grabbing debut single ‘‘O.P.P’’ (other people’s ‘‘pussy’’ or ‘‘penis.’’). Seventeen years later you can still play that song at any club or party and set some shit off. NBN emerged from the concrete jungles of E.O. (East Orange, an inner city town outside of Newark) as three friends hungry (determined) to make it. Treach (Anthony Criss, 1971) and Vinnie (Vincent Brown, 1971) grew up a few blocks away from each other, and were both products of poor single parent homes (Le Blanc). Most kids in the inner city don’t have faith in the school system and assume sports or music is their way out of the ghetto. It wasn’t any different for Treach and Vinnie. Treach knew he wanted to be a weaver of words—a rapper—since he was in the seventh grade. In our interview, DATKID recalled the persistence Treach displayed growing up for the art form that took him off the streets. ‘‘Tiny, or Anthony, they call him Treach now. I saw his drive for [hip hop] as a young one watching him and his first crew practice every weekend faithfully for various talent shows . . . two emcees—Tiny and Ace, and a human beat box named AQBOX [pronounced OC-BOX] and a DJ, Big Lip Kareem, who used to turn off the radio and perform . . . a commercial free master mix without error cuts. [He] would supply me the breakbeats and send me off to practice bringing back that certain part of the record consistently . . . that was our routine, every weekend like clockwork.’’

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Naughty by Nature (Photofest)

Treach and Vinnie would perform whenever the opportunity presented itself; Treach rhyming and Vinnie doing the beat. It wasn’t until the senior talent show that Kay Gee (Kier Gist, 1970) an aspiring DJ asked them to perform with him (Le Blanc). At that time they were known as The New Style and their focus was on making a name for themselves locally. Graduating from East Orange High (now combined with Scott High on the old Upsala College Campus) offered no promises except the odd job here or there and short stays in jail. Running with a local gang, the 118th St. Posse ‘‘offered some income, largely from the drug trade or other illegal sources, and plenty of risk: fights, shootings and jail time’’ (Le Blanc). Fed up with her son’s choices, Treach’s mom simultaneously bailed him out and kicked him out of the house, ‘‘leaving him to sleep wherever . . . including a park bench’’ (Le Blanc). 1988 saw a small window of opportunity for the group as they were signed by the Bon Ami label, but were dropped from the label just as quickly as they were signed. The trio, determined to put together a hot demo tape, resorted to selling drugs to make it happen. Treach explained to Spin magazine, ‘‘I did what I had to do on the street . . . we didn’t put our money into jewelry or cars . . . we put it into studio time. And once we got signed, we cut [drug dealing] out completely.’’ As their notoriety gathered, the accounts of how NBN connected with Queen Latifah vary. According to Tommy Boy, they claim the group was discovered when Latifah and Shakim Compare were invited to a party. However, Vinnie informed Vibe magazine that ‘‘Kay Gee called Latifah’s producer, DJ Mark the 45 King, and he camcorded us performing in his basement,’’ and the tape was circulated and landed in Latifah’s hands.

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After being signed by Latifah and changing their name from New Style to Naughty by Nature, it was time to get their [new] name out there. Many journalists recall those now famous lines Treach spit in 1990 during an appearance with Queen Latifah at the Apollo Theatre. Rolling Stone recounts him [Treach] bringing the place to its feet when he wraps up his rhyme with ‘‘my pants always sag ‘cause I rap my ass off.’’ With the success of ‘‘O.P.P,’’ Naughty by Nature still kept it hood. While many new artists run to the dealership or to Jacob the Jeweler, NBN saw the importance of reinvesting their profits from the album in various business ventures, especially reinvesting in their neighborhood; one that offered nothing promising to the youth. NBN felt it was important to reserve ‘‘positions in their businesses for friends from the neighborhood . . . especially those finishing prison sentences . . . since they know first hand the scarcity of legitimate, decent paying jobs [especially] in the ghetto.’’ In addition, to remain close to the streets they didn’t run from the streets of East Orange to a gated community in the suburbs. Treach explains ‘‘we still live in Illtown . . . hang with the same people . . . see things that go on every day in the ‘hood, so we can’t lose touch . . . we still see things like drugs, murders, and police harassment’’ (Le Blanc). As a recent honoree at VH1’s Hip Hop Honors awards, Vinnie remembers NBN as trendsetters. For one, he says the group was the first to introduce a clothing line. Not Wu-Wear, not Roc-A-Fella, or Sean Jean; it was Naughty. Many Newarkers will remember the ‘‘Naughty’’ store that used to be located in downtown Newark on Halsey Street. Many critics thought NBN would never duplicate the success of ‘‘O.P.P.’’ but Naughty by Nature silenced their critics with another anthem, ‘‘Hip Hop Hooray.’’ Six albums, and a host of awards and accolades later, the Naughty Boys have learned many lessons; allowing the boys from the streets of Illtown to leave a definite mark in hip hop and established themselves as true veterans. VH1 honored NBN along with De La Soul, Cypress Hill, Slick Rick, KRS-One, and Too $hort. The trio agreed that it ‘‘felt good’’ to receive the reward for all their effort. Hip hop is not only where all their energies lay— Kay Gee set up his own production company, 118th productions, and is responsible for several successful R&B artists like Jahiem, Next, and the female duo Zhane (pronounced Zah Nay). Treach has appeared in several films, and directed videos for other artists, including Apache’s popular ‘‘Gangsta Bitch.’’ Naughty by Nature has a fan base that has appreciated their truth in lyrics and consistency in their albums. NBN remains true to the game; they still run in the same circles and stay connected to the streets.

Fugees The Fugees were a much needed breath of ‘‘eclectic’’ fresh air to the stale rap game of the 1990s. The Fugees, whose name is a derivative of ‘‘refugee’’ a stereotypical (derogatory) name reserved for Haitian immigrants, are an unmistakable

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multitalented trio. L-Boogie, (Lauryn Hill, 1976) with her angelic, R&B sultry voice can flip it on you in a minute and rip you a new asshole with her sharp rhymes. Pras (Prakazrel Michel, 1973) is the cousin of front man ‘‘Clef’’ (Wyclef Jean, 1971) and together this group took the game to another level with violent and sexually explicit lyrics. Most MCs ride high on their debut album and attempt to match its success on the sophomore attempt. The Fugees were just the opposite. They enjoyed moderate attention from their debut album ‘‘Blunted on Reality’’ (recorded under their original name Translator Crew . . . that was later changed due to legal issues from an 1980’s band called The Translators) but it wasn’t until producer ‘‘Salaam Remi remixed two cuts . . . ’Nappy Heads and ‘Vocab’ . . . the album [Blunted on Reality] picked up speed on the charts’’ (Brennan). Three years later their sophomore release The Score was void of gangsta rap, and was produced entirely in their own studio, The Booga Basement, located in East Orange, NJ. Their sophomore effort was the culmination of years of hard work. The group explains that they put everything they had into making it work. Back in the day Lauryn and Pras were a duo in high school (in South Orange, NJ), and competed in local MC battles. Wyclef, the cousin of Pras, joined the group later. Prior to moving to New Jersey he had emigrated from Haiti at the age of nine to a rough housing project in Brooklyn. Both Pras and Wyclef have fathers in the ministry. Wyclef is the son of a preacher and Pras is the son of a deacon. Lauryn, who was attending Columbia University, during the early days of the group, had a small part in Sister Act II with Whoopi Goldberg. This also helped the notoriety of the group. She also played a part on a soap opera and sang in caberas. She remembers ‘‘how determined Wyclef was . . . I used to hit him off with whatever I could every now and then, and he would buy another piece of equipment . . . overtime, he accumulated a complete studio’’ now known as the ‘‘Booga Basement.’’ The Score topped the charts at #1 selling over five million copies. Remakes of Roberta Flack’s ‘‘Killing Me Softly’’ and Bob Marley’s ‘‘No Woman No Cry’’ helped catapult the album’s success. The streets loved it because they included underground rappers. Most notably on the track ‘‘Cowboys’’ we were introduced to a woman with a swift tongue and a rough voice that made you sit up and pay attention, her name was Rah Digga. Her crew members Pace Won and Young Zee also appeared on that track. The album was also sprinkled with little shout-outs to other fellow Newark MCs. Lauryn mentioned how she was ‘‘Tame like the rapper . . . ’’ (name of song), an obvious shout-out to Tame from the Artifacts, another group from Newark. The Score was special to the Fugees because it was written and produced they way they wanted it, not manufactured and dictated like their first attempt. However, with their success, the naysayers began to talk. Addressing criticisms from their first album, the group confronted the nonbelievers on The Score. The most infamous attack on the group was the claim that Lauryn was too talented for the group and should consider a solo career. The group, with their long history, attacked this head on in ‘‘Zealots’’: ‘‘you can try, but you can’t divide the tribe.’’

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However, the group did eventually disband, but not before Wyclef and Lauryn both produced successful solo albums. Lauryn’s multi-grammy winning The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill is a classic that has yet to be duplicated. Wyclef had a few successful albums including his debut album Carnival (1997) along with a host of collaborations and production efforts; including bringing a little unknown group called Destiny’s Child to the scene. An official reconciliation of one of the best rap groups is highly unlikely amid rumors of an extramarital affair between Lauryn and Wyclef; along with Lauryn’s lawsuit from songwriters claiming credit for writing portions of her debut album. This caused an irreversible wedge in the group. They did however briefly reunite in 2004 for Dave Chappelle’s Block Party, where they joined other performers including Common, Erykah Badu, Jill Scott, Talib Kweli, and The Roots. No matter what their [creative] differences, the Fugees made their mark and let the world know that, as they proclaim on ‘‘Fugee-La,’’ ‘‘you have to respect Jersey.’’

Lords of the Underground The Lords of the Underground had a smash hit with ‘‘Chief Rocka’’ in the early 1990s. This threesome of Doitall (Dupre Kelly), Mr. Funky (Al’terik Wardrick), and DJ Lord Jazz (Bruce Colston) met as undergraduate students at Shaw University in North Carolina. They gained popularity thanks to touring with established rap groups such as Cypress Hill and Funkdoobiest. The group received negative criticism when it was implied in their 1995 single ‘‘Burn Rubber’’ that they condoned car-jacking. The group claims the song was created specifically for the car-jacking movie New Jersey Drive. The group will always be affiliated with other artists from back in the day, yet they didn’t jump on the ‘‘gansta rap’’ bandwagon and were subsequently forgotten about. Recently Nas, resurrected their name and mentioned them in his song ‘‘Where Are They Now,’’ a tribute to many forgotten old school rappers.

Outsidaz A duo that began as rivals became a respected underground group. The primary members Pace Won and Young Zee first connected in 1991. Zee was a member of Skitz and Pace was a member of PNS; they met on stage during a battle which both of them thought was a tie. They formed a single group after that meeting and the extended members include Eminem, Bizarre (of D12 fame) Az-Izz, Axe, D.U., Denz, Loon One, Nawshis, Rah Digga, Slang Ton (deceased) Bskills, and Yah-Yah. The Outsidaz, much like any MCs emerging from Newark, worked hard to establish themselves as something different, but tension among members and egos eventually caused this group to split with many members going their own way— most notably Eminem, who later added Young Zee to his Shady Records label, which angered Pace Won. A blog on ‘‘The Art of Rhyme’’ mentions a pact that promised if any of them blew up they’d open the door for the rest, but Eminem

The Bricks and Beyond | 191 never followed through. Pace Won expressed his anger to Eminem on his most recent release ‘‘The Only Color That Matters Is Green.’’ Prior to the drama, back in the good ol’ days, DATKID remembers his encounters with The Outsidaz: ‘‘I used to hang at this house on Melmore Gardens in E.O. (East Orange, NJ) [around] 1992, just wasting time, when this young boy who wanted to be down so bad . . . he used to hang around us every single day. One day he came in and popped this tape in (wasn’t no CDs) and [I] heard this form of hip hop that seemed like what I needed to hear in my life . . . this young boy’s name was Denton and the demo he was playing was the Outsidaz . . . my brother DATSHIM (NNS) [No Name Society] knew who they were and told Denton to tell Pace or Young Zee to come see him and to let them know he has the tape. The next day they [Pace Won and Young Zee] were there. Now about this time I was hooked on NY clubs thanks to DATSHIM . . . so when he told the Outsidaz he could blow them up, I already knew his potential, he took them to this spot in New York called the Hyperbolic Lounge . . . which seemed to be the after work hang out spot for The Source [Magazine] staff . . . I read later that they [The Outsidaz] ran through so many MCs that nobody wanted to even look in their direction when it was time to battle . . . .’’ The Outsidaz remain an underground favorite. Pace Won has recently teamed up with Mr. Green on their recent release ‘‘The Only Color that Matters is Green.’’ Young Zee continues to keep a low profile but still remains an influence and a source of guidance in the game, especially to his wife, Rah Digga.

NJ’S NEW SCHOOL While New Jersey hasn’t had its Biggie, Jay-Z, or Nas—who became icons of their respective New York City boroughs—many MCs and DJs have proudly represented Jersey, including Queen Latifah, Redman, and Naughty by Nature. There is, however, a new class ready to step up and represent. DJ DATKID told me that he hears a variety of new artists from Newark, Irvington, and East Orange, but is most impressed with those who display originality, creativity, clarity, and the ability to network in the music industry. He highlighted a few names of up-andcoming MCs who understand what it takes to make a great song that’s catchy and fun but still raw and conscious: Billy Roadz is a Newark native who embraces his life struggles in his music. This is evident in the title of his album Mind of a City Slicker, Heart of a Country Nigga. He feels he represents both aspects. Roadz passion for rap was ignited by ‘‘Represent,’’ a song on the classic Nas album, Illmatic. Roadz created 4-Mil Productions inspired by the birth of his son Jamil, so everything Roadz does . . . is ‘‘4-Mil!’’ Representing for the ladies, Mooka Jerz has become Jersey’s new ‘‘femcee,’’ the heir apparent to Latiah and Rah Digga. She’s a big voice in a little package, but just as raw as the next and represents Newark hard. O-Solo, another rising star from Newark, caught the eye of rap star Busta Rhymes at a battle. O-Solo prides himself on sounding like no one out there and

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NEWARK’S HIP HOP HOT SPOTS Local spots in Newark that booked big name rappers from back in the day, in the mid-to-late 1980s, included the Civic Center, Rally Raquet Club, and Our Lady Help of Christian Church. Many rappers also performed at Martens Stadium, including rap veteran Kurtis Blow. As far as night clubs, Sensations was another regular venue for rap stars. The rivalry between Newark and New York was strong, and DATKID remember how Brick City natives used to beat up all the NY MCs. Napoleon’s (1987–89) was located on Walnut and Main Street and was known for its house DJ, Godfather D, who was a local DJ for Napoleon’s by night, and mechanic by day, and distant relative of Harlem rap star Biz Markie. Through his connection to Biz, Godfather D brought the Biz’s supergroup the Juice Crew through Newark on several occasions. Moving into the 1990s, the Pipeline was an arena for underground artists in Jersey. ‘‘During the early 90s Pack Pistol Posse damned near owned that spot,’’ DATKID told me during our interview. As a DJ, DATKID was mainstream-minded and didn’t truly realize the beauty of the Pipeline until it was long gone.

writes about stuff his listeners can relate to. Currently O is signed to TVT Records. While these three luminaries topped the list of Jersey MCs on the rise, DATKID added his list of honorable mentions: Big Snuff aka U Neva Know, Hustle Starr, Duttch Mastah, and Abyss.

THE FUTURE OF THE BRICKS Newark’s future in politics, community activism, and music is promising as well. Jah Jah Shakur, cofounder of Shadesradio.com, explains the direction of the city and the conscious movement that is taking place in 2008. Hip hop is a generation of Americans rejected by the mainstream. Jah Jah’s quest is to preserve the culture. The Shades Family organization (consisting of Jah Jah Shakur, Kurt Nice, G-Hop, DATKID, DJ Subtraction, and 1st lady Mecca) has connected with hip hop veteran and respected teacher KRS-One. As a disciple of KRS-One, Jah-Jah and the Shades Organization are proud of their affiliation with the ‘‘Self Construction’’ movement/tour. Nearly 20 years after the release of the antiviolence anthem, ‘‘Self Destruction,’’ KRS has enlisted the help of conscious, compassionate, and knowledgeable individuals who share the same vision and will work tirelessly to see it come to fruition. On the day I interviewed him for this collection, Jah Jah, Mecca and DATKID were setting up shop at the Armory Tavern, in Newark for a showcase of MCs auditioning for KRS-One’s 29-city Self Construction tour. During our interview,

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Jah Jah compared rappers of today to rappers of yesterday, stating that today’s rapper is just trying to make a hot single or make money off ringtones, while old school rappers aspired to put out a quality album. Despite mainstream rappers’ emphasis on their conspicuous wealth via showcasing their cars, clothes, and jewelry in their music and videos, artists affiliated with shades and or the movement are taking in back to the good old days, where peace, prosperity, and selfawareness are key. Jah Jah explains that there is a large underground movement in Newark, and certain staples are and always will be essential to hip hop, such as the local radio stations, record stores, and clubs (see Sidebar: Newark’s Hip Hop Hot Spots) that keep hip hop alive in Brick City.

REFERENCES Brennan, Carol. ‘‘Fugees Biography,’’ October 2008. http://www.musicianguide .com/biographies/1608000564/Fugees.html. Collins, Dan. ‘‘3 Youths Dead in Execution-Style Shooting.’’ CBSNews.com, August 6, 2007. Cooksey, Gloria, and Nicole Elyse. ‘‘Queen Latifah.’’ Enotes. http://www .enotes.com/contemporary-musicians/queen-latifah-biography (accessed December 13, 2008). Cummings, Charles F. ‘‘Gateway? Renaissance? A Reviving City Earns Its Nicknames.’’ http://www.starledger.com, December 8, 2005 (accessed September 2008). Di Bella, Michael. ‘‘Artifacts Biography.’’ Starpulse.com, November 2008. Gomez, Nick, Dir. New Jersey Drive. 40 Acres & a Mule/Gramercy, 1995. Herman, Max. ‘‘Newark Riots, 1967.’’ The Newark and Detroit ‘‘Riots’’ of 1967. http://www.67riots.rutgers.edu/n_index.htm (accessed December 13, 2008). Jones, Charisse. ‘‘Years Later, Lessons from Newark Riots to Be Learned.’’ USA TODAY, November 19, 2006. Le Blanc, Ondine E. ‘‘Naughty by Nature Biography,’’ September 2008. http:// www.musicianguide.com/biographies/1608001143/Naughty-by-Nature.html. Levy, Clifford J. New York Times, April 18, 1994. http://www.nytimes.com/1994/ 04/18/nyregion/guarding-image-newark-city-bars-local-filming-movie-aboutteen-age-car-bandits.html?pagewanted=all. Mumford, Kevin. Newark. A History of Race, Rights, and Riots in America. New York: New York University Press, 1997. Rah Digga. http://www.hiponline.com/music/music-artists/rah-digga/ (accessed December 13, 2008). Sanchez, Brenna. ‘‘Redman Biography,’’ November 2008. http://www.musician guide.com/biographies/1608003147/Redman.html. Tame One. Interview at RiotSound.com, March 8, 2005. http://www.riotsound .com/hip-hop/rap/interviews/Tame-one-Artifacts/index.php (accessed December 13, 2008).

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Taylor, Kimberly. ‘‘Artifacts Biography,’’ October 2008. http://www.musician guide.com/biographies/1608002140/Artifacts.html. Walker, Steven T. Newark Star Ledger, June 12, 1997.

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY Artifacts Between a Rock and a Hard Place. Big Beat/Atlantic, 1994. That’s Them. Big Beat/Atlantic, 1997. The Fugees Blunted on Reality. Ruff House/Columbia, 1993. The Score. Ruff House/Columbia, 1996. Lords of the Underground Here Come the Lords. Capitol, 1993. Keepers of the Funk, 1994. Resurrection. 1999. House of Lords. 2007. Naughty by Nature Naughty by Nature. Tommy Boy, 1991. 19 Naughty III. Amalgam, 1993. Poverty’s Paradise. Tommy Boy, 1995. Nineteen Naughty Nine: Nature’s Fury. Arista, 1999. Iicons. 2002. Queen Latifah All Hail the Queen. Tommy Boy, 1989. Nature of a Sista. Tommy Boy, 1991. Black Reign. Motown, 1993. She’s a Queen: A Collection of Hits. Motown, 2002. The Dana Owens Album. 2004. Rah Digga Dirty Harriet. Elektra/Asylum, 1999. Everything Is a Story. J-Records, 2004. Redman Whut? Thee Album. Def Jam, 1992. Dare Iz a Darkside. Def Jam, 1994. Muddy Waters. Def Jam, 1996. Doc’s Da Name 2000. Def Jam, 1998. Malpractice. Def Jam, 2001. Red Gone Wild: Thee Album. Def Jam, 2007. Redman and Method Man Blackout! Def Jam, 1999. Blackout! 2. Def Jam, 2009.

CHAPTER 9 Hip Hop in the Hub: How Boston Rap Remained Underground Pacey C. Foster When asked to name a famous rapper who came from Boston, most people draw a blank. Some certainly remember Edward ‘‘Edo G’’ Anderson’s (born 1971) breakout record Life of a Kid in the Ghetto (1991) and his golden age classic ‘‘I Got to Have It,’’ the music video for which made it onto MTV and into Vibe magazine in the early 1990s. Others might mention that Keith ‘‘Guru’’ Elam (born July 17, 1966) was originally from Boston before taking up residence in Brooklyn, helping to define the sound of mid-1990s East Coast rap with DJ Premier in Gang Starr, and then achieving mainstream popularity with his Jazzmatazz releases. Fans of Boston’s harder beats may recall that The Almighty RSO got into a battle with Tommy Boy Records over their mid-1990s song ‘‘One in the Chamba’’ and eventually reformed as the equally controversial group Made Men. Those with slightly deeper knowledge will trace Boston’s RSO connection through Raymond ‘‘Benzino’’ Scott’s (born July 18, 1965) relationship with The Source magazine and its Harvard educated cofounder David Mays. People familiar with the history of break dancing will certainly mention the foundational Boston b-boy crew The Floorlords. Fans who tracked the late 1990s explosion of underground and alternative hip hop will be quick to remind you that Boston artists like Mr. Lif, Akrobatik, and 7L and Esoteric have built reputations and careers on a foundation of gritty beats and East Coast tongue trickery. Despite the success of many Boston artists, there remains a sense in the media and among fans that hip hop never quite took off in Boston the way it did in other cities. Examining the record, there are good reasons for this perception. Every other city of its size in the United States has had a larger impact on hip hop than Boston. The influence of New York in defining and promulgating the culture goes without saying. Los Angeles was the home of the gangsta rap explosion and just one group, the seminal N.W.A., spawned artists as influential as Dr. Dre, Ice Cube, and Eazy E. In the late 1980s, Miami had its 2-Live Crew and Skyywalker Productions that paved the way for the reign of the Dirty South. Detroit 195

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had its Eminem and well before the Roots put Pennsylvania back on the map with Illadelph Half Life, Philly beat Boston out of the box with nationally recognized artists like Schoolly D. Despite the success of the Boston artists described above, it seems reasonable to ask why the city has not been more of a hip hop hub over the years. To tell the story of Boston hip hop without addressing its underdog status would be to ignore an important identity within the community. At the same time, to focus only on this familiar angle would obscure the fact that Boston has had a vibrant (albeit underground) hip hop scene from almost as soon as one emerged in New York. Given the proximity of the two cities, it should come as no surprise that Boston was an early recipient of the revolutionary music, dance, and style that would come to be called hip hop as it radiated out from its epicenter in New York. To tell the peculiar story of Boston hip hop requires an exploration of the social and structural forces that it encountered in a city famous for its Irish bars, rock bands, college students, and deep racial divisions. By tracing connections among Boston’s music industry, colleges, neighborhoods, nightclubs, and artists, we can begin to understand how hip hop remained underground in Boston all these years.

THE BIRTH OF HIP HOP IN BOSTON: 1979–1988 The 1979 release of ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ by the Sugarhill Gang was a watershed moment for young people in Boston as it was for kids across the country. While the origins of rap remain hidden in the tributaries that obscure all musical foundation stories, ‘‘Rapper’s Delight,’’ with its infectious party rhymes and familiar ‘‘Good Times’’ backing track, was the first rap song to reach large audiences. Skippy White, the owner of Boston’s urban record store chain of the same name, remembers his encounter with this new art form vividly (White). On a Saturday afternoon in 1979, Skippy received a call from Joe Robinson of Sugarhill Records in New York. Joe was promoting the recently released single and encouraged Skippy to buy this indescribable new kind of music that was selling like crazy in New York. On the strength of Joe’s recommendation, Skippy agreed to take 50 of the records without even hearing them. This was just a week after the record had been released and in New York demand was already high. Given that the call arrived Saturday, Skippy estimates that he got the records no later than Tuesday. Whatever day they arrived, by the end of the week, they had sold out and he called Joe to get more copies of this strange new hit. By then, mere weeks after the release of ‘‘Rapper’s Delight,’’ Joe was already 10,000 pressings behind and was struggling to keep up with demand. Given the immediate appetite for ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ at Skippy White’s Records, it is clear that as early as 1979 there was a hungry market for rap records in Boston. Unfortunately, documentation of rap music and hip hop culture in the city is rare before 1982. Perhaps the earliest Boston rap release is Kevin Fleetwood

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and the Cadillacs’ 1983 record ‘‘Sweat It Off.’’ This funk infused party jam would have easily fit into the rapidly expanding Sugarhill catalog and was followed in 1984 by ‘‘Hood Rock.’’ At the time of these releases, Kevin had been an active club and party DJ in Boston for a number of years and had a radio show on Northeastern University’s radio station WRBB (104.9 FM). While Fleetwood represented the college side of the nascent hip hop scene, another crew with closer connections to the street were also making their rounds at the time. Chain Reaction was a crew that included DJs Michael K and Crystal C, Robbie Rob and Oogie. In addition to featuring a female DJ (Crystal C) long before Spindarella made the female DJ famous with Salt N’ Pepa, DJ Michael K’s version of Grandmaster Flash’s ‘‘Adventures on the Wheels of Steel’’ routine was also the first time many people had seen turntablism performed by a Boston artist (Delgado). Kevin Fleetwood, Chain Reaction, and a young DJ named Rusty ‘‘the Toe Jammer’’ were certainly the first people to expose rap music to large audiences in Boston. However, it would not be until the 1985 appearance of Magnus Johnstone’s Lecco’s Lemma show on MIT’s radio station WMBR (88.1 FM) that the fledgling hip hop community would have a real home on Boston’s airwaves. It would be even longer before Boston rap artists would have regular national exposure. In the very early 1980s, Boston’s urban music was dominated by the electroinfluenced funk of the Johnson Brothers and groups like Planet Patrol, Dwayne Omarr, and Prince Charles and the City Beat Band.

Maurice Starr, Michael Jonzun, and the Hollywood Talent Nights Maurice Starr (Lawrence Curtis Johnson, b. 1953) is widely recognized as the producer behind New Edition and New Kids on the Block. However, his role as an accidental mentor to Boston’s earliest hip hopers is less well known. His brother Michael Jonzun (Michael Johnson) is more closely associated with the origins of rap music for his 1982 electro 12’’ release ‘‘Pack Jam (Look out for the OVC)’’ on Tommy Boy records. Although the song contains no rapping, it was a national hit among urban audiences and rapidly became a break dancing classic. Jonzun’s place in the hip hop pantheon was solidified when ‘‘Pack Jam’’ was included along with ‘‘Space Cowboy’’ on Tommy Boy’s 1985 double LP The Greatest Beats. With the inclusion of two tracks by Boston’s own Planet Patrol and the Afrika Bambaataa/Arthur Baker classic ‘‘Planet Rock,’’ five out of the fifteen songs on the album had a Boston connection. In the early 1980s, Boston was a hotbed of electro-infused R&B production and the Johnson brothers were in the middle of it (Morse, ‘‘Boston funk,’’ ‘‘Sky’s the limit’’). By the time they began receiving national acclaim in the early 1980s for this work, both Johnson brothers had already been making a splash in Boston’s urban music scene for quite some time. Having recently moved to Boston from Florida with their family, they began performing in Boston as the Johnson Brothers Band

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in the 1970s. Their 1978 single ‘‘Bout Time I Funk You’’ received heavy rotation on the urban-oriented AM radio station WILD (1090 AM) and became a local hit among nightclub audiences. In 1979, the record was picked up by RCA Victor and eventually sold 150,000 copies (Morse, ‘‘Sky’s the limit’’). Around this time, Starr began making a name for himself as a producer with Prince Charles and the City Beat Band. By the mid-1970s, Starr had started to throw his production expertise and industry contacts into a series of local talent shows he dubbed the Hollywood Talent Night. The impact of these shows on urban culture in Boston is hard to overstate. In addition to being the venue through which Starr developed and exposed acts like New Edition and New Kids on the Block, his Hollywood Talent Nights were galvanizing events for the community and provided an important incubator and outlet for emerging hip hop talent. One of the regular performers was a young DJ who scratched with his feet. Rusty ‘‘the Toe Jammer’’ Pendleton made a name for himself as a teenage DJ with his unique ability of scratching records with his feet. His friend and production partner Skeeter worked with Maurice Starr and by the early 1980s Rusty had become the first call for all of Starr’s DJ needs. Prominent among these were the Hollywood Talent Nights where Rusty would whip the crowd into a fever in anticipation of the announcement of the winners. Rusty was already a polished and beloved showman even in his early teens. With frequent college radio spots and an appearance on Peter Wolf’s post J. Geils solo album, Lights Out (1984) leading to a performance on Saturday Night Live, Rusty was likely Boston’s first local rap music star. His teenage role in Starr’s Hollywood Talent Nights was a critical early exposure of hip hop music and style to a general audience. Press reports described one of the events as a three-day affair including 37 acts and as many as 3,000 attendees (Bourne). The dance crew Funk Effects (which included the popping and locking twins Billy and Bobby McLaine, David Clemens, Tony Lopes, and Andy Thomas) was a regular attendee. By that time, Funk Effects was already a professional outfit managed and instructed by Boston dance pioneer David Vaughn who would go on to work with New Edition. With its elaborate space suit costumes and stage show, Funk Effects was a sight to behold. The Unikue Dominoes, another of Boston’s premier dance groups, were also regular attendees. While Funk Effects represented the most professional and polished of Boston’s dancers, their younger farm team, Boston Poppers and Lockers represented the younger generation. As popping and locking gave way to breakdance routines, shows began to include younger groups like the Boston Poppers and Lockers, The New York Puppeteers (which included future Floorlords member Lino ‘‘Leanski’’ Delgado), Cosmic Reaction, and Mass Break Team (which included future Floorlords member Megatron). Other early local b-boy crews included HBO (Homeboys Only) Crew, Boston City Breakers, Spin City Rockers, and TMC from Providence, Rhode Island. In Starr’s showcases, emerging hip hop styles found a home beside the polished R&B and electro-funk sounds for which the Johnson Brothers had become famous.

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A picture from the mid-1980s documents the intersection of these two sides of urban youth culture. The picture depicts a young Rusty ‘‘the Toe Jammer’’ Pendleton with his mixer on a pile of milk crates and his turntable on the floor. As he cradles his knee with his toe scratching the record below, four even younger white teenagers look on from backstage apparently waiting for their chance to perform. The members of New Kids on the Block were still a year away from releasing their self-titled 1986 debut but were clearly soaking up emerging hip hop styles.

New York Networks Like all family relations, the one between Boston and New York is a complex blend of brotherly love and blood feuds. Certainly, it is true that many artists found it necessary to leave Boston to pursue their careers. Guru, of Gang Starr, left Boston for Brooklyn in the late 1980s, starting a trend of local rap artists leaving Boston in search of better access to Manhattan and the center of the music industry. At the same time, the popular narrative about the loss of talent to New York overlooks an equally powerful story about how hip hop flowed up from New York to Boston through family and friendship networks. Given Boston’s proximity to New York, it should come as no surprise that early Boston hip hop bore a close resemblance to the practices that had emerged a few years earlier down the coast. Movements of people, ideas, music, dance, and fashion all helped launch a vibrant (albeit smaller) hip hop community in Boston almost as soon as one had appeared in New York. Flyers for shows from the early 1980s include such New York inspired titles as ‘‘The Def Jam Party,’’ ‘‘Wild Style,’’ and ‘‘Breakdown New York Style.’’ In the early days, people who got into hip hop were all going to New York to get closer to the source and some already had deep New York roots. Lino Delgado, a founding member of the Boston b-boy crew The Floorlords, moved to Boston with his family in the mid-1970s, leaving a large group of cousins and relatives behind in the Bronx (Delgado). In the late 1970s, these cousins formed a break dancing crew called High Performance and occasionally visited their Boston kin. Meanwhile, Lino’s family moved from a shared apartment on Dudley St. to their own place on Westville St. in Dorchester. Still stinging from the bussing crisis of the mid-1970s, Dorchester was at that time a city sharply divided along racial lines. As the only Hispanic family living on the border that separated black and white Dorchester, Lino describes fighting the white kids at school and the black kids back in the neighborhood. As a result, he and his brother spent countless hours avoiding the dangerous streets by practicing choreographed routines set to Jackson 5 songs and other popular R&B hits of the time. During visits from his New York family, Lino and his brother would be asked to perform their routines to the delight of the assembled family. More importantly for the spread of hip hop to Boston, it was on these visits that Lino and his brother began to absorb the new break dancing styles demonstrated by their older New York cousins. Later, in the early 1980s, these same cousins would provide a place to stay

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as members of the young Floorlords made frequent trips to New York City to check out the latest styles and battle other crews. Other early innovators also had strong New York ties. DJ Rusty ‘‘the Toe Jammer’’ Pendleton, had family in New York which facilitated his frequent record buying trips to the city (Pendleton). Another New York transplant, MC Spice (aka Amir Shakir), began his music career at an early age promoting parties for Rick Rubin in Brooklyn (MC Spice). After moving to Boston in the late 1980s, he continued to promote for the budding Def Jam records and maintained strong ties to his NY home (MC Spice). As a kid from Brooklyn, the hip hop scene in Boston in the late 1980s seemed small and inexperienced to Spice. Demonstrating their lack of basic block party production knowledge, a group of kids in his neighborhood had negotiated with a neighbor to run an extension cord out of her house for a party. In exchange, they had agreed to keep the volume down. Spice found this compromise as silly as it was unnecessary given that light poles sprouted everywhere and could be accessed for free power if you knew how (which he did). With missionary zeal, he began showing his friends the tricks of the hip hop trade he had learned from his elders in New York. At least early on, New York gave much more than it got back from Boston.

Boston Hip Hop Comes of Age By the mid-1980s hip hop was the rage in Boston’s inner-city neighborhoods of Roxbury, Dorchester, Mattapan, Jamaica Plain, and the South End. Show flyers and press reports make it clear that The Floorlords were at almost every show dancing and demonstrating their growing talents. The Four Corners neighborhood in Dorchester was an important location in the community as it was home to the young Raymond ‘‘Ray Dog’’ Scott and the Body Rock Crew made up of Big Chuck and Antonio (Emo E) Ennis. The nearby Roxbury neighborhood around Castlegate Rd. was also an important hub that produced the PC Crew featuring Def Jeff, Tony Rhome, Kevin Means, and Orangeman. These two groups would eventually coalesce to form the Boston rap group and street clique Almighty RSO (aka Rock Shit On) Crew. Back then, the frequent summer block parties on Capin St., Humboldt Ave., and Castlegate Rd. and shows at the Chez Vous roller skating rink, local middle schools, and community centers, were largely peaceful affairs that served as a unifying force for the community. Certainly, scuffles occasionally broke out, but those that did were rare and relatively benign. As it had in New York, hip hop in Boston emerged organically out of community block parties that had featured DJs playing funk, disco, and R&B only a few years before. At the very beginning, adults in Boston’s inner-city neighborhoods did not know what to make of this new art form. Lino Delgado remembers an older dancer named Popeye showing up at these early parties and demonstrating a strange jerky dance that drew laughter from a crowd still unfamiliar with hip hop style (Delgado). Already an accomplished breaker, Lino reserved his talents for a more receptive

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audience. Among the kids, hip hop was exploding and Lino would soon have a receptive audience of peers. Between 1983 and 1985, Rusty ‘‘the Toe Jammer’’ Pendleton alone performed 16 documented shows. Many were self-produced parties like the 1983 ‘‘Atomic Dog Night’’ at the Chez Vous roller skating rink that included Dwayne Omarr and the dance crew the New York Puppeteers. Other shows took place at recreation centers at the Orchard Park and Bromley Heath housing complexes. In addition to numerous community shows, Rusty and his crew also played at larger clubs in the city opening for major acts. In 1985, he and the dance crew The Unikue Dominoes opened for Doug E. Fresh at the Kenmore Square nightclub 9 Landsdowne. By 1987 he was opening for MC Shan at the Lee School in Dorchester along with the young R.S.O and Body Rock crews. A short time later, Emo E would break up The Body Rock crew to join R.S.O. after Orangeman’s departure from the group due to legal troubles. In another of Boston’s critical early talent migrations, Big Chuck would eventually leave the city to pursue a career with Dr. Dre at Aftermath records. Like other members of the Boston rap diaspora who went on to bigger and better things, Big Chuck’s subsequent influence on the rap music industry is rarely associated with his Boston roots.

Hip Hop Reaches the Suburbs By 1985, hip hop culture had spread across Boston’s black and Hispanic neighborhoods and was beginning to reach white kids in the suburbs. Though the converts were smaller in number, they were no less committed than youth in Boston’s inner cities. In Malden, a suburb southwest of Boston, DJ Koo Koo was preaching the hip hop lifestyle to young Matt Rayes. He and Matt would go on to form White Magic (Boston’s first white rap group) which was followed almost immediately by The White Boy Crew (a Boston and Cambridge duo made up of MC Popeye and the beat boxing Spinach). Young John Pressiano (aka Jawn P) formed the Double Def crew which would eventually become Top Choice Clique (Rayes). Even suburbs as distant as Lowell, MA were spawning vibrant scenes. Donny Maker (aka DJ Def Rock) was schooled early on in the hip hop lifestyle having grown up near Lowell’s Julian D. Steele Housing Development (aka The Shaugnessy Projects). He first encountered rap in 1979 when he heard ‘‘Rappers Delight’’ on the radio (Maker). By the early 1980s he was already an accomplished graffiti artist and was honing his growing MC and DJ skills in local battles and parties at the Shaughnessy projects. Several encounters with Dr. Fresh helped him learn the ‘‘human metronome’’ technique and by the mid-1980s Donny was performing regularly as an MC in a group called the Fresh Beat Force that featured a white female beat boxer named Bizzy Bee. By 1985, Donny had formed the EMC3 Crew that (at various times) included himself, Bizzy Bee, Frost Bee, Cool Will, Steve Nyce, and DJs Jerry Jay and Active. Until 1990, the group battled and performed in the Boston area at shows like the summer Kite Festival and

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eventually opened for national artists like Run DMC and Intelligent Hoodlum at the Lowell Memorial Auditorium. During these early years, Boston’s art world also became aware of the cultural phenomenon that was sweeping the country. In December 1983, two of Boston’s premier art movie houses (The Coolidge Corner Theater and Orson Wells Cinemas) screened the recently released hip hop documentary Wild Style. Two of its graffiti writing stars, Pink (Sandra Fabara) and Heart (Gloria Williams) came to town to promote the film and were featured in an article in the Boston Globe that week (Temin). The Institute of Contemporary Art also participated by hosting a famously informal hip hop cultural event that included an MC battle between regular attendees of the Lecco’s Lemma radio show. As it had in New York, some segments of the art world in Boston embraced hip hop style as the newest trend in pop art.

Boston’s Early Rap Releases By any measure, 1986 was a huge year for Boston rap music. Before that time, Kevin Fleetwood’s records and Rusty the ‘‘Toe Jammer’’ ’s 1985 ‘‘Breakdown New York Style’’ (which he released with his group The Sure Shot 4) represented the bulk of local rap releases. Between 1986 and 1987 there were suddenly several new singles released by local artists. Leveraging a relationship with Maurice Starr’s cousin, Lawrence ‘‘Woo’’ Wedgeworth, MC Spice negotiated a contract with Atlantic records and in 1986 released his first single ‘‘Don’t Treat Your Girl Like a Dog.’’ Although a full record never came out, Spice was the first rapper signed to Atlantic (to be followed closely by MC Lyte) and his was the first release on a major label for a Boston rapper. In the same year, the RSO Crew released ‘‘The Greatest Show on Earth’’ on Boston’s Boot Records which they followed in 1987 with ‘‘We’ll Remember You.’’ Not to be outdone, Dwayne Omarr, another Boston pioneer, released the single ‘‘Holy Rock’’ on the Reading label Critique. Amid all this local activity, perhaps the most important of the 1986 releases was the Boston Goes Def compilation. Produced by Steve ‘‘Mr. Beautiful’’ Barry, this collection presented a veritable who’s who of Boston’s earliest rap artists including Disco P and the Fresh MC, FTI (Fresh to Impress) Crew (which included rapper Ed Anderson), the White Boy Crew, MC Capers, Rusty the ‘‘Toe Jammer’’ and Larry D, and The Body Rock Crew among others. While it was a watershed moment for the community, the music represents an awkward compromise between the do-ityourself rap aesthetic of the artists and the professional rock production sensibilities of the producers. At the same time, the national airwaves were awash with Run DMC’s pioneering rock-rap remake of Aerosmith’s classic rock anthem ‘‘Walk this Way’’ (see sidebar: Aerosmith). Given Boston’s legacy as a rock and roll town, it seems oddly appropriate that the song that paved the way for rockrap was co-written by its toxic twins Stephen Tyler and Joe Perry. These releases dramatically increased the availability of locally recorded rap music. However, they only represented a fraction of the recording activity that

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was going on at the time in Boston. Because most young crews lacked the financial resources to press a 12’’ record, they relied on whatever technology was at hand to document their creativity. Aspiring artists all over the city made pause tapes (i.e., mixtapes recorded using the pause button on a tape deck) and simple live recordings of beat boxing, rhyming and DJing on rudimentary home recording systems. Early demo tapes from such accomplished artists as The Almighty RSO and Guru are clearly recorded live with minimal engineering (MC Keithy E). As technology improved and local producers began to accumulate more gear and engineering skills, the sound of local productions improved as well. Dense four track turntable compositions were being created as early as 1986 by Carver’s DJ Prime, and as soon as drum machines became available at local music stores they began to appear on recordings in Boston. A 1986 Kiethy E demo tape includes tracks featuring the young Guru rhyming and flexing his singing voice over a bare drum machine track. As samplers became widely available and began gracing Marly Marl productions, kids in Boston were busy trying to replicate and advance the sounds they were hearing on major releases. Although local hip hop proliferated during the late 1980s, several factors made it hard for Boston artists to translate local talent into recording contracts and national recognition. Boston’s reputation as a rock and roll town that had spawned bands like the Cars, Boston, Aerosmith, and The J. Geils Band meant that the local music industry was less oriented toward urban audiences and tastes. Because rock music dominated the nightclubs in greater Boston, rap performances usually occurred at community events like the annual Kite Festival and privately organized concerts like Maurice Starr’s Hollywood Talent Nights. Later, the perceived (and often realized) potential for violence at rap concerts would make it even harder to get shows at Boston nightclubs. However, among all of the factors that limited exposure for local artists, the absence of a commercial radio station devoted to local rap music is one of the most important. Strangely, as rap crossed over and achieved mainstream popularity across the country in the mid-1980s, commercial radio in Boston sat on the sidelines.

The College Radio Nexus: Preserving the Underground Unlike in other cities where commercial radio stations began to include rap music programming in the late 1980s, commercial radio stations in Boston maintained an ambivalent (if not mildly hostile) relationship with rap music well into the 1990s. As late as 1993, the Boston Globe was reporting about how little rap music had penetrated commercial radio in Boston (Bickelhaupt). At that time, only WJMN (94.5 FM), WILD (1090 AM), and WXKS (107.9 FM) included rap programming regularly. Even these stations had fairly strict limitations on what they would play. WJMN (94.5 FM) played a wider variety of rap music than either of the other two other stations (which tended toward Top 40 hits at WXKS and popular R&B with occasional rap hits at WILD). Given the commercial success of Boston artists like

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AEROSMITH Aerosmith’s collaboration with Run DMC represented a tectonic shift in rap music and helped to rescue the careers of Boston’s rock icons Stephen Tyler and Joe Perry. By 1986, Joe Perry and Stephen Tyler were beginning to grapple with the heroin addictions that had helped fuel the band’s decline. Aerosmith’s 1985 comeback album Done with Mirrors had not done well and the band was foundering when they received a call from Run DMC producer Rick Rubin about working on a rap remake of their 1975 classic, ‘‘Walk This Way.’’ Having sampled Joey Kramer’s drum introduction to the song, Rubin asked Tyler and Perry to come to New York to record new bass, guitar, and vocal tracks and record a video. During the session, Perry borrowed a bass guitar from one of the Beastie Boys to recreate the bass track for the song. With new vocals, bass, and guitar tracks to go over the sample-based drum production, a legendary song was born. The resulting remake has widely been credited with exposing rap music to mainstream white audiences and breaking down the boundary separating the two genres. Eventually reaching #5 on the Billboard 100, the song not only broke barriers between musical genres, it also provided critical energy and cultural cache (not to mention income) to the flagging Aerosmith organization. The video for the song represents the genre-bending nature of the collaboration and opens with the two bands in adjacent rehearsal rooms engaged in a war of volume and style. Trying to sing along with the Run DMC version of the song coming through the walls, Tyler is annoyed when rap vocals come in on the first verse. Eventually breaking down the wall between the rehearsal spaces to sing over the second chorus through a hole in the wall, Tyler dramatically enacts the racial and musical boundary spanning represented by the song itself. The video ends with Tyler and Perry performing with Joseph ‘‘DJ Run’’ Simmons and Darryl ‘‘D.M.C.’’ McDaniels in front of a largely white audience (an irony which was perhaps missed by the producers). As one of the first rap videos to receive heavy rotation on MTV, the video exposed rap music and style to a new audience of suburban white youth. At the same time, as the first mass market merger of rap and rock idioms, the song established a sound that would propel contemporary artists like Linkin Park, Korn and Kid Rock among others.

New Edition, New Kids on the Block, Marky Mark, Bell Biv Devoe, and Bobby Brown, perhaps it is no accident that Boston’s urban stations tended to emphasize top 40 R&B and New Jack Swing over harder rap. From very early on, college and community radio stations provided the harder urban and underground material that was not being played on Boston’s commercial stations. Among the earliest and

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most important of these college radio rap shows was Magnus Johnstone’s Lecco’s Lemma show on MIT’s WMBR (88.1 FM) (Foster). Magnus Johnstone (a local painter and college radio DJ) encountered rap music almost as soon as it began to be released. A musical omnivore with tastes leaning strongly toward Caribbean and African music, he had also been a long time fan of German electronic bands like Kraftwerk and had a weekly reggae show on MIT’s radio station WMBR (88.1 FM). Never a fan of the slick production of early 1980s R&B and club music, the raw aesthetic and hard electronic beats of rap music appealed to his do-it-yourself, groove-loving sensibilities. By 1984 he was occasionally getting to play his growing collection of rap and electronic records on guest spots on WMBR’s urban music show ‘‘The Ghetto.’’ In the spring of 1985, Magnus was growing tired of his reggae show and increasingly unsatisfied with the rare opportunity to play rap and electronic music on ‘‘The Ghetto.’’ He planned to leave the station that summer. In an effort to keep Magnus at the station, his friend and fellow WMBR DJ Thomas Uebel convinced him to pitch the station director on a new rap and electronic music show called Lecco’s Lemma. In the fall of 1985, Magnus was given the 4–6 PM slot on Saturdays and began the show which was to become a central force in catalyzing the hip hop community in Boston. It was not until the appearance of Magnus’s Lecco’s Lemma show that the local rap music community had a true home on the airwaves. Fans credit the show with exposing people to this new music and providing an outlet and meeting place for fledgling artists (Foster). For young people who were hungry for this emerging art form, the Lecco’s Lemma was both an education in the newest releases and an inspiration for their own creations because Magnus solicited and regularly played tapes from local groups. In his hypnotizing and strangely accented hipster drawl, Magnus would introduce his favorite new rap releases, announce shows, and most importantly, play almost any local artist at least once. Magnus had often invited MCs to toast live on the air over reggae versions on his weekly reggae show and in December 1985 he began inviting local rap artists come into the station to perform live on the air. While it seemed a natural evolution to Magnus, this decision marked a turning point in the show and after several glorious months, would lead to its death and eventual rebirth on the Boston College station WZBC (90.3 FM). From this point on, the show became a lively physical as well as a virtual meeting place for the community. One of Magnus’s most famous early guests was MC Keithy E (aka Keith Elam) who appeared with DJ Mikey D to discuss a recently completed demo tape containing rough versions of ‘‘Cold Cold World’’ and ‘‘The Lesson.’’ Other early regulars included Disco P & The Fresh MC, Bodyrock (Chuck & Emo E), MC Capers, The Almighty RSO and FTI crews, Rusty the ‘‘Toe Jammer,’’ The Tuff Crew, MC Fantasy, MC Spice, and RCC. Magnus was fulfilling his mission of exposing the world to the incredible music being made by inner-city youth.

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As early as 1986, teens in white working class suburbs like Malden and Carver had been bitten by the hip hop bug and began sending their tapes to Magnus and appearing on the show. For young artists like Carver’s DJ Prime, Malden’s Double Def Crew, and the Boston/Cambridge duo the White Boy Crew (whose version of ‘‘La Di Da Di’’ became a minor hit on the show), having your tape played on Lecco’s Lemma translated into immediate schoolyard credibility. Although the radio shows generally went off without incident, there were occasional scuffles and it was not unusual for profanities to slip out during exuberant on air performances. When the latter generated calls from local parents and teachers concerned about the negative influence the show might be having on young people, station management began taking note of this controversial new development on Saturday afternoons. Finally, in the spring of 1986, a crew that was scheduled to appear on the show handed out flyers announcing an MC battle at the station. Magnus arrived that afternoon to find over 100 unsupervised youngsters bustling around basement halls of MIT. Whether it was the unsupervised youth roaming the halls, the occasional profanity that slipped out over the air, the calls from parents or some combination of these factors, the show was soon discontinued by station management. With help from a friend, Magnus was able to move the show to Boston College’s WZBC-FM (90.3) in Newton where it continued until the late 1980s. During Magnus’s unlikely reign as Boston’s rap radio pioneer, he watched as artists that had once sent him homemade tapes went on to sign record deals with major labels. He also watched as a new generation of artists emerged—more and more of whom seemed to be coming from Boston’s largely white suburbs. Now receiving a regular supply of new (and increasingly professional sounding) tapes from groups like COD, Top Choice Clique, Out of Town Posse, DJ Spin, MCDJ Force, and Paris Toon, Magnus’s original goal of exposing the world to music being made at home by inner-city youth was fading (Rayes). In the meantime, other college stations had also developed rap shows (most of which were more professional sounding than Magnus’s notoriously charming informality). Harvard’s WHRB (95.3 FM) had ‘‘Street Beat’’ which was run by Harvard students David Mays and Jon Schecter (the eventual founders of The Source) with DJ Def Jeff from The RSO Crew. An even more professional sounding effort could be heard on Emerson College’s WERS (88.9 FM) ‘‘Rap Explosion.’’ This show featured short-lived DJ wunderkind Jesse McKie and his mixmaster successor Mark Morrow. By the late 1980s a second generation of Boston rap groups had released influential golden age records and were regularly appearing at Boston’s music industry showcase, The Boston Music Awards. In 1988, TDS Mob released their golden age gem ‘‘Dope for the Folks’’ which was built around a sample from the similarly titled Soul Searchers track ‘‘Funk for the Folks’’ and would go on to become a one of the most sought after of Boston’s rare rap releases. The racially integrated

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Malden group Top Choice Clique had released ‘‘The Powers in the Words’’ (1988) on Waltz Records. Edo G was regularly performing as Edo Rock with the FTI (Fresh to Impress Crew). The Almighty RSO was also rapidly becoming a major force in Boston’s rap scene. Despite all this activity, hip hop in Boston remained a youth and art world phenomena well into the 1990s. It may be true that hip hop reached mainstream popularity later in Boston than it had in New York, but press reports from the time also overlooked the vibrant underground scene that had existed from very early on. For example, Steve Morse’s 1990 Globe article, ‘‘Rap Invasion Tapping on Boston’s Door,’’ makes it seem as if rap music was virtually unknown in Boston. In fact, as Boston’s mainstream papers began to announce the arrival of rap music in 1990, hip hop in Boston was already entering its adolescence. Maurice Starr’s wildly popular Hollywood Talent Nights were a thing of the past. Boston pioneer MC Spice had already left his career in Boston and been summoned back to help produce Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch’s debut album in 1990. After his early career as a teen DJ phenomenon who scratched with his feet, Rusty ‘‘the Toe Jammer’’ became the regular DJ at the popular Hollywood Talent Night series, recorded with Peter Wolf, dropped his youthful name and went on to found Spin City Records/Funky Fresh Records. The early princes of Boston Dance, Funk Effects, and their farm team Boston Poppers and Lockers, had disbanded and gone their separate ways while younger upstarts, The New York Puppeteers, had joined members of the Mass Break Team to become the legendary b-boy crew, The Floorlords, who ruled regional battles throughout the 1980s. As Boston hip hop began to be recognized by mainstream local media, it entered a new and violent period as growing commercial interests met the tidal wave of gang violence that swept through Boston’s inner city in the early 1990s. Back in the early days, before the money got into it, hip hop in Boston began just like it had in New York—as a style, art form, and way of life for a small group of youth that expressed itself musically, socially, artistically, and only later professionally.

THE GOLDEN AGE AND THE DARKEST DAYS: 1988–1995 By the late 1980s, hip hop in Boston had entered a new phase. The early days of community shows at the Lee School, open mics at the 4 Corners hot spots Ben’s Lounge and Cortees’s, and countless undocumented (and largely peaceful) block parties gave way to a new era of growing competition (Staton). As the commercial potential of hip hop became obvious, more and more artists saw it as a ticket to fame and fortune (or at least out of the hardscrabble life of the inner city). Crews began to hustle for scarce industry resources like access to recording studios, paid gigs, and elusive recording contracts with national labels. The halcyon days of impromptu on air battles at Lecco’s Lemma were long gone. Hip hop had

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Ed O.G. (Getty Images)

entered its adolescence, which brought with it a new level of braggadocio, energy, and violence. Movies like the 1988 film Colors heralded this new era. Hollywood images glorifying the gangster lifestyle arrived along with a real world crack and gang epidemic that swept through Boston’s inner-city neighborhoods (Pendleton). To young people in the inner city, this early media depiction of the gangster lifestyle provided a model for their own growing real world turf battles. As inner-city neighborhoods became engulfed in a rising tide of youth violence in the early 1990s, young people began to distinguish themselves and their powerful neighborhood affiliations using sports team caps and jerseys. The Humboldt Avenue neighborhood in Roxbury where Edo G grew up was represented by Oakland Raiders gear. Castlegate Street in Dorchester (and its most notorious group RSO) was represented by Boston’s hockey team The Bruins. Inner-city youth took these geographic and brand identifications more and more seriously as they were deeply connected to powerful neighborhood (and sometimes gang) identities. In Dorchester’s 4 Corners neighborhood, Adidas sneakers reigned supreme as evidenced by the Adidas Tree (a tree festooned with dozens of pairs of sneakers) that served as public notice of the local brand identity (see sidebar: Adidas). The complex intersection of neighborhood turf wars, drugs, and gang activity generated an explosion of violence in the early 1990s which would take many lives in Boston’s young hip hop community. For most of the 1980s, the murder rate in Boston had fluctuated between 82 and 105 people per year. It had been a relatively peaceful decade in a city still recovering from the racial violence of the bussing crisis in the 1970s. In a shocking end to this relative tranquility, 143 people (most of them inner-city youth) were murdered in Boston in 1990. This violence had a profound and lasting impact on the hip hop

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ADIDAS In Boston, Adidas sneakers were so popular they seemed to grow on the trees. Although Adidas has been a staple in the fashion diet of hip hoppers everywhere, Boston clung to its identification with the brand longer and more tightly than other towns. Local rappers Almighty RSO provide an illustration of the power of the Adidas brand on the cover of their 1988 ‘‘Notorious’’ single. Appearing decked out in matching Adidas track suits and sneakers, this cover pays homage to the brand as a gangster icon as members of the band reach for the pistols tucked into their shiny waistbands. Long before they appeared in matching Bruins gear, RSO were rocking their Adidas. There was no more prominent (and controversial) demonstration of the power of the Addidas brand than the Adidas Tree in the Grove Hall neighborhood of Dorchester. Adorned with dozens of pairs of sneakers, the Adidas tree sat in a wooded lot on Intervale road that had been taken over by the notorious Intervale Road Posse who ran the local crack trade and were known for their brutality (as well as their love of Addidas). The group had outfitted the park with couches, a barbeque, and even televisions powered from local homes that had been abandoned. This neighborhood was both a hotbed of gang activity as well as hip hop talent. Illustrating the multilayered nature of hip hop icons, the Adidas tree held many meanings for local residents. To those inside the community, the tree symbolized acceptance as young MCs who were deemed good enough were allowed to throw their sneakers into the branches. For rivals and outsiders, it served as a reminder that anyone caught wearing any other brand could expect trouble. For local adults and authority figures, it represented youth and gang culture gone wild. The presence of frequent gunfire and rampant gang activity served to reinforce this latter image. Eventually, the Adidas tree was cut down by the authorities who came in to clean up the lot after 23 members of the Intervale Road gang were arrested in a raid by the Boston Police.

community as beefs that began in the neighborhood often showed up at events and vice versa. Increasingly, fights (and sometimes deaths) became common at rap shows. In the summer of 1992, a free concert at City Hall Plaza, featuring A Tribe Called Quest and Arrested Development, drew 20,000 young people. The show was cancelled after only three acts when the crowd surged forward, knocking over several police barricades. 15 people were hurt and 24 arrested in what was described as a ‘‘rampage’’ by the Boston Globe, as frustrated young fans threw bottles at police, engaged in fights, and trashed several local businesses (Murphy). Despite the mixed color of the crowd at the event, in the eyes of a wary public, hip

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hop in Boston seemed to be increasingly associated with violence, gangs, and problems with inner-city youth. Violence at shows made nightclub owners and promoters reluctant to book rap music which reduced the already limited number of outlets for shows in Boston during the early 1990s. Just as the music was demonstrating its massive commercial potential across the country, outlets were drying up in Boston. Rap shows occasionally appeared at Boston rock venues like the Channel Nightclub and Kenmore Square’s famous Rathskeller, but during this period, regular hip hop events were rare and usually short-lived due to fights (or the fear of them). Despite the lack of outlets for local talent and the long shadows cast by Boston R&B groups like New Edition, New Kids on the Block, Bobby Brown, Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch, and Bell Biv Devoe, in the late 1980s local Boston rap groups slowly began to get more media attention. In 1987, the first Boston Music Awards included a category for ‘‘Outstanding Rap Act’’ and the first several years of the awards included a veritable who’s who of late 1980s Boston groups. This local exposure notwithstanding, in the early 1990s, Boston rap groups still struggled to get national recording contracts and some began to leave Boston to pursue careers in New York. MC Keithy E of the Gang Starr Crew’s departure for Brooklyn, NY (along with Gang Starr name) was a formative story for the Boston hip hop community. His subsequent success with DJ Premier is the stuff of hip hop legend. However, because Guru did not regularly refer to his Boston roots in those early days, some folks back home felt the city had lost an opportunity for national recognition that it deserved. Perhaps contradicting this popular narrative, on a 1986 radio appearance on WZBC (90.9 FM) in Newton, Guru talks about a recent move to Brooklyn where he hoped to get his own record on the market and then ‘‘reach out to all the fly rappers, and beatboxers and DJs in Boston’’ (MC Keithy E). While he clearly had the intention of using his success to pave the way for local artists, in the end Guru made New York his permanent home and most early fans associated his success with Brooklyn rather than Boston. The harder hitting Boston group The Almighty RSO had translated their two independent Boot releases into a deal with Tommy Boy records in 1992. Their goal seemed to be to leverage their local street credibility to build national exposure Table 1

Outstanding Rap Act Category: Boston Music Awards (1987–1990)

1987

1988

1989

1990

FTI Crew

A Train

Disco P. & Orangeman

Gang Starr

Oreo Crew

Disco P. & Fresh MC

Gang Starr

MC Spider

RSO Crew

Fat Girls

RSO Crew

RSO Crew

Wack Attack

Gang Starr

T.D.S. Mob

T.D.S. Mob

White Boy Crew

Rusty the ‘‘Toe Jammer’’ Top Choice Clique

Top Choice Clique

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and a name for themselves as Boston’s bad boys of rap. Their release on Tommy Boy, ‘‘One in the Chamba’’ (1992), was an angry, hard hitting track describing the police harassment and brutality members had witnessed growing up in Roxbury. According to Raymond ‘‘Ray Dog’’ Scott, the leader of the group, the song ‘‘vented frustration with police’’ and described the police shooting of two friends, Christopher Rogers and Nethanial Lackland (Grant). Echoing the feeling shared by many gangsta rappers of the time, RSO felt they had the right to report about the violence they were witnessing in America’s inner cities. ‘‘One in the Chamba’’ pulled no punches in advocating armed resistance to violent police tactics and was swept up—along with Ice T’s recently released ‘‘Cop Killer’’ (1992)—in a national controversy about the messages in gangsta rap songs. To the Boston Police Patrolman’s Association, the song apparently seemed like a taunt from a group that had a long history of encounters with the law. With the backing of Oliver North and Jack Thompson (the Florida attorney who sued 2 Live Crew for profanity), The Boston Police Patrolman Association announced their intention to sue Tommy Boy records. Shortly thereafter, RSO was dropped from the label which claimed the decision was due to low sales. Members of the group felt the label had succumbed to public pressure (Grant). By the late 1980s, another Boston rap creation with ties to The Almighty RSO, The Source magazine, was appearing as a photocopied sheet in local record stores like Skippy Whites, Nubian Notions, and Spin City. Founded by Harvard rap fans David Mays and John Schecter (and with a little early advertising support from Skippy White), the publication rapidly grew in popularity and seemed destined to become a vehicle for exposing Boston artists to a national audience. In 1990, when the young Source relocated to New York, Boston lost its second rising star in just a few years. The sense of playing second fiddle to the larger city down the coast was gradually rising among Boston fans. The controversial relationship between The Source and RSO’s Raymond ‘‘Ray Dog’’ Scott (later known as Benzino), is widely known and well reported elsewhere (Chang). In a now famous event in hip hop journalism, Mays’ battle with the editorial staff over a review of a RSO record led to a staff walkout in 1994. However, this did not end the struggles at the magazine. After a decade filled with charges of sexual harassment, staff intimidation, and financial mismanagement, The Source finally removed Mays and Benzino in 2006. Perhaps because The Source story included so many controversies and public battles, its more positive elements (and their Boston roots) are not as salient in the public memory. Putting all the controversies aside, the seminal role that The Source has played in providing a voice for the hip hop nation can not be denied. The fact that it emerged out of the vibrant underground hip hop scene in Boston in the late 1980s should not be forgotten. Other late 1980s Boston rap pioneers also fared well in the early 1990s. Chief among them was Edward Anderson from the Fresh to Impress Crew. Now calling himself Ed O. G. and appearing as Ed O. G. & Da Bulldogs, his Boston bona fides

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were reinforced with the commercial success of his 1991 single ‘‘I Got to Have It’’/Life of a Kid in the Ghetto on PWL records. In 1991 the single reached #1 on Billboard’s Hot Rap Singles charts and the video was receiving heavy rotation on Yo! MTV Raps and Vibe. For folks in Boston, seeing scenes of Dudley Square rolling by on TV proved that fame was indeed possible for Boston artists (Boston Beats and Rhymes). Boston hip hop seemed just about to get its day on the national stage. Unfortunately, several factors stymied the careers of Boston’s rap artists during this period. Despite having several sources for rap music on the commercial airwaves, the format still leaned heavily toward top 40 rap and R&B hits on WXKS (KISS 108 FM) and WILD (1090 AM). The rap airwaves in Boston took on a slightly harder edge in 1993, when after a decade long battle with WXKS, WZOU (94.5 FM) changed its call letters to WJMN and as ‘‘Jam’n 94.5’’ billed itself as ‘‘Boston’s home for blazing hip hop and the hottest R&B’’ and began to play edgier fare. Although this change increased the amount of harder rap being played in Boston (and provided a launching pad for local DJs like Geespin), none of the commercial stations featured local artists regularly. In addition, the exposure that Boston artists did receive was often curtailed by clashes between performers and members of the local music industry. At a mid1990s concert sponsored by Jam’n 94.5, Edo G was having trouble with an engineer who seemed unable to get a good vocal sound on stage. In the language he was accustomed to using at the time, Edo boastfully threatened the soundman. Whether merely youthful braggadocio or actual threat, this interaction did not help him win friends with station management and illustrated the tensions that sometimes flared as teenage musicians with street corner attitudes confronted the local music industry. It also remained difficult to get rap music nights started and sustaining themselves in Boston nightclubs in the early 1990s. Because the community was plagued by infighting, violence at shows became more common, which in turn made nightclub owners reluctant to book rap acts (Diggs). From inside the community, this exclusion took on a racial overtone as most of the same clubs seemed willing to book occasionally violent (and predominantly white) punk and heavy metal shows. Throughout the early 1990s, Boston still lacked a rap music industry to help artists navigate their careers and interact effectively with the local and national music industry. In the 1970s and 1980s, Boston had a strong rock and roll scene and its music industry continued to reflect that bias. Although the Boston Music Awards included an ‘‘Outstanding Rap Act’’ category (Table 2), these nominations reflected a small slice of the local scene. Boston veterans like Edo G, Gang Starr, The Almighty RSO and Top Choice Clique remained regular recipients, and in the early 1990s Marky Mark (Mark Robert Michael Wahlberg, b. June 5, 1971) began to appear regularly. With the 1994 inclusion of G. Love & Special

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Nominations for Outstanding Rap Act Category: Boston Music Awards (1991–1995)

Table 2

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

Gang Starr

Ed O.G. & Da Bulldogs

The Almighty RSO Crew

Ed O.G. & Da Bulldogs

The Almighty RSO

Marky Mark

Gang Starr

Ed O.G. & Da Bulldogs

Gang Starr

Ed O.G. & Da Bulldogs

RSO Crew

Marky Mark & The Funky Bunch

Gang Starr

Guru

Gang Starr

T.D.S. Mob

Posse NFX

Marky Mark & The Funky Bunch

Marky Mark & The Funky Bunch

G. Love & Special Sauce

Top Choice Clique

Tam Tam

Top Choice Clique

Top Choice Clique

Top Choice Clique

Young Nation

Top Choice Clique

Sauce the nominations increasingly started to reflect top 40 radio and college tastes. Stylistic differences did not help bridge the significant cultural divides between urban artists and the local music industry. Even those artists that had achieved national success were still having trouble with bad luck and industry politics. After being dropped by Tommy Boy, RSO was picked up by Ruthless Records but their progress was again curtailed when their mentor and producer, Eazy E was diagnosed with AIDS and later died in 1995. With a few notable exceptions (Edo G, RSO/Made Men/Benzino, Guru), it would take the explosion of underground rap in the late 1990s before Boston artists began to reach national audiences on a regular basis.

REGIONAL SCENES AND THE (RE)BIRTH OF THE UNDERGROUND: 1995–2008 As a long time hip hop fan and community activist, Cindy Diggs had been observing the challenges faced by Boston’s hip hop community for many years. In 1995, she decided something needed to be done. Cindy formed a hip hop advocacy group called Us Making Moves Forever (UMMF) to help unify the hip hop community while building connections with members of the national music industry. Under this banner, Cindy rallied the community and eventually built a 500-person membership organization that published a newsletter, arranged industry networking

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events for local artists, and most importantly, began to organize successful local shows. Given the difficulty (and dangers) of booking nighttime shows at places that served alcohol, Cindy scheduled shows in the evening, on off nights, or at places with no alcohol. This strategy proved successful and one of her most influential regular events was a weekly open mic at a soul food restaurant on Columbus Ave named Bob the Chef’s. This event became an incubator for mid-1990s rappers and groups like Mr. Lif, Akrobatik, K.T., Concrete Clique, Lo-Kee, S.N.I.P.E.R., Domestik Soulgerz, Mikst Nutz, Rip Shop, M-Slash, Imperial G. Smooth, Punch Spiked Wit Poison, T. Max, God Complex (aka. 7L and Esoteric), and many others who would go on to have successful careers as performers and recording artists. In addition to helping forge allegiances among a new generation of underground artists, these open mics also served as a training ground for the larger industry networking events hosted by UMMF. Their Can We Talk 2 U? Entertainment Convention was held annually between 1995 and 1998 and exposed young Boston artists to industry professionals (and vice versa). The inclusion of nationally recognized speakers like Wendy Day of the Rap Coalition and Jam Master Jay drew national attention for Boston’s rap scene through write-ups in The Source, Rap Pages, and Blaze magazines (Diggs). UMMF played a critical role in unifying Boston’s hip hop community, opening nightclubs to the idea of doing shows and helping artists connect with industry professionals. However, in the late 1990s, Cindy was spending more and more of her own money and time on the organization and needed to find a way to make it selfsustaining. When an attempt to collect a small yearly membership was not successful, she returned to doing paid community work and spent less and less time on the organization. In recognition of her many years of service to Boston’s hip hop community, in 2006 Cindy received a lifetime achievement award from the Mass Industry Commission (M.I.C.) at its second annual Boston hip hop awards ceremony. Her Akrobatik coined moniker, ‘‘Mother Hip Hop’’ succinctly summarizes her place in the community. Partly due to Cindy’s efforts with UMMF, the freeze on rap in nightclubs started to thaw in the late 1990s and Boston was well poised to ride the wave of underground hip hop that was about to sweep college campuses. By the late 1990s a new generation of Boston artists was turning underground credibility and intelligent rhymes into regular gigs and recording deals. Late in the 1990s, members of UMMF began their own night under the moniker Main Ingredient Productions (aka. Metro Concepts) at the Cambridge reggae club, The Western Front. This weekly open mic became a regular stop for Boston’s growing community of underground MCs and allowed emerging artists to hone their skills in front of (largely) supportive audiences (Boston Beats and Rhymes). During the mid-1990s, Rusty ‘‘the Toe Jammer’’ Pendleton had dropped his youthful name and was focusing more on his record store business than on DJ gigs. While he still occasionally played out, most of his time was spent managing the

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store, promoting events, holding in-store appearances and serving as a vinyl oasis for the urban hip hop community. Illustrating the geographic and racial lines that have historically divided the city, few of the legions of ‘‘backpacker’’ rap fans (e.g., white college students) who began turning out in droves at local rap shows ventured over to Funky Fresh Records (which sat in the heart of the very nonwhite Dudley Square neighborhood) to get schooled on the latest urban beats. This community was more likely to find its vinyl at Boston’s many used record stores or at one of several Newbury Comics stores, none of which were located in Boston’s inner-city neighborhoods (see sidebar: Record Stores). By the mid-1990s, Boston had its first store catering specifically to the growing market for underground hip hop. Located on Massachusetts Avenue right near the top of Newbury Street, Biscuithead was a nexus for the underground rap scene. Its location within blocks of many other record stores (e.g., Spin City/Nuggets, Tower Records, Newbury Comics, Boston Beat, etc.) made it a regular stop for eclectic diggers on their rounds and hip hop heads alike. Back in those days, Biscuithead was the downtown outlet for underground hip hop while Rusty’s Funky Fresh Records catered to inner-city tastes. This cultural and geographic division would persist in the local hip hop community well into the new millennium (and continues to rear its head occasionally to this day). During this period, rap music production was booming in Boston. Two Berklee College of music graduates, Dow Brain and Brad Young, formed Underground Productions and were getting regular production work by the mid-1990s. A veteran of Newbury Studios, Brad had already made a name for himself working with artists like RSO. In the mid-1990s, Dow and Brad met MC Casey ‘‘Polecat’’ Staton through Brad’s contacts at Newbury Studios. In 1995, this team would produce the Punch/Polecat split 12’’ LP on DBK Records featuring the classic Boston underground tracks ‘‘Mindless’’ and ‘‘Out Ta Flip.’’ Brad and Dow would also work with Dorchester rapper Todd ‘‘T-Max’’ Keith Maxwell, on the blunted urban classic 12’’ single ‘‘Relax Your Mind/Execution Style’’ (1996). The more popular track, ‘‘Execution Style’’ sold 11,000 units and reached the top 10 on the CMJ charts. ‘‘Relax Your Mind’’ was also a popular Boston rap track (eventually selling 6,000 units) and received play on local college radio stations. Perhaps most interesting is Dow and Brad’s collaboration with local dancehall producer Junior Rodigan as it reflects the extent to which Boston hip hop had absorbed Jamaican influences by the mid-1990s (see sidebar: Jamaican influences). Meanwhile, local scenes in some of Boston’s surrounding suburbs had been developing for 10 years and were beginning to bear fruit. Lawrence MA had produced the gritty beats and blunted rhymes of MC Scientifik. His 1994 Joe Mansfield and Edo G produced single ‘‘Jungles of Da East’’ remains one of the classic underground tracks of the mid-1990s. Having moved to southern New Hampshire from Lowell, MA, Donny ‘‘Def Rock’’ Maker founded Monstamind Records and released a 12’’ under the name Magabug that received favorable reactions and local radio play from college DJs like Brian Coleman. Def Rock also began

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RECORD STORES Rap was the first musical form to use LP records as an instrument. While records had been used in musical performances by modern classical innovators like John Cage, in the late 1970s, old funk and soul records found new life under the hands of young innovators who used their contents as a palate for the construction of new dance grooves. In the now familiar origin story, New York DJs like Kool Herc used duplicate copies of records to extend the breakdown sections of hard funk tracks. Because they provide raw materials for DJs, an outlet for artists, and a meeting place for fans, record stores play a critical role as anchors in hip hop communities. In Boston, the role of record stores as hubs in local music networks has been no less important. Among the earliest and longest lasting nodes in Boston’s urban music network is Skippy Whites Records. Skippy opened his store in 1961 on Washington St. in Boston and from early on specialized in music favored by urban audiences. While he always preferred R&B, blues, gospel and jazz to the repetitive beats and harsh language of rap, he was nevertheless a participant in the birth of the rap music scene in Boston. Because of his massive collection of soul, funk and R&B records, Skippy’s has long been an oasis for DJs and producers seeking breaks and samples in addition the new rap releases he carried. Skippy White’s was also among the first stores to feature copies of The Source magazine when it was still a photocopied fanzine being produced out of a Harvard dorm room. By supporting David Mays and John Schecter with advertising revenue when they were still Harvard undergraduates, Skippy played an important role in launching The Source. Skippy even dabbled briefly in rap music production releasing Top Choice Clique’s ‘‘Peace of Mind’’ (1994) on his own Sample Records. While Skippy White’s contained rap as part of a much larger collection of R&B, soul, funk and jazz, other stores have focused even more specifically on rap music. Among them, Rusty ‘‘the Toe Jammer’’ Pendleton’s Funky Fresh records is the oldest and most familiar to folks in Boston’s inner city. The store, located in Boston’s Dudley Square, has been an important outlet for Boston’s urban artists and DJs for more than a decade. In 2007, Rusty consolidated his store, selling an entire basement full of back stock to a single buyer after local DJs had a chance to pick through the stacks for a dollar a record. Now operating a smaller shop with a Tattoo parlor downstairs, Rusty continues his role as a local tastemaker on his Friday and Saturday night radio show, Funky Fresh Radio on Touch 106.1 FM. In the spring of 2008 his 10 PM–3 AM show shifted to an ‘‘All Boston’’ format. To this day, Rusty remains an active promoter of local talent. More recent arrivals on Boston’s record store scene included the Massachusetts Avenue underground hip hop oasis Buiscuithead Records. Located

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in a third floor office, the store was never easy to access, but its tasteful selection of the latest underground hip hop singles lined the walls next to descriptive tags like ‘‘illest beats!!.’’ While its reign was short, during the late 1990s, it was a critical stop on record circuit in Boston. Even more recently, Underground Hip Hop opened its doors and launched an equally strong online retail outlet. Founded by Northeastern students, this has become the new oasis for independent rap releases in Boston.

working with younger artists like Lowell’s Peter ‘‘Lyrical Lord Plourde’’ Plourde who began appearing in (and often winning) Boston MC battles in the mid-tolate 1990s. Eventually forming the group X-Caliber with his partner Fee, their 1998 ‘‘Butta Messenga’’ was a college radio hit and launched Lyrical’s career.

JAMAICAN INFLUENCES Jamaican influences in rap music have become the subject of scholarly study of late (Marshall). In Boston, these influences run long and deep. As early as 1986, The Almighty RSO was featuring reggae melodies and Jamaican turns of phrase like ‘‘we come fi nice up de show’’ on demo tapes sent to the Lecco’s Lemma ratio show. Their 1993 classic ‘‘Bad Boyz’’ (Epic) includes a strong Jamaican influence with Junior Rodigan’s uniquely accented patois introduction and second verse. Bobby Brown was also obviously influenced by Jamaican vocal style as he included four raggamuffin hip hop tracks on his 1993 B-Brown Posse record. The most prolific of Boston’s mid-1990s hip hop/dancehall producers were certainly Dow Brain and Brad Young. Having played in Reggae bands like the I-Tones and worked on tracks with Junior Rodigan, Brain and Young served as an important conduit connecting the hip hop and Reggae communities in Boston. One of their most popular crossover productions was the 1996 ‘‘Gangsta’’ by the band Motion which featured Ruffa toasting about ghetto lifestyle over a version of the classic Craig Mack track ‘‘Flava in Your Ear.’’ Their collaborations with Jr. Rodigan were usually released on the Mastermind label and sometimes refer to them using aliases (perhaps due to legal questions over sample clearances). While ragamuffin vocals began appearing in Boston hip hop as early as the 1986 RSO demo tape, it was not until Dow and Brad teamed up with local dancehall producer Jr. Rodigan that Jamaican vocals became a regular sound in Boston hip hop productions. These efforts hold up very well next to the more widely known releases on Bobby Konders’s Massive B label and represent an relatively unknown reservoir for fans of the mid-1990s Raggamuffin hip hop sound.

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By the late 1990s, violence prevention initiatives had created a dramatic drop in violence among inner-city youth. Between 1995 and 1997, no one under the age of 18 had been killed by a gun in Boston. Even legendary Boston gangsta rapper Raymond Scott of RSO, had gotten in on the peace game. Working at the Canton studio he shared with RSO publisher and long time collaborator David Mays, Ray began releasing tracks with a collection of former rival gang members called the Wiseguys. Made up of Anthony ‘‘Cool Gzus’’ Grant (formerly of TDS mob), Demaine ‘‘the Master Criminal’’ Thomas, James Marsh, Cordell Jones, Antonio ‘‘Tangg the Juice’’ Altamarino, Orvell ‘‘Big Man the Terror’’ Hairston, and Kevin ‘‘1-MP’’ Thurston, the group used their street credibility to spread a message of peace and unity among Boston’s inner-city youth (Morse). Despite these positive initiatives, controversy would haunt former members of RSO well into the new millennium. As underground hip hop began to take off in the late 1990s, Boston was well positioned to catch the wave. In the late 1990s, rock nightclubs like the Middle East in Cambridge and Bill’s Bar in Boston’s Fenway neighborhood began hosting semiregular rap nights featuring national acts (see sidebar: Rock Clubs). Often local acts would open for larger national acts, thereby increasing their exposure. The location of these clubs near Harvard University, MIT, Boston University, and Northeastern meant that college students could easily access the shows (Boston Beats and Rhymes). As the grimy, sample-heavy beats and clever lyricism of underground hip hop gained popularity across college campuses nationwide, Boston’s new generation of artists had been honing the formula for years. While the increasing popularity of local artists among college students helped fuel local careers, it also paradoxically reinforced a subtle racial cleavage that had existed in the community for many years. Increasingly, African American artists like Akrobatik, Mr. Lif, T-Max and Insight found themselves performing to largely white college audiences (Boston Beats and Rhymes). Adding to the complexity, since white artists like 7L and Esoteric, Edan and the Porn Theater Ushers were also regularly appearing before these audiences, there was often more racial diversity on stage than in the audience. Performances like Edan and Insight rocking doubles together on one set of turntables certainly represented a degree of integration among artists that was not as widely shared among audiences (Boston Beats and Rhymes). If local underground artists were not very well known in Boston’s inner city, Boston’s urban rap artists were totally unknown to the college crowds that attended shows at the Middle East and Bill’s Bar. As Boston’s underground hip hop scene grew throughout the late 1990s and turn of the century it was largely disconnected from inner-city fans that favored grittier material and Top 40 fare. Nonetheless, artists who had honed their talents at UMMF shows in the mid-1990s now had full-fledged careers. The arrival of two new local labels in the late 1990s and early 2000s helped many of these local artists reach national audiences.

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ROCK CLUBS In Boston, rap music found an unlikely home in nightclubs catering to rock and roll bands. Perhaps the sheer number and dominance of such clubs in Boston’s entertainment industry made it unlikely that rap would find any other home. Whatever the cause, rap music in Boston was paradoxically presented in the very same rooms that spawned bands like Morphine and the Mighty Mighty Bosstones. In the 1980s, rap acts occasionally played at the Kenmore Square nightclubs 9 Landsdowne and The Rat as well as Boston’s Fort Point nightclub The Channel. Certainly, shows were also taking place at inner-city venues like Dorchester’s Strand Theater and Roxbury’s Chez Vous roller skating rink. However, rock clubs played an important role in presenting rap music to local audiences as early as the mid-1980s in Boston. In the late 1990s, rock nightclubs played a critical role in helping fuel an explosion of underground artists who appealed to young white college artists. Cambridge rock clubs like the Middle East and T.T. The Bears began to present underground artists like Mr. Lif, 7L and Esoteric, Insight, D-Tension paired with nationally touring headlining acts. At Kenmore Square’s Bill’s Bar, the Macka Monday’s night became a regular spot for Boston’s emerging rap artists and small national acts alike. The relative dearth of nightclubs in Boston’s black and Hispanic neighborhoods and the proximity of Boston’s nightclubs to large populations of young (primarily white) suburban college students reinforced racial divides which had long separated the city. Rock clubs played a critical role in ensuring that the die hard fans in Boston had somewhere to go to see live rap music and helped launch the careers of many internationally known underground artists.

In 1995, Emmerson DJ Papa D (aka Adam Defalco) and his friend Truth Elemental (aka Josh Gagne) founded Brick Records with the express purpose of promoting Boston’s new generation of underground and independent hip hop artists (Boston Beats and Rhymes). Their 1995 Rebel Alliance compilation gained critical acclaim and spawned a successful 10-year run which has helped catapult artists like Mr. Lif, Insight, D-Tension, Akrobatic, 7L and Esoteric, and many others into the national spotlight. Adding fuel to an already burning local underground hip hop scene, Boston production veteran Joe Mansfield founded Traffic Entertainment in 2002 to satisfy the growing hunger for rare rap reissues and golden age classics. Their 2006 rerelease of material from Scientifik’s mid1990’s classic Criminal is just one of many local releases that helped to resurrect interest in Boston’s golden age artists. As the late 1990s gave way to the new millennium, Boston veterans RSO (now calling themselves Made Men) and Edo G had achieved legendary status in the

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community. Benzino achieved notoriety through his association with The Source magazine, widely publicized beef with Eminem, and his active career as a solo artist. Edo G was once again a regular nominee in the Boston Music Awards along with new favorites Mr. Lif, Akrobatik, 7L and Esoteric, the Porn Theater Ushers, The Skitzophreniks, D-Tension, Virtuoso, Insight, Krumb Snatcha, and Smoke Bulga. Meanwhile, two local DJs began to translate their mixtapes and frequent club appearances into regular spots on Boston’s commercial rap stations. Clinton Sparks emerged on the Boston music scene in 1998 as a writer for the popular morning radio show on WJMN (94.5 FM) with Baltazar and Pebbles. In the early years of the new millennium, he began appearing on Boston’s new urban station 97.7 FM (WILD) and began to make a regional name as a prolific mixtape producer. By 2006, Sparks had leveraged his growing reputation into a position as P Diddy’s DJ. During the same period, DJ Geespin became a regular feature in Boston’s nightclubs and was eventually recognized by Jam’n 94.5 DJ Roy Barboza and offered a late night spot on the show. His Launch Pad show was so popular that he was eventually offered a prime time slot on the station and has gone on to become one of its regular DJs. This period also found Boston veterans making new names for themselves and shedding old allegiances. Big Chuck, formerly a member of the Body Rock Crew with Antonio Ennis, had been frustrated by his dealings with Dr. Dre at Aftermath and resigned in 2003 to start his own label, the Drama Entertainment Family. His roster included Punch who received local acclaim in Boston for his work with the Street Poets in 1995. Like Big Chuck, former members of RSO had by this time become established business men. However, some were still dogged by their youthful images. In 2000, members of Made Men received unwelcome local press coverage for their alleged involvement in a backstage brawl at a Rough Ryders/Cash Money show at the Fleet Center and the September stabbing of Celtics star Paul Pierce at Boston’s Buzz nightclub (Graham). Meanwhile, the Antonio Ansaldi clothing company received local publicity for its ‘‘Stop Snitching’’ T-shirts, which were designed in 1999 by former RSO member Antonio Ennis as a novelty item but were widely criticized by police and city officials. In 2005, Boston experienced a new wave of youth violence and recorded its highest murder rate in a decade with 75 killings in the city. Several high profile murders, including the murder of four young musicians in a home studio in Dorchester, once again directed public attention to the violence that persisted in Boston’s inner city. In response to this escalating violence and the ‘‘Stop Snitching’’ controversy, local veterans Cindy Diggs and Antonio Ennis formed the ‘‘Start Peace’’ movement. Their first effort was a T-shirt that used the old ‘‘Stop Snitching’’ logo but replaced the old phrase with their new ‘‘Start Peace’’ message. As part of the campaign, Ennis also formed a group called 4Peace made up of local legends Edo G, Wyatt Jackson (formerly of the Unikue Dominoes), and Deric Quest. Their summer 2007 release ‘‘Start Peace’’ included a video of the same

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name and an appearance with Boston’s Mayor Menino at the third annual hip hop Unity Festival at City Hall Plaza. The fact that this was the same outdoor location of the 1992 concert that was described by the Boston Globe as a ‘‘rampage’’ was not lost on older members of the peaceful and diverse crowd. While Boston rap veterans 4Peace engaged the audience in a peace-promoting call and response, a group of kids decked out in ‘‘Boston Got Next’’ T-shirts represented the undying belief that Boston’s banner year is just around the corner. Indeed, evidence of a rap renaissance in Boston seems to be growing. In addition to the socially motivated group 4 Peace, in 2005 Edo G began working with another Boston supergroup called Special Teamz that includes Jaysaun (formerly of the Kreators) and Slaine (of La Coka Nostra). Boston veteran MC Lyrical also reemerged in the local press in 2005 with the release of his full-length CD iNFiNiTi which included the popular college single ‘‘The Focus is Back.’’ With members of the M.I.C., Lyrical began organizing an annual hop hop award show in 2006. A cross section of 2007 winners includes both Boston veterans (Floorlords, Akrobatik, The Almighty RSO) and local up-and-comers (e.g., DJs On & On and Jayceoh, MC Frankie Wrainwright, and the Foundation Movement). Meanwhile, local veterans MC Spice, Cindy Diggs, and Rusty ‘‘Mr. Funky Fresh’’ Pendleton have joined forces to gain local control of the urban airwaves and raise the consciousness of inner-city residents at Touch 106.1 FM (WTCH), a small community station located in the Grove Hall neighborhood of Dorchester. Representing their commitment to building a hip hop industry with deep roots in the inner city, the station recently shifted its format to feature Boston artists exclusively from 10 PM to 3 AM on Friday and Saturday nights. Perhaps it took the widely publicized ‘‘death of hip hop’’ in 2006 for it to be finally (re)born in Boston.

REFERENCES Bickelhaupt, Susan. ‘‘Boston Stations Accept the Rap.’’ Boston Globe, December 10, 1993, 72. Boston Beats and Rhymes. Dir. Scott Limanek, 2004. Bourne, K. ‘‘Local Talent Night Final Showcases Stage Acts.’’ Bay State Banner, February 13, 1986, 16. Chang, Jeff. Can’t Stop Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation, 407–35. New York: St. Martins Press, 2005. Delgado, Lino. Personal Interview. June 24, 2007 and May 6, 2008. Diggs, Cindy. Personal Interview. August 10, 2007. Foster, Pacey. Boston Hip-hop History: Magnus Carta. Weblog entry. Library of Vinyl. July 6, 2005. http://libraryofvinyl.blogspot.com/2005/07/boston-hiphop-history-magnus-carta.html (accessed April 20, 2008). Graham, Renee. ‘‘Life in the Pop Lane: Hip-Hop Doesn’t Deserve the Rap for Violence.’’ Boston Globe, April 5, 2000, C1.

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Grant, Traci. ‘‘Police Plan to Sue Boston Rappers.’’ Boston Globe, August 5, 1992, 43. Johnstone, Magnus. Personal Interview. July 11, 2007. Kennedy, David, Anthony Braga, and Anne Piehl. ‘‘The (Un)known Universe: Mapping Gangs and Gang Violence in Boston.’’ In Crime Mapping and Crime Prevention, edited by D. Weisburd, J. T. McEwen, 219–62. New York: Criminal Justice Press, 1997. Kindleberger, R. S. ‘‘Painting Boston: Surge in N.Y.-Style Graffiti Prompts City, T Officials to Say Enough is Enough.’’ Boston Globe, April 24, 1985, Metro 1. Maker, Donny. Personal Interview. May 10, 2008. Marshall, Wayne. ‘‘Kool Herc.’’ In Icons of Hip-hop, edited by Mickey Hess, 1–25. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2007. MC Keithy E. Interview on Lecco’s Lemma Radio Show. Ca. 1986. MC Spice. Personal Interview. September 9, 2007. Morse, Steve. ‘‘Boston Funk Finally Comes of Age.’’ Boston Globe, November 13, 1983. Arts & Film 1. ———. ‘‘Rap Invasion Tapping on Boston’s Door.’’ Boston Globe, February 9, 1990, 74. ———. ‘‘Rappers Wise Up.’’ Boston Globe, January 9, 1998. Arts & Film 15. ———. ‘‘Sky’s the Limit for Maurice Starr.’’ Boston Globe, April 15, 1980. Arts & Film 1. Murphy, Sean. ‘‘15 Hurt, 24 Arrested in Rampage.’’ Boston Globe, June 19, 1992. Metro/Region 1. Pendleton, Rusty. Personal Interview. August 10, 2007. Rayes, Matt. Personal Correspondence. July 28, 2007. Staton, Casey. Personal Interview. June 20, 2007. Temin, Christine. ‘‘Graffiti Is Her Business.’’ Boston Globe, December 24, 1983. Living 1. White, Skippy. Personal Interview. April 18, 2008.

FURTHER RESOURCES Brick records. http://brickrecords.com/ Chang, J. ‘‘The Source, the Industry and the Big Crossover.’’ Chap. 18 in Can’t Stop Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation. New York: St. Martins Press, 2005. Jost, M. The Almighty RSO. http://www.rapreviews.com/archive/BTTL _rsoforever.html (October 30, 2007). Mass Industry Committee. http://www.massindustrycommittee.com/.

Hip Hop in the Hub Rep Da Bean. http://www.bostonhiphoponline.com/. Traffic Entertainment Group. http://www.trafficent.com/.

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY 7L and Esoteric The Soul Purpose. Direct Records, 2001. Dangerous Connection. Landspeed Records, 2002. Akrobatik ‘‘Say Yes, Say Word’’ (12’’ LP). Detonator Records, 1999. AOI/God Complex ‘‘Verbal Gymnastics/Strontium 90’’ (12’’ LP). Brick Records, 1996. Edan Primitive Plus. Lewis Recordings, 2002. Beauty and the Beat. Lewis Recordings, 2005. Edo G and Da Bulldogs Life of a Kid in the Ghetto. PWL (LP). America/Mercury Records, 1991. Roxbury 02119. Mercury Records, 1993. Insight Insight Presents. Brick records, 2001. Lyrical iNFiNiTi. Blaze the World Records, 2005. Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch Music for the People. Interscope Records, 1991. MC Spice ‘‘Don’t Treat Your Girl Like Dog, Dog, Dog’’ (12’’ LP). Atlantic, 1986. Mr. Lif Enters the Colossus EP. Definitive Jux, 2000. Emergency Rations EP. Definitive Jux, 2002. I Phantom. Definitive Jux, 2002. Mo’ Mega. Definitive Jux, 2006. Polecat ‘‘R.I.P./Make the Paper’’ (12’’ LP). Ruckus, 1996. Punch/Polecat ‘‘Mindless/Out Ta Flip’’ (12’’ LP). DBK Records, 1995. Scientifik Criminal. Traffic Entertainment Group, 2006. T.D.S. MOB ‘‘Dope for the Folks/Crushin ’em’’ (12’’ LP). Race Records, 1988. ‘‘What’s This World Coming To/T.D.S. Scratch Reaction’’ (12’’ LP). Race Records, 1989.

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Tha Almighty R.S.O. Revenge of da Badd Boyz. RCA, 1994. Doomsday: Forever RSO. Rap-a-Lot Records, 1996. T-Max ‘‘Relax Your Mind/Execution Style’’ (12’’ LP). Damage Records, 1996. Top Choice Clique ‘‘Peace of Mind/You Can’t Deal’’ (12’’ LP). Sample Records, 1990. Various Artists The Greatest Beats. Tommy Boy, 1985. B-Brown Posse. MCA Records, 1993. Rebel Alliance. Brick Records, 1995. Building with Bricks. Brick Records, 2003. A Decade of Independence. Brick Records, 2007. X-Caliber ‘‘Butta Messenga/Les Miserables’’ (12’’ LP). Fat Sam Records, 1997.

CHAPTER 10 From Electro-Rap to GFunk: A Social History of Rap Music in Los Angeles and Compton, California David Diallo PROLOGUE: COLONIZING THE “WILD WILD WEST“ The city of New York, most particularly the Bronx, is generally regarded, as it has already been shown in this volume, as the sociocultural matrix of the hip hop movement. Musicians such as DJ Kool Herc, Afrika Bambaataa, and Grandmaster Flash, well before the large-scale commercial commodification of hip hop, had long established, in the mid-1970s, reference norms which determined the conventional way to make rap. These architects of the structural normalization of hip hop practices paved the way for many New York DJs, who, capitalizing on their symbolic capital and geographical legitimacy, began to leave a highly competitive local scene to musically colonize cities with virtually nonexisting hip hop scenes. As a consequence, the cultural shockwave that DJ music generated in the mid1970s, with its epicenter in the South Bronx, rapidly spread out to neighboring boroughs, cities, and states. It reached California through Tony Joseph, a DJ from East Elmhurst, New York. In a recent interview recorded on October 2006 by German reporters from the West Coast Pioneers Webzine, Joseph recounts how ‘‘dull’’ the Los Angeles DJ scene was when he moved there in 1979 (Joseph). He especially reports that, at that time, DJs used to perform with one turntable only and points out that music would sometimes go off between records, which made, in his opinion, Los Angeles ‘‘a very easy town to conquer.’’ Except for a few local DJs, like Michael ‘‘Mixxing’’ Moore for example, who had learned his concepts from visiting New York, local DJs were not really familiar with the mix technique which consisted in blending records. Early on, taking advantage of his DJing skills and profiting from the relative amateurishness of the Los Angeles rap scene, Tony Joseph started to mix at house parties, New York-style, and to organize mobile parties in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. In next to no time, he had landed slots on local FM stations KJLH and 225

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KACE on which he launched shows that would play a significant, though frequently overlooked, role in the development of the embryonic Los Angeles rap scene. Indeed, from 1981 to 1986, Joseph, also known as DJ T, and local DJ Michael Moore hosted ‘‘The Saturday Night Jams,’’ ‘‘Traffic Jams,’’ and ‘‘L.A. Sunday,’’ the highest rated radio shows on KJLH and KACE, two FM stations with an eclectic format. Having started out as a DJ in New York, Joseph imported his skills and know-how and claims to have been the first DJ to mix on the Los Angeles radio. With ‘‘Traffic Jams’’ and ‘‘Saturday Night Jams,’’ the listenership of which was considerable, Michael Moore and Tony Joseph significantly promoted the blossoming local hip hop scene throughout the early 1980s. In addition, Joseph regularly shared his expertise behind the wheels of steel with motivated local up-andcomers. For example, he notably taught the technique for mixing to Chris ‘‘The Glove’’ Taylor, an iconic member of the Los Angeles groundbreaking DJ community who would greatly contribute to its expansion.

WEST COAST PIONEERS AND LANDMARKS Chris ‘‘The Glove’’ Taylor, who was the turntable wizard of the legendary club Radio/Radiotron (see sidebar: Radiotron), started DJing in 1983, at a time when the electro-rap scene was on the rise. Heavily influenced by The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash and the Wheels of Steel, whose cuts and scratches he had been trying to figure out and copy in his garage, Taylor was reportedly one of the first Los Angeles DJs to use scratching techniques. He performed at local venues such as the Radio, The Sports Arena, and The Convention Center for ever-growing crowds of enthused dancers coming from all over the metropolitan area. He was notably featured in Breakin’ and Enterin’, a seminal documentary on the early Los Angeles electro rap movement in which he explained in detail his cutting and scratching techniques. The first official Angelino member of Afrika Bambaataa’s Zulu Nation, with which he shared a similar interest in the electronic music of Kraftwerk, Taylor played in different prominent groups such as Roger Clayton’s Uncle Jamms Army or the Radio Crew. He is particularly famous for producing ‘‘Reckless,’’ a song that had a remarkable influence on next generations of rappers. For instance, Eminem, while working in Los Angeles on his first LP with Dr. Dre, confessed to Taylor that he would not be rapping if it had not been for this song. Moreover, as the resident DJ of the Radio, Taylor was in regular contact with high-status musicians from the East Coast like Run D.M.C or Grandmaster D.S.T., who generally performed there while on tour, and took advantage of this opportunity to emulate their techniques. At a time when rap scenes were still compartmentalized, and when rap music was reaching Los Angeles’s still amateurish scene mostly through Greg Mack’s shows on KDAY or Joseph’s on KJLH, the vanguard Radio, thanks to such concerts, was definitely, as Taylor explained to the

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RADIOTRON Generally considered the epicenter of the early Los Angeles hip hop scene, the Radiotron (formerly known as the Radio Club) was, in the early 1980s, an important showcase for West Coast rappers. As early as 1983, local musicians like Ice-T, Egyptian Lover, or dancers like Pop N’ Taco or the Blue City Crew (who would later change their name to Boo-Ya Tribe) were reportedly performing at this emblematic club. Created in Los Angeles in 1980, The Radio Club was initially a night club hosting the popular weekend parties of which attracted up-and-coming DJs, MCs, and dancers from the Los Angeles metropolitan area. As the Los Angeles headquarters of the Zulu Nation and with influential experienced DJs like Afrika Islam, the club, located in the MacArthur Park area of Los Angeles, was definitely an avant-garde venue insofar as it featured exiled musicians and dancers from New York who, as early as 1982, brought out a lot of flavor from the seminal hip hop scene to Los Angeles and helped local dancers and DJs to step up their styles and footwork. In 1983, the Radio Club became the Radiotron and widened its nightly activities to educational hip hop classes. David Guzman, a Bronx choreographer who had been hired by owner Carmelo Alvarez to run the legendary location, turned it into a structured setting for future hip hop artists where local kids, amongst which Cuba Gooding Jr. came to learn break dancing, rap, graffiti, and other satellite practices. According to Guzman, even though events and contests were still organized on the weekends, the daytime community center was a haven of cultural creativity for inner city youths in an area plagued by gang-related violence. Radiotron, whose legendary status had been greatly consolidated by the mainstream Breakin’ movies, remained one of the main spots of the local electro-rap scene and was featured in several music videos of local acts. It was closed down in 1985 due to legal problems that inspired the second Breakin’ movie, Electric Boogaloo, but lives on in the minds of hip hop aficionados as the place that wrote the first chapter of the history of the Los Angeles rap scene and which gave breaks to many local musicians and dancers.

REFERENCE An interview with Dave Guzman 09/2007: http://www.westcoastpioneers .com/clubs-discos/radiotron.html.

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German journalists of westcoastpionneers.com: ‘‘like a piece of New York City and of the East Coast right in the middle of Los Angeles.’’ Conscious that this club was the epicenter of the blossoming Los Angeles hip hop scene and that some of its most renowned representatives, such as Pop N’ Taco (a dancer presented as one of the top two poppers of all time in the forthcoming hip hop dance documentary ‘‘The Suns of James Brown’’) or DJ Chris ‘‘The Glove’’ Taylor were performing there, film producers Menahem Golan and Yoram Globus, set their Breakin’ movies in this club. These somewhat formulaic films sketchily portrayed a flamboyant ‘‘poppin’ and lockin’ ’’ scene and followed the eventful lives of dancers Turbo and Ozone. Adolfo ‘‘Shabba Doo’’ Quinones, the dancer who starred as Ozone in the movies was, along with his sister Fawn, one of the original members of The Campellockers. This group, also known as The Lockers had been, throughout the 1970s, the most influential street dance group of the Los Angeles area. Started in 1969 by Don Campbell, a local street dancer, the ‘‘Campbellock’’ consisted in executing quick improvisational steps called the ‘‘locks’’ and in pointing movements with hand slaps and splits. This dance rapidly developed into a nightclub subculture whose members would meet in popular venues such as The Citadel in Hollywood, The Summit on the Hill, and Mavericks Flats, to trade steps and moves. Don Campbell’s Campbellockers are often considered as one of the most influential groups in the history of the Los Angeles hip hop movement, insofar as they set off a phenomenon that spread from the inner city (Watts) to the whole Los Angeles area and that evolved through the 1970s to fashion many styles and techniques of today’s hip hop dance world. Despite their one-dimensional characterizations and their watered-down representation of the Los Angeles inner-city life, Breakin’ and Breakin’ 2: Electric Boogaloo nonetheless constitute a significant landmark in hip hop culture. Rapper Redman, for example, humorously refers to their protagonists in the hit single ‘‘Da Rockwilder’’ (1999) in which he mentions ‘‘suckers’’ breaking like Turbo and Ozone. In addition to a young Jean Claude Van Damme swaying his hips in a skin-tight black spandex, the movies featured, most notably, a young local rapper with a reputation: Ice-T. As rap critic Brian Cross remarks, Ice-T (Tracy Morrow) was, at the time the Breakin’ movies were released, still an amateur MC mimicking what New York rappers were doing on the East Coast (182). Nonetheless, on his first releases, especially on ‘‘The Coldest Rap’’ (the B-side of ‘‘Cold Wind Madness’’), he was already developing the gangsta/pimp persona which would make him famous. This proto-gangsta anthem, which recounted how Ice-T was the best player in town and how he preferred easy money to a ‘‘9 to 5,’’ presented a regional version of the soon to be generic criminal imagery which was being institutionalized on the East Coast. The pimp discourse exposed in Ice-T’s rhymes was patently influenced by the writings of pimp-turned-pulp-novelist Iceberg Slim (Robert Beck). Not only had Ice-T chosen his rap moniker as an homage to this author, he had also created

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a similar reality-based fantastical pimp persona whose great charm was hard to match and who was breaking the hearts and blowing the minds of women competing to buy him things. Slim’s work undeniably had a profound effect on a young Morrow who, like his favorite author, was keen on documenting eloquently some of his hustler experiences. Such a pimp persona, in spite of its criminal and misogynist connotations, evoked a hustler culture the members of which held a considerable symbolic capital in black ghettoes. Numerous scholarly works have shown how street hustlers have been praised as cultural heroes by many ghetto dwellers. Wepman, Newman, and Binderman in The Life, the Lore and Folk Poetry of the Black Hustler (1976), Roger D. Abrahams in Deep Down in the Jungle: Negro Narrative Folklore from the Streets of Philadelphia (1973), Alan Dundes in Mother Wit from the Laughing Barrel: Readings in the Interpretation of African-American Folklore (1991), and more recently, Cecil Brown in Stagolee Shot Billy (2003) and Jerry H. Bryant in Born in a Mighty Bad Land: The Violent Man in African American Folklore and Fiction (2003) have shown the important place of hyperbolic outlaw characters in a vernacular heroic narratives. The oral narratives compiled in these volumes and with which ghetto residents were seemingly familiar had a considerable impact on the young Tracy Morrow, who, like a great number of Los Angeles ghetto youths, was fascinated by the appeal of an oppositional and fairly lucrative street life. Morrow had become involved in the street life at a young age when, while attending Crenshaw High School, he joined in with the Hoover Crips, one of the largest and most notorious L.A. street gangs whose members, identified by the blue color that they wore, were given a lot of media coverage in the mid-1980s because of the ruthless war that they waged against their Bloods rivals (identified by the color red). After a brief passage in the army, he came back to the ghetto where he found a legitimate job in an administration for $180 a week. Aware that this amount could be made in less than a day hustling on the corners with his gangbanging friends, Morrow, in keeping with a pattern of inevitability (effet de destin) identified by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (La Mise`re 85), ultimately fell back into the street life, first as a jewel thief, then as a pimp. He eventually gave it up in 1985 after a car accident to focus on portraying ghetto life and gangsters through rap music instead. Tracy Morrow had the intentions of being in the music business as a dance promoter for quite some time. When he returned to the L.A. streets in 1981, he became increasingly convinced that music could be an easy way to make money. He performed as a DJ at a couple of jams then decided to focus on being an MC. He soon started to perform with pioneers of the Los Angeles electronic-funk scene such as The Unknown DJ (aka DJ Unknown), Egyptian Lover, and DJ Flash. In 1982, at the age of 23, he released ‘‘The Coldest Rap’’ and ‘‘Cold Wind Madness’’ on Saturn Records. These two tracks rapidly became club-circuit favorite electrofunk classics. They were later compiled on ‘‘The Classic Collection’’ (Excello

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Records 1993) and also featured on disc 2 of ‘‘Legends of Hip Hop’’ (Blue Dolphin 2000). At that time, Ice-T regularly teamed up with a rapper of Mexican origins, Arturo ‘‘Kid Frost’’ Molina Jr. (a Los Angeles MC who would, in 1990, blaze a trail for latino rappers with his Hispanic Causing Panic album) to perform at backyard parties and lowrider car shows throughout Los Angeles. He was also one of the resident MCs of the Radio, along with Henry G and with DJs Chris ‘‘The Glove’’ Taylor and Egyptian Lover. In 1984, Taylor hired Ice-T to rap on ‘‘Reckless.’’ This track, when it hit the streets, firmly established Ice-T as a major MC on the developing Los Angeles electro-rap scene. He was, for example, the first rapper to perform as a guest MC at the extremely popular Uncle Jamms Army’s parties. Founded in 1978 under the name Unique Dream Entertainment and renamed Uncle Jamms Army in 1983, Uncle Jamms Army was a group of DJs which, by all accounts, organized the most popular parties in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. Founded by Roger Clayton and high-school friend Gid Martin, this army of around 20 DJs filled stadiums as big as the Los Angeles Sports Arena and the Convention Center on a regular basis. Roger Clayton, who also performed as a DJ, was the mastermind behind the success of Uncle Jamms Army. His promotion work was definitely ahead of that of other local crews. Early on, Clayton had developed ties with Russell Simmons and Run DMC and was the first manager to invite them to perform in front of more than 6,000 dancers at the Sports Arena. He was also the first DJ to bring early East Coast groups to Los Angeles. In 1984, for example, he brought rappers such as Whodini, Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, Kurtis Blow, Real Roxanne, or LL Cool J to local rap fans. Clayton’s Uncle Jamms Army was so popular that it managed to pack large venues, mostly, as Clayton recognizes, thanks to its impressive equipment (the DJs sometimes performed with 64 speakers, 12 amps, 4 turntables, drum machines, and synthesizers) and to its knowledge of the streets. In addition, the members of Uncle Jamms Army were the first Los Angeles street promoters to use posters and flyers on a big scale. In a recent interview, Clayton, who describes his group of DJs as the ghetto Kraftwerk, explained that, like East Coast hip hop pioneers, Uncle Jamms Army first became popular by playing at a lot of high school parties. Clayton’s DJs were on the streets all the time and had a radio show, ‘‘Saturday Night Fresh’’ on KDAY, a local radio that they would leave in 1983 for KJFJ when the latter offered them a well-paid $35,000 a year deal. Clayton was also the first DJ to use multitracks on radio commercials. Uncle Jamms Army reportedly had so many parties and requests that it needed scores of DJs in its ranks. Around 20 of them would branch out to play at different parties in different parts of the Los Angeles area. For example, Dwayne ‘‘Muffla’’ Simon from L.A. Posse Records (which later produced tracks for LL Cool J) used to perform for Uncle Jamms Army in Lancaster, Palmdale, and Bakersfield. As Muffla recounts in a recent interview, Uncle Jamms Army, in the early years of the Los Angeles rap scene, was throwing the most popular parties and was certainly instrumental in establishing Los Angeles as a

From Electro-Rap to G-Funk | 231 major rap scene insofar as its DJs laid its structural foundations and institutionalized street promotion and business models that would later be emulated successfully by other local labels like Ruthless or Death Row. Ice-T, as I pointed out, was one of the only rappers that Uncle Jamms Army’s DJs let rap at their parties. Roger Clayton had developed a good relationship with this promising up-and-comer while mixing his first record ‘‘Cold Wind Madness’’ with Egyptian Lover. This record clearly launched Ice-T’s career. In 1984, he featured in Hollywood’s portrayals of the early Los Angeles hip hop scene Breakin’, and Breakin’ 2: Electric Boogaloo as well as in Breakdance Gang, a movie in which he performed early raps such as ‘‘Coldest Rap,’’ ‘‘Reckless,’’ and ‘‘Killers.’’ In 1986, he recorded the 12’’ records ‘‘Ya Don’t Quit’’ and ‘‘Dog’n the Wax’’ which where released on Techno Hop, a label founded by DJ Unknown, a producer of electro-funk who had worked alongside Dr. Dre and the World Class Wreckin’ Cru before producing records for Compton’s Most Wanted. These releases and Ice-T’s noticeable media profile drew the attention of Sire Records, a subsidiary company to parent Time Warner, which offered him a recording contract. Cashing in on a criminal imagery whose glamor and oppositional style appealed to many young gang members and ghetto youths, he founded a production company: Rhyme Syndicate. Rhyme Syndicate brought together a group of Los Angeles underground DJs and MCs such as DJ Unknown, DJ Aladdin, Afrika Islam, Evil E, underground sensation Toddy Tee, who had become something of a local cult figure with his very popular ‘‘Batterman’’ song, and Everlast (who would later rise to fame with his group House of Pain and their hit single ‘‘Jump Around’’). Afrika Islam was, alongside Ice-T, undeniably the most prominent member of Rhyme Syndicate Productions. He notably produced, with DJ Unknown, Ice-T’s celebrated landmark ‘‘6 N the Morning.’’ This track, even though he was originally from New Jersey, would nonetheless establish him firmly as a West Coast icon. Heavily influenced by Schoolly D’s Philadelphia gangsta anthem ‘‘P.S.K. (What Does it Mean?),’’ Ice-T’s ‘‘6 N The Morning’’ quickly became a celebrated gangsta anthem whose first lines (‘‘6 N the Morning, police at my door’’) have been used or revised by countless rappers. ‘‘6 N the Morning,’’ which was the b-side of ‘‘Dog N the Wax’’ (Techno-Hop, 1986) was highly reminiscent, as Pierre Evil remarks, of Lightnin’ Rod’s Hustlers Convention. In an interview for the British magazine The Wire, Ice-T praised this influential (proto-rap) album as the first gangsta rap record (qtd in Evil 77). IceT’s ‘‘6 N the Morning’’ recaptured the same kind of hustler rhymes and narrative voice and adapted them to Los Angeles parochial gangbanging culture. Considered by many to be the milestone for what would later be labelled reality-rap or gangsta rap, this song also opened his debut album Rhyme Pays, a gritty rap record on which Ice-T delivered his skilled rhymes on Afrika Islam’s and DJ Aladdin’s productions. Released in 1987, Rhyme Pays went gold within a year. In 1988, before many of its members evolved into solo artists with flourishing careers within the industry, the Rhyme Syndicate released Rhyme Syndicate

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Comin’ Through, an album produced by Ice-T and Benny Medina and mixed by Afrika Islam. Later that same year, Ice-T recorded the title track for Colors, a landmark film directed by Dennis Hopper that depicted gang-life in inner-city Los Angeles. This song, with its realistic portrayal of crime-ridden Los Angeles ghettoes and its defiant exaltation of a criminal lifestyle rapidly became the new South Central gang-anthem. It undeniably earned its author a strong street credibility at a time where the electro-rap scene was being slowly replaced by a tougher and more street-oriented rap. ‘‘6 N the Morning’’ definitely marked a pivotal moment for the Los Angeles hip hop scene. It signalled a formal and thematic evolution towards sparser beats and street-oriented lyrics with a sharper edge. Pioneers of the Los Angeles rap scene, as it has been underlined, were predominantly DJs and helped establish a DJ culture which was chiefly directed at dancers and where MCs were of secondary importance. For example, Roger Clayton’s DJ army was throwing huge block parties across town and the scene was incontestably dominated by star DJs like Egyptian Lover or Chris ‘‘The Glove’’ Taylor. In the mid-1980s, while the paradigmatic East Coast scene was gradually veering to new production and rhyming styles, Los Angeles’ nightclubs, for the most part, still made people dance to up-tempo electronic beats with synthesizers and vocoders. This was true for Los Angeles as well as for cities within its direct influence. Indeed, electro-rap had equally contaminated numerous cities of the Los Angeles metropolitan area. By all accounts, if Roger Clayton’s Uncle Jamms Army ‘‘owned’’ the Los Angeles streets from Long Beach to the Valley, Lonzo Williams’ World Class Wreckin’ Cru, another prominent DJ crew against which Uncle Jamms Army was waging a passive poster and club war, had Compton and the Watts area locked down. In 1984, Alonzo Williams, also known as Grandmaster Lonzo, founded a DJ crew called the World Class Wreckin’ Cru. This crew consisted of three DJs: Dr. Dre, DJ Yella, and himself. Lonzo had started off as a DJ doing disco at small local gigs around 1974–75 with a company called Disco Construction. In July 1979, he took over The Eve After Dark, a nightclub located a quarter mile out of Compton which, in spite of its relative remoteness, attracted crowds of dancers. In fact, The Eve After Dark owed its great popularity to its location. Because it was technically located in the County of Los Angeles, this club did not fall under the rules of the cities of Los Angeles or Compton and Williams and his DJs had the privilege of playing much later than in the other clubs of the Los Angeles area. The County, having no laws against DJing or after hours, made The Eve After Dark a popular spot for after parties. According to Williams, many dancers would come to this spot to hang out and party until six o’clock in the morning, when all the other places had closed (unlike the L.A. County, the city of Los Angeles had an ordinance which prevented clubs from playing music after two o’ clock, so did Compton). Williams’ World Class Wreckin’ Cru started as a kind of infrastructure inside The Eve After Dark. It was, initially, a social group composed of people who

From Electro-Rap to G-Funk | 233 worked there and who, following a hip hop fashion popularized by the first New York DJs and b-boys, all identified by wearing the same jackets. Otherwise, the club was like a radio station. It opened at 10 o’clock at night and its DJs rotated shifts depending on the crowd. Everybody had an hour and a half to spin. The greener DJs, like Dr. Dre and Yella, would play to the light attending crowds while more experienced Grandmaster Lonzo and Unknown DJ would handle the ‘‘heavyweight’’ crowds. In this respect, the preslot or the closing slots often went to Dr. Dre and Yella. As MCs began to play a less peripheral role in the music, the group soon incorporated one to their lineup. They recruited ClienNtelle after a rap contest that he had won and started releasing their own records. Lonzo wanted every member of the group to have their own song. The first track that they produced was ‘‘Slice.’’ Consistently with the amateurish character of the regional hip hop scene at that time, this song about Yella was recorded in a small studio in the backroom of the club and sold out by Williams of the back of his truck and through local record dealer Steve Yano. The next release was Dr. Dre’s ‘‘Surgery.’’ Recorded as unprofessionally as ‘‘Slice’’ in about eight hours on an Akaı¨ MG1212 mixing console/ recorder at Audio Achievements, a studio located in Torrance where Dr. Dre and Yella recorded their sessions, ‘‘Surgery,’’ like ‘‘Slice,’’ emulated the electro sound of Planet Rock, the vocoders and heavy drums of which were extremely popular at the time and were inspiring many. To promote his records, Lonzo Williams used the same resourcefulness that other competing DJ crews and employed marketing tactics which were fairly ordinary at the time in underground hip hop. He contracted Daryl Davis (aka Lyrad, Daryl spelled backwards), a local artist from Compton who had done flyers and artwork for the Eve After Dark, to design in vogue graffiti style covers for their 12’’ records. He also took advantage of the establishment by using Don McMillan of the first large urban independent record manufacturer and distributor, Macola Records, to create Kru Cut Records in 1984 (a Macola sublabel) and produce electro-rap releases with the World Class Wreckin’ Cru through the mid-1980s. In 1985, the World Class Wreckin’ Cru released World Class, its first album. The reasonable success of this album stirred the interest of major record companies. Thanks to the versatility of the group and to its radio potential, the World Class Wreckin’ Cru was soon signed on CBS/Epic. In 1987, it released First Round Knock-Out, the first Angelino rap album to be released on a major label. This release officially put the Los Angeles rap scene on the map. The group even travelled to the United Kingdom for the Fresh Fest with musicians like Sir Mix a Lot and Grandmaster Flash and the Furious 5. Unfortunately, money disagreements rapidly plagued the crew and many of its original members left. Williams nevertheless enjoyed great revenue from the group’s last single, ‘‘Turn off the Lights,’’ which did relatively well on the pop and urban charts. Unlike Lonzo’s World Class Wreckin’ Cru, which was not willing to change its image even though a hard-hitting street-oriented style was progressively replacing

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a party-oriented electro-rap with DJs wearing Rick James and Cameo-style extravagant outfits, Dr. Dre and Yella chose to follow the way paved by Ice-T with his hit ‘‘6 N the Morning.’’ They joined forces with Eazy-E, Ice Cube, and MC Ren to form Niggaz With Attitude. Even though Eazy-E’s entrepreneurial skills, Dr. Dre’s production, or Ice Cube’s lyrics have frequently been emphasized to explain the group’s success, fewer works have examined in detail the significant contribution of another pioneer of the Los Angeles rap scene to this success: KDAY’s radio host Greg Mack. It is important to point out one more time the key role that radio stations have played for the promotion of rap music. Very few works on the Los Angeles rap scene have laid the stress on the noteworthy role that radio DJs Greg Mack, Tony Joseph, or Michael Moore have played in promoting rap music in the Los Angeles area. Yet, KDAY is mentioned on a regular basis by rappers from the Los Angeles area who, in their lyrics or in interviews, unanimously acknowledge its importance in the development of the movement. For example, in his song ‘‘Dreamchaser’’ MURS indicates that, at age nine, he was already ‘‘bumpin’ ’’ KDAY. Similarly, in a track entitled ‘‘Lesson 4: The Radio’’ released in 1994, DJ Cut Chemist paid homage to Los Angeles key radio players, with a particular nod in the direction of KDAY through a sample of Greg Mack’s catchphrase ‘‘Mack Attack.’’ Originally from Texas where he had previous experiences in radio (at Magic 102 in Houston and KEWF in Corpus Christi), Greg Mack came, in his own words, from ‘‘old school.’’ In other terms, his favorites ranged from the Isley Brothers to Led Zeppelin. When he moved to Los Angeles in 1983, Mack lived in the heart of South Central, where most of the people who made hip hop music started. As he indicates in an interview given to West Coast Pioneers, rap music was, at the time, the only music that you could hear for miles around. As he nostalgically points out: ‘‘You opened your window and someone was playing hip hop’’ (Greg Mack). Looking to be in tune with what was happening on the streets, KDAY started to play rap music during daytime at a time when many people thought that it was merely a fad and when major record stores would not even carry it. Even though the Los Angeles-based station was more of a mainstream R&B station without any particular format, Mack, thanks to a supportive management team, was able to have a CHR format that was a reflection of what was going on the streets. He went out to clubs and parties, listened to what was fresh and played it. He especially aired, for the sake of economy as he explained to Brian Cross in 1992 (Cross 156), selections of records and tapes of local up and coming musicians during his Mixmasters show. When he launched this show, Mack had initially considered inviting DJs of the Uncle Jamms Army to mix live, since, at the time, as we have already seen, Clayton’s DJs were the most powerful crew in Los Angeles and ‘‘controlled the streets.’’ Clayton’s crew, which was well-established and willing to cash in on its growing popularity declined his offer and signed with KGLJ instead. His offer turned down, Mack decided to start his own crew of DJs instead. The group, most probably to compete with Uncle Jamms Army, was originally

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dubbed the ‘‘Mars Attacks Marines,’’ but rapidly changed to Mixmasters. The very first Mixmaster was up-and-comer Dr. Dre. Before long, he was followed by DJ Yella and, for the first year and a half of the show, both were its official DJs and provided weekly mixes recorded on a four-track recorder in Lonzo Williams’ garage in Compton. Greg Mack did not only promote the local scene. Thanks to landmark initiatives and valuable social capital, he managed to stay one step ahead of the competition. For example, he invited high-profile Eastern rappers such as Run DMC to perform live at his Friday Night Live sessions. Also, Mack was in direct contact with rap entrepreneur Russell Simmons, who shipped him every new release of his East Coast Def Jam artists. For that reason, Mack was reportedly one of the first radio DJs of Los Angeles to play LL Cool J. He had a similar privileged relationship with Don Mc Millan who frequently sent him all the new records of his Macola label before any other radio station. On top of that, Mack had friends who owned record-pressing plants and sometimes received new releases before the record company artists themselves. This occurred, for example, with Egyptian Lover’s hit ‘‘Egypt, Egypt’’ which got overwhelming feedback from KDAY listeners even before it was officially released. Greg Mack was most notably instrumental in the success of Eazy-E’s underground hit ‘‘Boyz N the Hood.’’ As he recently explained, Dr. Dre and Eazy-E had come to him after they had recorded a first version of this landmark song. At that time, as Mack pointed out, most of the rap musicians would bring their records or tapes to the station for him to play them. He listened to the song and requested a cleaner radio friendly version. Dr. Dre and Eazy-E came back two days later with a toned-down version that became the station’s most requested song right away. From that point out, anything that N.W.A. or Eazy-E put out would be played first on KDAY. This station, as the frequent dropping of its name by Los Angeles rappers indicates, definitely held a semicult status in this city’s hip hop scene from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s, when FM stations started to play hip hop and when people switched from AM to FM. KDAY’s format change spurred by Mack had turned the small local radio into one of the first hip hop stations nationwide and the chief vehicle for the musical revolution taking place in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. This early reorientation constitutes a pivotal moment in the structuring of the Los Angeles rap scene insofar as it considerably contributed to its development. KDAY was undeniably instrumental in popularizing rap music and local crews and in launching the careers of renowned musicians who established Los Angeles and Compton as two major landmarks in the history of the hip hop movement.

BECOMING AN INDUSTRY The first label to emerge significantly from the Los Angeles area was Ruthless Records. In his book Ruthless: A Memoir (2006), Jerry Heller explains in detail

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N.W.A. (Corbis)

how Eazy-E (Eric Wright) approached him to launch this pioneering rap label in Compton, in 1987. Wright was certainly a young man with great vision and had a lot of ambition but he desperately needed the expertise and network of Heller, who had made his teeth in the music business a long while ago and still had a lot of good connections in the recording industry. In 1986, Wright, attracted to the promising development of the simmering local rap scene, had already headhunted Dr. Dre (Andre Young), the up-and-coming DJ of the World Class Wreckin’ Cru. In addition to his musical abilities, Dre’s experience and valuable social capital in the Los Angeles rap scene were definitely meant to offset Wright’s lack of connections in the music business. For example, the promising DJ had useful relations at Macola Records and easy access to Audio Achievements, where the two of them recorded ‘‘Boyz N the Hood.’’ This proto gangsta anthem, produced by Dr. Dre and on which an inexperienced Eazy-E, because of inopportune circumstances, ended up rapping a text written by 19year-old O’Shea Jackson (Ice Cube), paved the way for their impending successful collaboration. Despite the impromptu recording and relatively small-scale release

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of ‘‘Boyz N the Hood’’ on Macola Records, Wright, thanks to the key business skills that he claimed to have developed selling drugs on the streets, sold more than 200,000 copies of the record. In the wake of this outstanding achievement, novice Eric Wright, whose personality and entrepreneurial skills had impressed a long-established music executive like Jerry Heller, cocreated Ruthless Records and Niggaz With Attitude, a rap group which suddenly grew to be, with both the local and translocal appeal of its glorification of inner-city criminal lifestyle, a national musical sensation that would give its leading members an iconic status in rap history. In the course of his partnership with Heller, Wright gradually exchanged his doit-yourself method, thanks to which he had nonetheless managed to sell a copious number of copies of ‘‘Boyz N the Hood’’ from the truck of his car and through local record dealers, for more conventional businesslike strategies. With the intention of cashing in on the buzz created by this track, all the key members of the newly set up label; Dr. Dre, Ice Cube, MC Ren, DJ Yella, Arabian Prince, and The D.O.C worked on Eazy Duz It (Ruthless 1988), its founder’s egotistical solo album (which comprised no less than four self-referential tracks). This record notably featured ‘‘Radio,’’ a song on which MC Ren, following the example of KDAY, called Greg Mack on K-EAZY-E to hear Eazy’s newest track. This album, on which Eazy-E’s gangsta persona outrageously celebrated Compton’s street life and its hedonistic attributes, went double-platinum. The following year, Eazy Duz It was followed by Straight Outta Compton (Ruthless 1988), N.W.A.’s first official release. This controversial record, which displayed a somewhat tougher edge than Eazy-E’s debut album, is generally considered as one of the most important records in hip hop history. Indeed, its commercial success paved the way for much of what would be termed ‘‘gangsta rap’’ in the 1990s. On this landmark record, the members of the ‘‘most dangerous group in America’’ resumed the larger-than-life exaltation of street gang sociocultural practices introduced on Eazy-Duz It and definitely put Compton on the map. N.W.A.’s iterative in-text references to their home turf, Dr. Dre’s recurrent use of a sample of Ronnie Hudson and the Street People’s ‘‘West Coast Poplock’’ which deferentially referred to the ‘‘City of Compton,’’ and unequivocal tracks such as ‘‘Straight Outta Compton’’ and ‘‘Compton’s N Da House’’ established N.W.A. as the flagship representatives of the Los Angeles rap scene. After 1989, countless rap groups, with highly evocative names and street wear attires similar to those popularized by Run DMC as the new rap uniform appeared in the wake of N.W.A.’s success: Above The Law; Boo-Yaa Tribe, a group of former gang bangers; CPO (Capital Punishment Organization) whose LP was produced by MC Ren; WC & The Maad Circle, formerly known as Low Profile and whose front man, WC (Dub C) would join, a few years later, Ice Cube’s Westside Connection; MC Eiht’s Compton’s Most Wanted; DJ Quik; Coolio and, finally, South Central Cartel.

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In 1991, N.W.A.—minus Ice Cube, who had decided to pursue a solo career over some rumored financial disagreements—released Efil4zaggin (Niggaz4Life spelled backwards). This album, which contained N.W.A.’s soon-to-be-generic hyperbolic gangsta narratives and over-the-top violence, entered directly the charts at number one. Pierre Evil interprets the outrageousness of Efil4zaggin as N.W.A.’s reaction to a growing rivalry in a highly competitive scene, in Los Angeles and nationwide. Indeed following N.W.A.’s example set with Straight Outta Compton, every hood wanted to have their gangsta rap group as a flagship representative of a label and of a specific place. For example, Cypress Hill, a group of Latino rappers hailing from South Gate, a city located in the southeast of Los Angeles County, released ‘‘How I Could Just Kill a Man’’ that same year. This song, which caught the attention of urban and college radio, became an instant classic and launched the career of the group, which went on to become one of the most important rap groups to claim Los Angeles as their point of origin (see sidebar: Latino Rap in Los Angeles). From 1989, Ruthless released an impressive series of gold, platinum, and even diamond records. Its most notable released were The DOC’s first LP No One Can Do It Better (1989), on which Dr. Dre displayed the range of his then experienced production and provided The DOC, Eazy-E’s ghostwriter, with an assemblage of slow and fast rhythms on which he could deliver his resourceful rhymes; Michel’le (Ruthless 1989) an R&B album by Michel’le, whose single ‘‘No More Lies’’ became the best hit single in the label’s history (seventh place on the Billboard chart); and Living Like Hustlers by Above the Law, a group from Pomona, in East Los Angeles, whose producer Cold 187um became the label’s foremost producer when Dr. Dre controversially left Ruthless Records in 1991, at the peak of its popularity. Wright and Heller’s maximizing business tactics were, allegedly, the cause of financial disagreements with their musicians. Ice Cube and Dr. Dre’s bitter departures stirred up a well-known feud with Ruthless’ co-owners illustrated by ‘‘No Vaseline’’ and ‘‘Dre Day,’’ two very bitter dissing songs recorded respectively by Ice Cube and Dr. Dre that were meant to get back at their former employers. Although Ruthless and N.W.A.’s principal creative forces had left with the walking-outs of Cube and Dre, Eazy-E’s entrepreneurial skills and good ear helped him to maintain healthy record sales, mostly through remaining artists like MC Ren (Kizz My Black Azz 1992), Above The Law, and newcomers Bone Thugs-NHarmony, whose multiplatinum sales Creepin’ On Ah Come Up (1994), E.1999 Eternal (1995), The Art of War (1997), BTNHResurrection (2000), or Greatest Hits (2004) ensured substantial incomes to the still active label, even after the early death of Wright on March 26, 1995, 10 days after he had been diagnosed with AIDS.

From Electro-Rap to G-Funk

LATINO RAP IN LOS ANGELES According to the latest U.S. Census Bureau (2006), the population of the Los Angeles County comprises 47.3 percent of Latinos. People falling into that category, whose heterogeneity was humorously emphasized by filmmaker Larry Clark in Wassup Rockers (2005), a movie on a group of young Latino skateboarders from South Central, are Los Angeles residents who classified themselves as Mexican, Mexican Americans, Chicano, Puerto Rican, or Cuban—as well as those whose origins are from Spain, the Spanishspeaking countries of Central or South America. Historically, Latinos of the Los Angeles area have played a significant role in its cultural life. They notably popularized Zoot Suits and Pachucos in the 1940s and, more recently, Lowriders, modified cars which play an important part in West Coast hip hop. Insofar as about 500 Latino gangs have been listed in Los Angeles County (mostly in the San Fernando Valley, San Gabriel Valley, the Beach communities, Long Beach, Compton, and South Los Angeles), representing over 50 percent of the gang membership, and given the established link between street gang culture and the hip hop movement, it is not surprising at all that some Hispanic youths of the region embraced rap music in the early days of its development. The first prominent Latino MC to emerge significantly and to bring a Latin flavor to the music was Kid Frost (Arturo Raymond Molina Jr.) when he broke new ground on the West Coast electrorap scene in incorporating Spanish in rap lyrics and in mixing Hispanic culture with hip hop. A regular of The Radio Club where he used to perform with Ice-T, this Mexican rapper began his career during the early days of the electro-rap (or electro-funk) scene as an MC for Roger Clayton’s Uncle Jamms Army. In 1990, he released ‘‘La Raza,’’ and recorded his major label debut album Hispanic Causing Panic. Following this album, he founded Latin Alliance, a group of Latino rappers whose eponymous album, released in 1991, included the popular ‘‘Low Rider,’’ a tribute to Los Angeles parochial car culture. The group also comprised, Mellow Man Ace, a Cuban rapper from South Gate whose bilingual hit single ‘‘Mentirosa,’’ released in 1989, has earned him the title of ‘‘Godfather of Latin rap.’’ Latino rap exploded into the mainstream with Cypress Hill (B-Real, Sen Dog, and DJ Muggs) another group hailing from South Gate and whose multiplatinum albums Black Sunday, Temple of Boom, IV, and numerous hit singles turned its members into high-profile flagship representatives of West Coast rap. The considerable success of their self-titled debut album, which went two times platinum on the strength of popular tracks like ‘‘How Can I Just Kill a Man,’’ or like bilingual songs ‘‘Latin Lingo’’ and ‘‘Tres Equis,’’ definitely established them as a dominating force in hip hop. Even though they weren’t pioneers, Cypress Hill openly engaged Spanish lingo and slang in

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Hip Hop in America a much more overt fashion than their predecessors. In 1999, for example, they released Los grandes e´xitos en espanol, a greatest hits album recorded in Spanish which, while breaking the language barriers, further validated the group’s importance in the hip hop milieu.

REFERENCES http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06/06037.html http://www.streetgangs.com

DEATH ROW RECORDS AND G-FUNK Even though Ruthless and Death Row records waged a highly publicized war in the early 1990s, one can draw an interesting parallel between these two labels. To begin with, both labels were founded by young men from the streets, Eazy-E for Ruthless and Marion ‘‘Suge’’ Knight for Death Row, who were quite foreign to the rap milieu and who seemed chiefly attracted to its business side. The release, prior to any rap recordings, of a remixed R&B single by Ruthless (JJ Fad’s ‘‘Supersonic’’) and Eazy-E’s refusal to produce the first album of The Atban Klann (who later changed their name to The Black Eyed Peas) on the pretense that it was discordant with the musical and thematic zeitgeist, as well as Death Row’s deliberate choice to favor extremely profitable soundtracks over costly studio albums seem to confirm this assumption. Wright and Knight’s past experiences and social trajectories, respectively, as drug dealer and gang member (the latter was from a Compton neighborhood controlled by the Tree Top Piru, a subgroup of the Bloods) are particularly interesting to the extent that they illustrate a specific disjuncture between the social position opened to them in the recording industry and the dispositions that they imported into it. Indeed, the divisive tactics of both labels owners, especially Death Row’s stories and allegations of extortion, coercion, and bullying, well-documented by rap journalist Ronin Ro, consisted mostly in business strategies which continued to be driven by what Berkeley sociologist Loı¨c Wacquant calls a street habitus, even as their objective possibilities had expanded beyond those usually afforded by the streets of Compton. Also, both Wright and Knight sought advice from experts of the music business. Like Wright, who had cofounded Ruthless with old timer Jerry Heller, whose know-how and contacts in the industry greatly contributed to the label’s success, Knight knew how to surround himself with experienced advisors. In addition to the musical expertise of Dr. Dre, whose contract, along with those of The DOC and Michel’le, he had controversially collected, Knight also benefited from the well-advised assistance of Dick Griffey. Griffey, who was then the head of

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Snoop Dogg at the 32nd Annual American Music Awards on November 14, 2004. (ABC/Photofest)

S.O.L.A.R. Records was one of the most influential people in the California recording industry and had the business skills and social capital necessary to launch Death Row as successfully as its local rival. It was thanks to Griffey’s connections, for example, that Dr. Dre was able to release his milestone track ‘‘Deep Cover’’ on Sony and S.O.L.A.R. Records. Knight also benefited from the connections of his legal expert, David Kenner, thanks to whom Michael Harris, also known as ‘‘Harry O’’—an incarcerated drug lord affiliated to the Bloods—invested money that helped to start off the label which would, within a few years, popularize G-funk and establish artists whose albums and sound would dominate the rap industry nationwide in the early 1990s. The Chronic, Dr. Dre’s debut album released on Death Row in 1992, established, especially with ‘‘Nuthin’ but a G Thang,’’ a rap subgenre known as Gangsta-funk or G-funk. On this influential album, Dre popularized a signature sound which consisted in multilayered leisurely loops characterized by deep bass, prominent keyboards, and samples of George Clinton’s P-funk classics. This very successful album, with Snoop Doggy Dogg’s Doggystyle, Death Row’s next sensational release, institutionalized a trademark combination of hedonistic lyrics including gang-related violence, sex, automobiles, and marijuana sung on laidback funky melodies. This controversial cocktail would skyrocket Death Row to the top of the rap industry for nearly five years and turn it into the most profitable blackowned business in America. Indeed, Dr. Dre’s signature sound combined with

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Snoop Dogg’s languid flow, gangsta hedonism, as well as the notorious events surrounding the release of Doggystyle or Tupac Shakur’s All Eyez on Me, shot the label into the lead and helped it earn $125 million in only four years. Subsequently to these influential albums, Death Row, chiefly thanks to the considerable sales of its rap superstar Tupac Shakur (who is still America’s best selling rapper with over 50 million albums sold in the United States), reigned undisputed on the West Coast and beyond from 1992 to the gradual collapse of the genre and of the countless rap musicians that had opportunistically embraced it, in 1997. Indeed, in the wake of the unprecedented success of The Chronic and of Doggystyle, several significant G-funk albums were produced by Los Angeles rappers. For example, Warren G, a relative of Dr. Dre who had worked on The Chronic, named his debut album Regulate . . . G-funk Era (Def Jam 1994) after this popular subgenre, and topped the charts with his hit single ‘‘Regulate,’’ which featured fellow 213 member Nate Dogg. Disinclined to be outdone in a form that it had initiated, Death Row unsurprisingly contributed to the genre with Dogg Food, Tha Dogg Pound’s (Dat Nigga Daz and Kurupt) successful album which debuted at the first place in the charts at its release in 1995, or with The Dead Has Arisen and the RBX Files, the somewhat disappointing (by Death Row standards) albums of, respectively, Lil’ Half Dead and RBX. Ruthless’s musicians rode on the same G-funk wave with Above the Law’s second and third LPs Black Mafia Life (1993) and Uncle Sam’s Curse (1994). These albums enabled Eazy-E’s label to put up a solid resistance to Death Row’s extreme domination. Still, Death Row, whose high-profile producer had initiated the forms of G-funk, was definitely the spear head label of this genre. Dre’s instantly recognizable sound significantly contributed to the unparalleled success of Death Row latest recruit: Tupac Shakur. Though he was originally from New York, this rapper became one of the most famous representatives of the rap scene of the West Coast. In 1995, Tupac, freshly out of the Dannemora Jail, had decided to sign on Death Row Records, and, through the Los Angeles highly influential rap label, to embrace the symbolic power of this newly canonized region. The considerable appeal of the Los Angeles area, detailed remarkably by MURS in his recent track ‘‘L.A.,’’ or by The Game throughout his album The Documentary, resided mostly in the hedonistic and criminal lifestyle of local ‘‘sets’’ (a vernacular expression for gangs) popularized by local rappers in ghetto anthems praising Los Angeles, the city of Compton, or Long Beach. Songs by Los Angeles rappers are invariably replete with iterative visual or lyrical references to local gangs and regularly emphasize the danger of wearing the wrong colors. In addition, rappers like Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, Tupac, Xzibit, Tha Alkaholiks, Nate Dogg, and many others consistently glorified highly evocative motives like Impala six fo’s, 20 inch rims, Hennessy, hydroponically grown marijuana, 8-ball, black Chuck Taylors, Carhartt jeans, and countless other idiosyncrasies that became instantly recognizable signifiers of the Los Angeles rap culture (see

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Tupac Shakur on the set of Gridlock’d (1997). (Photofest)

sidebar: Allomotives in Los Angeles Rap). Tupac Shakur immediately and unambiguously pledged allegiance to Los Angeles, its distinctive motives and its parochial ‘‘thug life’’ in the opening rhymes of ‘‘California Love,’’ the first of a series of hit singles from his diamond album (10 times platinum) All Eyez on Me and a track that summarizes remarkably the distinctiveness of the West Coast rap scene. Compton, the emblematic matrix of the genre and home of the two influential labels, predictably spawned musicians who equally contributed to the nationwide popularity of G-funk. DJ Quik, a rapper, who, like Suge Knight, had been formerly affiliated to the Tree Top Piru Bloods, conspicuously laid the emphasis on his gangsta affiliation on his album Safe and Sound (1995). His Crip rival MC Eiht, with whom he had a long-standing feud that had started in the late 1980s with his album with Compton’s Most Wanted, equally contributed to the shifting of the epicenter of rap music towards the West Coast. Indeed, Los Angeles was then at the forefront and the originator of a nationwide transformation of the hip hop scene. In spite of sharp criticisms emanating from various censorship groups or purists opposed to this new sound, its leading artists with significant releases such as Tha Alkaholiks’ 21 and Over (1993) or Tupac’s The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory (1996) ruled supreme in the rap industry in the mid-1990s.

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ALLOMOTIVES IN LOS ANGELES RAP In his book on outlaw folk hero Stagolee, folklorist Cecil Brown notes that even though the Stagolee oral narrative has more or less preserved the same archetypal structure over time, several allomotives, details which may fluctuate depending on the place or time the tale is told in order to have a story consistent with the cultural grammar of its audience, have somewhat transformed the original story through time. For example, in a 1927 variant a pimp takes out his bamboo and smokes his opium, in a 1903 version, the drug of choice is cocaine. The same comment could be made about rap archetypical narratives, the content of which only varies according to the regional origins of a rapper or group. Indeed, if the sociocultural practices of ghetto residents are regularly evoked or glorified in the representations of rappers, the latter commonly use idiosyncratic aesthetic elements and soundscapes that unmistakably point at their regional origins. For example, Los Angeles rappers sip on ‘‘Gin and Juice’’ while Dirty South rappers drink ‘‘syrup,’’ codeine-based prescription cough syrup mixed with soda or fruit juice (Hess 261). Similarly, southern rappers drive Cadillac (like in Outkast’s Southernplayalisticcadillacmuzik or Ludacris’ ‘‘Southern Hospitality’’) whereas Los Angeles rappers ride in chevy ‘‘six fo’.’’ Other idiosyncratic motives or references, on top of the constant shout-outs to Los Angeles neighborhoods, streets and emblematic musicians that local rappers give, have become specifically and uniquely identified with Los Angeles rap. For instance, red and blue bandanas, Crip walkin’, black Chuck Taylors, Chevy Lowriders, chrome hydraulics, and chronic weed undeniably help to identify Los Angeles as the specific space of reference of rappers who mention them in their lyrics.

REFERENCES Brown, Cecil. Stagolee Shot Billy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003. Hess, Mickey, ed. Icons of Hip Hop: An Encyclopedia of the Movement, Music and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 2007.

As one could expect, this transformation of the geography of rap music unsurprisingly entailed hostile reactions from some New York rappers who, in accordance with rap music’s emphasis on the agon, started to question the sudden legitimacy of their West Coast rivals. True to form, Tim Dog, an MC from the South Bronx released, as early as 1992, ‘‘Fuck Compton,’’ the first installment of

From Electro-Rap to G-Funk | 245 a series of diatribes (followed by ‘‘Step to Me’’) against Eazy-E, N.W.A., DJ Quik, and all the Los Angeles gang banging culture and its rap chroniclers. Also, in response to what they perceived as a falsified commodification of their culture by alleged ‘‘real muthafuckin’ Gs,’’ to quote Eazy-E, actual gang members of the Los Angeles area released records on which they meant to put fake Compton representatives in their proper place. For example, Tweedy Bird Loc, a member of the Kelly Park Compton Crips, released 187 Ride By, an album in which he openly directed his shaft against ‘‘studio gangstas’’ like N.W.A., Above The Law, and CPO. In addition, Tweedy Bird Loc challenged the symbolic supremacy of the South Bronx and of its representatives in ‘‘Fuck the South Bronx/This Is Compton’’ in which he questioned KRS-One and Tim Dog’s legitimacy and sung the praise of the new paradigmatic place of reference of rap music. In 1994, Tweedy Bird Loc and Ronnie Ron Phillips, another Compton representative, produced Bangin’ on Wax, an album which featured contributions of actual Crips and Bloods. Pierre Evil interestingly points out that the most striking elements in this album and in its follow-ups are the blatant similarities between their lyrics and those of allegedly phoney gangsta rappers (Evil 146). Indeed, apart from diss songs aimed at a rival gang, a somewhat risky topic generally avoided with care by, say, conventional rappers, these records featured strictly identical ghetto anthems characterized by institutionalized misogyny, obscenity and exaggerated violence. In the mid-1990s, Death Row was a multimillion dollar business ranging from platinum records (Doggystyle had gone six times platinum and All Eyez on Me nine times) to big-budget music videos (‘‘California Love’’) and movies (‘‘Murder Was the Case’’), and Los Angeles G-funk ruled undisputed from 1994 to 1996 over the rap music business. Under its impulsion, as well as Ruthless’s, the local rap scene had developed from an amateurish endeavor to a full-blown and lucrative business organized around professional label owners, concert promoters, managers, and advertising executives. Suge Knight’s controversial connections with infamous gang members, out of place marketing strategies, and dangerous aura (fuelled by a series of rumors and theatrical public appearances) owed him to be labelled ‘‘The Most Feared Man in Hip Hop’’ (XXL Magazine, October 2005) and helped selling numerous issues of the budding hip hop press. On the musical level, the G-funk sound has undeniably had an enduring influence on rap that can still be detected on a number of recent albums with a Gfunk distinctive flavor such as those freshly released by The Dogg Pound (Dogg Chit 2007), or on older albums like those of DJ Quik or Warren G. It clearly reinforced the rivalry between the two coasts that had started with Tim Dog and early L.A. gangsta rappers, a rivalry which culminated in the highly-publicized feud between the West Coast hip hop scene led by Death Row and an East Coast renaissance movement led by Bad Boy Records.

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LOS ANGELES “ALTERNATIVE“ RAP SCENE In spite of the gangsta personae that predominated in rap music in the wake of the success of Ruthless and Death Row artists and their likes, the Los Angeles rap scene, like any other rap scene nationwide, was far from being homogeneous. Prior to the success of West Coast rappers glamorizing the gang-violence plaguing Los Angeles neighborhoods, several hip hop performers were challenging the prominence of such a discourse which, they felt, was somewhat tarnishing rap as an art form. It is extremely important to bear in mind that, in rap music, antagonistic logics are in direct opposition and that individuals take up a career for many different reasons. If the vast majority of contemporary rappers and labels (G[orilla]-Unit, Grand Hustle, Re-Up Gang, Murder Inc, Konvict Muzik . . . ) strategically cash in on a criminal imagery bond to secure, in the rap practice, considerable symbolic and economic status, others adopt alternative strategies in the face of a market dominated by the glorification of street activities, criminal lifestyle, and differentiate themselves from it. It was notably the case, in the early 1990s, with rap acts such as The Freestyle Fellowship and The Pharcyde, whose rhyming styles, lyrics, and productions differed from those prevailing in mainstream standardized rap. Commonly referred to as the rebirth of hip hop (primarily by their supporters), this wave of musicians, whose vast majority started to rap at the Good Life Cafe´, sought to explore, through an alternative rap scene, original themes which slightly differed from those generically presented in the facsimile ghetto anthems of mainstream rappers. For a number of rappers, commercial success, supported by enticing themes and imagery, somewhat damaged the ethics of independence which supposedly prevailed in the early days of the ‘‘underground/subcultural’’ hip hop movement. ‘‘Rappers’ Delight’’ particularly illustrates, in its commercial logic, this dual tension between the integrity of an ‘‘artistic’’ approach and the widening of the audience. Criticism towards commercial rap and disapproval of the extensive airplay granted to trivially sexist songs brought together musicians who advocated a return to hip hop’s alleged original message: Peace and Unity. If, as it has been shown, hip hop started in the early 1970s as a collective action spurred by DJs like Kool Herc, Afrika Bambaataa, DJ Hollywood, and many others, it consolidated as a cultural movement with the founding of the Zulu Nation and other structured crews. This shaping period was followed by a thematic diversification entailed by ideological contradictions within the movement which resulted in the appearance of different trends and of different forms (each presented as legitimate, ‘‘true’’ or ‘‘real’’) of the hip hop practices. A similar arborization of the movement came to characterize the Los Angeles rap scene when some hip hop ‘‘purists’’ like B. Hall and her son R. Kain Blaze, somewhat disillusioned with the underground-turnedmainstream gangsta rap of N.W.A. and Ruthless’ artists, decided to explore the same themes from a more creative and artistic angle.

From Electro-Rap to G-Funk | 247 While Ruthless and Death Row were popularizing gangsta rap and G-funk in Los Angeles and nationwide, The Freestyle Fellowship, a group of alternative MCs, was planning to revive the tradition of the Watts Prophets and the Last Poets. Its members (rappers Aceyalone, Mikah 9, P.E.A.C.E., Self Jupiter, and producer J Sumbi) used to meet at the Good Life Cafe´, a Los Angeles version of The Lyricist Lounge where a different guard of MCs gathered for a weekly open mic night to explore different rhyming styles and themes (see sidebar: The Good Life). They released To Whom in My Concern . . . (Beats & Rhymes 1991) and Inner City Griots (4th & B’Way 1993) on which they developed a signature rhyming pattern which clearly differed from the current paradigmatic G-funk flow. This diversification, like that which characterized The Pharcyde, corresponds to a common strategy of differentiation and expresses a search of originality which can be found in every field. This group, commonly presented as a representative of the alternative scene of the West Coast and who became famous with highly acclaimed albums like Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde (1992) and Labcabincalifornia (1995), had chosen to follow a musical direction that somewhat differed from the zeitgeist. These albums, which featured productions by J-Swift and newcomers like Jay Dee and Diamond D, were rather discordant—musically and lyrically— from what the Los Angeles rap scene was offering at the time. This strategy to present, in the case of The Pharcyde, a contrasting light-hearted playfulness is summarized quite prosaically by rapper/producer El-P, who, in NYC Rules, a series of interviews with representatives of avant-garde New York rappers, accounts for different genres and artistic choices in rap by the fact that, although different musicians and labels work in the same field, they do so with distinctive logics (163). Accordingly, other alternative groups hailing from Los Angeles like Jurassic 5 or Dilated Peoples, with releases such as Jurassic 5 LP, Quality Control, Power in Numbers, or Feedback for J5 and The Platform, Expansion Team, or 20/ 20 for Dilated Peoples frequently expressed a nostalgia of a supposedly golden-era of Los Angeles rap which, intrinsically, participated to an ongoing dispute between, on the one hand, commercial rappers and, on the other, those who find fulfilment in innovation (or in the respect of some immutable forms of rap music). Like other rappers from other regional rap scenes with whom they were regularly associated, on stage or on records (like De La Soul, a Tribe called Quest or MC Supernatural) these alternative groups expressed, through their lyrics and distinct production styles, a certain weariness caused by what they considered a lack of diversity. They frequently introduced themselves as a social force generating novelty and willing to take part in realignments or changes in guards in the field of production of rap music. This phenomenon was examined in detail by Pierre Bourdieu who explains that, in any field of symbolic production, newcomers have strategies of subversion aimed at reversing its scale of values, through a redefinition of the principles of production (the musical form, the lyrical content, the dress

THE GOOD LIFE The highly evocative expression ‘‘The Good Life’’ may owe some of its popularity to Kanye West’s recent hit single and music video, but it has been famous amongst Los Angeles rappers long before its release. The Good Life Health Food Centre, located on the corner of Crenshaw and Exposition had been, for a long time, one of the emblematic venues of Los Angeles alternative rap scene. Like other prestigious hip hop settings nationwide, The Good Life reportedly started as a community event meant to move Los Angeles inner-city youths from ambient gang-related violence through hip hop creativity. In 1989, at a point in time when rap music was ripening on the West Coast and when the recording industry was turning ‘‘reality rap’’ and ‘‘gangsta rap’’ into commodities, a group of aspiring MCs set up a weekly hip hop open mic night on Thursdays (from 8 to 10 PM) in this small cafe´. The Good Life, with its no-curse policy and its demanding audience rapidly became a testing ground for local lyricists willing to develop an alternative to the dominating rap discourse glorifying inner-city street life popularized by N.W.A. by exploring more socially acceptable themes and reciting abstract rhymes. As Ava Du Vernay, one of founders, explained in a recent interview, The Good Life was a place where one could apply the art form into a different set of experiences and were local talents could showcase in front of a crowd and get immediate feedback. These weekly open mic nights, which had become a pilgrimage for many hip hop heads of the Los Angeles area, lasted for nearly eight years. As Mikah 9, a member of the distinguished Freestyle Fellowship recounts, the event, which had started rather confidentially, rapidly attracted hundreds of people. Since the premises could only fit around 75 people, the ever growing number of performers who could not get in or who could not afford the three dollar entrance fee soon gathered on the parking lot to take part to highly competitive ciphers. Numerous Good Life regulars, amongst which several members of the group Freestyle Fellowship, who became famous for their distinctive choppy rhyme style, or MCs like Skee-lo, Kurupt, or Ahmad, ended up getting record deals. Similar weekly events were later established by local alternative rappers, like, for instance, the Project Blowed started by Aceyalone and Abstract Rude that included a crew of avant-garde hip hop performers like Busdriver, Mikah 9, Medusa, and many others ‘‘blowedians.’’

REFERENCES Balin, Nicole. ‘‘Livin’ the Good Life.’’ The Source. http://img59.image shack.us/my.php?image=gl1cg8.jpg. Jon, B. ‘‘Ava Du Vernay: This Is the Life. Interview.’’ http://ugsmag.com/ interviews/ava-duvernay.

From Electro-Rap to G-Funk | 249 code . . . ) and of valuation of the products, and, at the same time, through a devaluation of the capital held by the dominating trend (Questions de Sociologie 197). This thematic and lyrical hiving off, nevertheless, did not alter the conventional attachment of rappers to their home turf. Numerous texts advocating a return to a mythic golden-era and greater respect for the reference norms established by early rappers entailed, to a certain extent, a more pronounced ghettocentrism of the movement. The discursive and thematic diversification of the Los Angeles rap scene did not undermine in any way the permanent identification to the street culture of the music. Whatever the ideological variations of the texts, the streets, as rapper Dub C emphasizes it in his single ‘‘The Streets,’’ are invariably put forward as the point of origin and the space of reference.

THE FUTURE OF LOS ANGELES HIP HOP Even though many different scenes have appeared on the U.S. map of rap music within the last few years, and despite the emergence of the South as a dominating force in hip hop, the Los Angeles rap scene continues to play a significant part in the movement. In spite of the dual (local and translocal) characteristic of rap music, illustrated by the iterative shout-outs of rappers both to their home neighborhoods and to ghetto youths from all across the country, and in spite of the blurring of any regional distinctiveness through the multiple collaborations between musicians from different regions, Los Angeles and Compton have nonetheless preserved their high-ranking status and distinctiveness in the geography of hip hop. Although things had not turned out as well as they might have during his Death Row years, Dr. Dre has nonetheless managed to consolidate the emblematic status of Los Angeles with his Chronic 2001 album and through trademark productions for Detroit’s freestyle champion Eminem (Slim Shady LP and Marshall Mathers LP), Queens sensation 50 Cent (with his hit single ‘‘In Da Club’’), and L.A. freestyle phenomenon Xzibit (Restless). In 1996, shortly after his departure from Death Row, he founded his own label Aftermath Entertainment and, in 2004, notably introduced The Game (Jayceon Terrell Taylor) a rapper from Compton who, with alternative rapper MURS, is currently the most important flagship representative of the Los Angeles/Compton rap scene. The Game rose to fame in 2005 with the success of his major label debut album The Documentary, which debuted at number one in the wake of a well-orchestrated buzz crafted by his label and his G-Unit affiliates. He has released multiplatinum albums and mixtapes ever since (West Coast Resurrection [2005], Stop Snitchin Stop Lyin [2006], and Doctor’s Advocate [2006]). Among the generic gangsta themes developed in his songs, a few recurring leitmotivs especially stand out. The Game’s lyrics are markedly abounding with shout-outs to local gangs (on ‘‘Westside Story’’), with multiple references to the California chronic popularized by Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg and to idiosyncratic street attires and fashion items. His songs are also characterized by a strong emphasis on the Los Angeles

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parochial car culture through regular references to lowriders and stylish car ornaments (on ‘‘Let’s Ride’’) and by rap’s ritual glorification of the place of residence, expressed through countless references to the city Compton, the West Coast, and to their emblematic musicians (most notably Eazy-E, Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, and Tupac) and labels (on ‘‘Compton’’ and ‘‘California Vacation’’). Alternative rapper MURS (an acronym for Making Underground Raw Shit) is another major driving force in bringing Los Angeles back to the forefront. His song ‘‘L.A.,’’ from his Murray’s Revenge album, is particularly representative, like The Game’s lyrics for that matter, of the importance, in rap music, to ensure the radiance of one’s place of residence. Indeed, this rapper, like N.W.A. did in their ‘‘Straight Outta Compton’’ video, gives an extensive list of local neighborhoods (Lynnwood, Long Beach, Hawthorne), geographical landmarks, (Slausson supermall, Earl’s Hot Dogs, The Watts Towers) and of idiosyncrasies that characterize his hometown and grant it such a high-ranking status in rap music (gang culture, six fo’, white t-shirts, Chuck Taylors and K-Swiss, Poplockin’, Crip walkin’, chronic blunts, and G-Funk). If the nationwide success of Ruthless and Death Row artists, rap superstars like Snoop Dogg and Xzibit, as well as alternative rappers like Project Blowed, The Pharcyde, Jurassic 5, did a lot to popularize Los Angeles, musicians like The Game, MURS, Busdriver or Dilated Peoples, through songs abounding with signifiers (hip hop icons, area codes, landmark albums) help to continue the national interest in Los Angeles or Compton, and, by extension, in West Coast rap.

REFERENCES Abrahams, Roger D. Deep Down in the Jungle: Negro Narrative Folklore from the Streets of Philadelphia. Chicago: Adline Publishing Company, 1973. Alonso, Alejandro A. Urban Graffiti on the City Landscape. Unpublished paper presented at Western Geography Graduate Conference, San Diego State University, February 14, 1998. Bourdieu, Pierre, e´d. La Mise`re du Monde. Paris: Seuil, 1993. ———. Questions de Sociologie. Paris: Les Editions de Minuit, 2002. Brown, Cecil. Stagolee Shot Billy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003. Bryant, Jerry H. Born in a Mighty Bad Land: The Violent Man in African American Folklore and Fiction. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003. Cross, Brian. It’s Not About a Salary . . . Rap, Race and Resistance in Los Angeles. London: Verso, 1993. Dundes, Alan, ed. Mother Wit from the Laughing Barrel: Readings in the Interpretation of African-American Folklore. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1973.

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Greg Mack. Interview with Stefan Schuetze. West Coast Pioneers, October 2006. http://www.westcoastpioneers.com/interviews.html (accessed October 11, 2008). Evil, Pierre. Gangsta Rap. Paris: Flammarion, 2005. Heller, Jerry. Ruthless: A Memoir. New York: Simon Spotlight Entertainment, 2006. Joseph, Tony ‘‘DJ T.’’ Interview with Sandro de Geatani. West Coast Pioneers, June 2007. http://www.westcoastpioneers.com/interviews.html (accessed October 11, 2008). NYC Rules. Paris: L’e´dition populaire/Structure, 2003. Ro, Ronin. Gangsta: Merchandizing the Rhymes of Violence. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996. Ro, Ronin. Have Gun Will Travel: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of Death Row Records. New York: Main Street Books, 1999. Slim, Iceberg. Pimp: The Story of My Life. Los Angeles: Holloway Press, 1970. Wacquant, Loı¨c. ‘‘Scrutinizing the Street: Poverty, Morality, and the Pitfalls of Urban Ethnography.’’ American Journal of Sociology 107, no. 6 (May 2002): 1468–1532. Wepman, Dennis, Ronald B. Newman, and Murray B. Binderman. The Life, the Lore and Folk Poetry of the Black Hustler. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1976. http://www.westcoastpioneers.com.

FURTHER RESOURCES Ice T, and Heidi Siegmund. The Ice Opinion: Who Gives a Fuck? New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994. http://www.oldschoolsports.itcstore.com/ (on Locking). http://www.streetgangs.com.

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY 2Pac 2Pacalypse Now. Jive, 1991. Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z.. Atlantic/Interscope, 1993. Me Against the World. Atlantic/Interscope, 1995. All Eyez on Me. Death Row/Polygram, 1996. The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory (as Makaveli). Death Row/Interscope, 1998. Above the Law Living Like Hustlers. Ruthless/Sony, 1990. Busdriver Fear of a Black Tangent. Big Dada/Mush, 2005.

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Charles Wright & The Watts 103rd Street Rhythm Band Express Yourself. Warner Bros/Wea, 1993. Compton’s Most Wanted It’s a Compton Thang. Orpheus, 1990. Straight Checkn ’Em. Orpheus, 1991. Music to Driveby. Orpheus/Epic, 1992. Represent. Half Ounce, 2000. Music to Gang Bang. B-Dub, 2006. Cypress Hill Cypress Hill. Sony, 1991. Black Sunday. Sony, 1993. Defari Focused Daily. Tommy Boy, 1999. Odds & Evens. High Times, 2003. Street Music. ABD, 2006. Dilated Peoples Expansion Team. Capitol, 2001. 20/20. Capitol, 2006. DJ Quik Quik is the Name. Profile, 1991. Way 2 Fonky. Profile, 1992. Safe + Sound. Profile, 1995. Rhythm-al-ism. Profile, 1998. Balance & Options. Artista, 2000. Under tha Influence. Ark 21, 2002. Trauma. Mad Science, 2005. D.O.C. No One Can do It Better. Ruthless/East West, 1989. Dr. Dre The Chronic. Death Row, 1992. 2001. Aftermath, 1999. Eazy-E Eazy Duz It. Ruthless/Priority, 1988. It’s On (Dr. Dre) 187um Killa. Ruthless, 1993. Str8 off the Streetz of Muthaphukkin’ Compton. Ruthless, 1995. Egyptian Lover On the Nile. Egyptian Empire, 1984. Freestyle Fellowship To Whom it May Concern . . . . Beats & Rhymes, 1991. Inner City Griots. 4th and B’Way, 1993. Frost Hispanic Causing Panic (as Kid Frost). Virgin, 1990.

From Electro-Rap to G-Funk East Side Story (as Kid Frost). Virgin, 1992. Smile Now, Die Later. Relativity, 1995. When Hell.A. Freezes Over. Ruthless/Relativity, 1997. That was Then, This is Now Vol. 1. Celeb, 1999. That was Then, This is Now Vol. 2. Celeb, 2000. Still Up in this Shit. Koch, 2002. Somethin’ 4 the Riderz. 40 Ounce, 2003. Welcome to Frost Angeles. Thump, 2005. Funkdoobiest Which Doobie U B? Immortal/Epic/SME, 1993. Brothas Doobie. Immortal/Epic/SME, 1995. The Troubleshooters. Buzztone/RCA/BMG, 1998. Game (The) The Documentary. Aftermath, 2005. Ice-T Rhyme Pays, Sire, 1987. The Classic Collection. Rhino, 1993. Jurassic 5 Quality Control. Interscope, 2000. Power in Numbers. Interscope, 2002. King Tee Act a Fool. Capitol, 1988. At Your Own Risk. Capitol, 1990. Tha Triflin’ Album. Capitol, 1993. IV Life. MCA, 1995. The Kingdom Come. Greedy Green, 2002. Lightnin’ Rod Hustlers Convention. Celluloid Records, 1973. Liikwit Junkies The L.J.s. ABD, 2005. Lootpack Soundpieces: Da Antidote. Stones Throw, 1999. MC Eiht We Come Strapped. Epic Street, 1994. Death Threatz. Epic Street, 1996. Last Man Standing. Epic Street, 1997. Section 8. Hoo Bangin’/Priority, 1998. N’ My Neighborhood. Hoo Bangin’/Priority, 2000. Tha8t’z Gangsta. Half Ounce, 2001. Underground Hero. D3, 2002. Hood Arrest. Lookin Up, 2003.

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Smoke in Tha City (as Tony Smallz). Factor House, 2004. Affiliated. Paid in Full, 2006. MURS F’Real. Veritech, 1997. Good Music. Veritech, 1999. Murs Rules the World. LLCrew, 2000. Murs is my Best Friend. LLCrew, 2001. The End of the Beginning. Definitive Jux, 2003. Murray’s Revenge. Record Collection, 2006. Murs for President. Warner, 2008. N.W.A. N.W.A. and the Posse. Macola, 1987. Straight Outta Compton. Ruthless, 1988. 100 Miles & Runnin’. Ruthless/Priority, 1990. EFIL4ZAGGIN. Ruthless/Priority, 1991. Pharcyde (The) Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde. Delicious Vinyl, 1992. Labcabincalifornia. Delicious Vinyl, 1995. Project Blowed Project Blowed. Project Blowed, 1995. Project Blowed 10th Anniversary. Project Blowed, 2005. Snoop Dogg Doggystyle. Death Row, 1993. Tha Doggfather. Death Row/Priority, 1995. Da Game is to be Sold, Not to be Told. No Limit/Priority, 1998. No Limit Top Dogg. Doggystyle/No Limit/Priority, 1999. The Last Meal. Doggystyle/No Limit/Priority, 2000. Paid tha Cost to be da Bo$$. Priority, 2002. R&G (Rhythm & Gangsta): The Masterpiece. Doggystyle/Star Trak/Geffen, 2004. Tha Blue Carpet Treatment. Doggystyle/Geffen, 2006. Ego Trippin’. Doggystyle/Geffen, 2008. Malice in Wonderland. Doggystyle/MTV, 2009. Tha Dogg Pound Dogg Food. Death Row/Priority, 1995. Tweedy Bird Loc 187 Ride By. Independent Nat’l Di, 1992. Various artists Bangin’ on Wax. Quality Records, 1993. Warren G Regulate . . . G-funk Era. Def Jam, 1994.

From Electro-Rap to G-Funk Watts Prophets (The) The Black Voices: On the Streets in Watts. Full Frequency/Pgd, 1969. Westside Connection Bow Down. Priority, 1996. Xzibit At the Speed of Life. RCA, 1996. 40 Dayz and 40 Nightz. RCA, 1998. Restless. Loud, 2000. Man vs. Machine. Loud/Columbia, 2002. Weapons of Mass Destruction. Sony, 2004. Full Circle. Koch, 2006.

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CHAPTER 11 Between Macks and Panthers: Hip Hop in Oakland and San Francisco George Ciccariello-Maher and Jeff St. Andrews Oakland, Oaktown, The Town, the East Bay, the Five-and-Dime (510): no matter what you call it, Oakland has had a fundamental impact on rap nationwide. But this impact has rarely been recognized, and as a result Oakland hip hop tends to have a defensive flavor. Postwar Oakland is an underdog city, obscured by the long shadow of the wealthier and more renowned San Francisco across the Bay. The history of Oakland rap also reflects this underdog status. Oakland is ‘‘the soil where these rappers be gettin’ they lingo from,’’ the ‘‘Ambassador of the Bay,’’ E-40 reminds us, but Oakland is rarely recognized as the source of that lingo. As we will see, Oakland’s fundamental sociopolitical markers were The Mack and the Black Panthers, and Oakland rap has for years woven a complex tapestry of these two elements, all over a sonic foundation of heavy funk. Having profoundly influenced the L.A.-based G-Funk sound that dominated the 1990s, Oakland rap has only recently—with the Hyphy phenomenon—crossed over into widespread mainstream popularity.

THE MACK AND THE PANTHERS The history of Oakland rap sets out from two central cultural and political parameters that irrevocably altered the city’s history beginning in the late 1960s: the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense and the epic 1973 pimp film, The Mack. Each epitomizes two different ways for a heavily Black and economically depressed city to confront the realities of postindustrial U.S. society, to make one’s way in a world of poverty and violence: either macking and pimping or organizing for revolutionary transformation. While never mutually exclusive, these two same alternatives would later be posed in the form of hip hop, and so we shouldn’t be surprised to find that these two fundamental currents—the revolutionary political orientation of the Panthers and the macking mentality—inform the history of Oakland rap. 257

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Founded in 1966, the Black Panthers would soon come to represent Black rebellion nationwide, but the Panthers were rooted in the specific local conditions that marked postwar North Oakland. While a series of economic booms had converted much of postwar Oakland into white and middle-class suburbs, these same booms had brought an influx of black workers from the South. As Self has observed, Oakland’s black population tripled during the course of the war, and this immigration didn’t stop immediately thereafter: ‘‘while the city as a whole lost 4 percent of its population between 1950 and 1960, the black residential population nearly doubled, from 55,778 to 100,000 (and to 125,000 by 1970)’’ (160). Due to Jim Crow housing practices, this burgeoning population was largely limited to the industrial areas of West Oakland: ‘‘in 1950 nearly 90 percent of the city’s black population resided in 22 percent of its census tracts concentrated in West and North Oakland,’’ and they were so packed-in that one resident recalls that ‘‘they were sleeping on top of each other’’ (51). West Oakland had effectively become the key to grasping the city’s development: ‘‘At once the heart of Oakland’s expanding African American community and a liminal space . . . West Oakland came to represent dramatic imbalances in postwar metropolitan development and the massive redistributions shaping the region’’ (137). Such liminal spaces—border regions between the economically ‘‘blighted’’ and the wealthy—would play a central role in the development of Oakland rap. But the booms didn’t last, and the postwar downturn devastated Oakland’s economy, as entire industries closed their doors. While blacks continued to arrive in Oakland, ‘‘white flight’’ brought the city’s prior residents to San Francisco or the suburbs, impoverishing the city even more while it paradoxically opened up previously segregated census tracts to black residents. Some 160,000—nearly half the city’s population, mostly white—left in the decade prior to the foundation of the Black Panthers, while the black population continued to grow (166). As whites left—thereby lifting the racist ‘‘red lines’’ previously delimiting residential areas —blacks would move first into North Oakland, and later into what has more recently been dubbed ‘‘Deep East Oakland’’ (see sidebar: Deep East Oakland). It was from the first of these territories that the Panthers emerged, while the latter would come to represent the geographical base for much contemporary Oakland rap. In their respective eras, both would represent simultaneously—in Self’s words—the heart of the expanding Black community and a ‘‘liminal space’’ bordering on other communities. Confronted by the perennially heavy-handed Oakland Police Department, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale began to organize militant local self-defense within the North and West Oakland Black community. In the face of the no-win situation of postwar Oakland, the Black Panthers responded defiantly: change the situation by forcing a radical transformation of the existing political structure. Inspired by Mao Tse-Tung’s notion of ‘‘serving the people’’ and Frantz Fanon’s emphasis on blackness and the role of the urban lumpenproletariat, not to mention the revolutionary black unity and self-defense promoted by Robert F. Williams and

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DEEP EAST OAKLAND Oakland only has three regions: North, East, and West. Mistah F.A.B.’s recent track ‘‘N.E.W. Oakland’’—which, not coincidentally, cites both the Black Panthers and The Mack—reminds us of this, bringing together three rappers to represent the city as a whole: F.A.B. himself from the North, Bavgate from Ghost Town in the West, and G-Stack (formerly of The Delinquents) from The Ville in the East. Each of these areas in its own way is often used to mean ‘‘the bad part of town,’’ thereby removing the possibility of there being a ‘‘good’’ part of Oakland. But ‘‘Deep East Oakland’’—floating somewhere between 60th and 109th avenues—denotes something more. During the immediate postwar period, when the burgeoning black population was largely concentrated in the ‘‘blighted’’ West Oakland, it was there that white anxiety centered. But this image of ‘‘three Oaklands’’ is rooted in the dispersion of this anxiety, as white flight opened up nearly the entire city—North, East, and West—to the black population. But now, at a time when middle-class whites are paying top dollar for apartments in increasingly gentrified North Oakland (due to proximity to the University of California and Emeryville), and when blocks of condominiums are springing up in West Oakland (due to proximity to San Francisco), much of Deep East Oakland remains relatively untouched, and this is no accident. It is there that most of the city’s abject poverty is concentrated, a fact already clear in the late 1970s, when Felix Mitchell’s ‘‘69 Mob’’ emerged from San Antonio Village, better known as the 69th Avenue Projects. This is the same ‘‘Ville’’ that G-Stack represents, and his verse mentions both Mitchell and later Ville kingpin Darryl ‘‘Lil D’’ Reed by name: ‘‘I’m from the V-I-double-L-A-G-E . . . rollin’ through the North and the West but I reps that East.’’ Other rappers repping the East include Dru Down, Keak da Sneak, Too $hort, and The Luniz.

Malcolm X, the Panthers created an organization that was both politically antagonistic and socially benevolent. Hence they both created ‘‘survival programs’’ which provided education and free meals, and organized confrontational actions like a 1967 march on the California State Capitol wielding their arms openly to protest proposed firearms restrictions that were aimed at disarming the black community. This tension between charity and revolutionary struggle would finally contribute to a rupture in the Panthers, with Newton and others focusing on the former and the Party’s Minister of Information Eldridge Cleaver splitting off to form the militant guerrilla organization known as the Black Liberation Army. Operating in the midst of a heroin craze that would in the end contribute to the Panthers’ downfall, the organization was keenly aware of the importance of the drug question. ‘‘Capitalism plus dope equals genocide,’’ read the cover of a 1970

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pamphlet produced by the Panthers. It was this question above all others that created tension in Oakland between the political revolutionaries and the macks. This was because there was another way to respond to Oakland’s no-win situation: make the best of it, and do what it takes to survive. It was this perspective that led to the development of Oakland’s legendary mack and pimp culture. It was no accident that The Mack (1973) took place in Oakland: the film was based directly on the life of Frank Ward, who along with his brothers had dominated the Oakland underground throughout the 1960s and 1970s (Ward and his brothers made cameo appearances in the film). The film follows the career of Goldie, recently released from prison and trying to find a way to survive the Oakland streets. Goldie—whose character was directly based on Frank Ward himself—turns to pimping, and learns that the best way to control a woman’s body is to control her mind. The tension between the Panther and the pimp vision appears both within the storyline of The Mack and behind the scenes. In the film, Goldie’s brother Olinga represents the quintessential political revolutionary, to whom it falls to convince Goldie to change his ways (the film’s director recalls basing the character directly on Huey Newton). Their confrontation embodies the conflict between these two responses to the situation of postwar Oakland. Olinga argues that political revolutionaries need to ‘‘get rid of the pimps and pushers,’’ and while Goldie is willing to eliminate the drug trade, he is insistent that, ‘‘nobody is pushing me anywhere.’’ Goldie continues: Goldie: Being rich and black means something, man! Don’t you know that? Being poor and black don’t mean shit! We’re living in different times. When you and I were young kids, there were no heroes, there are all sorts of heroes now! There are kids who even look up to me. Olinga: Man, can’t you see you’re just teachin’ black kids to exploit their own kind? And that’s sick! Goldie: Well, it’s not sick man. It’s sick when you got a chance to get out of a rat-infested ghetto and you don’t! Moreover, while depicting this conflict on the screen, the producers of The Mack were simultaneously forced to walk a tightrope between the Panthers and the pimps, relying directly on the permission (and funding) granted by the Ward Brothers for the film to be made at all (providing, of course, they were allowed to appear as themselves in the film). In the end, an FBI policy of targeted assassination would combine with the widening heroin epidemic to eliminate the threat the Panthers had posed to the U.S. government. Perhaps the Panthers’ overt hostility to dealers and pimps was justified, given the credible claims that the FBI facilitated access to heroin in an attempt to undermine the Panthers, and that they did so precisely through the existing distribution networks controlled by the Ward Brothers. But the Panthers’ influence would never be fully blunted, and a variety of smaller organizations in

Between Macks and Panthers | 261 Oakland and elsewhere would draw from the inspiration they provided. The Ward Brothers themselves wouldn’t last much longer: Frank Ward would be ambushed and killed in Berkeley shortly after production on The Mack was finished. But their legacy, too, would live on in the equally legendary Felix Mitchell, the inspiration for the character of Nino Brown in New Jack City. Raised in deep East Oakland in the 1960s, Mitchell started a gang known as 69 Mob (named after 69th street), and soon came to dominate the Oakland drug trade throughout the late 1970s and early 1980s. Except now it was crack instead of heroin: one epidemic was traded for another. In both cases, the disappearance of specific groups wouldn’t eliminate their influence and legacy, mostly because the underlying conditions hadn’t been changed. People still had to find a way in an inhospitable atmosphere, and so the same choices would keep confronting those growing up on the rugged Oakland streets. But these seemingly opposed currents are never completely separate in an Oakland where few reject the need for political change and the simultaneous need to eat. Oakland rappers would never go in for abstract preaching, and even the most diehard macks would realize that it’s the system that’s the problem. The question was how best to confront the violence of the system, a violence which in Oakland often reaches epidemic proportions: to distribute it horizontally onto one’s own community, or to reformulate, redefine, and redirect that violence in a revolutionary direction. Put slightly differently, the particular socioeconomic conditions of postwar Oakland would give rise to hip hoppers who relentlessly fused, perhaps more than in any other region, the need for both the material element of macking and the political antagonism of the Panthers.

TOO $HORT’S “MACK RAP“ It’s the mack of all macks—Sir Too $hort—who is most often credited with creating the trademark Oakland rap sound. Born in L.A. in 1966, $hort can be credited with popularizing ‘‘mack’’ and ‘‘pimp’’ culture not just in the Bay but nationwide, through his status as the most widely popular Oakland rapper to date. But $hort was far from a commercial creation, and at least at first, pimpin’ wasn’t easy. $hort initially made his name by producing his own homemade ‘‘freaky tales’’ tapes with friend Freddy B as early as 1981 and selling them himself all over Oakland, especially in the parking lot of the Oakland Coliseum during Raiders games (see sidebar: Too $hort’s Hustlin’). $hort quickly became the prototype of the selfmade rapper, allegedly selling more than 100,000 copies of his first albums out of the trunk of his car. In the oft-overlooked underdog city of Oakland, this grassroots entrepreneurialism would prove central to the rap game. Perhaps unsurprisingly, Too $hort’s primary motivation when it came to rap was financial: I had like serious tunnel vision when it came to Too $hort, I saw the end of the tunnel which was money. And I was like, from the age of fifteen I was

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Too $hort (Photofest)

trying to sell my tapes. All I ever really cared about was that rap was a hustle, and I always said that if I’m not making money on rap then I’m not rapping . . . If you didn’t pay me, I would never rap. (Rolls and Winning) Since money was the prime objective, it’s not surprising that Too $hort would eventually develop a full-blown mack persona in his raps (he even recalls toying with the idea of becoming a full-time pimp). But this persona, like $hort’s sound, would take some time to develop. Too $hort’s first albums—1983’s Don’t Stop Rappin’, 1985’s Players, and 1986’s Raw, Uncut, and X-Rated (all released on Dean Hodges’ 75 Girls Records)—notably lack both the funk-inflected sound and the raw sexual content that would later come to be his trademark, but these early self-produced albums would nevertheless foreground a number of elements that would persist throughout much of Oakland’s rap history. $hort’s early albums are characterized by a minimalist sound that puts the drum machine at center stage, first the LinnDrum and later the epic TR-808 (a favorite of $hort up to the present). But on tracks like ‘‘Short Rap’’ and the appropriately named ‘‘Female Funk,’’ Too $hort’s drum programming would begin to show a clear funk influence of the sort that would become more apparent on later albums. $hort would later recall the depth of his funk influences: ‘‘that’s the foundation, just knowin’ and lovin’ the funk’’ (Rolls and Winning). As for the content, $hort would later argue that he was told that to sell raps he had to keep it clean, but his street raps were notoriously dirty from the outset,

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TOO $HORT’S HUSTLIN’ Too $hort himself has admitted that he was only into rap for the money, but while chasing the cash, Short would lay the foundations for decades of selfsustainable music production in the Bay Area. Starting in 1981, Short created the blueprint for self-made rappers in the Bay and beyond by hawking thousands of homemade tapes all over the city, especially in the parking lot of the Oakland Coliseum during Raiders games. In a perennial underdog city like Oakland this sort of from-the-ground-up business model would be crucial. While the mainstream would consistently bite elements of Oakland rap, from the sound to the slang, the industry has historically paid little attention to the Bay Area as a whole, leaving rappers to fend for themselves. As a result, this model has been expanded to all genres of Bay Area rap. Specifically, underground rappers like Hieroglyphics and their Hiero Imperium label have been forced to develop innovative marketing strategies, stretching Too $hort’s original logic to fit new realities: first from cassettes to CDs, and then on to the Internet. To this day, mixtapes and selfproduced albums can be found popping out of trunks on the street all over Oakland, and even outside Amoeba Music on Telegraph Avenue in Berkeley, where a new generation of rappers seeks financial sustenance and a chance for a break. Moreover, this hustlin’ mentality has led rappers to sustain themselves through other sorts of economic activity. E-40, for example, has had investments ranging from Fatburger and Wingstop franchises to his own line of liquor and energy drinks, and revolutionary rapper Paris entered the belly of the beast, working for years as a stock trader to fund his independent Guerrilla Funk label.

and the tapes he had been grinding since 1981 were largely composed of ‘‘freaky tales’’ of sexual conquest. We have no reason to doubt this, especially since Don’t Stop Rappin’ is graced with such metaphorical gems as ‘‘she got butter on my candy bar’’ (‘‘Short Rap’’). In this aspect, too, we see a progression: when we reach Raw, Uncut, and X-Rated, $hort had already incorporated ‘‘bitch’’ into the title of several songs (a word which would later become his trademark), and explicit lyrics were more predominant throughout. It is on this album as well that $hort’s trademark misogyny appears clearly, especially on ‘‘She’s a B,’’ nearly 10 minutes of verbal misogyny in which $hort celebrates ‘‘smackin’ that bitch, fuckin’ her up,’’ and boasts that ‘‘I’ma kill that bitch or my name ain’t Todd.’’ But while Too $hort is far from a Black Panther, there are also moments where he sounds positively conscious: on ‘‘Girl (That’s Your Life),’’ for example, $hort deals with the seedy underside of life in Oakland, ‘‘the city of dope’’ which ‘‘couldn’t be saved by John the Pope.’’ But given his pimp persona and emphasis

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on hustling, this picture is never without ambiguity, and while smoking crack is derided and criticized, the entrepreneurial orientation associated with selling crack is quite often held in esteem (e.g., ‘‘Coke Dealers’’). Too $hort’s 1987 album Born to Mack, would be the breakthrough he was looking for. In 1986, $hort had founded his own label—Dangerous Music—and Born to Mack was released in 1987. After he had already sold 50,000 copies out of the trunk of his car, Jive Records took notice and picked him up, and the 1988 Jive rerelease would eventually go gold with little to no publicity. Born to Mack was a breakthrough in other ways as well. Firstly, $hort showcased the epic, booming bass of the TR-808 drum machine: ‘‘They would say, if you turn that bass up any louder, the record is not gonna play in the groove, and I’m like . . . I don’t know what you’re talking about, everybody’s gonna be bumpin’ cassettes, do it . . . push the bass a little louder.’’ Despite the fact that $hort recalls recording the album in its entirety in three night sessions (and with less than $2,000), his production had come a long way since 1983, and was now approaching the fuller, funk-laden sound that would make Oakland famous. Too $hort’s image also changed: while the covers of his three 75 Girls albums featured close-up images of the skinny, young rapper, Born to Mack explicitly sought to depersonalize his mack identity. ‘‘Too $hort was like this super mack pimp dude,’’ who ‘‘saw The Mack and got oh so sprung’’ (‘‘Mack Attack’’). He became almost a fictional character sitting on a convertible, wearing chains he had borrowed from everyone on the photo shoot, and was so small that he couldn’t be identified. By the time Jive released Too $hort’s 1989 album Life Is . . . Too Short, he was still trying to be anonymous, but being a major-label artist in the age of the music video made underground anonymity impossible. Again, before Jive began to push the album and before the promo tour with Eazy-E, Life Is . . . Too Short had sold 300,000 copies. After the tour it was at 800,000, and after a short-lived rumor of his death it hit 1.3 million without significant radio play. And all this was in an era in which, according to $hort, ‘‘positive rap was winning’’ (Rolls and Winning). Life Is . . . Too Short represented, in a manner of speaking, Too $hort’s funk turn. This was no accident: the album featured funk fanatic Al ‘‘Baby Jesus’’ Eaton, a key player in the Oakland sound who plays the blues guitar on ‘‘City of Dope.’’ This track, moreover, is another chapter in the saga that began with the opening lines of ‘‘Girl,’’ which tracks the ultimately destructive nature of the crack epidemic as seen from the Oakland streets. This ‘‘Baby Jesus’’-driven funk would persist in subsequent albums: 1990’s Short Dog’s in the House was Oakland funk-rap at its best, especially on Eaton-arranged and Donnie Hathaway-inspired crossover hit ‘‘The Ghetto.’’ While Al Eaton brought a heavier funk influence into $hort’s work, conflicts over content led $hort to turn to Mobb Music originator Ant Banks (as well as Digital Underground rapper and Parliament roadie Shorty B) for production on his 1992 Shorty the Pimp. ‘‘If you listen to those albums,’’ recalls $hort, ‘‘there’s a formula going on in there . . . everybody’s in sync.’’ It was still funk, but the lazier, more laid-back funk that would prove so influential for the

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L.A. G-Funk sound. Despite the album’s title, Shorty the Pimp would feature one of Too $hort’s most explicitly political tracks, the Rodney King-inspired ‘‘I Want to Be Free’’ with its desperate closing line: ‘‘But I ain’t mad, I’m just Black.’’ In 1994, Too $hort relocated to Atlanta, where he has lived ever since (although he is currently planning his return to The Town). While this might seem like an extreme transition for someone who identifies so clearly with East Oakland, he recalls that there were a crowd of folks from the Bay Area in Atlanta at the time (the Oakland-Atlanta axis, moreover, is more common than often supposed, as we will see below). Shortly after moving to the A, $hort retired, but it didn’t last long, and after only three years, he returned. But $hort recalls that while he had decided that his life lay in hip hop, the magic of the ‘‘classic Too $hort’’ was gone. On ‘‘These Are the Tales’’ from the 2001 album Chase the Cat, Too $hort assesses his legacy: ‘‘Six platinums in a row, Ice Cube and Cool J, who else did that shit?’’ But this was several years ago by now, and as it stands, Too $hort is about to release his 17th album, tentatively entitled Bible of a Pimp. When asked about his own legacy, $hort replies with trademark modesty: ‘‘There’s been a lot of guys that been around a long time, but they all grew up listening to Too $hort.’’ But he immediately adds the qualifier that, ‘‘I was a little dude makin’ those records . . . So when somebody says to me, ‘I grew up on Too $hort,’ I say, ‘I did too’ ’’ (de Leon, ‘‘Too $hort’’). But more surprising than albums and sales is the fact that he did it without much mainstream attention, a story which is all too common in the perennially overlooked city of Oakland. While Oakland rap would soon find itself eclipsed by the sounds emerging from Los Angeles—first in the form of early ‘‘gangsta’’ rap like N.W.A., and later with the spin-off genre of G-Funk—it is worth emphasizing the unrecognized influence of the Oakland sound on the latter. The G-Funk sound would draw directly and consciously on the Oakland sound, specifically the 808-driven Mobb Music genre which was built on the foundation of what Too $hort himself would deem ‘‘dope fiend beats.’’ The laid-back bass-heavy funk with an equally laid-back, drawling delivery would mark $hort’s legacy to the G-Funk—despite the fact that the latter was distinguished by its heavy use of portamento synthesizers and relative lack of live instrumentation—and if we need any proof that G-Funk drew its inspiration from Oakland, we need look no further than the cover of Snoop Dogg’s Doggystyle, which draws its style directly from Too $hort’s Short Dog’s in the House. Snoop’s appropriation of the Oakland style—which Too $hort charitably interprets as paying homage (some might call it biting)—continues to this day with his popularization of terms like ‘‘fo’ shizzle’’ which were coined by E-40. Too $hort, moreover, would extend his legacy in Oakland through his musical prote´ge´s. The first, Dru Down, would exemplify the pimp and mack identity, most clearly on his ‘‘Pimp of the Year,’’ off the 1994 album Explicit Game. Drawing directly from the pimp of the year contest featured in The Mack, this track would set the tone for what would become his trademark explicit lyrics and misogynistic content. Less pimps and more G-Funk, The Luniz—composed of Too $hort

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disciples Yukmouth and Numskull—would emerge the next year with their platinum-selling Operation Stackola. Their epic tribute to the dime bag set to an equally epic and oft-sampled beat—‘‘I Got 5 on It’’—would become an Oakland landmark. $hort would also discover the one East Bay artist to successfully stay afloat during the high tide of L.A. gangsta dominance: Spice 1. A Texas native raised in the East Bay suburb of Hayward, Spice 1 would hone a hardcore gangsta sound that had more in common with Compton’s Most Wanted than the Oakland funk sound. And it would pay off: despite a few jail stints that undercut his efforts at publicity, Spice 1 would release six albums under Jive between 1991 and 1999 —while other Oakland rappers were being dropped like hot potatoes—three of which went gold. But there are clearly unfortunate elements of Too $hort’s legacy, specifically the fact that he essentially invented the genre of misogynistic rap, a genre which has flourished up to the present day. In a review of Shorty the Pimp, Danyel Smith argues that $hort’s ‘‘freaky tales’’ genre had taken a turn away from its playful origins. With this 1992 album, ‘‘Too $hort drops another bomb in the gender war. The album is a female-hating string of songs pulsing with $hort’s usual blend of nonchalance, heavy bass lines and disdainful lyrics.’’ In contrast to $hort’s earlier work, Smith argues that ‘‘his misogyny, which used to be bewildering, more taunting than challenging, has gone from insulting to scary.’’ But in some ways, she is mistaken: Shorty the Pimp wasn’t qualitatively different from prior albums (hardly worse than ‘‘She’s a B’’), and $hort’s misogyny would get even worse later (e.g. ‘‘All My Bitches Are Gone,’’ from Get in Where You Fit in). The issue is much deeper than merely at what point a ‘‘fun’’ freak turns into a violent pimp, and derives—as we discussed above—from the deepest recesses of Oakland culture. Too $hort always wanted to control his surroundings by becoming a pimp—in real life, not merely in music—but like his music, this hypothetical pimping was just another hustle, another way to scrape out a living in postindustrial Oakland. The degree to which this solution was unacceptable would be the argument of female (and some male) revolutionaries, from the Panthers to the present.

SHOCK G BRINGS THE FUNK But we need to take a step back: where did the funk come from? While Rickey Vincent credits Too $hort with pioneering rap-funk, it’s worth noting that the funk bass in $hort’s 1992 ‘‘I Wanna Be Free’’ was played by Shorty B, a rapper off Digital Underground’s ‘‘Tales of the Funky.’’ Before Life Is . . . Too $hort, before even EPMD’s ‘‘You Gots to Chill’’ and Public Enemy’s ‘‘Bring the Noise,’’ Shock G and Digital Underground had already begun to fuse Oakland’s funk heritage with the newly developing hip hop genre. Maybe it’s a bit ironic, then, that Shock G (aka Greg Jacobs) wasn’t even born in the Bay. He spent most of his younger years in New York, where what he recalls more than anything was a lack of funk. It wasn’t until Shock moved to live with his father in Florida that he caught the funk

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bug. Working as a DJ, he realized that New York-style rap just didn’t get people on the floor to dance, but George Clinton and his Parliament Funkadelic did. Despite the fact that Shock had already fused funk and hip hop while in Florida, he wasn’t the one to bring funk to Oakland. In fact, it was the opposite: the heavy funk influence that permeated the Bay would be what attracted Shock in the first place. As he recalls, ‘‘One of the reasons I decided to move to Oakland was because Oakland was putting P-Funk on way back . . . and the vibe was strong. Plus it was the only place in the country where they had a radio show dedicated to the funk’’ (Davey D, ‘‘Hip Hop and Funk’’). Shock refers here to the ‘‘History of Funk’’ show on KALX in the 1980s hosted by Rickey Vincent, aka ‘‘Uhuru Maggot,’’ who recently penned a history of funk. Later, it would be through both Vincent’s show, as well as Davey D’s own hip hop show on KALX that Digital Underground would begin to carve out an audience for funk-infused hip hop. There are a few factors that might explain the prevalence of funk in the Bay, and in Oakland in particular. Al Eaton—producer for such Oakland rappers as Too $hort, The Click, San Francisco’s Rappin’ 4 Tay, and Dangerous Dame—highlights the fact that Sly and the Family Stone came out of the small North Bay city and later Hyphy haven of Vallejo. Stone—drawing as well on the proximity to San Francisco hippiedom—would directly influence George Clinton, and the Parliament Mothership would first land in 1977 at the Oakland Coliseum. To this we could add a number of other funk acts associated with Oakland: Graham Central Station, Cold Blood, Herbie Hancock’s Headhunters, and Tower of Power, just to mention a few of the better-known examples. ‘‘There’s always been a funk thing going on in the Bay Area,’’ Eaton recalls, ‘‘It’s always been funk base central . . . Funk is here because it’s always been here’’ (Davey D, ‘‘Hip Hop and Funk’’). Among other reasons, Eaton links the popularity of funk directly to The Mack, a film that through its broad cultural influence, brought funk to would-be hip hoppers. While Too $hort and Dru Down—as well as the various ‘‘Macs’’ (i.e., The Mac, Mac Dre, Mac Mall, etc.) later emerging from Vallejo—would draw their funk more clearly from The Mack, Shock G would be more attracted to George Clinton’s appeal to spirituality and pro-black unity. In 1987, Digital Underground—at that time a duo composed of Shock G and Chopmaster J—released ‘‘Underwater Rimes,’’ with samples drawn from P-Funk’s ‘‘Aquaboogie.’’ Strangely enough, ‘‘Underwater Rimes’’ hit #1 in the Netherlands, and the duo was signed to Tommy Boy in 1989, shortly before releasing their second single, ‘‘Doowhutchyalike’’ (now as a seven-piece). DU’s debut album, Sex Packets—released in early 1990 —would sample Clinton and P-Funk no fewer than a dozen times, and Rickey Vincent argues that ‘‘Digital Underground went literally overboard with their allegiance to P-Funk’’ (252). These P-Funk samples, moreover, were arranged alongside a variety of other foundational funk acts (Sly and the Family Stone, Prince, The Meters, The Ohio Players, etc.). And it wasn’t just the samples: DU’s entire being seemed to be designed according to the P-Funk prototype, right

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down to the flashy outfits and cartoonish characters. Their smash single ‘‘The Humpty Dance’’—featuring Shock G’s comical alter ego, Humpty Hump—would reach #11 on pop and #7 on R&B charts, and Sex Packets would hit platinum by the end of the year, selling more than a million copies. DU’s 1991 This Is an EP Release went gold, as did their aptly named sophomore effort Sons of the P, which George Clinton himself helped to produce. On the latter, P-Funk remained the sample of choice, and Vincent observes that ‘‘(Not Just) Knee Deep’’ was looped on no fewer than three tracks on Sons of the P (10). Shock G describes the experience of working directly with Clinton in the following way: George blew our minds wide open when we was working with him . . . He led me onto a theory that we’re just conveyors . . . the people that are directing the energy in the funk, but he seems to feel like it’s a collective spirit that comes from the whole rhythm of the world, the rhythm of the people. Brothers seem to have rhythm with everything they do. (Vincent 252) At least in the East Bay, this ‘‘collective spirit’’ would soon come to be palpable in almost all hip hop. After Shock G started to bring the funk, the Oakland sound began to develop in earnest. But with the dominance of Los Angeles G-Funk—a sound which ironically owed more to both Oakland and P-Funk than would often be admitted—DU’s third full-length album, 1993’s Body Hat Syndrome, fell flat. But while G-Funk overshadowed Mobb Music, it is undeniable that DU and Shock G’s production left a lasting imprint on Oakland rap. Moreover, Digital Underground’s rap legacy would not be limited to the development of a characteristically funk-inspired Oakland sound. Shortly after the release of Sex Packets, Shock G discovered a young aspiring MC languishing in Marin City, a poor suburb in a rich area across the bay and to the north. Tupac Shakur would later recall that ‘‘I caught the ‘D-Flow Shuttle’ while I was in Marin City. It was the way out of here. Shock G was the conductor’’ (Davey D, ‘‘2Pac’’). Appearing first as a backup dancer and then as a rapper in his own right on DU’s 1991 EP, Tupac would later hit the studio to record his solo debut, 2Pacalypse Now, under the direction of Shock himself. While Tupac himself wasn’t from Oakland, the city would leave its mark on the young rapper, especially through his arrest by and eventual lawsuit against the Oakland Police Department, an event that only reinforced the young rapper’s image as a rebel and a revolutionary. In a prophetic interview, the late Shakur—who considered himself ‘‘the rebel of the (Digital) Underground’’—compared Oakland circa 1991 to the Bronx a decade earlier. This wasn’t a diss: according to Shakur, the Bay was primed for a rap ‘‘renaissance,’’ and Shock G and Digital Underground were at the forefront. ‘‘I feel that the Bay Area sound hasn’t even finished coming out,’’ Shakur observed, ‘‘it’s starting to get respected more and more everyday’’ (Davey D, ‘‘2Pac’’). When we consider both the profound influence of Shock G’s funk infusion on the creation of

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an ‘‘Oakland sound,’’ and when we think of the importance of the upbeat version of that sound as the basis for the recent Hyphy explosion nationwide, it becomes clear that Tupac was dropping some serious insights about the future of the East Bay.

HIERO’S 3RD EYE VISION What Digable Planets were to Brooklyn, Hieroglyphics are to Oakland. Formed by Del tha Funke´e (or Funky) Homosapien—a cousin of legendary L.A. rapper Ice Cube with a notably less gangsta name—Hiero has built a devoted fan base on the foundation of intelligent, well-crafted lyrics and jazz-infused production. Maybe it’s not surprising, given the track record of Oakland rap, that Hieroglyphics grew out of a group of major label rejects. As for Del himself, his career got off to an auspicious start: few young rappers can boast that their debut album was produced by Ice Cube and DJ Pooh. But being Cube’s cousin didn’t hurt things, and album sales were no doubt bolstered by this family relation. While Del would later regret the production style of his Elektra debut I Wish My Brother George Was Here, it reflected in many ways the deep funk influence prevalent in Oakland rap (this despite the fact that it was produced by non-Oaklanders Ice Cube and DJ Pooh, also serious funkophiles). It was no mere coincidence that Del’s name included the adjective ‘‘funky.’’ The album’s title— while directly a reference to an obscure Bugs Bunny cartoon—is more subtly a reference to George Clinton, and Del would later claim that ‘‘George Clinton is

Del tha Funkee Homosapien (Tim Mosenfelder/Corbis)

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probably my biggest influence’’ (Ma). Indeed, My Brother George could be described as a cleaner and more straightforward version of the upbeat, funkdriven Digital Underground blueprint. And like DU, Del’s first album drew heavily on Parliament and Funkadelic, sampling them no less than eight times. In fact, the track ‘‘Dr. Bombay’’ is an homage to the art of sampling the P-Funk, in which Del even adopts his own funkadelic moniker: ‘‘The Motorbooty.’’ To the question, ‘‘Where’d you get your funk from?’’ Del replies: ‘‘From a brother named George and some 151’s.’’ But like Shock G, Del’s appreciation for the P-Funk is closely associated with his appreciation for blackness, and the second subject of the song is black women, a subject to which he devotes an entire track (‘‘Dark Skin Girls’’). From the first bar, Del’s 1993 sophomore effort No Need for Alarm was a clear departure from the funky sound of My Brother George. Dark, jazzy, and noticeably slower in tempo (in some ways suggestive of DJ Shadow’s later groundbreaking work), the album reflected some clear changes to Del’s production team. Del’s disappointment with cousin Cube’s production on My Brother George had led the two to part ways (although Cube’s voice is sampled into the first track of No Need), and many of the tracks on the later album would be produced by Del himself. Working with his own tracks, Del’s trademark unstable, jittery, up-and-down flow—foreshadowed on ‘‘Dark Skin Girls’’—finally let loose. This stark sonic transformation—in which the P-Funk was largely replaced by jazz samples drawn from Herbie Hancock among others—would be paralleled by Del’s content: the mild Afrocentrism of ‘‘Dark Skin Girls’’ was replaced by smashing ‘‘Wack MCs.’’ In retrospect, Del sees the album as having been a series of ‘‘really foul’’ battle raps (Keast). After No Need for Alarm saw poor sales, Elektra had had enough of this quirky and creative (but evidently not entirely marketable) rapper, and Del was dropped from the label only a month before the release of his 1998 Future Development (to add insult to injury, Elektra would later release Del’s greatest hits without the rapper’s permission). Del’s trademark sound has been described as a ‘‘marketing director’s nightmare . . . ‘‘Too many piercings to be labeled hardcore, too many drug references to fit the conscious rap gimmick, too much Northern Cali slang for New York or LA listeners’’ (Keast). It was between Del’s first two albums that Hiero crew Souls of Mischief dropped their first album 93 ’til Infinity, on a major label deal with Jive. Made up of Tajai, Opio, A-Plus, and Phesto, Souls of Mischief were—alongside Del— stretching Oakland’s funk-laced rap sound to accommodate their stylistic creativity. That the Souls’ transition paralleled Del’s own is no coincidence: Del produced three of the album’s tracks, with fellow Hieroglyphics crew members Domino and Casual contributing others. Hence the ‘‘Hiero sound’’ was born: centered on a live bass line, 93 ’til Infinity privileged jazz samples and rapid lyrics over a laid-back track. Despite the commercial success of 93 ’til Infinity, and despite the significant sales notched by their 1995 follow-up No Man’s Land, the Souls were also dropped by Jive. This forcible exodus from the mainstream—from Souls to Del to Casual and other Hiero members—was no doubt caused by broader developments in

Between Macks and Panthers | 271 rap: the dominance of L.A. gangsta rap left little room for alternative and competing sounds, whether they be from Digital Underground, Too $hort, or Hiero. Del and company decided to regroup and move forward, founding Hieroglyphics Imperium Recordings in 1995. Many of those involved in Hiero had known each other since childhood. As Casual, who had also been dropped by Jive Records after his 1994 debut, would put it later: It came about from us getting dropped from major labels, and instead of folding and succumbing to defeat, we hit the ground running. We took what we had and we ran with it, we landscaped and we built something. We had to be resourceful, creative, and clever to gain our niche but now . . . it’s been ten years since we’ve busted out independent. (Rodrı´guez) The collective enterprise dropped their first album in 1998, and it was an instant classic. Or at least that’s how it seemed from a distance: up close, Hieroglyphics were grinding like Too $hort, but 10 years later and with a different medium. A major part of Hiero’s ‘‘niche’’ was the Internet, as Casual explains: ‘‘We were one of the first groups to gain venue from the Internet. Period . . . we had to find creative ways to help build our company. We found our niche and now we got a catalogue of like 30, 31 albums strong’’ (Rodrı´guez). 3rd Eye Vision is a journey which begins from a Primo-esque intro put together by Domino (later Hiero CEO). Despite a soul-infused first single—‘‘You Never Knew,’’ produced by Souls’ A-Plus—and some bass-driven Casual beats, the Hiero sound remains prevalent. For all their talk of breaking the mold, however, in some ways Hieroglyphics was straightforwardly traditional. Specifically, the crew’s early tendency toward showcasing their skills and battling was the anchor which kept their occasionally cartoonish lyrics down to earth: it was still about crushing the whack MCs. While showcasing his skills, Casual emphasizes both the similarity and the difference between Hiero and what had come before: ‘‘I’ll blast a nigga as quick as you, but that’s not what I’m about’’ (‘‘Casual’’). As though to further distance himself from his cousin, Del’s track ‘‘At the Helm’’ is an epic battle track aimed at the gangsta genre: ‘‘Rap ain’t about bustin’ caps and fuckin’ bitches. It’s about fluency with rhymin’ ingenuity.’’ The development of skill is Hiero’s trademark, and under this rubric this diverse crew—perhaps partly through their large size—has managed to push forward both their styles and sales without getting stale and without becoming predictable. Since these early years, Hiero Imperium has become a haven for Oakland’s self-styled conscious and independent rappers and singers: SupremeEx, Beeda Weeda, Encore, Z-Man, and R&B songstress Goapele have all joined the ranks, and Hiero even signed their first East Coast rapper, O.C., in 2005. But as we have seen above, neither independence nor consciousness were exclusive to Hieroglyphics, and it’s arguably the case that some of those involved in Hiero exaggerate both their consciousness and independence vis-a`-vis other Oakland rappers. Oakland rap has from the very

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beginning been marked by independent production and label neglect: just as the city of Oakland has been systematically shafted (San Francisco’s poor neighbor), so too have its rappers been made to feel inferior (especially to the L.A. scene which drew so directly on the Oakland style). But label neglect isn’t all bad, and the history of Oakland rap wouldn’t be the same without it. In terms of consciousness, moreover, it’s an error not to recognize the subtle influence that the Panther legacy has exerted on most Oakland rap. If we are talking about independent rappers making real, down-to-earth political statements which speak to issues in the Oakland community, then these can be found directly in Paris and The Coup, and in smaller doses in E-40, Mistah F.A.B., and even Too $hort himself. In fact, upon listening to My Brother George, one is struck by the similarity—in the beats, the flow, the meter—to early albums by The Coup. This reflects the fact that The Coup and Boots Riley were heavily influenced by both local friend Del and legend Ice Cube (Boots often refers to the latter as his biggest influence). What is ‘‘Cars and Shoes’’ but an updated version of ‘‘The Wacky World of Public Transit,’’ and ‘‘Piss on Your Grave’’ but a sequel to ‘‘Pissin’ on Your Steps’’? When we add to this the fact that Del would appear on The Coup’s ‘‘The Repo Man Sings for You’’ as well as Digital Underground’s Future Rhythm (also featuring the Luniz), we get a picture of a much more tightly intertwined Oakland rap music scene than might otherwise appear. This seems to have dawned on Del himself at some point, since in a 2000 interview he comes across a lot like Sir Too $hort himself: ‘‘when I got older I realized you have to make money somehow, you ain’t giving your art away for free. When I figured that out, I realized I couldn’t trip off what the other guy’s doing, and it ain’t my business what he’s doing, anyway. He ain’t keeping me from selling’’ (Keast). Perhaps the best proof of this recent rapprochement between Hiero and the Oakland rap tradition lies in the fact that Casual’s most recent album Smash Rockwell is a clear effort to build bridges rather than burn them, and features both a classic Hiero sound on some tracks and Oakland trunk-funk on others, as well as collaborations with E-40 and Too $hort.

FROM THE PANTHERS TO THE COUP While Too $hort wasn’t overtly political, in a city like Oakland the legacy of the Panthers always lies just below the surface, and in a sea of misogyny we occasionally get a glimpse of something like ‘‘I Want to Be Free.’’ Shock G and Digital Underground—most well-known for a track as silly as ‘‘The Humpty Dance’’— also clearly reflect this influence: Shock and other DU members originally appeared under the name Spice Regime, an explicitly Panther-inspired political act. According to Davey D, it was only the explosive appearance of Public Enemy and the equally explosive popularity of ‘‘The Humpty Dance’’ that led them to reformulate their political image. As Shock G puts it, ‘‘you can’t talk about funk without talking about the Black Revolution’’ (Vincent 47). And finally, lest we

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forget what Tupac’s media image seeks to hide, 2Pacalypse was a clearly Pantherinspired album, drawing upon the influence of mother Afeni and aunt Assata to lash American society with lyrical barbs and social criticism. Other Oakland acts would continue to draw inspiration more directly from the Panthers and the radical heritage of Oakland, putting them at the forefront of revolutionary hip hop nationwide. Any discussion of revolutionary Oakland rap must begin from a man who— despite not being directly associated with The Town—has nevertheless left an indelible mark on the Oakland style and revolutionary rap nationwide: Paris. Raised in the Haight district of San Francisco and more recently residing in Danville in the suburban East Bay, P-Dog would inject the funk into his production and the revolutionary message of the Panthers into his lyrics. Originally, Paris identified more strongly with the Nation of Islam, but the desire for a more radical and active political orientation led him to fuse the NOI self-help message with the Panthers’ transformative strategy (Byrne). It was this relentless political orientation that would lead Paris to produce some of the most hard-hitting and controversial rap tracks of the era. Specifically, tracks like ‘‘Bush Killa’’—a revenge fantasy that speaks of sending then-president George Bush Sr. ‘‘home belly-up’’—resulted in Paris being dropped from Tommy Boy and receiving a visit from the FBI. Sonically, Paris argues that ‘‘here in the Bay Area it’s all about the funk’’ (Davey D, ‘‘Funk’’), and this influence appears at its clearest on tracks like ‘‘Guerrilla Funk,’’ which includes samples of both George Duke’s ‘‘Dukey Stick’’ and Parliament’s ‘‘Knee Deep’’ (also mobilized on DU’s Sons of the P). In fact, DU had been Paris’ original link to Tommy Boy, with whom he made contact at a DU video shoot (Byrne). It was this sonic affinity with The Town Sound that led him to produce classic Oakland tracks like ‘‘Somethin’ to Ride to (Fonky Expedition)’’ by the Conscious Daughters, a track which paid tribute to Oakland’s car culture while simultaneously highlighting the revolutionary reversal of traditional gender roles as well as an open resistance to the police and reclamation of public space for street parties. As the Daughters put it: ‘‘Comin’ straight from out the O, so you know that we got the funky track, it’s fat.’’ If we didn’t know better, we’d think Paris’s beat for the track was straight out of the G-Funk (especially given the generous dose of portamento he employs). As we will see below, this celebration of Oakland’s sideshow culture—in which ‘‘homies steady clownin’ on the gas, brake, dip’’—is a constant presence (the first rapper to reference sideshows is Richie Rich) but one which would later come to a peak in the Hyphy era (see sidebar: Sideshows). Moreover, while ‘‘Somethin’ to Ride To’’ has a noticeably laidback, G-Funk feel, many of Paris’s own tracks take the Bay sound and make it faster (here showing a clear influence of Public Enemy), pointing in some ways toward the later rise of Hyphy. Indeed, the name of Paris’s label—Guerrilla Funk —reflects a fusion of Oakland’s funk heritage and revolutionary political tradition. In recent years, this label has gathered together these strands of Oakland rap, producing classic Mobb Music like the Conscious Daughters and C-Funk as well as

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SIDESHOWS The spontaneous street party is the center of Oakland’s recently developing Hyphy culture, but has a long history in Oakland car culture and hip hop. A sideshow is essentially a spontaneous street party in which one might ‘‘ghostride the whip’’ (get out while driving), ‘‘gas brake dip,’’ or even ‘‘scrape’’ (spin donuts in the middle of the street). As early as 1991, Richie Rich (of the 415) was rapping about sideshows as the center of Oakland street culture and the police repression they faced, and in 1993 The Conscious Daughters dropped their Paris-produced ‘‘Somethin’ to Ride to,’’ an ode to Oakland sideshows at which ‘‘homies steady clownin’ on the gas, brake, dip.’’ But while sideshows have a long history in Oakland rap, Mistah F.A.B. insists nevertheless that: ‘‘the sideshow 2006, ain’t nothing like it was with Richie Rich.’’ Given the importance of sideshows for black reclamation of public space in a city like Oakland, which makes a conscious effort to criminalize all expressions of black collectivity, it is not surprising that the sideshow has become the new threat, the new focus of the media and the police. But while police repression is harsh, the decentralized structure of sideshows—which are organized informally through text messages—proves impossible for the police to stop altogether: when the police arrive at one location, participants merely disperse and regroup elsewhere. Media representations reinforce the false claim of sideshows as a locus of criminality and violence, thereby creating public support for disproportionally harsh policing measures. ‘‘Sideshow’’ has become a new racist code-word, a fact which only further legitimizes the subtle political challenge inherent in Hyphy and sideshows.

revolutionary Oakland acts like former Coup collaborator T-K.A.S.H., Boston’s Uno the Prophet, New Orleans’ Truth Universal, and L.A.’s Kam. Much to his pleasure, Paris was even invited to produce the latest album by his heroes Public Enemy, released by Guerrilla Funk as Rebirth of a Nation in 2006. But perhaps the most innovative and overtly revolutionary political act to come out of Oakland is The Coup. Composed of MC Raymond ‘‘Boots’’ Riley and DJ Pam the Funkstress (and previously E-Roc, who has since left the group to become a longshoreman), The Coup has maintained a constant presence in the underground rap scene, a revolutionary gadfly gnawing on an often apolitical mainstream. Riley, whose political orientation derives in part from his parents’ activism in the NAACP, Students for a Democratic Society, and the Progressive Labor Party, has long identified as a communist (allegedly since the age of 14). Boots’ first foray into political hip hop took the form of the Mau Mau Rhythm Collective, founded in 1991—a year before The Coup came together—to use music to

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raise awareness about radical political projects. The next year, Boots met Pam—a disciple of DJ Prince of Charm—at a release party for 2Pacalypse, and The Coup was born (Ashlock). The Coup’s sound has always lived up to their Oakland heritage by foregrounding funk influences, sampling the P-Funk among others. Moreover, like much of the Mobb Music tradition, The Coup also make heavy use of live instrumentation both in the studio and on tour. Since their first album—1993’s seminal Kill My Landlord—The Coup’s political method has been a typically revolutionary Marxist one, in which local issues are situated within a broader socioeconomic structure. Rather than merely attempting to get by within these structures—as is the case with much of Oakland’s macking and pimping culture—for The Coup this structural understanding then allows the MCs to mount a lyrical and political attack. On Kill My Landlord, The Coup starts out with a survey of revolutionary thought: the track ‘‘Dig It’’ begins from the assertion that, ‘‘Presto, read The Communist Manifesto,’’ and seeks to ‘‘rip through ‘em from the tip of my Mao Tse-Tongue.’’ Besides Marx and Mao, the track also cites Kwame Nkrumah, H. Rap Brown, Frantz Fanon, and Geronimo Pratt, takes the time to indict the media, the police (5-0), Christopher Columbus, and the Bush administration, and brings it all back to the local level: ‘‘And you still wanna know the origin of our flow? Oakland, California 94610.’’ This same method is deployed repeatedly on this and other albums. Kill My Landlord addresses nearly all aspects of contemporary black politics: from colonial selfhatred on ‘‘Fuck a Perm,’’ to the ever-present decision of whether to give up weed on ‘‘My Last Blunt,’’ and even the raging debate over the n-word in ‘‘I Ain’t the Nigga,’’ in which Pam the Funkstress splices—Primo-style—Big Daddy Kane, Ice Cube, and the Last Poets. On ‘‘Not Yet Free,’’ the violence faced by young, Black males in Oakland—where ‘‘I got a mirror in my pocket and I practice looking hard’’—serves as an occasion to critique the failures of the Civil Rights generation’s emphasis on formal solutions to racism. And all this, again, over an Ice Cube sample (Boots would claim Del’s big cousin as his favorite rapper). While Kill My Landlord, as the title suggests, is not lacking in revenge fantasies and celebration of assassination, the real focus is on mass political mobilization and structural transformation. Kill My Landlord would be followed in 1994 by Genocide and Juice, a tighter and more funk-laden album, but one which similarly deals with the totality of capitalist relations in Oakland. This structural view, and this grasp of the totality, emerges most clearly on the track ‘‘Fat Cats, Bigga Fish,’’ which tells the story of a successful hustler who’s ‘‘got game like I read the directions,’’ but who eventually realizes that his perspective is limited and that the real hustlers are the politicians: ‘‘ain’t no one player that could beat this lunancy . . . I’m gettin’ hustled only knowing half the game.’’ ‘‘Only knowing half the game’’ is insufficient: to challenge the system, we need to understand all aspects of game. The real pimps and macks—as we discover in hilarious freestyles by David Rockefeller, JeanPaul Getty, and Donald Trump—are the capitalists.

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Despite a marketable sound, label takeovers essentially resulted in forcing Genocide and Juice out of production. The next Coup release would take four years, largely due to their disappointment with prior efforts. But after creating a new organization known as Young Comrades and engaging a series of community issues, Boots realized that his raps could once again be effective. Now a duo, The Coup’s 1998 Steal This Album wouldn’t disappoint. ‘‘The Shipment’’ takes aim directly at the drug industry, but seeks to show who the real pushers are. Pam cuts in a sample from Prince’s ‘‘Darling Nikki’’—‘‘thank you for the funky time’’— while Boots admits slanging rocks, but ‘‘Palestinian style.’’ But the highlight of Steal This Album is ‘‘Me and Jesus the Pimp in a ‘79 Granada Last Night,’’ a track which is noteworthy above all for its settling of accounts with The Mack and Oakland pimp culture. As in The Coup’s other work, the richness of the track comes from its complexity, its refusal to fall into a simplistic or abstract political rejection of pimping, and its insistence on grasping the totality. On the track, Boots is the son of an Oakland prostitute and her violent, one-handed pimp Jesus, who would ‘‘slap a ho to pieces with his plastic prosthesis.’’ Here, we cannot but recall Too $hort, who on ‘‘All My Bitches Are Gone’’ boasts that when one of his ‘‘bitches’’ got out of line, ‘‘I took one step back and went straight to her jaw.’’ In poetic terms, Boots describes his mother’s death at Jesus’s hands, and how he had begun to exchange letters with Jesus while the pimp was serving a prison term, always with a plan to kill him in revenge. But Boots inadvertently grows attached to Jesus, his only friend in the world. In the end, however, the Panther in him wins out over the pimp: ‘‘I don’t think that it’s gon’ end ‘til we make revolution?’’ Boots drives Jesus down to the Oakland docks and shoots him, and all this over the backdrop of a sampled chorus: George Clinton yelling ‘‘Oakland do you wanna ride?’’ from Parliament’s live Earth Tour album. While widely respected, the duo’s 2001 Party Music would sell poorly, and this combined with the political difficulties of the day: the original cover art depicted Boots and Pam simulating the destruction of the World Trade Center, and while it had been designed months prior to the September 11 attacks, the cover art had to be withdrawn and redesigned before the album could finally be released. Moreover, recent years have seen increased difficulties for the duo: in 2005 a hype man for the group was killed in a robbery of his home in Oakland, and the next year The Coup’s tour bus crashed and burned, destroying all of their equipment (and forcing the cancellation of their tour). Their 2006 release, Pick a Bigger Weapon, was their first on a major label (Epitaph), but the album continues to foreground the group’s Oakland heritage: described by one commentator as ‘‘more Funkadelic than Parliament, more Dirty Mind than Purple Rain,’’ Pick a Bigger Weapon even features instrumentation by several members of Sly and the Family Stone (Ashlock). Oakland’s revolutionary, Panther-inspired tradition reaches its musical apex in the still-underappreciated work of Boots and Pam. But again, too many would overstate the gulf separating the mack from the revolutionary: Boots himself has consistently emphasized the limitations of most so-called ‘‘conscious’’ rap as

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having no basis in the material world, no organic link with revolutionary social movements. According to Riley, Political rap groups offered solutions only through listening. They weren’t part of a movement, so they died out when people saw their lives were not changing. On the other hand, gangsta groups and rappers who talk about selling drugs are part of a movement . . . In order for political rap to be around, there has to be a movement around that will make people’s lives better in a material sense. (Forman and Neal 317) As if to prove his materialism, Riley would always maintain links with gangsta and mack rappers, appearing for example in the video for E-40’s 1993 track ‘‘I Practice Looking Hard,’’ which also features Tupac and samples The Coup’s ‘‘Not Yet Free’’ (although Boots recalls being surprised by E-40’s request to use the sample). The Coup would later collaborate with both 40 and Spice 1 on the Genocide and Juice track ‘‘Santa Rita Weekend.’’ While The Coup are explicitly critical of both the misogynistic and excessively materialistic elements of the pimp lifestyle, they are far from anti-materialistic: they’re ‘‘spittin’ dialectical analysis.’’ Rather than a simplistic materialism or an abstract, idealistic, anti-mack politics, The Coup’s ‘‘dialectical materialism’’ recognizes both the reasons that black people in America and Oakland turn to materialist solutions as well as the errors this turn can involve. They recognize that getting paid is necessary, but that the rules of the economic game are stacked so that Blacks can’t win. All that remains is to alter the rules of the game, but through revolutionary political intervention, not preaching. It would be difficult to ignore how the context of Oakland helped to contribute to The Coup’s complex position: growing up in an economic wasteland in which people need to make money, one might be tempted to justify any and all attempts to do so, but revolutionary dialectics must push beyond this basic materialism to its revolutionary supercession. As Boots explains: ‘‘My political view is not that things aren’t fucked up because you’re not doing the right thing . . . Things are fucked up because there is this evil ruling class doing this stuff to us—so let’s go get ‘em’’ (Ashlock).

SAN FRANCISCO RAP Oakland has long existed in the shadow of its famous neighbor across the Bay Bridge (see sidebar: The Bay Bridge). But given the history of rap, itself a subaltern form that emerged from the shadows of poverty and racism, we might expect this relationship to be reversed when it comes to hip hop music in the Bay Area, and indeed, this has been the case: Bay Area hip hop has been historically centered in Oakland, and to a lesser degree in the North Bay city of Vallejo. But this hasn’t prevented a small group of excellent and influential rappers from emerging from ‘‘The City’’ as opposed to ‘‘The Town.’’ Early on, in an effort to step out of the

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THE BAY BRIDGE Perhaps more than any other landmark, the Bay Bridge represents Oakland’s ‘‘underdog’’ status, standing in the long shadow of the celebrated Golden Gate Bridge just as Oakland (‘‘The Town’’) stands in the equally long shadow of San Francisco (‘‘The City’’). Desperate individuals have even been known to pay a toll to drive across the Bay Bridge, only to hurl themselves from the more fashionable Golden Gate. This underdog status is even visible between the two spans of the Bay Bridge: while the western span (from Treasure Island to San Francisco) boasts tall, elegant suspension pylons, the eastern span (from Treasure Island east to Oakland) is more plain and drab. As a result, in recent years this underdog symbolism that the Bay Bridge represents has even become a banner for collective protest, as the longstanding controversy over design disparity was rekindled in debates over the need for earthquake-safety retrofitting of the eastern span. Newly elected Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger rejected a fancier ‘‘signature’’ design for the retrofit as unnecessarily expensive, and refused state financing for anything but a bland and lifeless design, sparking protest by local residents. This symbolic value of the Bay Bridge never seems to escape Oakland rappers, for whom it stands as an architectural testament to inequality and poverty. For lyricists ranging from Spice 1—in his ‘‘Jealous Got Me Strapped’’ (featuring Tupac)—to Boots Riley of The Coup, the Bay Bridge stands for desperation. In The Coup’s ‘‘Cars and Shoes,’’ an ode to the individual automobile as a necessary antidote to poor public transport (‘‘the AC Transit blues’’), Boots tells of his adventures with cheap automobiles, one of which ‘‘broke down on the Bay Bridge, lemme tell you that motherfucker’s dangerous.’’ Given Oakland’s weight in the Bay rap game, even SF rappers can’t avoid the Bridge’s significance, with Andre Nickatina dedicating an entire track to the subject and Young Cellski rapping about the bodies that wash up under it.

shadow of East Bay rappers, those from San Francisco dubbed the SFC ‘‘Sucka Free City’’ (later to become a Spike Lee film featuring SF rapper J.T. the Bigga Figga) and the city’s hip hop life was concentrated primarily in two areas: the Fillmore and Hunter’s Point. By far the largest concentration of well-known San Francisco rappers has emerged from the vaguely defined Fillmore (‘‘Fillmoe’’) district, a sector of the city’s Western Addition and the center of the city’s black culture in recent decades. As black residents replaced interned Japanese-Americans during World War II, the Fillmore experienced a unique dynamic by which a largely black neighborhood

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sprang up in a nonmarginalized area. But economic difficulties and racist public redevelopment efforts led to the construction of poor-quality project housing which—especially in the face of recent gentrification—stands alongside homes for the wealthy. It was from this context of urban decline and ethnic and class conflict—one strikingly similar to postwar Oakland—that San Francisco rap emerged. The forerunner was Hugh-EMC, from the ‘‘Outta Control’’ (O.C.) Projects in the Fillmore, where he represented a part of the ‘‘Outta Control Fillmoe’’ gang. Teaming up with Scratchmaster T (as DJ Rock), Hugh-E began to craft what would be known as the SF sound. But this sound was, from the very beginning, closely intertwined with the rap colossus across the bay: Hugh-E and DJ Rock’s ‘‘Pimp Style’’ EP was recorded under the watchful eye of none other than Al Eaton, and moved more than 4,000 units. Their 1988 single ‘‘It’s Da Game’’ and 1989’s ‘‘I Don’t Stop’’ would share the basic elements of the early Bay Area sound: minimalistic, with an 808, a high-hat, and a few electronic adornments, and a simplistic Too-Short-esque flow. And Hugh-EMC’s content seems to have been Short-inspired as well: 1989’s ‘‘H-Nigga Groove (Keep a Bitch Broke)’’ is straight pimp, albeit with a flow reminiscent of Eazy-E. While there would be a direct line connecting Hugh-EMC to the Fillmoe rappers of today, it would be Hunter’s Point that would break through to mainstream attention. Hunter’s Point (the HP) houses the city’s largest black population, one whose development shares more with the wartime expansion of West Oakland than the later concentration in the Fillmore. Employment centered, as in Oakland, on the shipyard, but Naval activity in the area has left a legacy of toxic pollution alongside the high unemployment and lack of services the zone suffers. In 1991, the HP gave rise to RBL (Ruthless By Law) Posse, whose self-produced ode to bad marijuana—‘‘Don’t Give Me No Bammer’’— would be an unexpected hit, leading the group to a major label deal a few years later. Notable in ‘‘Bammer’’ was its uncharacteristic sound: jazzier than much of the Bay Area rap at the time, RBL’s sound prefigured in some ways the later Hieroglyphics sound. But later RBL production, especially on 1994’s Ruthless By Law, would fall into line with the G-Funk sound, portamento and all. Back to the Fillmore, where Hugh-EMC prote´ge´, producer and rapper J.T. the Bigga Figga founded Get Low Recordz in 1991. J.T.’s 1993 Playaz ‘N the Game included the Bay Anthem ‘‘Game Recognize Game,’’ featuring Vallejo rapper (and E-40’s cousin) Mac Mall, who was discovered by Mac Dre and signed to Thizz Entertainment. The album also featured a host of up-and-coming Fillmore rappers like Rappin’ 4-Tay, San Quinn, and D-Moe. San Quinn and D-Moe would, alongside J.T. and Seff tha Gaffla, be known as the Get Low Playaz, releasing several group albums and providing the backbone of Fillmore rap for years to come. In more recent years, San Quinn has become a particularly central force, beginning at the ripe old age of 12 as an opening act for Tupac and Digital Underground. Quinn’s first album Don’t Cross Me was released when the rapper was only 15, and he has gone on to release a dozen more albums and mixtapes in the years since.

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And it was Quinn himself that would introduce the world to one of the SFC’s most promising rappers: his cousin Messy Marv. The two released the classic joint album Explosive Mode in 1998, but despite his newfound fame, Messy Marv was still involved in the drug trade. This led to his hospitalization in 2001 with two broken legs, after jumping from a window, and a string of arrests. Nevertheless, 2004 saw Messy release the equally legendary DisoBAYish, and recent years have seen him team up with Guce and Killa Tay as Bullys wit Fullys, releasing the classic track ‘‘So Hood.’’ And Messy Marv wouldn’t be Quinn’s only cousin to blow up: in 2002, younger cousin Ya Boy—also from the Fillmore—blew up with the track ‘‘16s Wit Me.’’ After releasing his debut album Rookie of the Year in 2005, Ya Boy signed with The Game’s Black Wall Street label.

FROM VALLEJO TO HYPHY: THE FUTURE OF OAKLAND HIP HOP Contemporary Oakland rap cannot be understood without also mentioning a small North Bay city with a peculiarly powerful musical heritage: Vallejo. This heritage, moreover, reinforces the importance of funk for the Oakland hip hop scene, since it was from Vallejo that Sly and the Family Stone spread their musical tentacles, influencing George Clinton, among others. By the 1990s, Vallejo’s musical claim to fame had passed to the next generation, and specifically the small but significant group of rappers concentrated in the city’s Crestside neighborhood. It was from there that the father of the Hyphy sound emerged: the Oakland-born but Vallejoraised Andre Hicks, aka Mac Dre. Mac Dre exploded onto the Vallejo and Bay Area scene with hits like ‘‘2 Hard 4 the Fuckin’ Radio,’’ which boasts a minimalistic but undeniably funky bass line. Certainly upbeat for the G-Funk era, producer Khayree’s beat is only adorned during the chorus by a sped up sample from Chaka Khan’s ‘‘Tell Me Something Good.’’ The verses are all Dre, who with a simplistic but infectious flow and meter, draws an interesting distinction between pimping and macking: ‘‘Not a pimp daddy, don’t drive a caddy, I just mack and get all that babby.’’ Here, macking is divorced from pimping, and becomes synonymous with more benign hustling. Unfortunately for Dre, he also refers clearly on this track to ‘‘Romper Room,’’ a group he was involved with which would later be allegedly associated with a series of bank robberies. In 1992, Dre was sentenced to five years imprisonment, but continued to record over the phone. Upon his release in 1996, Mac Dre continued to expand his fame in the Bay and beyond, founding a new record label—Thizz Entertainment (named after the late Hicks’ penchant for ecstasy)—and giving birth to the uptempo but uniquely Bay Area style known as Hyphy. While Mac Dre would not survive to see it—he was killed in a 2004 shooting after a performance in Kansas City, Missouri—Hyphy would finally promise the mainstream attention that Oakland and the East Bay had never previously achieved.

Between Macks and Panthers | 281 Despite the undeniable importance of Vallejo, however, Hyphy would soon be adopted by Oakland (and the rest of the Bay). It was Oakland rapper Keak Da Sneak who claims to have invented the term: upon being told by his mother that he was ‘‘hyperactive,’’ Keak repeated the term as ‘‘hyphy.’’ Since then, hyphy has come to refer to a complex group of cultural activities synonymous with Oakland: it is at once a sound, a behavior, a choice in recreational drugs. It refers to cars, to funk, to resisting the police and reclaiming public space: in short, to everything that makes Oakland rap tick. The transition from Vallejo to Oakland was made most explicitly by the self-professed ‘‘Ambassador of the Bay’’: E-40. Through a vast network of associates and even family members, E-40 has built a prominent rap empire: 40 himself first emerged alongside brother D-Shot, sister Suga T, and cousin B-Legit in The Click; rapper Turf Talk is a cousin; and upand-coming producer Droop-E is none other than E-40’s son. While E-40 had already boasted a long rap career by the time Hyphy emerged as a force in the hip hop mainstream, it was his own 2006 album My Ghetto Report Card and its Hyphy anthem ‘‘Tell Me When to Go (Dumb)’’ that announced Hyphy’s crossover to nationwide popularity. But what, precisely, is Hyphy? There seems to be no clear consensus on the question. Too $hort, for example, claims that ‘‘it’s a musical movement, first and foremost. When you look at it and analyze it, what stands out is the music—the artists, the music [that] makes you dance. The number one thing about Hyphy isn’t the sideshow or doing donuts. It’s the music’’ (de Leon, ‘‘Too $hort’’). And the blossoming popularity of this musical genre doesn’t surprise him at all: despite founding Mobb Music and its lazy ‘‘dope fiend beats,’’ $hort claims that he’s been telling people to speed it up for years. But it’s not just about speed: it’s about a new form for Oakland’s funk heritage. Hyphy—at least in its Vallejo origins—is what happens when funk is taken over the top into the realm of the absurd: it takes Sly and the Family Stone and makes it Bootsy’s Rubber Band. The spirit of upbeat funk—from Digital Underground to Mac Dre—is something that is beyond the music. As a result, some would disagree with $hort that Hyphy is primarily musical. As E-40 puts it, ‘‘Hyphy is more than just our music. It’s something that started in Oakland that’s a lifestyle and a culture’’ (de Leon, ‘‘E-40’’). And while its origins lie in the Bay, Hyphy has also reinforced the traditional closeness between Oakland and Atlanta. The commonly heard claim that Hyphy is ‘‘Oakland’s crunk’’ is an exaggeration, but like Too $hort himself and in the words of Keak, Hyphy has made the transition ‘‘from the Bay to the A,’’ as E-40’s latest album was largely produced by Lil’ Jon (thereby reversing the economic migrations that created Oakland’s Black community in the first place). But what do the different elements of Hyphy culture have in common? What links—in E-40’s ‘‘Tell Me When to Go’’—ghostriding the whip and stunna shades, dreads and scrapers, and thizz faces and gas-brake-dipping (see sidebar: Thizzin’)? In short, what explains this peculiar constellation of cars, music, drugs, fashion, and politics that has been named ‘‘Hyphy’’? One writer argues that ‘‘the great

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thing about Hyphy is how lightly it wears its street cred, especially compared with the self-righteousness of so much ‘alternative’ hip-hop’’ (Rosen). Whereas a number of too-cool-for-school rappers in recent years have boasted that they don’t dance, Hyphy celebrates going ‘‘stupid doo-doo dumb’’ a la Mac Dre’s ‘‘Thizzle Dance.’’ While we could agree with Rosen that the ‘‘unpretentiousness’’ of getting ‘‘stuey’’ and ‘‘super-mainy’’ is certainly part of Hyphy’s charm, the latter can’t be reduced to a purely nonserious party genre. This is because, even in the most seemingly apolitical elements of Hyphy, we can find political issues particular to the Black community in postindustrial America (and Oakland specifically). Celebrating old cars (scrapers) when that’s all you’ve got, donning your grandma’s old sunglasses (stunna shades), and finding a recreational drug worth celebrating (ecstasy) amidst the crack (and malt liquor) epidemic: these are all eminently political gestures. More importantly, sideshows—the spontaneous street parties for which Oakland has recently become infamous—are far more political than many would admit. In a country which systematically seeks to constrain and ghettoize the black populations, sideshows are a powerful form of resistance and expression of community. They represent a reclamation of public space on par with such recognized movements as Europe’s ‘‘Reclaim the Streets,’’ but rarely is the latter dismissed and criminalized like Oakland’s sideshows. Therein lies the contradiction of the perennially criminalized population that is Black America, of which Oakland is merely a microcosm. This brings us back to our parallel starting points: The Mack and the Panthers. As Mistah F.A.B.—‘‘the spokesperson of this Hyphy shit’’—puts it, Hyphy is intimately linked to Oakland’s revolutionary history: ‘‘We have always been activist, revolutionaries in the Bay. People who rebel against the powers that be.’’ But Hyphy isn’t straightforwardly revolutionary, it’s caught in-between these two responses to Oakland’s socioeconomic situation, just like F.A.B. himself, who describes his recent independent release The Baydestrian as party music that still carries a political message. I try to do [party songs] like Afrika Bambaataa or Rob Base and still say something with some substance. It comes naturally for me. My aunt and uncle were Black Panthers. My daddy was a pimp. I’m stuck in the middle. I’m able to do the Hyphy music, but I’m also able to talk about a lot of political things that’s going on. (Johnson) Like his mentor Mac Dre, however, F.A.B. distinguishes macking from pimping, arguing that ‘‘pimpin’, that’s what it’s not about, it’s about getting’ paper.’’ While The Coup are revolutionaries who accept the importance of macking, Mistah F.A.B. takes the inverse path: his macking is tempered by political consciousness so as to exclude pimping. In the end, these two routes to political consciousness are more similar than one might think. F.A.B., who was recently picked up by major label Atlantic, but who has run into some legal difficulties that have delayed his album—specifically, the

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THIZZIN’ Anyone who traditionally associates ecstasy pills with hippies or ravers will be surprised to find that dropping E, or ‘‘thizzin’,’’ has come to be closely associated with the Oakland sideshow scene. While one could argue that the drug’s popularity in Oakland has its roots in the laid-back West Coast lifestyle, what is certain is that it plays a central part in contemporary Hyphy culture. Thizzin’ was popularized by early hyphy rapper Mac Dre, who would later even christen his record label Thizz Entertainment. Mac Dre even developed an entire vocabulary associated with thizzin: from the ‘‘thizz face’’ that one makes after dropping E due to the taste (‘‘I put a look on my face like I smell some piss’’) to his very own (possibly Humpty Dance-inspired) ‘‘thizzle dance’’ (‘‘you can’t do the thizz unless you pillin it’’). With Hyphy’s tendency to celebrate getting ‘‘stupid doo-doo dumb,’’ thizzin’ has come to contribute to the notably unpretentious nature of the genre.

controversy that has marred ghostridin’ nationwide—argues appreciatively that ‘‘E-40 capitalized’’ and popularized the movement, but adds that ‘‘the Bay Area will always be [Mac] Dre area’’ (Johnson). But when asked about the older players in the Bay Area scene, F.A.B. is less generous: ‘‘My generation and my fans don’t give a fuck about Del. I pay the older dudes their respect, but I feel like time gotta move on’’ (Mistah F. A. B.). And in moving on, we see one thing that people seem to agree on: you can’t reduce the Bay Area or even the East Bay to Hyphy. As E-40 puts it, ‘‘Every rapper in the Bay don’t do Hyphy music. I don’t just do Hyphy music. I got two Hyphy songs on my album. I don’t call myself the King of Hyphy’’ (de Leon, ‘‘E-40’’). Mistah F.A.B. echoes this sentiment, and looks toward the future of Bay Area rap: ‘‘On Da Baydestrian, there’s only like three or four actual Hyphy tracks. The rest is something else . . . . it’s like hip-Hyphy, a mixture of the traditional hip hop sound and Hyphy’’ (Mistah F. A. B.). As styles change, the macking mentality innate to many Oakland rappers will lead them to constantly modify their hustle—giving the audience what they want, like Too $hort—while the potential for revolutionary consciousness lies just below the surface. In 2008, Oakland remains an absent presence in the hip hop mainstream. Its influence is ubiquitous, and yet it is almost never recognized, and as Oakland rappers like to point out, they are rarely credited for their widespread respect and stylistic innovations. The particularities of Oakland’s rap history are closely related to the particularities of The Town itself. The political responses represented by the Black Panthers and pimp culture intersect and cross-fertilize throughout much of Oakland’s hip hop production, and these in turn intertwine with the central sonic

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parameter of The Funk. These parameters help us to see the fundamental commonalities that hold Oakland rap together, shaping its history and setting a course for its future.

REFERENCES Ashlock, Jesse. ‘‘The Coup’s Funky Revolution.’’ RES Magazine, April 10, 2004. http://www.res.com/magazine/articles/underdogsthecoupsfunky revolution_2004-08-10.html. Bernard, Harvey (Producer) and Michael Campus (Director). The Mack. New Line Cinema, 1973. Byrne, Peter. ‘‘Capital Rap.’’ SF Weekly, December 3, 2003. http://www .sfweekly.com/2003-12-03/news/capital-rap/. Davey, D. ‘‘Hip Hop and Funk . . . Bay Area Style.’’ http://www.daveyd.com/ ffunk.html. ———. ‘‘On the Line with . . . 2Pac Shakur: The Lost Interview,’’ 1991. http:// www.daveyd.com/interview2pacrare.html. de Leon, Krishtine. ‘‘E-40: Respect Mine.’’ XXLmag.com, July 20, 2006. http:// www.xxlmag.com/online/?p=3139. ———. ‘‘Too $hort: Born N Raised.’’ XXLmag.com, May 11, 2006. http://www .xxlmag.com/online/?p=1595. Forman, Murray, and Mark Anthony Neal, eds. That’s the Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader. New York: Routledge, 2004. Johnson, Will. ‘‘Mistah F.A.B.: Stuntin’ to Death.’’ XXLmag.com, May 3, 2007. http://www.xxlmag.com/online/?p=9744. Keast, Darren. ‘‘Having It Both Ways.’’ SFWeekly, March 1, 2000. http:// www.sfweekly.com/2000-03-01/music/having-it-both-ways/. Ma, David. ‘‘Endurance: A Talk with Del.’’ Mesh Magazine, 2005, Issue 9. http://meshsf.com//newpage/meshsf/article.php?id=124&vol_id=009§ion _id=6&option=archive/. Mistah F. A. B., ‘‘Mistah F.A.B. Presents . . . the Balance.’’ XXLmag.com, September 26, 2006. http://www.xxlmag.com/online/?p=4970. Rodrı´guez, Kenny. ‘‘Casual: Been Around the World.’’ Nobodysmiling.com, 2005. http://www.nobodysmiling.com/hiphop/interview/85341.php. Rolls, Chris, and Brolin Winning. ‘‘Great Albums with Too $hort,’’ April 18, 2006. http://www.mp3.com/news/stories/4165.html. Rosen, Jody. ‘‘Go Dumb: Why Hyphy Is the Best Hip-Hop Right Now.’’ Slate.com, February 13, 2007. http://www.slate.com/id/2159745/. Smith, Danyel. ‘‘Too $hort, Shorty the Pimp.’’ Rolling Stone 639 (September 1992): 17.

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Vincent, Ricky. Funk: The Music, the People, and the Rhythm of the One. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996.

FURTHER RESOURCE Self, Robert O. America Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY 2Pac 2Pacalypse Now. Jive, 1991. Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z. Atlantic/Interscope, 1993. Me Against the World. Atlantic/Interscope, 1995. All Eyez on Me. Death Row/Polygram, 1996. The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory (as Makaveli). Death Row/Interscope, 1998. The Conscious Daughters Ear to the Street. Scarface/Priority, 1993. The Coup Kill My Landlord. Wild Pitch, 1993. Genocide and Juice. Wild Pitch, 1994. Steal This Album. Dogday, 1998. Party Music. 75 Ark, 2001. Del tha Funky Homosapien I Wish My Brother George Was Here. Elektra, 1991. No Need for Alarm. Elektra, 1993. Digital Underground Sex Packets. Tommy Boy, 1990. This Is an EP Release. Tommy Boy, 1991. Sons of the P. Tommy Boy, 1991. DJ Whoo Kid and DJ E-Rock Bay Bidness, Volume 1. 2006. Dru Down Explicit Game. Relativity, 1994. E-40 Mail Man. Jive, 1994. In a Major Way. Jive, 1995. My Ghetto Report Card 2006. Hieroglyphics 3rd Eye Vision. Heiro Imperium, 1998.

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Keak da Sneak Copium (Counting Other People’s Money). SMC, 2003. The Luniz Operation Stackola. Virgin/Noo Trybe, 1995. Mac Dre Young Black Brotha. Strictly Business, 1993. Ronald Dregan: Dreganomics. Thizz, 2004. Mistah F. A. B. Son of a Pimp. Thizz/City Hall, 2005. Da Baydestrian. Thizz/SMC, 2007. Souls of Mischief 93 ’til Infinity. Jive, 1993. Spice 1 187 He Wrote. Jive, 1993. Too $hort Don’t Stop Rappin. 75 Girls, 1983. Raw, Uncut, and X-Rated. 75 Girls, 1986. Born to Mack. Dangerous/Jive, 1987. Life Is . . . Too Short. Jive, 1988. Short Dog’s in the House. Jive, 1990. Shorty the Pimp. Jive, 1992. Turf Talk West Coast Vaccine: The Cure. Sick Wid It, 2007.

CHAPTER 12 From the SEA to the PDX: Northwest Hip Hop in the I-5 Corridor Rachel Key Before the 1990s, The Pacific Northwest was not particularly well-known for any one type of music. Of course, cities like Seattle had produced major musicians and groups, such as Jimi Hendrix and Heart, and the region contributed ‘‘The Northwest Sound’’ to rock and roll in the 1960s, but there was no particular genre widely associated with this area of the country. Today, however, the region is, and forever will be, known as the birthplace of Grunge. In the early 1990s when such bands as Pearl Jam, Soundgarden, and Nirvana hit the music scene, the pop culture perception of Seattle and the Northwest was changed forever. However, though the grunge era will perpetually overshadow any of the region’s other contributions to the music world, as early as the 1980s, the Northwest was making contributions to another music scene—the world of rap and hip hop. Unlike Los Angeles, New York, Houston, and Miami, the Northwest is not a region that immediately invokes visions of hip-hop; yet, it cannot be overlooked when considering the role of place in the emergence and growth of hip hop and rap. The Northwest, specifically the cities of Seattle and Portland, provides an interesting background upon which to frame hip-hop. Though there is more diversity than in some regions of the country, such as the upper Midwest, the region’s demographic is largely Caucasian and Asian, with a growing Hispanic population. Thus, at the inception of Hip Hop, the Northwest was lacking one of the key elements for making successful Hip Hop music—traditional target audience members. Hip hop came into being as party music, specifically at block parties in the neighborhoods of New York. Though Seattle and Portland are considered large cities by today’s standards, much of the region’s population is made up of suburban dwellers. Cities in the Northwest do not have the urban population density of neighborhoods in New York, Chicago, or Los Angeles; therefore, Northwest hip hop artists faced a greater challenge when working to have their music heard.

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In the 1990 U.S. Census, the population of Seattle, Washington was reported as 516,259 (‘‘General Population and Housing Characteristics’’). The majority of this population, 128,618, was living in single unit, detached structures, with only 73,869 people living in buildings with 10 or more units. When compared to cities like New York where apartment and condominium living is the norm, the residents of the Northwest seem detached and isolated. Additionally, the concept of urban living is different in the Pacific Northwest. In the boroughs of New York, one can find every thing that he or she might need within walking distance. Grocery stores, corner markets, pizzerias, and barber shops line the streets of the city, while in cities like Seattle and Portland such necessary services are clumped together in areas usually reached by automobile. Rather than walking through neighborhoods, interacting with friends and neighbors, residents of the Northwest are more likely to drive alone in the car to a local supermarket, where they are less likely to have a personal relationship with the shopkeepers and other merchants. Additionally, through many months of the year, the weather in the Northwest is rainy or cold, discouraging walking to places or lingering outside to talk to neighbors. The idea of ‘‘urban’’ has a different meaning in cities like Seattle and Portland. Thus, the ‘‘block party’’ roots of hip hop could not transfer well to the Northwest region.

THE NORTHWEST’S MUSICAL HISTORY Though the Northwest has never claimed an extremely diverse population, it did experience demographic changes beginning in the early 1900s, as African Americans migrated to the Northwest in search of job opportunities and an escape from the racism of the southern states. As the population of cities like Seattle changed, so did the musical landscape. Seattle has an interesting history in jazz music, thanks mainly to World War II defense contracts and soldiers stationed at the many military bases in the area. The soldiers and others looking for a good time as a way to escape the realities of war provided a backdrop for aspiring musicians and the Seattle area clubs boomed with music and bootleg liquor. Even after prohibition, the state of Washington continued to prohibit the sale of liquor by the drink until 1949, so the speakeasy culture persevered. According to Paul de Barros, author of Jackson Street after Hours: The Roots of Jazz, Seattle’s jazz scene was a ‘‘culture of legalized corruption’’ (21), due to payoffs from nightclub owners to police and lawmakers. Throughout the height of the jazz scene, from 1937 to 1951, Seattle’s Jackson Street boasted more than 30 jazz clubs where aspiring musicians stopped on their way to bigger careers elsewhere. Ray Charles, looking to move as far away from Florida as he could, chose Seattle as a place to kick-start his career, recording his first album there. Charles, along with his friends Quincy Jones and Ernestine Anderson, benefited from this flourishing Seattle jazz scene, before moving away to further their careers. Unfortunately, though Seattle

From the SEA to the PDX | 289 provided a lot of jazz players for famous orchestras and combos like Count Basie and others, the Northwest really made no mark on the jazz scene as a whole. However, jazz made an impact on the Northwest and artists to come out of the area after its heyday. The attractiveness of jazz in the Northwest provides a precedent for the popularity of a traditionally African American art form in an area of low ethnic diversity. Rhythm and Blues also had a large effect on the rock and roll music scene of the Northwest in the early 1950s and 1960s. Arguably, the most well-known African American artist to come out of the Northwest region is James Marshall ‘‘Jimi’’ Hendrix (born 1942), who began his career playing R&B music at high school dances. His reign of musical popularity predates the birth of hip hop by 10 years, but his success as a Northwest artist putting his own spin and style on an established musical genre may have influenced and paved the way for Northwestbased rappers. Before Hendrix’s impact on the world of rock and roll, the Northwest’s greatest contribution musically was the emergence of ‘‘The Northwest Sound.’’ According to many accounts, an important part of the Northwest music scene, at least in Seattle, was what was referred to as ‘‘race music’’—black artists playing for a predominantly black audience. However, this music had farther-reaching implications, as the early members of the groups that made up ‘‘The Northwest Sound’’ were mainly white kids that had grown up listening to music made by African Americans. The beats and horns that drove ‘‘Louie, Louie,’’ arguably the anthem of the Northwest Sound, are heavily influenced by the jazz and R&B that black musicians played in the 1940s and 1950s in Jackson Street clubs. In the early 1960s, the song ‘‘Louie, Louie’’ was recorded by The Wailers of Tacoma, Washington, and The Kingsmen and Paul Revere and the Raiders, both of Portland. The song served as a bridge to both the R&B of the past and the rap scene of the future because like many rap songs to come, ‘‘Louie, Louie’’ came under major heat in 1964 when it was reported that the Governor of Indiana had banned the song due to supposed dirty lyrics. After an exhaustive FBI investigation, the song was not deemed ‘‘pornographic’’ because officials really could not understand most of the song’s lyrics. After all of the attention, though, the song’s naughty reputation made it even more popular and it has grossed over 12 million dollars to date. After the success of ‘‘Louie, Louie’’ and the Northwest Sound, the area suffered through a period of mediocrity with no prominent artists on the national music scene and no real underground movements catching attention throughout the Northwest. However, in the late 1970s, some Seattle musicians caught on to what was happening in the London punk scene and began staging underground shows in basements and backyards. Because these punk musicians often had no real financial backing and endured harassment by officials who saw them as ‘‘troublemakers,’’ most of the punk ventures had little longevity. Yet, there was still a movement afoot. Young musicians and fans in Olympia, Washington, students at

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the progressive Evergreen State College, formed a similar punk movement with the help of the college radio station KAOS, which devoted the majority of its programming to music from independent labels. Magazines and fanzines like Subterranean Pop (SUBPOP) chronicled the movement and helped to spread the word about impromptu teen dances. Unfortunately, much of the movement’s momentum stalled in 1985 when, in response to all-ages shows that cropped up in Seattle, the city passed the Teen Dance Ordinance. Written mainly in response to parental complaints about a local disco called ‘‘The Monastery,’’ where parents feared that adults were providing drugs and alcohol to minors, the ordinance effectively stopped gatherings that were held at reasonably sized venues like clubs and dance halls. Basement gatherings and large arenas were not affected, but the majority of the music movement of the time was taking place in clubs like The Monastery, The Showbox, and the Gorilla Room. The Teen Dance Ordinance made it financially impossible for most club owners or private sponsors to hold an all-ages show. In early 1981, despite restrictions on venues, punk and heavy metal began to grow together in the emergence of what was to culminate in ‘‘Grunge’’ music. Heavy metal bands like Metal Church, Queensryche, and pop bands like The Posies and The Presidents of the United States of America grew in popularity, some on the national level, while bands like The U-Men found a way to fuse the two styles of music. By the mid-1980s, some front-runners of the Grunge era such as Soundgarden had a fledgling sound. By 1987, the owner of the Olympia-based fanzine SUBPOP had a record label by the same name with a client list including Soundgarden and the newly formed Mudhoney. During the same period of time, while musicians were experimenting with various styles and ways to get music out to the young people of the Northwest, rappers also began to garner local attention thanks mainly to military personnel from the East Coast stationed in the Seattle/Tacoma area. These soldiers were early Seattle rap’s main fan base, as they began attending public dances starring Sir Mix-a-Lot and pioneer rappers The Emerald Street Boys and the Emerald Street Girls that were held in the recreation centers of area housing projects before the finalizing of the Teen Dance Ordinance. An integral part of the emerging Northwest rap scene was the West Coast’s first all-rap radio show Fresh Tracks, produced by DJ Nestor ‘‘Nasty Nes’’ Rodriguez, which began in 1980 on KFOX 1250 in Seattle. The show predated Los Angeles’s KDAY and KPOO from San Francisco, introducing Seattle to fresh new rap on a weekly basis. Though Nasty Nes eventually moved from his home on KFOX, he continued to host a radio show in the Northwest until the early 1990s. Nasty Nes, along with fellow DJ and record store owner Glen Boyd, was an important part of putting Northwest hip hop on the map, working closely to develop artists like Sir Mix-a-Lot, who eventually reached national recording fame. Though rap music in the Northwest found an instant home with the displaced soldiers of Fort Lewis and McChord Air Force Base in Tacoma and the African

From the SEA to the PDX | 291 American population of Seattle’s Central District, rap’s popularity in the region really exploded when the music made its way to the suburbs. Seattle’s history as an area accustomed to a Caucasian population enjoying African American music provided the perfect environment for artists like Sir Mix-A-Lot whose rap celebrates and discusses issues of the middle class. More importantly though, Mix-A-Lot’s rap focused quite a bit on place. One might argue that the hip hop of the Northwest is more accessible to people of different races, ethnicities, and backgrounds because the places discussed in the music were accessible to all groups. Unlike some artists who dedicate place mentions to locations in the inner city or specifically ethnic neighborhoods, artists like Mix-A-Lot used localities that all Seattleites claimed as ‘‘theirs’’ (see sidebar: Dick’s Drive-In). Seattle rap, then, appealed to various groups of people living in Seattle, not just African Americans. When white suburban teenagers found a way to identify with Mix-A-Lot’s rap, they were more interested in the genre as a whole. Coinciding with the launch of the MTV program Yo! MTV Raps, Mix-A-Lot’s music reached a new audience in the suburban areas of the Pacific Northwest, changing the face of Northwest music as well as the national rap scene, forever.

NORTHWEST RAP ARTISTS Seattle Funkdaddy Born and raised in West Seattle, Gregory ‘‘Funkdaddy’’ Buren (born 1969) is a fixture in the Seattle rap scene. His father exposed him to music at an early age, and he was rapping and break dancing in high school, in the early days of rap in Seattle. Funkdaddy credits Sir Mix-A-Lot as his main influence during that time, as he tried to copy Mix’s scratching on his family’s record player. When he was 17 years old, Funkdaddy had saved up enough money from his after-school job to buy his own drum machine. Through a friend, he managed to buy Sir Mix-A-Lot’s old keyboard and drum machine and he worked hard to try to create the same sounds as Mix had made with the equipment. Funkdaddy admits that he was frustrated because he was never able to imitate what Mix-A-Lot had been able to do. He says, ‘‘People don’t know that, but Mix was a computer genius back when nobody had computers. To this day, I still don’t know how he did it’’ (Chaumont). However, Funkdaddy did manage to create his own sound and was hired just after high school to DJ for Kid Sensation, who opened for and collaborated with Mix-A-Lot. Funkdaddy eventually deejayed for both artists and wound up scratching on Sir Mix-A-Lot’s second record, Seminar. In 1987, after stints with bands like M.I.C. (Masters In Control) and Crooked Path, Funkdaddy started his own group called Ready and Willin’ and began calling himself DJ Ready. With Ready and Willin’, Funkdaddy had a decent following, mainly through local radio play and playing shows across Washington state and Vancouver B.C. He entered several DJing competitions, taking first in The Battle

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DICK’S DRIVE-IN Dick’s Drive-In, the vision of H. Warren Ghormley, Dr. B.O.A. Thomas, and Dick Spady, first opened its doors on January 28, 1954, on N.E. 45th Street in Seattle’s Wallingford District. The partners had a vision for a restaurant where people on the move could get good food quickly and park easily, rather than having to visit roadside diners, which were often expensive and time-consuming. The trio focused on serving burgers, fries, and shakes for a reasonable price in a speedy amount of time. This formula proved to be extremely successful, as the first Dick’s location became an instant hit. In 1955, the partners were able to expand to their Capitol Hill location at 115 Broadway Avenue, the Dick’s immortalized in the Sir Mix-A-Lot song ‘‘Posse on Broadway.’’ In 1960, the restaurant was able to expand again, to Holman Road, and again in 1963 to Lake City. By 1974, Dick’s had an additional Queen Anne Hill location, effectively serving the greater Seattle area at all five restaurants. Though Dick Spady is the only original owner still involved, the original Dick’s formula has changed very little since its origination. The menu did not change for almost 20 years until in 1971, Dick’s added two new burgers—the Dick’s Special (which featured chopped up pickles) and the Dick’s Deluxe. The restaurants also used to feature separate lines for burgers, fries, and ice cream, so that those just wanting a cone wouldn’t have to wait in line. Over time, however, that system changed so that customers could order anything from any window. The burgers cost a bit more now than their original nineteen cents, but the recipe for the regular cheeseburger hasn’t changed—beef, cheese, ketchup, and mustard. Dick’s also still hand cuts its French Fries from bags of Russet potatoes and individually mixes each shake. Dick’s attention to old-fashioned flavor and taste, as well as its 1950s drive-up style, keeps customers coming back for more. The drivein’s extended hours make it a perfect place for young people to gather late at night, and going to Dick’s is like a rite of passage for some local teenagers. Dick’s is so popular in the Seattle area that it has hardly ever advertised in all of its years in business. Word of mouth has been enough to keep Dick’s busy from 10:30 AM to 2:00 AM, seven days a week.

for Seattle Supremacy in 1989 and the CITR DJ&MC Battle in Vancouver, B.C. in 1990. When he returned to CITR in 1991, he entered the MC competition and took first, proving that his MCing skills matched his DJing. He proudly states that he won every competition he entered. Having proven himself in both DJing and MCing, Funkdaddy went on to try his hand at producing. After his band Ready and Willin’ broke up, he changed his name to Funkdaddy and entered the American Ethnic Studies program at the

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University of Washington in 1993. His big break came when a friend took a tape of his beats to the Gavin Convention in San Francisco. There, Funkdaddy’s tape made it into the hands of E-40, who quickly hired him to produce three tracks on his 1995 release In a Major Way, which went platinum. Funkdaddy’s experience with E-40 inspired him to release his own solo album Funk U Right on Up in 1994. He followed with Funk Daddy Is Tha Source in 1995. In 1996, Sir Mix-A-Lot called upon his talents once again to produce on Return of the Bumpasaurus. He worked again with E-40 on his 1998 album The Element of Surprise, which featured artists like Busta Rhymes, Too $hort, and Master P. While establishing himself as a producer, Funkdaddy also deejayed at local clubs, quickly becoming a front-runner among Seattle DJs. He was awarded the 1999 Best Club and Mix Tape DJ Award at The Northwest Music Awards and he continues to have gigs at the hottest Northwest clubs, in addition to hosting a weekly radio show on Seattle’s X104 with local singer Mr. Rossi. Most recently, he has worked with Portland artist Cool Nutz and up-and-coming Seattle rapper Livio. His last solo release came in 2001 with I Want All That, but he continues to produce and distribute mix tapes, usually entitled Ear Candy, featuring hot new music. His music has also appeared on the now-defunct weekly ABC series Dangerous Minds, the soundtrack 3 Strikes, as well as in the documentaries Rhyme and Reason and Street Racing. Funkdaddy has worked with a myriad of artists, such as Daz, D12, Mac Dre, 2Pac, Money B, Noreaga, and N2Deep. He is called a Seattle rap icon by many and was nominated in 2005 for the Seattle Mayor’s Award for Excellence in Hip Hop, losing out to Sir Mix-A-Lot. Jake One Jake ‘‘Jake One’’ Dutton (born 1976) began his love affair with rap music in the early 1990s, when he had to move from his Capitol Hill home to the North End area of Seattle. He and a friend had figured out that most rap songs were cut over old music and because he had nothing to do, he says, he began playing around trying to make beats. He was also encouraged when a friend made a recording with another long-time friend, Vitamin D, proving that it was possible for rappers in Seattle to put out quality music. Jake One worked on his music alone, without even telling anyone he was producing, until he decided to give a tape to a friend who worked in a record store. An employee of the same store happened to be Mr. Supreme, a local DJ, who was just starting his own record label, Conception. Mr. Supreme showed Jake One some more tricks and put him to work producing beats for the label. In 1996, he got his first track on Mr. Supreme’s Sharpshooter. Conception Records began to die out in 1998, though, so Jake began to shop his records around. He attended the Gavin Convention and sold his first beat to someone outside of Seattle—Walt Liquor, manager for San Francisco’s MC Planet Asia. After that, Liquor began passing Jake’s beats around and he was able to continue to sell to a larger and larger audience. By 2003, Jake One was producing on a national level and has worked with most of the leaders in the rap industry today, including

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De La Soul, 50 Cent, Mary J. Blige, Gift of Gab, Busta Rhymes, Mos Def, and many others. Though Jake One credits Vitamin D as his main influence as a producer, Vitamin D is quick to turn around and say that Jake One is the best talent to come out of Seattle. Jonathon Moore A Renaissance Man of Seattle hip hop, pioneer Jonathon Moore was born and raised in Seattle before attending Atlanta’s Morehouse College. Using the moniker ‘‘Wordsayer,’’ in 1989 he formed the group Source of Labor with its original members DJ Kamikaze and Negus One. Moore moved back to Seattle in 1992 and found that there were not many places that hip hop groups could play outside of the Central District (see sidebar: Central District). Moore remembers hearing about a promoter that booked acts at the popular club RKCNDY, one of the few live music spots still thriving. He talked her into taking a chance on a hip hop group, assuring her that they were not all about being gangsters, and she let them hold a show on an off night. After the first few successful shows, without the violence that typically surrounded hip hop acts, word got around and Source of Labor was able to book more shows. However, just booking the show was half of the battle. Moore and Source of Labor next had to work to promote the show, perform, and settle the accounts at the end of the night. By default, Moore became Source of Labor’s manager. In 1992, along with soul/hip hop duo Beyond Reality, Source of Labor formed the Jasiri Media Group. Jasiri, which means ‘‘courage’’ in Swahili, was created in order to be a record label and promotion company, but also as sort of a way of life. Moore and the other artists in the Jasiri group wanted to break away from the vision of gangsta rap, which was the main focus of the rap industry at the time, and promote a positive energy and medium for education in the community. The artists in Jasiri forced the Seattle hip hop scene to move from the grandiose, selfaggrandizing rap of Sir Mix-A-Lot to a more educated, meaningful form of musical expression. Along with promoting its musicians, Jasiri and its artists worked to give back to the community of Seattle, holding performances at the Langston Hughes Cultural Arts Center, and hosting weekly open mic nights. Source of Labor, along with Beyond Reality and another Jasiri artist, Felicia Loud, appeared on a compilation album entitled Word, Sound, and Power in the late 1990s. By 1998, Source of Labor included Vitamin D (replacing Kamikaze) and musicians Darrius Willrich, Kevin Hudson, and Dvonne Lewis. Source of Labor released its only album, Stolen Lives in 2001, though the group continued to perform in local clubs and venues. Throughout the mid-1990s, Moore worked to promote local hip hop shows and even bring nationally recognized names to the Seattle area. His first national rap act was Roots performing in 1995 at RKCNDY, followed shortly thereafter by Blackalicious. Moore began focusing more on promoting and managing by the late 1990s—he is the manager for two local hip hop production phenomenons, Vitamin D and Jake One. In 2004, Moore’s focus went entirely to managing and

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THE CENTRAL DISTRICT Seattle’s Central District (C.D.) is a residential neighborhood east of the downtown area, bordered by the neighborhoods of Madrona, First Hill, and Capitol Hill. Its major streets include Martin Luther King Way (formerly Empire Way before 1983), Yesler Street, 23rd Avenue, E. Union, E. Cherry, and E. Jefferson. Though the population is changing, the Central District contains the highest population of African Americans in the State of Washington. Throughout the late 1990s and into the current century, the area has undergone a slow process of gentrification, pushing many African American families further south into more affordable, but lower quality homes. As home prices in the Seattle area have skyrocketed, buyers have moved into the Central District area, forcing out lower income residents. The area also has had a number of condemned structures demolished to make way for high-end condominiums and apartment buildings for young professionals. Before the demographic change, though, the Central District was an area of cultural and political leadership for the African American community. In the early 1960s many civil rights protests were organized in the C.D. and the Black Panthers used the area to organize their movement throughout the 1960s. The Langston Hughes Cultural Arts Center is located in the area and has been a life-changing institution for many young African American artists in the area. The Central District was also, of course, home to the roots of rap music in the Seattle area, as one of the only areas of the city that rappers could hold shows in the 1980s. The Central District has been home to several famous Seattleites. Quincy Jones and Jimi Hendrix hailed from the Central District, as did Sir Mix-A-Lot, Vitamin D, and other rap artists. Unfortunately, crime statistics rose in the Central District at the same time as rap music, possibly making Seattle officials conclude that one had much to do with the other as gangs from Los Angeles began making their way to the area in the mid-to-late 1980s. The Central District has been immortalized in rap music, however, most notably in Sir Mix-A-Lot’s ‘‘Posse on Broadway,’’ as he describes his cruise through the area streets.

promoting and feeling that he didn’t have enough time to dedicate to creating art himself, Moore disbanded Source of Labor. Moore continues to tirelessly promote Northwest hip hop. He cohosts a Sunday night radio show on Seattle’s KUBE 93 FM, as well as managing local acts. He has held numerous leadership positions within city organizations, such as Creative Consultant and Advisor to the Seattle Young Peoples Project, Educational Advisor to The Langston Hughes Center for Performing and Cultural Arts, Active

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Governor for the Pacific Northwest chapter of The National Recording Academy of Arts and Science, Mayors Office for Film and Music Advisory Board, and KEXP radio’s Advisory Board. Moore also received the prestigious City of Seattle Mayor’s Hip-Hop Award for Entrepreneurial Achievement & Business Acumen in 2005. Mr. Supreme Daniel ‘‘DJ Mr. Supreme’’ Clavessilla (born 1970) is well known as a Seattle Rap ‘‘Pioneer.’’ After a trip to New York City in 1983, Supreme began b-boying and buying records to break-dance to. His early collection included the likes of Bob James, Jimmy Huey, The Bongo Band, and Baby Castor. After a stint as Danny Dee Rock of the group The Seattle Circuit Breakers, Supreme realized his real interest was in music. In 1988, he received his first production deal from Enigma/Capitol. Mr. Supreme might be best known for his bountiful record collection, however. His infamous collection of records led him to meet Shane ‘‘DJ Sureshot’’ Hunt, who was looking for a particular record at the time and in 1993, the duo formed the group Sharpshooters. Sharpshooters decided that rather than record a demo and shop it to other labels, they would start their own label in order to get their music out. To fund the project, the two dug deep into their LP collections and sold rare albums at record conventions. They did all the work to record, produce, and promote their album, releasing Buck the Saw in 1994 on their own Conception Records. Later in 1997, Conception signed a packaging and distribution deal with Sub Pop records and began to sign other artists to Conception. Supreme also worked to help other young artists emerge, such as Jake One, arguably one of Seattle’s top producers. Supreme continued to work with local artists on the label and other artists like Toronto-based Da Grassroots, with whom he accidentally hooked up during a visit to a record store. Sharpshooters released several other albums throughout the late 1990s, and then in 2003 released Light in the Attic, which featured a mix of music and styles based on the different types of music each DJ had in his collection. Supreme’s most critically acclaimed work to date came in 2004 when he released Wheedle’s Groove: Seattle’s Finest in Funk and Soul 1965–1975, showcasing his vast musical knowledge and collection. A movie based on Wheedle’s Groove is slated for a 2007 release. Supreme has worked with national artists such as A Tribe Called Quest, Blackalicious, DJ Shadow, DJ Scribble, and Biz Markie. He has produced tracks for ESPN, MTV, and shows like The Sopranos. In addition to hosting a hip hop radio show on Seattle’s KEXP 90.3 FM titled ‘‘Street Sounds,’’ Supreme still does almost nightly DJ gigs at clubs in Seattle and nationwide. He was also the recipient of the Seattle Mayor’s Award for Excellence in Hip Hop for being an industry pioneer and music historian.

From the SEA to the PDX | 297 Sir Mix-A-Lot Anthony ‘‘Sir Mix-A-Lot’’ Ray (born 1963) is arguably the most well-known rapper from the Northwest region. Though many label him a ‘‘one-hit wonder,’’ Mix-A-Lot’s contributions helped solidify rap as a legitimate genre in the mainstream, paving the way for younger artists both in Seattle and nationally. Mix-A-Lot’s career is a shining example of the American attitude of pulling oneself up by the bootstraps. Though he had help from friends in the early Northwest rap scene, Mix-A-Lot is one of the rare self-produced, self-promoted artists who achieve worldwide fame. Though early artists such as The Emerald Street Boys, Powercore, Funky Fresh Jazz, and others were performing in the Seattle area in the early 1980s, Mix-A-Lot was responsible for bringing rap to the center of the African American community in Seattle’s Central District (see sidebar: Central District). Beginning around 1984, he held dances at the Boys and Girls club there every Friday night in order to give the kids something to do. He would play records and scratch each week and eventually came to the attention of DJ Nasty Nes, who had the first all-rap radio show on the West Coast. Nasty Nes became interested in Mix’s ability and started playing him heavily on his show Fresh Tracks. Mix’s early singles, particularly ‘‘Square Dance Rap’’ caught on quickly and he soon became the most requested artist on Fresh Tracks. Nasty Nes and Mix-A-Lot eventually formed their own label, NastyMix records in 1985, and in 1986 things started to happen for the duo after a copy of ‘‘Square Dance Rap’’ found its way to the United Kingdom and began getting radio play

Sir Mix-A-Lot (Tim Mosenfelder/Corbis)

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in Britain. ‘‘Square Dance Rap,’’ with the strange, Alvin and the Chipmunks-like sound of Kid Sensation and heavy beats became extremely popular in the United Kingdom and was released as a single by the label Streetwave. Mix-A-Lot was then invited to perform with other groundbreaking hip hop artists in Wembley Arena at the UK Fresh concert that year. The concert put Sir Mix-A-Lot on the map outside of just the Northwest, but the turning point in his career came with the 1987 release of the single ‘‘Posse on Broadway.’’ Though people outside of Seattle often mistakenly thought the song was referring to New York City, the song became an anthem of place to fans in the Northwest. Doing for Seattle what songs like ‘‘South Bronx’’ and LL Cool J singing about Queens did for New York, ‘‘Posse on Broadway’’ brought Seattleites together over common landmarks, streets, and restaurants. ‘‘Posse on Broadway’’ became so popular locally that it led the way for Mix-A-Lot’s first album Swass, released in 1988. Swass was extremely innovative and set Mix-A-Lot apart from many of his peers in rap music at the time. His rap in this album focused more on middleclass issues, using humor as an outlet, rather than depending on rage at a system or descriptions of life in the projects. Seattle had its share of issues with police harassment in the African American community, and Mix-A-Lot does address them in songs like ‘‘Hip Hop Soldier,’’ where he says ‘‘For you gotta fight back, cause the pigs ain’t black,’’ but for the most part Swass is about having the most money and gold, getting the best women, and being the best rapper in the game. Swass, like other rap albums of its time, included a lot of sampling—‘‘Posse on Broadway’’ samples David Bowie’s ‘‘Fame,’’ for example—but Mix-A-Lot was among the first to sample from other artists’ recent releases. He samples from Eazy-E’s song ‘‘8 Ball,’’ which appeared on N.W.A.’s N.W.A. and the Posse, released in 1987, and released again as a remix on the 1988 album Straight Outta Compton. Mix-A-Lot credits N.W.A. in the liner notes of Swass and obviously had a good professional relationship with the group at the time. Mix-A-Lot also involved another up-and-coming group on the album, recording a remake of the 1970 Black Sabbath song ‘‘Iron Man’’ with Metal Church. Though Aerosmith and Run DMC had already established that rock and rap could collaborate, ‘‘Iron Man’’ is indicative of the Seattle music scene at the time. Rock artists and rappers were all working under the same confines of a city unwilling to support concerts at local clubs, and faced many of the same struggles with getting their music out to the public. Songs like ‘‘Iron Man’’ and ‘‘Bremelo,’’ a spoof on the women living across Puget Sound from Seattle in the city of Bremerton, capture the flavor of Seattle and are very indicative of place. Though Mix-A-Lot could not have completely foreseen the explosion of grunge, he was attuned to the city’s history of rock and integrated it into his own style. With ‘‘Bremelo,’’ Mix-A-Lot brings listeners together over a regionalism, as only those living in the Pacific Northwest would

From the SEA to the PDX | 299 understand that specific term. ‘‘Bremelo,’’ then, is written for an audience of place, rather than race, allowing people of all races to identify with Mix-A-Lot’s music. Because it could appeal to such a large audience, Swass had massive appeal in Seattle and became a national seller as well. In 1988, thanks to some airplay of the video for the song on MTV, ‘‘Posse on Broadway’’ became a national chart single and the album went into the Top 20 of the R&B album chart and eventually went platinum. Just a short year later, Mix-A-Lot released Seminar, which had three singles make it onto the Rap charts—‘‘I Got Game,’’ ‘‘My Hooptie,’’ and ‘‘Beepers.’’ After the success of Swass and Seminar, legal and financial problems with NastyMix forced Mix-A-Lot to end his business dealings with the label, but he was quickly scooped up by Def Jam cofounder Rick Rubin. Mix signed to the Def American label, and under Rubin’s tutelage underwent a sort of ‘‘image makeover.’’ Mix-A-Lot’s new look was an outrageous characterization of the traditional ‘‘pimp,’’ and his next album release, entitled Mack Daddy, featured Mix on the cover stepping out of a high-end sports car in a ‘‘pimp’’ hat and shades, holding a wad of cash. Fans seemed to embrace this image and enjoyed the fun, mocking side of Sir Mix-A-Lot, rather than his more serious side, as the album’s lead single ‘‘One Time’s Got No Case,’’ a biting critique of racial profiling, went virtually unnoticed. The album’s next release, however, was the song that pushed Mix-ALot to the national forefront with both praise and criticism—‘‘Baby Got Back.’’ On ‘‘Baby Got Back,’’ Mix-A-Lot mixed his signature humorous style with the Miami Bass sound made famous by artists like 2 Live Crew and DJ Magic Mike, with whom Mix-A-Lot collaborated. Though obviously meant as a parody, the song also raised some awareness about the pressures of society on females with regard to body image. Lines like ‘‘So Cosmo says you’re fat? Well, I ain’t down with that’’ asked listeners to take another look (literally) at the ideals created by a white majority. The song was an instant success and was accompanied by an over-the-top video showcasing a gigantic backside, which was eventually relegated to only late night exposure on MTV. Feminists and parental watch groups labeled the video as exploitative and pornographic, boycotting and speaking out against Mix-A-Lot throughout the summer of 1992. However, despite the controversy surrounding the song, Mix-A-Lot was awarded a Grammy for Best Rap Solo Performance, after the song spent five weeks at number one on the pop charts. Unfortunately, Mix-A-Lot, like many other artists who achieve notoriety with a ‘‘gimmicky’’ song, has thus far failed to ever again achieve such musical success. He tried to follow up with the release of Chief Boot Knocka in 1994, with several upbeat dance songs like ‘‘Put ‘Em on the Glass’’ and ‘‘Brown Sugar,’’ but the album only enjoyed moderate success in the R&B chart, without reaching the crossover success of Mack Daddy. Two years later, Mix-A-Lot released Return of the Bumpasaurus, but issues with his label, American Records, resulted in very little promotion of the album and disappointing sales.

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1996’s Return of the Bumpasaurus was Mix-A-Lot’s last release for quite some time. He became disillusioned with the business and the direction in which rap was headed. During this period, he hooked up with another Seattle act, The Presidents of the United States of America, and began to collaborate with the group, a relationship resulting in the formation of the rock-rap group Subset. Subset, in many ways, was a true representation of the history and culture of the Seattle music scene, yet the group never really caught on. Subset spent some time in the studio, though nothing was ever officially released. After a short tour of small venues and outdoor festivals, Subset disbanded. Mix-A-Lot stayed off of the rap radar for a couple of years, only touring here and there at small venues, but he reemerged in 2003 with the album Daddy’s Home, produced by his own label Rhyme Cartel in partnership with the independent Artist Direct. At first, retail stores passed on the record, assuming Mix-ALot’s popularity was well over, but after an old fashioned, door to door public relations push, Seattle sold out of the record in two days and the album was wellreceived by music critics. To date, Mix-A-Lot has not released another studio album, but his songs have found new homes as hooks in many other of today’s popular rap songs. ‘‘Jump on It’’ has been sampled by Missy Elliot and is one of the most popular tunes for college marching bands today, ‘‘Posse on Broadway’’ provides the skeleton for Juvenile’s ‘‘Way I Be Leanin’,’’ and the most famous revival of Mix-A-Lot’s music occurs as the hook for the Pussycat Dolls’ ‘‘Dontcha.’’ Mix-A-Lot continues to have a hand in the Seattle music scene, encouraging younger artists like his current prote´ge´ Outtasite. Vitamin D Derrick ‘‘Vitamin D’’ Brown (born 1976) was born into a family with serious musical roots. His father, Herman Brown, was a studio musician and played in a group called Ozone on Motown records. Derrick’s maternal grandfather, Clarence Oliphant, was a jazz vibe musician, and Derrick’s cousin, Eddie ‘‘Sugar Bear’’ Wells, was a member of Seattle’s pioneer rap group The Emerald Street Boys. With all of this musical talent in the family and early exposure to such musicians as Lionel Richie and the Commodores, it would seem that Vitamin D was trained to play music from birth. Though early in his childhood Vitamin D lived in Los Angeles, his family moved to Seattle to escape the gang violence that permeated his neighborhood of Inglewood. Vitamin D credits his addiction to hip hop and dope beats to his father, who had bought a DMX drum machine, but didn’t yet know how to use it. Vitamin D from then on would do whatever it took to get his hands on equipment. He was also interested in b-boying for a short time, but mentions seeing Jazzy Jeff perform as one of the moments that made him sure he would have a musical life in hip hop. Heavily influenced by original hip hop by artists like Grandmaster Flash, Vitamin D did whatever he could to work with beat-making equipment, traveling

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by bicycle to friends’ houses, even through the rougher areas of Seattle’s Central District (see sidebar: Central District). His first set of turntables was handed down by his cousin, Sugar Bear, and Vitamin D worked at the Langston Hughes Performing Arts Center to save up money for his own drum machine. Soon, he had enough equipment to play school talent shows and dances and he began to seriously create music in 1988, just as Seattle rap began to make a name for itself. He started his own groups, as one half of The Ghetto Children and Suns of Infinite Thought. Though he worked in the Pharmacy Studio in the OK Hotel, his basement studio in his mom’s house is where Vitamin D became one of the most important hip hop producers on the Seattle scene. Along with Jake One, whom he met in high school, Vitamin D produced records for many of Seattle’s artists. In 1997, Vitamin D joined the group Source of Labor, replacing DJ Kamikaze, and the group appeared on a compilation album entitled Word, Sound, Power. The group released only one full-length album, Stolen Lives, in 2000 before breaking up in 2001. Vitamin D, along with Jake One, began to be nationally recognized when they coproduced 2004’s Fourth Dimensional Rocket Going Up, which was recorded entirely in Seattle, for Blackalicious MC Gift of Gab. He has also produced for De La Soul, Chali 2na (of Jurassic 5), and Planet Asia. Vitamin D also has two solo albums, Table Manners and Table Manners 2. Continuing to stay relevant in the Seattle music scene, Vitamin D argues that the Seattle hip hop community needs to ‘‘stay tighter’’ (Mizell) and works to promote such dialogue by organizing a monthly night at the Seattle Club the War Room where MCs and beat mixers can ‘‘battle.’’ Vitamin D’s vision is to bring new talent and producers into the same venue and let the relationships flourish, effectively breathing life back into a faltering Seattle hip hop scene. Most recently, along with friend and fellow producer Jonathon Moore, Vitamin D started the Big Tune Beat Battle, which pits producers against one another to prove who has the best beatmaking skills. Moore and Vitamin D received sponsorship from Red Bull in the Summer of 2007 and took the battle on the road to cities across the United States. Vitamin D has another of his own albums in the works, but he continues to work to do what he loves—promote hip hop. Xola Malik (Kid Sensation) Steve ‘‘Kid Sensation’’ Spence is one of the pioneers of Seattle hip hop music. He worked with Sir Mix-A-Lot, contributing to Mix-A-Lot’s albums Swass and Seminar, providing the funny, Alvin and the Chipmunks-sounding voice on hits like ‘‘Square Dance Rap’’ and ‘‘Buttermilk Biscuits.’’ An MC in his own right, Kid Sensation began opening shows for MixA-Lot, with Funkdaddy as his DJ. His first single, 1989’s ‘‘Back to Boom,’’ became an immediate Seattle club hit and sold well as a cassette single. He followed up in 1990 with the single ‘‘SeaTown Ballers’’ and then released the fulllength LP Rollin with Number One on NastyMix records. He followed up with The Power of Rhyme in 1992, and found a new label, Ichiban, for the release of Seatown Funk in 1995 and AKA Mr. K-Sen in 1996, produced by Funkdaddy. His

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THE ROCKET First published in 1979, The Rocket was a bi-weekly newspaper published in Seattle with the goal of providing information about local music. Though it was strictly a Seattle publication for the majority of its lifespan, a Portland, Oregon edition came about in 1991. The same edition basically worked for both cities, except that the editors varied the concert calendar for each city and sometimes ran different cover story material for the two versions. The Rocket was started as a companion paper to the Seattle Sun, an alternative newspaper produced weekly. The Rocket’s founder had been a salesperson for the Sun and worked with the art director and art editor from the Sun to produce The Rocket. By 1980, the trio had enough money to publish The Rocket without connection to the Seattle Sun, and by January of 1982, the paper’s circulation was up to 50,000 copies a month. Though the publisher wanted national mainstream artists to be given time in the magazine, most of the authors focused on local alternative bands. By the mid-1980s, the paper was mostly focusing on the metal movement that precluded Grunge in Seattle. However, writer Glen Boyd was writing about hip hop artists, mainly Sir Mix-A-Lot, which helped him gain popularity in the Seattle area. In the 1980s, the paper turned its attention almost solely on the developing Grunge scene, covering artists like Alice in Chains, Pearl Jam, and Nirvana. The Rocket was doing cover stories on these artists years before they broke into the national spotlight and The Rocket became the place to turn for the latest news on the Seattle scene. A San Francisco based company, BAM Media, bought the paper out in 1995 and used the cash cow Rocket as a way to support other small papers for a number of years. These ventures, though, slowly bled The Rocket until it was no longer able to operate. BAM then sold the nearly defunct Rocket to publisher Dave Roberts, who seemed to be attempting to revive the publication. However, in just a few weeks the magazine was shut down without warning, printing its final issue on October 18, 2000. It is reported that another alternative weekly paper from Portland, WW wanted to purchase the Portland side of The Rocket, but the deal became impossible due to a rumored asking price of one million dollars.

last full-length LP under the moniker Kid Sensation came in 2000 when he released From the Cradle on Orchard Records, mainly consisting of his older songs. In 2001, Kid Sensation reemerged on the Seattle scene as Xola Malik, creating a buzz with ‘‘Ichiro,’’ a song he wrote for Seattle Mariners outfielder Ichiro Suzuki. He had previously written a song as Kid Sensation for then-Mariner Ken Griffey Jr. entitled ‘‘The Way I Swing,’’ but Xola has now made a name for himself writing songs for sports figures, with ‘‘Ichiro’’ and a song for the Seahawks’ Shawn

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Alexander. He has recently been performing as Xola and has a new album in the works.

Portland Cool Nutz and Bosko Terrance ‘‘Cool Nutz’’ Scott (born 1972) was born in Portland, Oregon and grew up in Northeast Portland, called Portland’s ‘‘inner city.’’ As gangs migrated to Portland to escape police pressure in Los Angeles, by the late 1980s, Northeast Portland was experiencing drug trafficking, gang shootings, and a rash of murders. It was with this environment as a backdrop that Cool Nutz and his partner Bosco ‘‘Bosko’’ Kante began break-dancing and experimenting on the turntables. Once they realized they had some talent, they began putting together demos and decided to get serious about making music. It was at this point that Jus Family Records was born in 1992. After working 15-hour days in a bakery for three years in order to get the money to fund the label, Cool Nutz released his first album Dis Nigga’s Nutz, followed by a Cool Nutz single, which led to a record deal with Big Beat/Atlantic. He and Bosko released albums independently with Kenny Mack & G-Ism, new members of Jus Family. The deal with Big Beat/Atlantic never really got off the ground and the relationship was disbanded. In 1997, Cool Nutz put out the first really well recognized album Harsh Game for the People, which included many other Jus Family artists like Yukmouth, Poppa LQ, and others. From there, Jus Family became a production machine, releasing a compilation album and then two albums on the same day for Izay and G-Ism. They followed up with another for Cool Nutz, 1998’s Speakin upon a Million and continued to produce for the other artists signed on Jus Family records. For a short period of time Cool Nutz and Bosko recreated themselves as the group D.B.A. (Doin Business As) and were signed to Universal records. The group released one album Doin Business As in 2000, which featured E-40, Luniz, Baby Bash, and Jay-T of N2Deep, but D.B.A. never recorded a follow-up. Cool Nutz returned to the scene in 2002 with a new album Verbal Porn and continued to produce and collaborate with Bosko and the other Jus Family artists. Cool Nutz didn’t release another album until 2007’s King Cool Nutz. Cool Nutz and Bosko continue to work to develop and promote artists from Portland and the Pacific Northwest. They have worked with and opened for a huge range of artists, some on the national level, such as E-40, B.G., Wu-Tang Clan, Luni Coleone, Mobb Deep, Bleek, C-Bo, DJ Felli Fel, and many more. Lifesavas Marlon ‘‘Vursatyl’’ Irving (artist did not want birthdate released) and Solomon ‘‘Jumbo the Garbageman’’ David (artist did not want birthdate released) first met in Portland, Oregon neighborhood parks, playing basketball and hanging around freestyle rap sessions. They later worked on projects in the same recording studio and came to have a mutual respect for each other’s work. They had always promised to work on a project together, but had not made it happen until Jumbo’s

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THE AVE Formally known as University Way N.E., ‘‘The Ave’’ is located in Seattle’s University District (U-District) near the University of Washington. The Ave is considered the ‘‘heart’’ of the U-District and for years has been a unique mixture of cultures and lifestyles. Originally named 14th Avenue, the ‘‘Ave’’ was renamed in a university contest in 1919. Because the street had been an avenue for some time before the original name, however, the nickname ‘‘The Ave’’ stuck. In its more than 100-year history, The Ave has been home to all types of businesses and people. Known as an unofficial ‘‘annex’’ to the University of Washington, the area boasts many bookstores and coffee shops catering to the academic crowd. At the same time, the area is home to restaurants from diverse nationalities. On the weekends, one can usually find Farmer’s Markets or festivals. While The Ave showcases Seattle at its cultural best, it also is home to some of the city’s most pressing problems such as drug use and homelessness. Transient teens and adults, known as ‘‘Ave Rats,’’ have been known to be aggressive in panhandling and are often victims of alcohol and drug abuse. The Ave is particularly notorious for drug sales, and gang activity is on the rise in the area, as evidenced by increased graffiti ‘‘tagging,’’ leading to more organized sales of drugs like methamphetamines and cocaine. Though The Ave has its share of problems, the city of Seattle has worked to try to improve the area, increasing police patrols and adding cosmetic improvements like lighting and bus benches. In spite of criminal activity and evidence of other urban problems, The Ave remains a thriving cultural area, and in fact may exist as a microcosm of Seattle itself. The Ave has been celebrated in the rap songs of many area artists, the most obvious of which is the song entitled ‘‘The Ave,’’ by Blue Scholars, who advise students to forget about class and ‘‘get your education on the Ave.’’

best friend, who was also an MC that Vursatyl often worked with, was murdered. The incident brought the two together and they began creating and playing local gigs, often being called at the last minute as a fill-in group. Their last minute saving of a show happened so often that they were constantly hearing the phrase ‘‘Man, you guys are lifesavers!’’ Joined by DJ Ryan ‘‘Rev Shines’’ Shortell, the group Lifesavas was born. Jumbo and Vursatyl collaborated on a single called ‘‘Stop the Madness,’’ inspired by the death of their friend, which wound up along with their other early work on cassette demos in local record stores. The group found a patron when Chief Xcel of Blackalicious heard their track while looking for vinyl in a Portland record store. Xcel then tracked down Lifesavas and invited

From the SEA to the PDX | 305 them to perform with Blackalicious in San Francisco. Vursatyl eventually went on world tour with Blackalicious, as well, adding vocals and sharing MCing duty. In 2003, Blackalicious-owned label Quannum records offered Lifesavas a deal and they released their debut album Spirit in the Stone. The album had great success as an underground hit, with singles like ‘‘What if It’s True’’ and ‘‘Hellohihey’’ topping the CMJ chart. The group plays about 100 shows a year and its members have made interesting individual contributions to hip hop. Jumbo has produced for the likes of KRS-One and had production credits for a song on the The Fast and The Furious: Tokyo Drift. Vursatyl has collaborated with other artists, such as Gift of Gab. The latest Lifesavas album might be their most interesting project to date. 2007’s Gutterfly: The Original Soundtrack is a nod to the 1980s film of the same name, a fictional soundtrack for a nonexistent movie. On the album, the trio plays fictional ghetto characters living out a creative plot in The Razorblade City (Portland). Pete Miser Pete Miser (born 1971), born Pete Ho in Portland, Oregon, understood counter-culture from the day he was born. Half-Asian and half-white, Miser embraced b-boy culture at an early age. He won his first b-boy contest in 1984, taking home a .38 Special record as his prize. From there, he moved to experimenting with hip hop, writing his first rap song in 1985 and forming the group 3 B-Boys in 1987, the same year he began recording. In 1988 Miser had his first performance at Portland’s now-defunct E-Street Icehouse and in 1989 was able to purchase a TR-808 that allowed him to use his own beats as a backdrop for his raps. That same year, he formed the group Quadralyrical and went on to release his first solo work Science of Synonym. In 1991, Miser formed The Coalition, which released an EP entitled Say It to Me. Continually creating and trying for new sounds, Miser met drummer Talbot Guthrie in 1992 and the two forged a new group Five Fingers of Funk, which was a nine-piece group that used instruments to make hip hop sounds, over which Miser would rap. In 1994, the group released its first full-length LP, Slap Me 5, on Miser’s Ho-Made records, and began to win over local audiences in Portland. Five Fingers of Funk went on the road in 1997, touring steadily on the West Coast in cities like Vancouver, B.C., San Francisco, and Denver. The next year, the group went on a national tour with Fishbone and Maceo Parker, after which Miser decided to leave the group to pursue his own interests. Miser wanted to try his luck on the opposite coast and moved to New York City in late 1998. Miser has gone on to work on tour with national artist Dido as her DJ and to release solo work like the single ‘‘For You/Just One Rhyme,’’ 2002’s Radio Free Brooklyn and his latest album, 2004’s Camouflage is Relative. U-Krew Often dismissed as a one-hit wonder, Portland’s U-Krew was formed by producer Larry ‘‘D.L.B.’’ Bell and lead vocalist Kevin Morse in 1984. The two asked Lavell Alexander, James McClendo, and Hakim Muhammad to join them and they became known as ‘‘The Untouchable Krew,’’ later shortened to U-Krew.

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The group worked around Portland and the Northwest for several years before signing with Enigma Records. They were first released on a promo album from Enigma in 1989 called Sound and Vision: Volume One, along with Devo, The Untouchables, Red Flag, Bardeaux, and others. The promo included U-Krew’s first single, ‘‘If You Were Mine,’’ which paved the way for their first, and only, album The U-Krew, which was released in October of 1989. ‘‘If You Were Mine’’ received early radio play in January of 1990 and by March of the same year was in heavy rotation at stations across the country. The single peaked at #24 on the Billboard chart. The U-Krew next released the singles ‘‘Let Me Be Your Lover’’ and ‘‘Ugly’’ in June and August, respectively, but neither track ever cracked the Top 30. U-Krew toured throughout 1990 and steadily over the next two years, opening for acts like Public Enemy and Vanessa Williams. By the time the group came off tour and returned to Portland in 1992, Enigma was going through bankruptcy. The group tried to negotiate a new deal with Capitol records, but the label wanted to assert more artistic control than U-Krew was willing to sacrifice. The inability to settle on a new record deal eventually led to the disbanding of the group in 1993. Though U-Krew only made one record, the group was important to the Portland and Northwest hip hop scene. Called ‘‘Portland’s version of Run DMC’’ by some other local artists, U-Krew proved to aspiring rappers that a group could make it out of a nontraditional hip hop area like Portland. The first group out of Portland to appear on video channels like MTV or BET, U-Krew showed America that hip hop did exist in Portland and the Pacific Northwest.

NORTHWEST DJS AND RADIO SHOWS DJ B-Mello A prote´ge´ of DJ Nasty Nes, DJ B-Mello got his start at the age of 12, b-boying before turning to mixing. However, B-Mello is more than just the average DJ. He’s been a journalist and editor, club and artist promoter, as well as promoted for movies and other products. B-Mello has also appeared in videos and given demonstrations on the art and history of DJing at venues like The Experience Music Project, Seattle Art Museum, and the University of Washington. B-Mello got his first break DJing in Seattle on KCMU’s Rap Attack. From there he has moved to mixing for several different radio shows, like KEXP’s Streetsounds, The Mix Tape at 8, and The Traffic Jam on KUBE. He currently mixes six days a week and has been heard all over the West Coast, from Canada to Portland and even on Power 106 in Los Angeles. B-Mello has opened for numerous national acts, including 50 Cent, Nas, T.I., Ludacris, De La Soul, Common, and others. An official MySpace DJ, he has won various DJ battles, like Canada’s The DJ Soundwar, and in 2006 was voted West Coast DJ of the Year. B-Mello is also affiliated with several prestigious DJ organizations like The Core DJs (made

From the SEA to the PDX | 307 up of DJs across the country), Shadyville DJs (started by G-Unit’s DJ Whoo Kid), and NRC a national turntablist organization.

DJ Gigahurtz Easily Portland’s hottest and most innovative DJ, DJ Gigahurtz is one of the growing number of DJs that call themselves MP3Js. Though he began learning how to spin and mix from a friend in his college dorm room at La Sierra University in California, Gigahurtz quickly realized that integrating technology was the path for the DJ of the future. His love of computers and technology allowed Gigahurtz to set himself apart and he was one of the first to mix live from a computer, earning him his moniker. His ability to market and create a buzz has led to opportunities with corporations like Nike, promoting Nike Soccer and Nike Women. Raised and based out of Portland, Gigahurtz has made a name for himself nationally, DJing P. Diddy’s 2007 Superbowl party, as well as spinning at hot clubs in the Northwest and Las Vegas. He founded the digital record pool Vinylbreakers.com, which allows DJs access to more music without vinyl records. Gigahurtz also serves on the Board of Directors of Bumsquad DJs, a national DJ coalition, and is an official MySpace DJ.

DJ Nasty Nes Nestor ‘‘Nasty Nes’’ Rodriguez (born 1961) began DJing straight out of high school. Inspired by friends of friends who worked in radio, he began to spin and quickly landed a job as the DJ for one of Seattle’s first hip hop groups The Emerald Street Boys, who played local parties and dances in the early 1980s, even opening for The Gap Band when they played Seattle in 1982 and 1983. Nes would play 12’’ records for the Emerald Street Boys to rap over, and the mixture became a local success. While his sister attended New York University, she had a friend working at the station WKTU, the most popular station for rap at the time, and Nes would get a hold of tapes from the shows to listen to. He would spend his summers visiting New York and picking up the hottest new records to bring back to Seattle. Through imitating the style and mixes of the New York City DJs, Nes was able to launch his own radio show Fresh Tracks in 1980 on KFOX 1250 in Seattle. Fresh Tracks was the first hip hop show on the West Coast, allowing Seattle to scoop even Los Angeles and San Francisco. The show began as a 30-minute segment on Sunday nights where Nes would play songs and scratch. The twoturntable sound was so new and fresh for Seattle, it was instantly a hit and people all over Puget Sound were tuning in to hear this new style of music. The show received such huge ratings that the program director quickly took advantage and let Nes expand his show to a three-hour segment, 9 PM to midnight, Monday through Friday nights. Nes worked at KFOX until 1988 when he was accused of taking payola in the form of Troop outfits to play MC Hammer records. Though

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Nes denies the incident, he was fired by KFOX, but was not out of a job for long. He joined Glen ‘‘Shockmaster’’ Boyd at KCMU FM for the radio show Rap Attack, which aired on Sunday nights from 6 to 8 PM, and aired his show Hotmix on KUBE FM. In 1997, Nes left Seattle after HITS Magazine offered him the opportunity to become their Rap Editor. After five years with HITS magazine, Nes left to begin his own rap promotion business, running CrazyPinoy.com, a street promotional business out of Seattle. He also is the creator of RapAttackLives.com, a rap radio promotional site. Nes also appears in two films, 1994’s Purgatory House and Kung Pow: Enter the Fist, which was released in 2002. DJ Nasty Nes has worked with numerous artists on a national level, been a part of major exhibits at Seattle’s Experience Music Project, and received a number of prestigious awards, the latest of which is the 2007 Core Legendary DJ Award.

THE FUTURE OF NORTHWEST HIP HOP Though many promptly forgot the Northwest after the furor of Mix-A-Lot’s ‘‘Baby Got Back’’ died down, Mix-A-Lot’s career was really just the start of things for Northwest rappers. Though it seemed for a time that the rap scene in Seattle might be dead, thanks mainly to the almost personal vendettas of public officials against rap and hip hop shows, the adoption in 2002 of the All-Ages Dance Ordinance, a measure that repealed the 1985 Teen Dance Ordinance, is helping to ensure that smaller venues can host hip hop shows. Thus, the Northwest’s almost dead hip hop scene has undergone a resurgence, allowing newer, underground artists to redefine the Seattle hip hop scene. Rappers like D. Black, whose parents were of the members of founding hip hop groups The Emerald Street Boys and Emerald Street Girls, uses his music to present his version of Seattle—one filled with guns and violence like he witnessed growing up in South Seattle. On the flip side are groups like The Blue Scholars, who say that ‘‘the sound of Seattle is . . . softer, musically’’ (Matson). Called ‘‘sociopolitical,’’ the Scholars are more likely to rap about social issues than the stereotypical topics of today’s Top 40 rap. Similarly, Common Market and Gabriel Teodros focus on more political issues in their music, becoming known as ‘‘backpack rap.’’ Though Portland rappers did not have the same struggle to find venues under the Teen Dance Ordinance, like those in Seattle, the area’s rap artists have faced their own struggles. They have been equally troubled with violence surrounding their shows and the rap movement in Portland has been an essentially underground one to date. Though only U-Krew has reached national chart fame, artists like Cool Nutz and Lifesavas are collaborating with national artists, which will eventually give Portland its own name on the rap scene. Artists on the Jus Family records like DJ Chill, Maniac Lok, and Luni Coleone are well known in the Pacific Northwest and will work hard to help the hip hop scene thrive in the region. Though Seattle and Portland do not have a rap scene as well developed as Los Angeles or New

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THE 206 When the North American Numbering Plan proposal was adopted in 1947, the area code 206 was assigned to Washington State. In 1957, though, the eastern half of the state was split off and assigned the area code 509, leaving 206 to the Puget Sound region. In the early days of rap music in the Northwest, 206 stood for all of the Seattle area, while Portland rappers shouted out the 503. Sir Mix-A-Lot often used the area code in songs like ‘‘Brown Sugar,’’ where he sings, ‘‘Welcome to the 206’’ and ‘‘Jump on It’’ which features a lot of different area codes before he states, ‘‘Back to the 206.’’ However, due to an increase of mobile phones and pagers, each requiring a new phone number, in the Seattle area, in 1995, the area codes went through a redivision. 206 remained assigned to Seattle proper and most of the Puget Sound region, while other parts of western Washington, such as the northernmost and southernmost areas like Bellingham and Vancouver, Washington were assigned the area code 360. This designation lasted only two years, as the cellular phone explosion and expanding population created the need for so many new numbers. In 1997, area code 206 was split again, moving to the Eastside area with its cities like Bellevue and Redmond, along with the suburbs north of Seattle to area code 425. The suburbs to the south and the city of Tacoma were assigned the code 253, leaving in effect, only Seattle with the original 206. 206 still remains the area code at the heart of the Seattle area, however. Seattle’s Central District, for years the only home to rap in the region, remains within the original 206 area code. The majority of clubs and hip hop venues are still in the 206 area code as well. Additionally, the Seattle Chapter of the Zulu Nation is Web hosted on 206Zulu.com. When Ludacris had ‘‘Hoes in different area codes’’ in 2001, he included the 206 in his list of area codes, so it seems clear that 206 is synonymous with Seattle in the world of hip hop.

York, the region does have a history of hard working rappers who want to get rap music out to their cities. As government officials from largely Caucasian backgrounds become more educated about and tolerant of rap music, the more the genre will be able to flourish in the region.

REFERENCES Chaumont, Kriss. ‘‘Seattle-Born Funkdaddy Is Spinning Success in the Northwest.’’ SeattleTimes.com, August 18, 2005. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/ html/entertainment/2002443787_funkdaddy18.html (accessed July 17, 2007).

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De Barros, Paul. Jackson Street after Hours: The Roots of Jazz in Seattle. Seattle: Sasquatch, 1993. Matson, Andrew. ‘‘Seattle’s Hip-Hop Scene Comes into Its Own.’’ SeattleTimes .com, April 27, 2007. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/entertainment/ 2003682695_hiphop27.html (accessed June 30, 2007). Mizell, Larry, Jr. ‘‘Pharmacy Direct: Vitamin D Has 206 HipHop Dialed.’’ The Stranger.com, October 20, 2005. http://www.thestranger.com/seattle/Content? oid=23766 (accessed July 17, 2007).

FURTHER RESOURCES CoolNutz.net. http://www.coolnutz.net. Experience Music Project. http://www.empsfm.org/. Funkdaddy.com. http://www.funkdaddy.com. JusFamilyRecords.com. http://www.jusfamilyrecords.com. The Portland Mercury. http://www.portlandmercury.com/portland/Music. RapAttackLives.com. http://www.rapattacklives.com. Seattle Music Office Homepage. http://www.seattle.gov/music/. 206 Zulu. http://www.206zulu.com/.

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY Cool Nutz Harsh Game for the People. Jus Family Records, 1997. Speakin Upon a Million. Jus Family Records, 1998. Verbal Porn. Jus Family Records, 2001. King Cool Nutz. Jus Family Records, 2007. Da Grassroots Passage Through Time. Nu Gruv Alliance, 1999. (DJ Mr. Supreme production credit). Body Language. Conception, 2000 (DJ Mr. Supreme production credit). E-40 Presents That Fire. Jus Family Records, 2004 (Bosko production credit). 50 Cent f/Lloyd Banks, Prodigy, Spider Loc, & Mase ‘‘I Don’t Know Officer.’’ Get Rich or Die Tryin’ Soundtrack. G-Unit/Interscope, 2005 (Jake One production credit). Five Fingers of Funk Slap Me 5. LVP Group, 1995. About Time. Ho Made Media, 1998. Twisted & Lifted. Platinum, 2000.

From the SEA to the PDX FunkdaddyFunk U Right on Up. Shot, 1994. Funkdaddy Is Tha Source. Explicit, 1995. Funkmix 2000. Tight, 1999. I Want All That. M-2K Music, 2003. In Tha Mix. Funkdaddy Records, 2004. Gift of Gab 4th Dimensional Rocketships Going Up. Quannum Projects, 2004. G-Unit ‘‘Betta Ask Somebody’’ Beg for Mercy. Interscope, 2003 (Jake One production credit). Jake One The Tale of the Tape. Liquor Barrel, 2004. Jake One Feat/Kutfather ‘‘No Introduction’’/‘‘No Introdeezy’’ b/w ‘‘One Man Band.’’ Conception, 1998. ‘‘No Introduction/No Introdeezy’’ Walkman Rotation Compilation. Conception, 1999. Kid Sensation Rollin with Number One. NastyMix, 1990. The Power of Rhyme. NastyMix, 1992. Seatown Funk. Ichiban, 1995. AKA Mista K-Sen. Ichiban, 1996. From the Cradle. Orchard, 2000. Lifesavas Head Exercise. Quannum Projects, 2001. What If It’s True. Quannum Projects, 2002. Spirit in Stone. Quannum Projects, 2003. Fa Show. Quannum Projects, 2005. Gutterfly. Quannum Projects, 2007. Pete Miser Radio Free Brooklyn. Ho Made Media, 2003. Sharpshooters Buck the Saw. Conception, 1997. Choked Up. Shadow Records, 1997. Viva Los Guerrillos. Fast Music, 2002. Danger in Your Eyes. Light in the Attic, 2003. Twice As Nice. Light in the Attic, 2003. Sir Mix-A-Lot Swass. NastyMix/American Recordings, 1988. Seminar. NastyMix/American Recordings, 1989. Mack Daddy. NastyMix/American Recordings, 1992.

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Chief Boot Knocka. Sony, 1994. Return of the Bumpasaurus. Warner, 1996. Source of Labor Stolen Lives. Sub Verse, 2001. U-Krew The U-Krew. Capitiol, 1989. Various Artists Wheedle’s Groove: Seattle’s Finest in Funk and Soul 1965–1975. Light in the Attic, 2004 (DJ Mr. Supreme production credit). Vitamin D Table Manners. Tribal Music. Table Manners 2. Tribal Music, 1999.

Hip Hop in America: A Regional Guide

Hip Hop in America: A Regional Guide

VOLUME 2: THE MIDWEST, THE SOUTH, AND BEYOND

Mickey Hess, Editor

GREENWOOD PRESS

An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC

Copyright 2010 by Mickey Hess All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hip hop in America : a regional guide / Mickey Hess, editor. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-313-34321-6 (set: paper) — ISBN 978-0-313-34322-3 (set: ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-34323-0 (vol. 1: paper) — ISBN 978-0-313-34324-7 (vol. 1: ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-34325-4 (vol. 2: paper) — ISBN 978-0-313-34326-1 (vol. 2: ebook) 1. Rap (Music)—History and criticism. I. Hess, Mickey, 1975– ML3531.H573 2010 782.4216490973—dc22 2009034923 ISBN: 978-0-313-34321-6 (set) ISBN: 978-0-313-34323-0 (vol. 1) ISBN: 978-0-313-34325-4 (vol. 2) EISBN: 978-0-313-34322-3 (set) EISBN: 978-0-313-34324-7 (vol. 1) EISBN: 978-0-313-34326-1 (vol. 2) 14 13 12 11 10

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This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook. Visit www.abc-clio.com for details. Greenwood Press An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC ABC-CLIO, LLC 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America

Contents

Introduction: ‘‘It’s Only Right to Represent Where I’m From’’: Local and Regional Hip Hop Scenes in the United States, Mickey Hess Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop, Mickey Hess

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VOLUME 1: EAST COAST AND WEST COAST 1. Hip Cats in the Cradle of Rap: Hip Hop in the Bronx, David Diallo 2. Uptown, Baby!: Hip Hop in Harlem and Upper Manhattan, David Shanks 3. From Queens Come Kings: Run DMC Stomps Hard out of a ‘‘Soft’’ Borough, Ericka Blount Danois 4. Brooklyn Beats: Hip Hop’s Home to Everyone from Everywhere, Jennifer R. Young

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5. ‘‘Brooklyn Keeps on Takin’ It!’’: A Conversation with Bushwick, 107 Brooklyn’s Da Beatminerz, Mickey Hess 6. A Black Sheep Borough, an Island of All White People: Staten Island Steps Up, Matthew Brian Cohen 7. The Sound of Philadelphia: Hip Hop History in the City of Brotherly Love, Mickey Hess 8. The Bricks and Beyond: Hip Hop in Newark and Northern New Jersey, Andrea Roberts 9. Hip Hop in the Hub: How Boston Rap Remained Underground, Pacey C. Foster

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Contents 10. From Electro-Rap to G-Funk: A Social History of Rap Music in Los Angeles and Compton, California, David Diallo

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11. Between Macks and Panthers: Hip Hop in Oakland and San Francisco, George Ciccariello-Maher and Jeff St. Andrews

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12. From the SEA to the PDX: Northwest Hip Hop in the I-5 Corridor, Rachel Key

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VOLUME 2: THE MIDWEST, THE SOUTH, AND BEYOND Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop

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13. The Evolution of the Second City Lyric: Hip Hop in Chicago and Gary, Indiana, Warren Scott Cheney

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14. Heartland Hip Hop: Nelly, St. Louis, and Country Grammar, Amanda Lawson 15. From St. Paul to Minneapolis, All the Hands Clap for This: Hip Hop in the Twin Cities, Justin Schell 16. Welcome to tha D: Making and Remaking Hip Hop Culture in Post-Motown Detroit, Carleton S. Gholz

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17. The Long, Hot Grind: How Houston Engineered an Industry of Independence, Jamie Lynch

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18. ‘‘The Sound of Money’’: Atlanta, Crossroads of the Dirty South, Matt Miller

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19. Virginia Is for Lovers and Rappers: Hampton Roads Rappers, Changing the Game, Laurie Cannady 20. Bouncin’ Straight Out the Dirty Dirty: Community and Dance in New Orleans Rap, Rich Paul Cooper

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21. Soul Legacies: Hip Hop and Historicity in Memphis, Zandria F. Robinson 22. Tropic of Bass: Culture, Commerce, and Controversy in Miami Rap, Matt Miller

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23. Paradise Lost and Found: Hip Hop in Hawai’i, Rohan Kalyan

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Appendix: Regional Hip Hop Playlist, Danielle Hess Selected Bibliography Index Acknowledgments About the Editor and Contributors

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop

1958

Grandmaster Flash (Joseph Saddler) is born in Barbados and soon moves with his family to the Bronx.

1959

Brooklyn’s Big John Ashby becomes a mobile DJ who plays records at basement parties.

1964

Cassius Clay, ‘‘The Louisville Lip,’’ fights Sonny Liston. The day before the fight, he taunts his opponent with the rhyming boast, ‘‘float like a butterfly, sting like a bee,’’ which DMC (of Run DMC) later calls ‘‘the most famous rap lyrics ever’’ (Szwed 10). After Clay defeats Liston, he announces that he is a member of the Nation of Islam and has changed his name to Muhammad Ali.

1965

Malcolm X is assassinated at the Audubon Ballroom in Upper Manhattan.

1966

Black Panther Party is founded in Oakland, California. Doug E. Fresh is born in Barbados.

1967

Clive ‘‘Kool Herc’’ Campbell moves from Kingston, Jamaica, to New York City. Philadelphia graffiti artists Cornbread and Cool Earl begin spray-painting their names on public structures in a tall, exaggerated script that is a hallmark of the graffiti style that comes to be associated with hip hop.

1968

The Last Poets form in Marcus Garvey Park in East Harlem, New York City. Their mix of jazz, funk, and poetry has been a major influence on vii

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop hip hop, and they are featured vocalists on Common’s 2005 single ‘‘The Corner,’’ produced by Kanye West. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee.

1969

Brooklyn’s Grandmaster Flowers opens for James Brown at Yankee Stadium.

1970

Gil Scott-Heron releases Small Talk at 125th & Lenox, featuring the poem ‘‘The Revolution Will Not Be Televised.’’ Scott-Heron’s poetry has influenced hip hop, and he appears on the 2002 Blackalicious album Blazing Arrow. Don Campbell invents a new style of dance called ‘‘locking’’ or ‘‘The Campbellock’’ in Los Angeles. Rudy Ray Moore releases the comedy album Eat Out More Often, which features the ‘‘Dolemite Toast.’’ Moore’s combination of X-rated humor with traditional African toasts influenced hip hop’s storytelling. Moore is featured on Big Daddy Kane’s 1990 album Taste of Chocolate and on 2 Live Crew’s Back at Your Ass for the Nine-4. Taki 183, a Greek teenager from Washington Heights, begins spraypainting his nickname and street number as the tag ‘‘Taki 183’’ in subway stations during his train rides to high school in Midtown Manhattan.

1971

The New York Times profiles Uptown Manhattan’s Taki 183 as the man who spawned a New York City graffiti phenomenon. Brooklyn DJ Ras Maboya is invited to perform in London. The New York Times refers to Philadelphia as the ‘‘Graffiti Capital of The World.’’ Los Angeles poet-musicians Watts Prophets release Rappin’ Black in a White World. With their political topics and spoken word performances over jazz music, the group was a forerunner to hip hop.

1973

DJ Kool Herc spins records at his sister’s block party at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue, Bronx, New York. Last Poets member Jalal Nuriddin (AKA Lightnin’ Rod) records the solo album Hustler’s Convention, a major influence on hip hop music. Afrika Bambaataa founds the Universal Zulu Nation on November 12, 1973. Don ‘‘Campbellock’’ Campbell forms The Campbellock Dancers (later shortened to The Lockers), featuring Slim the Robot, Fluky Luke, Greg ‘‘Campbellock Jr.’’ Pope, and Penguin (aka Fred Barry, who would go on to play Rerun on the sitcom What’s Happening).

Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop 1975

10-year-old Ricky Walters, who goes on to record as Slick Rick, moves with his family from South Wimbledon, London, England to the Bronx.

1977

The Rocksteady Crew forms in the Bronx. At the urging of his manager, Russell Simmons, Kurtis Blow moves from Harlem to Simmons’s home borough of Queens, where Simmons begins billing him as ‘‘The Number One Rapper in Queens.’’ Crash Crew forms in Harlem. Grand Wizzard DJ Johnny O begins DJing in Cleveland, Ohio. The Bronx’s DJ Disco Wiz, hip hop’s first Latino DJ (his father was Puerto Rican and his mother Cuban), teams up with Grandmaster Caz to create hip hop’s first mixed plate or dub record.

1978

Lovebug Starski becomes the house DJ at Club Disco Fever in the Bronx. Graffiti writer Angel moves to Chicago from New York and tags in the northwest Chicago neighborhood of Logan Square. He and local tagger Berto (or B-Boy-B) form the Angel Berto Crew (ABC). Roger Clayton and Gid Martin form the DJ crew Unique Dream Entertainment in Los Angeles.

1979

The first rap records are released: • Philadelphia’s rhyming radio DJ Jocko Henderson releases ‘‘Rhythm Talk’’ on Philadelphia International Records. • New York City’s Fatback Band releases ‘‘King Tim III (Personality Jock).’’ • Englewood, New Jersey’s Sylvia Robinson puts together a group called Sugarhill Gang, that records ‘‘Rapper’s Delight,’’ hip hop’s first international hit. • Bronx’s Funky Four Plus One More releases ‘‘Rapping and Rocking the House.’’ • Harlem-born Queens rapper Kurtis Blow releases ‘‘Christmas Rappin’.’’ • Philadelphia’s Lady B releases ‘‘To The Beat, Ya’ll,’’ the first hip hop record by a female artist. • Harlem’s Paulette and Tanya Winley release ‘‘Rhymin’ and Rappin’.’’ • Connecticut native Mr. Magic releases ‘‘Rappin’ with Mr. Magic.’’ St. Louis radio DJ Gentleman Jim Gates is the first DJ to play Sugar Hill Gang’s ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ on the radio.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Lonzo Williams opens Eve’s After Dark club in Compton, California, and forms The World Class Wreckin’ Cru with future N.W.A. members DJ Yella and Dr. Dre. Tony Joseph, a DJ from East Elmhurst, New York, relocates to Los Angeles and introduces New York’s turntable innovations to L.A. DJs. West Coast dance crew the Electric Boogaloos perform on Soul Train, introducing the nation and the world to the West Coast dance style known as popping.

1980

Chicago’s DJ Casper releases ‘‘Casper’s Groovy Ghost Show,’’ the first hip hop record from a Chicago artist. During a campaign rally, Presidential candidate Ronald Reagan says that the landscape of the Bronx reminds him of the destruction he saw in Dresden, Germany, during World War II. The Harlem group The Treacherous Three releases ‘‘The New Rap Language,’’ which debuts a new rhyme style that would become known as speed rap. Harlem’s Crash Crew releases its first single, ‘‘High Power Rap.’’ Seattle’s KFOX 1250 begins airing the West Coast all-rap radio show, Fresh Tracks, produced by DJ Nestor ‘‘Nasty Nes’’ Rodriguez. Spyder D (Duane Hughes) records the song ‘‘Big Apple Rappin’ ’’ with Motown bass player Billy ‘‘Motley’’ Wilson while attending college in the Detroit area. The Atlanta label Shurfine releases ‘‘Space Rap’’ by Danny Renee and the Charisma Crew. This is the first rap record issued by an Atlanta label. Dr. Donda West moves from Atlanta with her three-year-old son Kanye to take a faculty position at Chicago State University. Samoan-American dancer SugaPop brings the East Coast b-boy dance styles of the Rocksteady Crew back to his home in California, introducing West Coast dancers to breaking.

1981

Kool Moe Dee battles Busy Bee at Harlem World in New York City. The Bronx’s Lovebug Starski releases his first single, ‘‘Positive Life.’’ Too $hort sells homemade tapes in the Oakland Coliseum during Oakland Raiders games. Force MCs (later changed to the Force MDs) form in Staten Island.

Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Bronx native Afrika Bambaataa releases his first record, ‘‘Zulu Nation Throwdown,’’ produced by Harlem’s Paul Winley. Travis ‘‘Travitron’’ Lee, the godfather of Twin Cities hip hop, moves from Brooklyn to Minneapolis to attend the University of Minnesota. Bond Hill Crew forms in Cincinnati, Ohio. Common, a Chicago MC, cites Bond Hill as a major influence. Common’s cousin was a member of Bond Hill and he used to visit Cincinnati during summers. New York City’s Mean Machine records ‘‘Disco Dreams,’’ one of the first rap records to feature lyrics in Spanish. 1982

Boston’s Michael Jonzun (Michael Johnson) releases the electro 12’’ single ‘‘Pack Jam (Look out for the OVC),’’ a classic hip hop breakbeat record that would become particularly influential on the Miami Bass Sound. Afrika Islam’s ‘‘Zulu Beats,’’ an all-hip hop mix show, debuts on New Jersey’s WHBI. Bronx’s Kool DJ AJ releases the single ‘‘Ah, That’s the Joint.’’ Mexican-American Kid Frost (Arturo Molina Jr.) begins his rap career in Los Angeles.

1983

Queens group Run DMC signs to Profile Records. DJ Kut begins playing house parties in and around the Peabody Projects in St. Louis. Boston’s Kevin Fleetwood and the Cadillacs release ‘‘Sweat it Off,’’ the first hip hop single from a Boston artist. The hip hop film Wild Style premiers in Boston. Two of the film’s stars, Pink (Sandra Fabara) and Heart (Gloria Williams) come to town to promote the film. Ice-T, who had moved from New Jersey to Los Angeles, records ‘‘The Coldest Rap’’ b/w ‘‘Cold Wind Madness’’ with Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. This is the first hip hop record produced in Minnesota. Connecticut transplant Mr. Magic launches his Friday and Saturday night radio show, Rap Attack, in New York City. The PBS documentary Style Wars chronicles subway graffiti in New York City.

1984

Philadelphia’s Schoolly D releases his first record, ‘‘Maniac’’ b/w ‘‘Gangster Boogie’’ on his own Schoolly D Records. Queens rap pioneer Davy DMX releases ‘‘One for the Treble.’’

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Atlanta’s Mo-Jo releases ‘‘Jump, Stomp, and Twist.’’ Miami’s first independent rap label, 4-Sight Records, releases its first record, ‘‘Beef Box’’ by Ervin ‘‘M.C. Chief’’ German (featuring Sexy Lady). Members of the Bronx and Harlem’s Rock Steady Crew perform at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Rick Rubin and Russell Simmons form Def Jam Records, initially selling records out of Rubin’s dorm room at New York University. Def Jam Records releases its first single, ‘‘It’s Yours’’ by the Bronx’s T La Rock, featuring the South Carolina-born Jazzy Jay. Brooklyn native Uncle Ralph McDaniels launches Video Music Box, the first television show to focus primarily on hip hop, on New York’s WNYC-TV. Travitron begins hosting KMOJ’s ‘‘The Hip Hop Shop,’’ the Twin Cities’ first hip hop radio show. Kevvy Kev debuts the first Bay Area hip hop show on Stanford’s KZSU. Sir Mix-A-Lot begins hosting Friday night dances at the Boys and Girls Club in Seattle’s Central District. California-based 2 Live Crew releases a single, ‘‘Revelation,’’ which sells well in Florida and leads to the group’s relocation to Miami in 1986.

1985

Chicago’s MC Sugar Rae Dinky releases ‘‘Cabrini Green Rap,’’ which chronicles life in one of the city’s most dangerous housing projects. Queens rapper LL Cool J releases his debut album, Radio. Elizabeth and Plainfield, New Jersey’s Word of Mouth releases ‘‘King Kut,’’ featuring the turntablism of DJ Cheese. MC Shy D, from Atlanta by way of the Bronx, releases ‘‘Rapp will Never Die’’ on Miami’s 4-Sight Records. Philadelphia’s MC Breeze releases ‘‘Discombobulatorlator,’’ the first rap song to be banned from the radio. The hip hop phenomenon of answer records begins with 14-year-old Queensbridge rapper Roxanne Shante’s ‘‘Roxanne’s Revenge,’’ a response to the Brooklyn group U.T.F.O’s song, ‘‘Roxanne, Roxanne.’’ The exchange between these two artists would spawn, by some estimates, over 100 answer records.

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Miami’s Gigolo Tony and Lacey Lace enter the Roxanne Wars with their record, ‘‘The Parents of Roxanne.’’ 1986

The Bronx’s Jazzy Joyce, one of the earliest female turntablists, releases her debut single, ‘‘It’s My Beat,’’ a collaboration with Sweet T. MC Shan releases ‘‘The Bridge,’’ which ignites the Bridge Wars, conducted via a series of dis records between the Bronx’s Boogie Down Productions and Queens’s Juice Crew. Harlem’s Doug E. Fresh and the Get Fresh Crew release their debut album Oh, My God! Philadelphia’s DJ Jazzy Jeff wins New Music Seminar DJ Battle for World Supremacy. Fort Greene, Brooklyn’s Just-Ice releases Back to the Old School. Seattle’s Sir Mix-A-Lot releases ‘‘Square Dance Rap,’’ which sees radio play in Great Britain. Geto Boys form in Houston. J. Prince founds Rap-A-Lot Records in Houston. Houston’s Real Chill releases the single, ‘‘Rockin It.’’ Luther Campbell (aka Luke Skyywalker, Luke, and Uncle Luke) founds Skyywalker Records in Miami. 2 Live Crew relocates from Riverside, California, to Miami and adds new members Luther Campbell (from Miami) and Brother Marquis (born in Rochester, New York) to their roster of Californian Mr. Mixx and Fresh Kid Ice, born in Trinidad and Tobago and raised in Brooklyn. Detroit’s Most Wanted begin performing in Michigan. Kurupt leaves Philadelphia, relocates to Los Angeles, and meets Snoop Dogg. Newark, New Jersey’s MC Hassan and DJ 7-11 release ‘‘Livin’ in the City,’’ an ode to the music scene of their hometown. Run DMC collaborates with rock group Aerosmith in a remake of its 1975 hit ‘‘Walk this Way.’’ New York group The Show Boys releases ‘‘Drag Rap,’’ which would go on to form the backbone of the New Orleans rap subgenre called bounce, which heavily samples the Show Boys’ ‘‘triggaman beat.’’

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Afeni Shakur moves her family from Brooklyn to Baltimore, Maryland, where her son Tupac attends the Baltimore School for Performing Arts and meets classmate Jada Pinkett.

1987

Long Island’s Public Enemy releases Yo! Bum Rush the Show. Ice T’s ‘‘Six N The Morning,’’ launches Los Angeles gangsta rap. Boogie Down Productions releases its debut album, Criminal Minded. Founding member DJ Scott La Rock is killed in the Bronx. Guru founds Gang Starr in Boston. Brooklyn’s Audio Two releases ‘‘Top Billin’,’’ which would become one of hip hop’s most sampled songs. Artists ranging from Queens’s 50 Cent to Mobile, Alabama’s Rich Boy, to Berlin, Germany’s Harris have sampled or reworked portions of this song in their music. Newark, New Jersey’s Queen Latifah releases her first single, ‘‘Princess of the Posse.’’ Philadelphia’s Tuff Crew collaborates with Camden, New Jersey’s Krown Rulers to make the album PH.A.N.J.A.M. (PHiladelphia And New Jersey All-star MCs), which features production work by Ced Gee and Kool Keith, members of the Bronx group Ultramagnetic MCs. Oakland group Digital Underground’s ‘‘Underwater Rimes’’ hits #1 in the Netherlands. Philadelphia’s Money B moves to Oakland and joins Digital Underground. Long Island’s Eric B. & Rakim release Paid in Full. Samoan-American brothers Paul, Ted, Donald, Roscoe, Danny, and David Devoux (later known as Boo-Yaa Tribe) leave South Bay, Los Angeles to perform rap music in front of audiences in Japan.

1988

Long Island’s Public Enemy releases It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold us Back. Philadelphia’s DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince win the first Grammy award presented to a rap artist. N.W.A.’s Straight Outta Compton is released. Bronx group Ultramagnetic MCs releases Critical Beatdown. Das EFX forms at Virginia State University when Skoob (from Brooklyn) and Krazy Drayzy (from Teaneck, New Jersey) meet at college.

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Orlando, Florida’s DJ Magic Mike collaborates with Miami’s Beat Master Clay D on ‘‘Rock the House,’’ a single that features beatboxing by Queens native Prince Raheim, who had moved to Miami in the early 1980s. Detroit’s Prince Vince releases ‘‘Gangster Funk’’ on Mercury Records. Detroit’s Awesome Dre & the Hardcore Committee release a debut album on Priority Records. Camden, New Jersey’s Krown Rulers release their debut album, Paper Chase. Tupac Shakur moves with his family from Baltimore to Marin City, California. Brooklyn’s MC Lyte releases her debut album Lyte as a Rock. Two Harvard students, Dave Mays and John Schecter, begin printing The Source. MC Shy D releases ‘‘Atlanta, That’s Where I Stay,’’ the first rap single to celebrate living in Atlanta. Harlem’s Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock release ‘‘It Takes Two.’’ The Samoan-American Devoux brothers take on the name Boo-Yaa Tribe and return from Japan to Los Angeles. 1989

Bronx duo Nice & Smooth release their self-titled debut album. Long Island’s De La Soul releases its debut album, 3 Feet High and Rising. Brooklyn’s Big Daddy Kane includes a live version of ‘‘The Wrath of Kane,’’ performed at Harlem’s Apollo Theater, on his album, It’s a Big Daddy Thing. Guru moves from Boston to New York. Houston-born DJ Premier joins Gang Starr. Brand Nubian forms in New Rochelle, New York. Dutch group Urban Dance Squad sees airplay on MTV and on U.S. radio with its debut album Mental Floss for the Globe and the single ‘‘A Deeper Shade of Soul.’’ Urban Dance Squad’s music is a fusion of rap and rock. Houston’s Geto Boys release Grip It! On That Other Level, which is later picked up and reissued by Rick Rubin’s Def American label.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Newark, New Jersey’s Queen Latifah releases ‘‘Ladies First,’’ featuring British rapper Monie Love. Atlanta group Success-N-Effect’s debut album, In the Hood, sells more than half a million copies. Cleveland’s Bango the B-Boy Outlaw releases a single, ‘‘Big Bango Theory,’’ on Ice-T’s Rhyme Syndicate Records. Cleveland’s Brothers 4 the Struggle release the single, ‘‘Ready Rocks,’’ which sees nationwide airplay. Cuban-American Mellow Man Ace releases ‘‘Mentirosa,’’ a landmark single in Latin rap.

1990

Bronx’s Lord Finesse and DJ Mike Smooth release Funky Technician. Master P founds No Limit Records in New Orleans. Queens group A Tribe Called Quest releases its debut album, People’s Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm. Professor Griff, having left the Long Island group Public Enemy in the wake of controversy over his anti-Semitic comments, signs to Luther Campbell’s Miami-based Skyywalker Records. Ice Cube works with New York’s Bomb Squad to produce his first solo album, AmeriKKKa’s Most Wanted. Long Island’s Public Enemy release Fear of a Black Planet. Detroit’s Kid Rock releases his debut album, Grits Sandwiches for Breakfast, on Jive Records. Atlanta’s Kilo releases ‘‘America Has a Problem . . . Cocaine,’’ which sells around 40,000 copies nationwide. Cincinnati’s Ronnie Ron scores a regional hit with his single ‘‘When Da Hum Plays.’’ Trenton, New Jersey’s Poor Righteous Teachers release ‘‘Rock Dis Funky Joint.’’ The music video features the group rhyming underneath the ‘‘Trenton Makes’’ bridge. 2 Live Crew’s 1989 album, As Nasty as They Wanna Be, is declared legally obscene by Judge Mel Grossman in Broward County, Florida. San Jose’s Peanut Butter Wolf and Charizma meet and begin recording together.

1991

Brian ‘‘Baby’’ Williams founds Cash Money Records in New Orleans. Queens group Organized Konfusion releases a self-titled debut album.

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Miami’s 2 Live Crew releases Live In Concert, the first live rap album in history. Chicago’s Tung Twista (now Twista) releases his first album Runnin’ Off at Da Mouth. Boston’s Ed O.G. and Da Bulldogs release their debut album Life of a Kid in the Ghetto, and the national hit single ‘‘I Got to Have It.’’ The Micranots form in Minneapolis. Jibri Wise One becomes Cincinnati’s first rap artist to reach Billboard’s Hot Rap Singles chart, with his first single, ‘‘The House the Dog Built.’’ Flint, Michigan’s MC Breed’s ‘‘Ain’t No Future in Your Frontin’ ’’ becomes a national hit. Memphis’s Gangsta Pat releases his debut album, #1 Suspect. Dr. Dre and Suge Knight found Death Row Records in Los Angeles. Bronx artist Tim Dog releases ‘‘Fuck Compton,’’ which initiates a series of East Coast/West Coast dis records. Staten Island’s UMCs release their debut album, Fruits of Nature. 1992

The Bronx’s Diamond and the Pyschotic Neurotics release Stunts, Blunts, and Hip Hop. Compton’s Tweedy Bird Loc releases ‘‘Fuck the South Bronx/This Is Compton.’’ Atlanta’s Arrested Development releases the countrified single ‘‘Tennessee.’’ The group is led by Todd ‘‘Speech’’ Thomas, a Milwaukee native who spent summers with his grandmother in rural Tennessee. Atlanta’s Success-N-Effect releases the single ‘‘The Ultimate DriveBy,’’ in which the song’s narrator fantasizes about killing President George Bush. Virginia’s The Neptunes (Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo) produce SWV’s single, ‘‘Love Will Be Right Here.’’ Port Arthur, Texas’s UGK releases its debut album, The Southern Way, on Big Tyme Records. Ice Cube concert ends in a riot at downtown Minneapolis’s First Avenue club. Newark’s Redman releases his debut album, Whut? Thee Album. Tulsa, Oklahoma’s Litefoot releases The Money E.P. Litefoot claims to be the first Native American to perform rap music.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop

1993

Minneapolis’s Rhymesayers releases Headshots, Volume One. Queens group Onyx releases a debut album, Bacdafucup, featuring production from Run DMC’s Jam Master Jay. Memphis’s Eightball and MJG release Comin’ Out Hard on Houston’s Suave label. Atlanta’s Outkast releases its first single, ‘‘Player’s Ball,’’ a tribute to Atlanta’s black youth culture. The song spends six weeks at the top of the Billboard rap charts. Japanese MCs Scha Dara Parr and Takagi Kan are featured on De La Soul’s ‘‘Long Island Wildin’,’’ marking the first appearance of Japanese rap on a song by a U.S. group. Newark’s Lords of the Underground release their debut album Here Come the Lords. Tha Alkaholiks release the group’s debut album 21 and Over. This L.A. -based group consists of E-Swift (from Toledo, Ohio), Tash (from Columbus, Ohio), and J-Ro (from Pacoima, California). Philadelphia’s The Roots releases its debut album Organix. Brooklyn’s Black Moon releases its debut album Enta Da Stage. Staten Island’s Wu-Tang Clan releases Enter the 36 Chambers, bringing mainstream attention to NYC’s forgotten borough. Detroit’s The Boss releases Born Gangstaz. Dr. Dre’s The Chronic goes platinum. On songs from the album, Dre disses his former N.W.A. bandmate Eazy-E, as well as Bronx artist Tim Dog and Miami’s Luke. Miami’s Luke releases ‘‘Cowards in Compton,’’ a response to Dr. Dre’s ‘‘Dre Day.’’ Brooklyn’s Masta Ace records Slaughtahouse for the L.A. label Delicious Vinyl. Digable Planets debuts as one of the first rap groups since 2 Live Crew to be made up of musicians from multiple cities. Although the group is based in Brooklyn, it is made up of Seattle’s Butterly, Philadelphia’s Doodlebug and King Britt, and Ladybug Mecca, from Washington, D.C. Sudden Rush, originator of Hawaiian hip hop, begins performing as a group.

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Philadelphia-based hip hop music video show, Urban X-pressions, first airs on WGTW TV 48. Bronx rapper Fat Joe releases his debut album Represent. Charizma, from the San Jose suburb of Milpitas, is shot and killed in a mugging. Los Angeles’s Funkdoobiest releases its debut album Which Doobie U B? The three members are Son Doobie (a Puerto Rican MC), DJ Ralph M (a Chicano DJ), and Tomahawk Funk (a Lakota Nation MC). 1994

Chicago’s Common Sense (now Common) releases his breakout sophomore album Resurrection and the single ‘‘I Used to Love H.E.R.,’’ which laments that hip hop has strayed from its roots. Brooklyn MCs Masta Ace, Buckshot, and Special Ed form the supergroup Crooklyn Dodgers for the soundtrack to Spike Lee’s film Crooklyn. Cleveland’s Bone Thugs-N-Harmony releases Creepin on ah Come Up on Eazy-E’s L.A.-based Ruthless Records. Phoenix’s WithOut Rezervation, a Native American group, releases Are You Ready for W.O.R.? Bronx-born Raul ‘‘DJ Raw’’ Medina, Jr., who had moved to Miami at the age of 11, stages the first Hoodstock, a free, all-day hip hop festival in Miami’s Roberto Clemente Park. Ted Lucas founds Slip-N-Slide Records in Miami. The Atlanta rap duo Outkast releases its debut album Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik. The Source’s November issue devotes a large section to the Atlanta hip hop scene, with articles on Jermaine Dupri, Dallas Austin, OutKast, and the Organized Noize production team. Too $hort relocates from East Oakland to Atlanta. Micranots relocate from Minneapolis to Atlanta.

1995

L.A.’s Snoop Dogg and Atlanta’s Outkast are booed at the Source Awards in New York City. Outkast wins best new artist, and states, ‘‘The South got somethin’ to say.’’ L.A. rappers Tha Dogg Pound are fired upon as they record a video for ‘‘New York, New York’’ in NYC. Bronx rapper Nine releases his debut album Nine Livez.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop The Bronx’s Camp Lo releases its debut album, Uptown Saturday Night. Harlem’s Big L releases his debut album LifestylE-Z ov da Poor and Dangerous. Memphis’s Three 6 Mafia releases Mystic Stylez. Atlanta’s Goodie Mob releases its debut album, Soul Food, which sells 500,000 copies. Bay Area rap artists Del the Funky Homosapien, Souls of Mischief, and Casual found Hieroglyphics Imperium Recordings, which would become one of hip hop’s strongest independent labels.

1996

San Jose’s Peanut Butter Wolf founds Stones Throw Records in Los Angeles. Six Western Kentucky University students form the group Nappy Roots in Bowling Green, Kentucky. The group consists of Fishscales from Milledgeville, Georgia, R. Prophet from Oakland, California, and Skinny DeVille, Ron Clutch, Big V, and B. Stille from Kentucky. Willie D, formerly of the Geto Boys, begins hosting a radio show, Reality Check, in Houston. Tupac Shakur is shot several times in a drive-by shooting in Las Vegas. He dies seven days later. Many fans still attribute his murder to the East Coast vs. West Coast wars. Cincinnati’s Kenny P releases the Unfadeable mixtape. Washington, D.C.’s Nonchalant reaches #24 on the Billboard Hot 100 with her single, ‘‘5 O’Clock.’’ Detroit’s Eminem releases his first full-length record, Infinite. Virginians Timbaland and Missy Elliot write and produce ‘‘If Your Girl Only Knew,’’ a top 10 hit for Aaliyah.

1997

Virginia’s Missy Elliott releases her first solo album, Supa Dupa Fly. Miami’s Trick Daddy Dollars (he would later drop ‘‘Dollars’’ from his name) releases his debut album, Based on a True Story. Six months after his rival Tupac was murdered in Las Vegas, the Notorious B.I.G. is shot and killed in a drive-by shooting in California. DJ Charlie Chan and Luq begin hosting freestyle battle nights at the Hi Pointe Cafe´ in Saint Louis. Michael ‘‘5000’’ Watts, a Northside Houston native, founds the Swisha House record label.

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San Diego’s Lil Rob releases his debut album Crazy Life. 1998

Cash Money Records CEO Brian ‘‘Baby’’ Williams signs a $30 million pressing and distribution contract with Universal. Cash Money artist Juvenile releases the albums Solja Rags and 400 Degreez. Dr. Dre signs Detroit’s Eminem to his Aftermath label. Phonte, Big Pooh, and 9th Wonder form the group Little Brother at North Carolina Central University in Durham. Fat Pat is shot to death in Houston. South Bronx’s Big Pun, a Puerto Rican rapper, releases his debut album Capital Punishment.

1999

Providence, Rhode Island’s Sage Francis releases the mixtape Sick of Waiting . . . . Pontiac, Michigan’s Binary Star releases Waterworld. B.G. releases the hit song ‘‘Bling-Bling,’’ which brings a piece of New Orleans slang into the mainstream. Big L is shot to death in Harlem. East Orange, New Jersey’s Lauryn Hill is nominated for 10 Grammy awards for her debut solo album The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill. Too $hort collaborates with several Southern rappers on his eleventh album, Can’t Stay Away. France’s MC Solaar guest stars on Missy Elliot’s ‘‘All N My Grill.’’ Kansas City, Missouri’s Tech N9ne releases his debut album The Calm Before the Storm.

2000

Jay-Z collaborates with Texas rappers UGK and Virginia producer Timbaland on his single ‘‘Big Pimpin’.’’ Nelly puts St. Louis on the hip hop map when his debut album, Country Grammar, hits # 1 on the Billboard chart. Outkast’s album Stankonia sells five million copies and is the first allrap record nominated for the ‘‘Album of the Year’’ award at the Grammys. Houston’s DJ Screw, who pioneered the Screwed production style, dies of a heart attack attributed to his abuse of promethazine, a drug closely associated with Screwed music.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Jackson, Mississippi’s David Banner releases his debut album Them Firewater Boyz Vol. 1. South Bronx’s Big Pun dies of respiratory failure in New York at the age of 28.

2001

Kahokule’a ‘‘Hoku’’ Haiku founds Ill Valley Productions in Hawaii. The group mixes pidgin with local dialects in songs like ‘‘Old School Toyota.’’ Lexington, Kentucky’s CunninLynguists release their debut album Will Rap for Food. Nas releases ‘‘Da Bridge 2001,’’ featuring Queens all-stars Marley Marl, MC Shan, Tragedy, Cormega, Millenium Thug, Nature, and Mobb Deep. The song is a tribute to the original Queens anthem, MC Shan’s 1986 single, ‘‘The Bridge.’’ Kanye West moves from Chicago to Hoboken, New Jersey, in order to be close to the production scene in New York City. Milwaukee’s Stricklin guest stars on Masta Ace’s Disposable Arts.

2002

Kentucky’s Nappy Roots release their debut album Watermelon, Chicken, and Gritz. Kentucky Governor Paul Patton declares September 16, 2002 ‘‘Nappy Roots Day.’’ Philadelphia DJs Diplo and Low Budget form the group Hollertronix and begin playing parties at a Ukrainian social club in North Philadelphia. Chicago’s Kanye West is severely injured in a car crash in L.A. Louisville’s Code Red releases a debut album featuring Brooklyn’s Masta Ace and Bronx MCs Whipper Whip, Grandmaster Caz, and C-Rayz Walz. Houston’s Color Changin’ Click wins The Source’s award for best independent album for Get Ya Mind Correct. Prophetix releases the debut album High Risk. The group consists of Eddie Meeks from Decatur, Georgia, Mello Melanin from Memphis, Tennessee, and Jon Doe from Glasgow, Kentucky. Run DMC’s Jam Master Jay is shot and killed in Queens.

2003

Bronx rapper C-Rayz Walz releases Ravipops (The Substance). Queens rapper 50 Cent releases Get Rich or Die Tryin’.

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RZA, mastermind behind the Staten Island supergroup Wu-Tang Clan, releases The World According to RZA, an album that features rappers from France, Germany, Sweden, and other countries around the world. Harlem’s The Diplomats releases its first group album, Diplomatic Immunity. Brooklyn’s Jay-Z releases The Black Album, which features producers from around the country: Durham, North Carolina’s 9th Wonder; Chicago’s Kanye West; Paterson, New Jersey’s Just Blaze, Virginia’s The Neptunes and Timbaland; Detroit’s Eminem; Compton, California’s DJ Quik; and Long Island’s Rick Rubin. Kansas City, Missouri’s Mac Lethal releases his debut album Men Are from Mars. Pornstars Are from Earth. 2004

Danger Mouse, a DJ originally from White Plains, New York, who had spent years working in Athens, Georgia, before living in England in 2004, releases The Grey Album, a mashup of Jay-Z’s The Black Album and The Beatles’ The White Album. Durham, North Carolina’s Phonte collaborates with Dutch producer Nicolay to form the group Foreign Exchange, whose first album, Connected, was made by sending beats and vocals back and forth via email and instant messenger. Chicago’s Kanye West releases The College Dropout. L.A.’s Snoop Dogg recruits Virginia’s The Neptunes to produce several tracks for his album R&G (Rhythm & Gangsta): The Masterpiece. Virginia’s Pharrell and L.A.’s Snoop Dogg collaborate on ‘‘Drop It Like It’s Hot.’’ Norfolk, Virginia’s Clipse forms the group Re-Up Gang, joining forces with Philadelphia MCs Ab-Liva and Sandman. Boston DJ Clinton Sparks records Re-Up’s first mixtape, We Got it 4 Cheap: Volume 1. RA Scion and Sabzi begin recording together in Seattle. They go on to form the group Common Market. RA Scion (Ryan Abeo) was born in Louisville in 1974, and lived abroad in Greece and Zambia before moving to Seattle. Brooklyn’s Masta Ace and Boston’s Edo G team up to make an album, Make Some Noise. Dutch producer Nicolay and Houston rapper Kay meet on the Web site www.okayplayer.com and begin collaborating on songs via the Internet.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop Bay Area rapper Mac Dre is killed in a drive-by shooting in Kansas City, Missouri. Stones Throw Records releases The Third Unheard: Connecticut Hip Hop, 1979–1983, a compilation of fourteen tracks from old-school Connecticut rappers. Omaha, Nebraska’s Mars Black releases his debut album Folks Music. Nashville’s Young Buck releases his debut album Straight Outta Cashville.

2005

Hurricane Katrina displaces New Orleans rappers to other cities across the country, spreading New Orleans influence. Memphis’s Three 6 Mafia beats fellow Tennessean Dolly Parton to win a Grammy for their song ‘‘It’s Hard Out Here for a Pimp’’ from the Hustle and Flow soundtrack. Brooklyn’s Buckshot and Raleigh-Durham’s 9th Wonder release their debut collaboration, Chemistry. London-born Sri Lankan artist M.I.A. is denied entry to the United States to work with Virginian producer Timbaland on her second album, Kala. Tallahassee, Florida’s T-Pain releases his debut abum Rappa Ternt Sanga.

2005– 2006

New Orleans rappers respond to Katrina: Lil Wayne releases ‘‘Georgia (Bush),’’ a song that criticizes President George W. Bush for his lack of action to help the city of New Orleans. Juvenile, who lost his home in the hurricane, releases the video for ‘‘What’s Happenin.’’ The video depicts the destruction of New Orleans neighborhoods and the lack of reaction from George W. Bush and Dick Cheney, who are portrayed in the video as uncaring politicians.

2006

Miami’s Rick Ross releases his debut album, Port of Miami. Queens rapper Nas angers some Southern rappers with his album title Hip Hop Is Dead. Atlanta’s Ludacris appears on stage wearing a t-shirt that reads ‘‘Hip Hop Ain’t Dead. It Lives in the South.’’ Houston’s Big HAWK is shot to death in his hometown, eight years after his brother Fat Pat was murdered. Atlanta rapper T.I. and his entourage are involved in an altercation after a concert in Cincinnati, Ohio. T.I.’s assistant and childhood friend Philant Johnson is shot and killed.

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Washington, D.C.’s Tabi Bonney, born in West Africa, releases his first hit single, ‘‘The Pocket.’’ Dutch MC Jerome XL records ‘‘The Power of Speech’’ with Queens MC Craig G. Ann Arbor, Michigan’s Tadd ‘‘Dabrye’’ Mullinix releases his debut album Two/Three. Princeton University hosts a hip hop symposium, featuring Princeton professor Cornel West, rapper Talib Kweli, and U.S. Representative Maxine Waters. Dutch hip hop producer Nicolay moves from Utrecht, The Netherlands, to Wilmington, North Carolina. Mac Lethal founds Black Clover Records in Kansas City, Missouri. 2007

New York state officials declare 1520 Sedgwick Avenue in the Bronx as ‘‘The Birthplace of Hip Hop.’’ The Bronx’s KRS-One and Queens’s Marley Marl bury the Bridge Wars hatchet and join forces to make Hip Hop Lives. DJ Khaled releases ‘‘We Takin Over,’’ a nationwide posse cut featuring DJ Khaled and Rick Ross from Miami, Akon from New Jersey, T.I. from Atlanta, and Lil Wayne and Birdman from New Orleans. Mobile, Alabama’s Rich Boy releases his self-titled debut album. Chicago artists Kid Sister and The Cool Kids launch a new wave of Chicago hip hop. Houston’s Pimp C, of UGK, dies of sleep apnea complications attributed to his abuse of promethazine. Trenton, New Jersey’s Wise Intelligent, of the 1990s group Poor Righteous Teachers, releases The Talented Timothy Taylor, the first of a series of new solo albums. Wise Intelligent founds Intelligent Kidz, an after-school tutoring program for children in the Trenton school system.

2008

Brooklyn’s Killah Priest and Philadelphia’s Chief Kamachi team up to make an album, Beautiful Minds. Columbus, Ohio’s Camu Tao dies of lung cancer at 30 years of age. The Snow Goons (German producers) release Black Snow, featuring American rap artists from Philadelphia, North Carolina, Brooklyn, and Boston.

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Timeline of American Regional Hip Hop New York Governor David Paterson pardons Bronx rapper Slick Rick, who had been facing deportation to his native United Kingdom since 2002. Flint, Michigan’s MC Breed dies of kidney failure in Michigan, having recorded his last song, ‘‘Everyday I Wait,’’ two days before his death. Morrisville, Pennsylvania’s Asher Roth releases The Greenhouse Effect, Volume 1, a mixtape produced by Don Cannon and DJ Drama, who moved from Philadelphia to Atlanta to form the production team The Aphilliates. Louisville’s Static Major dies during a surgical procedure in his hometown. Lil Wayne’s ‘‘Lollipop,’’ the last song on which Static Major performed, reaches #1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Cleveland, Ohio’s Kid Cudi releases the acclaimed mixtape A Kid Named Cudi.

2009

Washington D.C.’s Wale—a second-generation Nigerian-American, releases Back to the Feature, a mixtape with production from North Carolina’s 9th Wonder. Tanya Morgan, a group with members from Brooklyn and Cincinnati, releases Brooklynati, and develops a Web site touting the virtual city of Brooklynati. Bronx organizations The Point CDC and City Lore present ‘‘Bring Out the Sound System: The West Indian Roots of Hip Hop,’’ featuring Kool Herc, Kool DJ Red Alert, and Ralph McDaniels. East St. Louis’ Scripts and Screwz see MTVU airplay for their video, ‘‘Brick.’’

—Mickey Hess

CHAPTER 13 The Evolution of the Second City Lyric: Hip Hop in Chicago and Gary, Indiana Warren Scott Cheney Chicago, Illinois, and Gary, Indiana, are situated on the southwestern edge of Lake Michigan, and in many ways the stretch of land that includes these two cities is the most musically diverse and culturally rich in all of America. Musically, Chicago is home to history-making scenes of jazz, blues, and house music. Gospel, soul, rock and roll, alt-country, and Chicano punk also have roots in Chicago. Additionally, the city lays claim to over 150 clubs devoted to what seems like an unlimited assortment of music. Culturally speaking, Chicago’s Cook County boasts the highest concentration of African Americans nationwide, and the overall minority population percentage in Cook County—which includes a booming Latino population —is only rivaled by Los Angeles County (Little). This musical and cultural variety adds energy and authenticity to the way art and music are created and consumed. Even so, Chicago is not easy to define. Figuratively speaking, it is known as the Second City (to New York). In terms of population, it is the third largest city in the United States. And when discussions of hip hop arise, Chicago is often lost between the two coasts. Even worse, Chicago has come into the national spotlight for negative reasons. Chicago is infamous for the failed Cabrini Green housing project, and Gary, Indiana was most recently the national murder capital in 2005 (Jones). Yet hip hop thrives in greater Chicagoland, as each of the four elements of hip hop are not only actively enjoyed today but also take on a very unique flavor and history. Graffiti writing and break dancing appeared in Chicago long before MCs and DJs were recognizable on the local stage. The first Chicago graffiti crews can be traced at least as far back as 1978, while break crews began to appear in the early 1980s. Times have changed since these first crews started to appear, but MCs and DJs still define what it means to not only have a ‘‘Midwest sense’’ in their music but also to address the issues that affect their neighborhoods and lives as part of the greater urban frontier. Though the hip hop style in Chicago and Gary may not be immediately recognizable nationwide, artists have something to prove,

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and it comes in the flavor of an unexpected and unique hybrid between gangsta rap and social consciousness. On his 2004 single ‘‘Jesus Walks,’’ Kanye West said the Midwest is ‘‘young and restless,’’ and these two terms explain much about Chicago hip hop. The Midwest obviously falls between the West and East Coasts, but what is not so clear is how Chicago hip hop thrives in an imaginative middle ground, a kind of creative liminality. Where either coast has a specific history and is known for a specific type of music, Midwest hip hop artists don’t have a well-trodden musical path to follow. In Chicagoland, there is a range of musical styles to choose from and respond to, and what results is a feeling of daring and freedom. A quotation in the Chicago Reader from Donald ‘‘Vakill’’ Mason sums up the ethos of the Chicago rap scene. He says, ‘‘The thing about Chicago MCs, the reason why we’re being embraced right now, is that we ain’t selling crack rock and aiming nines at your head for sixteen songs straight. We giving people real hip-hop: straight conversation, introspection, battle shit, political shit. You getting it all’’ (Mehr). Chicago MCs are willing to venture out beyond the status quo, addressing real issues that affect their listeners. Whether rappers adopt gangsta rap sensibilities (like Twista or Do or Die), conscious rap (like Common or Iomos Marad), or a combination thereof (like Kanye West or Rhymefest), each artist exhibits a distinct connection to their hometown, which comes through in their distinct styles (see sidebar: ‘‘Chicago Royalty: Who Wears the Crown?’’). Even though MCs currently draw the most attention, Graffiti was perhaps the earliest manifestation of hip hop in Chicago. As is the same with the other elements, graffiti was imported from New York. A writer named Angel came to Chicago from New York in 1978 and painted his first few pieces in the northwest Chicago neighborhood of Logan Square. He inspired a tagger named Berto (or B-Boy-B), and together they formed the Angel Berto Crew (ABC). Over the next five or six years, such artists as Skye, Flash, Gizmo, Drip, Rosy, Repo, Peppermint, Nikke, Imari, Stormy, Scorpio, Catch 22, Take 2, Pepo, Rip 66, Trixter, Pilot, and Dice joined the crew. With all the new additions, the name was changed to the Artistic Bombing Crew. Later, Take 2, Trixter, Risk, and Hate made the biggest names for themselves, being featured in newspaper articles, magazines, and books. Other crews emerged over the years, including the GGC (Graffiti Groove Crew), UAC (United Artists Crew), TCK (Till Chicago’s Killed), and CMW (Chicago’s Most Wanted). Even today, writers are still starting crews, literally trying to make and leave a name for themselves (Artistic). Naturally, much of Chicago graffiti centered around the trains; if the graffiti wasn’t on or in the trains it was painted on the most visible walls of buildings along the lines. The trains provided a canvas for their work but also a cheap means of locomotion and freedom, allowing the crews to be connected throughout the city. As a result, Chicago’s graffiti scene also has a history of all-city hip hop meetings. The writer Warp organized the first meeting in the mid-1980s, and even though they ended up being more for crews to show their skills, the meetings still offered

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CHICAGO ROYALTY: WHO WEARS THE CROWN? Whether it’s a rivalry between parts of the city (Southside, Northside, or Westside), over El train lines (the north/south Redline and the east/west blue line), over baseball teams (White Sox in the south and Cubs in the north), or even area codes (312 in the downtown loop and 773 elsewhere in the city), each Chicago MC negotiates their position in the imagined Chicago hierarchy of MCs, and they nominate themselves with varying degrees of egotism. Common’s 2005 video for ‘‘The Corner,’’ depicts typical Southside street corners, with CTA busses and El trains moving grimly through the neighborhoods. In the first verse for this song, Common mentions the Southside avenues, Stony Island and Cottage Grove, in an effort to localize his roots and show where his influence began. On the 2008 Grammy Award winning song ‘‘Southside,’’ Common raps about how critics in 1994 called Common Chicago’s Nas, and he follows up with, ‘‘Now them niggas know I’m one of Chi-town’s gods.’’ Rhymefest brashly stepped forward in his 2006 song ‘‘Chicago-Rillaz’’ saying, ‘‘Twista, Common and Kanye look real comfortable’’ and later compares himself to a bullet in the ghetto, something that can’t be ignored. And perhaps most emotionally charged is Kanye West’s song ‘‘Homecoming,’’ off his latest album Graduation. This song personifies Chicago as a woman who wants to be represented well; therefore West raps, ‘‘Every interview I’m representing you making you proud.’’ Even though there is perhaps a feigned animosity between these rappers, it is obvious that amongst the diverse styles there is a unity that wants Chicago to be the leader in a new hip hop era. Rhymefest succinctly sums this up in his 2006 song ‘‘All I Do,’’ saying ‘‘Chi-Town stand up, we supposed to win!’’

a general cohesiveness that no other large city had. This kind of grassroots organization exemplifies hip hop in Chicago, a city where community and networks tend to be created by the people, from the bottom up. That said, there are examples of the larger Chicago community taking notice of graffiti writers. In 1998, the Mexican Fine Arts Museum hosted an exhibit of Graffiti Art that included art from Trixter, Orko, and Slang and was supposed to encourage inroads between the CTA and graff writers. Organizers hoped that young people would see the success of a few bombers in the art world and decide to paint on canvases rather than walls (Roper). It is safe to say that the event ended up being little more than a publicity pipe dream, especially since each of the writers included in the event soon continued their work on the walls of the city (see sidebar: ‘‘This Means War: Graffiti Writers and the CTA’’). Graffiti wasn’t the only underground community present early on. Just as b-boying (break dancing) hit its apex in N.Y. and L.A., break dancing in Chicago

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THIS MEANS WAR: GRAFFITI AND THE CTA The Chicago Transit Authority was established in 1947 as a unified answer to various existing public transportation offerings. CTA buses and trains move almost 24 hours a day, making them the most used transit in Chicago (with Metra and PACE largely filling out the transportation needs of suburban riders). Trains and buses have always been a target for taggers and bombers, and over the years the CTA has had to fork out millions of dollars a year to keep their lines clean, the rate reaching one million a year as far back as 1985. The same 1985 Chicago Sun Times article mentions the exploits of a number of crews including a group of ‘‘vandals’’ who entered a bus garage and hit a new bus by leaving ‘‘gang graffiti on the back, front and cushions of all fifty seats, on every window, on all the walls, inside and out, and on the length of the ceiling.’’ The Artistic Bombing Crew was also credited in this article with vandalizing 60 different train cars in two different train yards in one night. With this kind of money at stake, it is no wonder that the CTA described the writers as gang members even though the strict truth of this statement probably isn’t true. Graffiti writers were made up of crews, but their connection to street gangs and violence was rarely direct. In the summer of 1986, Chicago tried a new tactic: arresting taggers. In 1993, Mayor Richard Daley implemented his ‘‘Graffiti Blasters’’ program with a budget of 3.5 million and also banned the sale of spray paint to minors within city limits (Black). Though these programs are making headway, graffiti writers are not slowing down. The Internet has allowed writers to congregate and make plans in a nonconspicuous manner. Also, new crews are popping up all over the city as young taggers try to get in on their piece of fame.

REFERENCE Black, Tom. ‘‘The Handwriting’s on the Wall: Cities Can Win the Graffiti War.’’ American City & County 112 (March 1997): 3.

grew stronger in a different direction. The dance was already a runaway hit nationwide, with the Rock Steady Crew and NY City Breakers touring the world and appearing on TV. Alternatively, break dancing existed in Chicago, but it was not until later that dancers from the city offered up their own distinct flavor and moves. Early dance crews or cliques like House-O-Matic, U-Phi-U, and K-Phi-9 experimented with break styles and made a name for these new dances in the mid to late 1980s. The first of these new dance sensations was called jukin’—a term borrowed

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from the 1930s and the era of juke(box) dancing. This form of Chicago dance has two meanings that are variations on one basic premise: the combination of bent knees and fast body movements. The first form of jukin’ is often likened to grinding in a more vulgar sense reminiscent of a club scene (with bodies coming into close contact), whereas, the other is an organized set of steps and hand movements that is often carried out in a group setting. In fact, there are a number of jukin’ dance troupes in Chicago, an example being House Arrest 2, which has chapters across the country (Jacubiak). The other form of Chicago dance is called footworkin’. When the music starts, the dancer will start hopping and gliding in preparation for the main steps. These preliminary steps make way to a frenetic movement of the legs and feet. The upper body moves to the beat and may even incorporate moves from top rocking (a West Coast phenomenon), but the feet are the main focus. The current king of footworkin’ is Charles Parks of Chicago Heights; this title is conferred to the winner of a summertime competition each year called the ‘‘Chi-Town Get Down.’’ His ‘‘battle clique’’ is named Creation and is understood to be ‘‘at the forefront of the movement,’’ according to Kuumba Lynx (qtd. in Briggs). The other point of large-scale attention for the footworkin’ movement came when Missy Elliot included the dance clique Full Effect in her video for ‘‘Lose Control.’’ It is important to here mention that both of these Chicago dances can be performed to almost any hip hop track, but the common trend in Chicago is to use hip house or even straight house tracks. This is a point of contention for some hip hop artists and fans because the original house music that was so popular in the 1980s drew national music attention away from aspiring hip hop groups (see sidebar: ‘‘House, Hip Hop, and Hip House’’). At about the same time, the earliest hip hop DJs in Chicago responded to the music of Franky Knuckles and Ron Harper, the most influential house music DJs of the early 1980s. DJ Casper (born Terry Marshall), a radio DJ from NY, offered the first rap song in Chicago on AVI Records in 1980, ‘‘Casper’s Groovey Ghost Show.’’ Next, DJ Groove became the first homegrown Chicagoan to bring DJing and MCing together with his ‘‘Super Shock Body Rock.’’ MC Sugar Rae Dinky —who wrote the song ‘‘Cabrini Green Rap’’—worked at the beginning of an era of mixtapes and relative anonymity for MCs that only ended in the early 1990s with the well-known MCs Twista and Common. College radio stations from University of Chicago and Northwestern University also provided an outlet for aspiring artists and served as a way for people to hear the new music from around Chicagoland and the rest of the nation (see sidebar: College Radio and Hip Hop). The MCs really started to explode in the early to mid-1990s with albums from Twista (1991), Common (1992), Ten Tray (1993), Da Brat (1994), No I.D. & Dug Infinite (1997), Crucial Conflict (1996), and Do or Die (1996). These artists were the first to make Chicago hip hop recognizable, especially to a national audience. They also paved the way for artists who would appear towards the turn of the millennium. Each of these early Chicago MCs had a style all their own, but the

HOUSE, HIP HOP, AND HIP HOUSE Imagine the scene. News about house music traveled via word-of-mouth, and the new music could be heard on the radio late at night. The music was made for dancing; it was uptempo (using a steady, pounding beat), included samples from disco and funk, and catered to a minority counter culture. Groups of these young party people flocked to the nondescript, industrial, downtown neighborhood where they found a new club called the Warehouse. Robert Williams (born in New York) opened the Warehouse in 1977, offering a welcoming new establishment for a music culture that was predominantly peopled by homosexual males. DJ Frankie Knuckles, himself a transplant from New York, was the musical wizard behind the new music craze (later opening his own club, called the Power Plant). After a few years, Robert Williams also opened the Music Box, where Ron Hardy was the resident DJ. During these early years, radio station WBMX 102.7 also showcased house music by letting DJs take over the sound waves and play all night. The most famous of these DJs formed a group called the Hot Mix Five (made up of Farley ‘‘Jackmaster Funk’’ Kieth, Scott ‘‘Smokin’ ’’ Seals, Mickey ‘‘Mixin’ ’’ Oliver, Kenny ‘‘Jammin’ ’’ Jason, and Ralphie ‘‘Rockin’ ’’ Rosario). It was largely these two nightclubs and late-night radio that allowed house music to flourish. As time went on, it became obvious that the nightclub vibrancy of house music was marketable, and in 1983 Larry Sherman started the first house music label, Trax records. Larry Heard and Marshall Jefferson were among the label’s first releases. This commodification marks what many believe to be the official beginning of house music as an institution. One illustration of this—and indeed a testament to the international success of house music —is Mayor Richard M. Daley’s proclamation of the House Unity Day in Chicago on August 10, 2005. The press release cites 2005 as the 21st anniversary of House music, giving special note to deceased DJs Ron Hardy, Jesse Velez, Kool Rocksteady, and Dr. Richard Cook. The press release also mentions Trax Records, DJ International Records, Screamin’ Rachael, Larry Sherman, Rocky Jones, Lewis Pitzele, Frankie Knuckles, Esquire Jay B. Ross, Marshall Jefferson, Jesse Saunders, Chip E., Mazi, Vince Lawrence, Farley Jackmaster Funk, Ten City, Maurice Joshua, Steve Silk Hurley, Paul Johnson, Mickey Oliver, The Hot Mix 5, 3 Degrees, Bad Boy Bill, Rationation, and Brian Keigher of Chicago Cultural Affairs. While house music was catching on in Chicago, hip hop was already established in New York. At the end of the 1970s and beginning of the 1980s, house music was catching on in clubs, but at the same time in New York, hip hop music was just beginning to combine DJs and MCs on recorded tracks. The most well-known of these combination tracks were Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five’s ‘‘Superrapin’ ’’ and the Sugar Hill Gang’s ‘‘Rapper’s Delight.’’ The equivalent of these groups began to show up in Chicago in the early 1980s, with artists like Terry ‘‘DJ Casper’’ Marshall, DJ Groove, and later, MC Sugar Rae Dinky. These innovators appeared at a time in Chicago when it would have been impossible to create music without making at least a subconscious comparison to house music.

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COLLEGE RADIO AND HIP HOP Two Chicago radio stations to open up their airwaves to hip hop music in the 1980s were WHPK and WNUR. WHPK is based out of South Chicago and resides on the University of Chicago campus, while WNUR is based out of Evanston, Illinois, and resides on the Nortwestern University campus. Both stations have been known for playing progressive and unknown music over the years. WHPK currently features the sounds of underground Chicago DJs and sometimes offers a sampling of music from the local label Molemen Records. During the mid-1980s, WHPK started to sample hip hop tracks from new artists and have tried to continue in the same way with their late-night hip hop programming. JP Chill was one of the first DJs to work on hip hop at WHPK, and he is well-known by rappers who heard his mixes growing up. WNUR started a show in the mid-1980s called Street Beat, which featured largely unknown house and hip hop tracks from around the world. The current programming has merged into a concentration of house and electronic/ dance music, but it still survives as an early promoter of hip hop music in the area. Also, Foster Garvin helped start the hip hop show ‘‘Time Travel’’ which stopped airing in 1995. In the 1990s larger radio stations were catching on to what college radio stations were doing. The best example of this is in San Francisco, California. During the 1980s, stations like KPOO, KZSU, KUSF, and KALX were playing hip hop (Chang). When the 1990s came around bigger stations like KMEL and KYLD tried to capitalize on the new trend by modeling their stations after the college stations. Something similar to this happened in Chicago, when college stations like WHPK and WNUR were used as inspiration for large radio stations like WGCI (owned by Clear Channel) and B96 (owned by CBS Radio).

REFERENCE Chang, Jeff. Can’t Stop, Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation. New York: St. Martin’s, 2005.

common thread throughout their lyrics was a commitment to Chicago and its neighborhoods for better or worse. Twista popularized a harder and fast-paced lyricism that was inspired by and described street life. Common represents a jazzed up lyricism of street consciousness and social uplift. Crucial Conflict and Do or Die followed their own agenda, combining the elements of gangsta rap with their

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own creative forms. Each MC that followed these Chicago pioneers responded creatively to these established styles and in doing so came up with today’s fresh sounds.

TWISTA Carl Terrell Mitchell (born November 27, 1973) called himself Tung Twista on his first album Runnin’ Off at Da Mouth (1991), but he switched to Twista on each of his remaining albums. Twista grew up in North Lawndale on the extreme Westside of Chicago. This area is commonly called K-Town (due to the numerous streets starting with the letter) and is known to be the home to street gangs, drug dealers, and general poverty (see sidebar: ‘‘Chicagoland Ghettos: MCs and Their Violent ‘Hoods’’). This environment offered Twista a range of lifestyle options (he could have spent his life a gang banger or drug dealer), but it also made him want to become a hip hop artist so he wouldn’t be forced to ‘‘go back to the hood and have to struggle’’ (Kyles). He started rapping in 1985 at the age of 12 and secured his first record deal for Runnin’ Off at Da Mouth at the age of 18. Though this first record didn’t launch him into the annals of rap history, it did solidify his reputation as a fast-rapping MC. (The 1992 Guiness Book of World Records listed him as the fastest rapper, as he spit 598 syllables in 60 seconds.) In ‘‘Ratatattat’’—the first song on Runnin’ Off at Da Mouth—Twista advocates the use of his tongue instead

Twista at Wembley Arena on July 18, 2004. (The number on his Bears jersey, 773, is Chicago’s area code.) (Redferns/ Getty Images)

The Evolution of the Second City Lyric

CHICAGOLAND GHETTOES: MCS AND THEIR VIOLENT ‘HOODS Chicago has a long history of violence, including gang and mob activity, and much of this activity is commonly attributed to certain parts of the city. Perhaps the most famous of all is the mob-related Saint Valentine’s Day Massacre of 1929, which occurred in the Chicago neighborhood of Lincoln Park. Since that time, gang and mob activity hasn’t disappeared with famous street gangs like the Vice Lords, Gangster Disciples, and Black P. Stone Nation appearing mid-century and continuing to the present. Though gang activity cannot only be directly attributed and contained in certain places, there are neighborhoods and housing developments that have a reputation for this kind of activity. Each part of Chicago—the Westside, Southside, and Northside—has its own history of violent neighborhoods. Perhaps the most well-known nationally would be the Northside housing project, Cabrini-Green. The housing effort originated in the 1940s and is presently experiencing revitalization. The project doesn’t designate one building or block but is instead a grouping of 11 developments spread throughout the area directly south of the neighborhood of Lincoln Park. During its peak usage, at least 15,000 people lived in the area (CHA). The predominately low-income African American population that resided in the area during the 1980s and 1990s had to live through the hardest era, which included gang violence and deteriorating living conditions. Early rappers like MC Sugar Rae Dinky featured Cabrini-Green in their songs, and presently there is even a record label called Cabrini Mob Entertainment made up of artists who called CabriniGreen home. Nowadays, the Southside and the Westside of Chicago are perhaps even more notorious for gang activity and violent crime. The neighborhoods of East and West Garfield Park, North and South Lawndale, and Austin are often singled out as hard neighborhoods on the Westside. Violence and gang activity in the Southside is more diffuse but the neighborhoods of Englewood, Woodlawn, Roseland, and Burnside are often cited in the news. Most famously, Twista is from K-Town, which refers to the western part of the North Lawndale neighborhood where many street signs begin with the letter ‘‘K.’’ Also, members of the groups Do or Die and Crucial Conflict grew up in or near the neighborhoods of North and South Lawndale. The most well-known MC to come out of the Southside, on the other hand, is Common. Gary, Indiana is the home to some of the most treacherous streets in the nation. Gang bangers from the area refer to the initials of the city as ‘‘Gangsta Island’’ or just ‘‘GI.’’ Formerly a thriving center of the steel industry, the

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REFERENCE CHA (Chicago Housing Authority). ‘‘Cabrini-Green Homes.’’ August 30, 2007. http://www.thecha.org/housingdev/cabrini_green_homes.html.

of guns, comparing his tongue to a TEC-9, .44 Magnum, an UZI, and a .9 millimeter. This rhetorical inversion characterizes much of Twista’s early work; he uses the language of the streets but puts a more peaceful spin to them. Another example of this appears on ‘‘Mr. Tung Twista,’’ where he compares his lyrical flow to getting high on crack. He strikes a precarious balance between talking about the life he came out of and rising above it with his words. Twista’s next album, Resurrection, dropped in 1995 to little critical acclaim and few sales. However, his next album Adrenaline Rush (1997) brought Twista national recognition that had thus far eluded Chicago hip hop artists. It took two years, but this third album hit gold in December of 1999. Singles like ‘‘Get It Wet’’ and ‘‘Adrenaline Rush’’ mark a new chapter in Twista’s songwriting, documenting a sexually and violently explicit turn. Not surprisingly, ‘‘Get It Wet’’ explicitly documents the seduction of a woman at a party. (Additionally, ‘‘Emotions’’ follows the same theme, as Twista recognizes his girl to be a gold digger yet doesn’t demand she leave.) Twista teams up with Youngbuck in ‘‘Adrenaline Rush,’’ creating an anthem of violent retaliation and murder: ‘‘All you haters try to murder me so now it’s kill season.’’ If Twista is speaking figuratively here, it isn’t as obvious as his first record when he advocated killing with words. Even so, whether Twista amped up the sex and violence to sell records isn’t clear, but irrespective of intentions, this third record sold. During a productive yet less lucrative stretch between 1997 and 2004, Twista collaborated with the SpeedKnot Mobstaz on Mobstability (1998), put out the first in a series of compilation albums called Legit Ballin’ Vol. 1 (2000), released Adrenaline Rush 2000: Twista’s Greatest Hits (2000), Legit Ballin’ Vol. 2 (2001), and Respect the Game (Legit Ballin’ Vol. 3) (2002). As busy as he was, these albums rode out the reputation he had already built instead of breaking new ground. In 2004, however, that all changed. Kamikaze (2004) pushed Twista close to the level of legend when his record went gold and then platinum in the first few months after its release. The two most popular singles ‘‘Slow Jamz’’ and ‘‘Overnight Celebrity’’ were produced by local Chicago producer Kanye West and

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featured verses from West and the actor/singer Jamie Foxx. Critics suggest that Twista could not have been so successful without West (and Foxx), but fans can’t deny that each song, though slow, was created to showcase the speedy lyrics of Twista. The album seems to exemplify a confidence from Twista as a veteran in Midwest hip hop. The first track ‘‘Get Me’’ is a strong defense of Twista’s ties to the Chi as well as his promulgation of the Chicago name nationwide. On ‘‘Kill Us All’’ he returns to violence saying ‘‘I’ll murder you and come at you again in the afterlife.’’ Alternately, ‘‘Sunshine’’ advocates getting money at any cost and by any means, and ‘‘Hope’’ offers a sentimental account of all the things in the world Twista wishes didn’t exist (the song appearing on the Coach Carter soundtrack). These singles didn’t sell nearly as well as the first two collaborations with West, which made critics wonder if Twista could keep up the pace. In the fall of 2005, Twista released the much anticipated The Day After. This album was produced by Pharrell Williams and others, but Kanye West is a noticeable omission. The critics would have to eat crow, however, because The Day After went gold in just two months (though never hitting platinum). This album rode the success of the single ‘‘Girl Tonight,’’ which made it all the way to 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and featured Trey Songz. This single went gold in 2006 and repeated the same sexuality where early songs had already found success. The Day After was never the hit that Kamikaze was, but if anything it continued to illustrate Twista’s staying power in the game. The title track emphasizes this link by bragging about the success of Kamikaze and touting his identity as a successful veteran. But Twista also returns to the gangsta themes from earlier albums with ‘‘Holding Down the Game,’’ where he says he still has to represent in Chicago by ‘‘Runnin through the streets with my hands on the trigga.’’ As a result, Twista delves into both parts of the Chicago hip hop aesthetic: gangsterism and social consciousness. He wants to be a positive influence in his neighborhood, but he doesn’t think that’s possible if he loses the street grit that made him famous. To sum up Twista’s view of his own place in Chicago, Twista recently said, ‘‘I am Chicago’’ (Wade), though his latest album Adrenaline Rush 2007, which dropped in September 2007, might be evidence to the contrary (selling less than 60,000 copies in the first week).

COMMON Lonnie Rashid Lynn, Jr. (born March 13, 1972) started rapping in the Southside of Chicago during the mid-1980s. He originally called himself Common Sense but had to shorten the name when it came to light that there was already a band in California with the same name. Common created a hip hop group in high school, but he didn’t release his solo album until 1992 after dropping out of Florida A&M University. The cover art on Can I Borrow a Dollar (1992) depicts Common—surrounded by his crew—as a transient begging for money. The metaphor coincides with the musical plight of many Chicago rappers, and Common really didn’t leave

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Common performs at the Coachella Music Festival in Indio, California, on April 29, 2006. (Lucas Jackson/Reuters/Corbis)

the category of ‘‘homeless’’ MC until his next album Resurrection (1994). The record was critically acclaimed, and the hip hop community still talks about ‘‘I Used to Love H.E.R.,’’ an emotional narrative about Common’s ambivalence towards what had become of hip hop. He was disappointed with the commercialism surrounding hip hop, and he personified hip hop as a woman who abandoned the old school just to get paid. He laments, ‘‘She used to only swing it with the inner-city circle,’’ but now she’s catering to big companies so she can make money. Common critiqued the hip hop industry, but he wasn’t giving up on it. He couldn’t give up on it. The record, itself, only sold around 100,000 copies, but was strong enough lyrically to set Common up as an up-and-coming star. Three years later, Common released One Day It Will All Make Sense (1997), and this offering added to his success, bringing home twice as many listeners as the first album. The cover art for this album depicts a young Common sitting next to his mom; depicting the theatricality of Common in the small boy. Also, the image evokes feelings of family and rightfully so, as Common became a father to Omoye Assata Lynn around the time this album dropped. The lyrics seem to be more mature, being almost five years since his first album. Common begins to become comfortable with his own personality and ‘‘Invocation’’ exemplifies that feeling as he spits lyrics about growing beyond being a kid from the street. Also, ‘‘Hungry’’ depicts Common as wanting to explore hip hop, to know as much as he can about it. Though Common didn’t take himself too seriously on every line, he definitely takes the time to address important topics, whether they address the

The Evolution of the Second City Lyric | 325 state of hip hop or more personal matters like the memorial to his friend Yusef in ‘‘Reminding Me (of ‘Sef).’’ Another three years pass before Common released Like Water for Chocolate (2000). This album quickly became his most profitable record, going gold in less than six months. Songs like ‘‘The Light’’ illustrate an even further progression in Common’s maturation as a lyricist. He isn’t afraid to step away from the explicit lyrics that are prevalent in other rap music; he especially doesn’t want to disrespect the woman in ‘‘The Light.’’ He says, ‘‘I never call you my bitch or even my boo,’’ showing an inherent respect that wasn’t present even in Common’s earlier work. The other popular single from this album was ‘‘The 6th Sense,’’ which was an even more explicit stand for Common, as he criticized the negative messages in much of hip hop music. He wanted to motivate and inspire his listeners. In 2002, Electric Circus dropped and quickly became—in terms of sales— Common’s least popular record. Some critics appreciated the eclectic vision that Common attempted, but this vision was largely lost on his audience. The only single to make it onto the national stage was ‘‘Come Close.’’ The song features Mary J. Blige and is a love song, perhaps written to his then-girlfriend, singer Erykah Badu. The disappointing sales of Electric Circus motivated Common to make a change for his next record, Be (2005). With strong singles like ‘‘Testify,’’ ‘‘The Corner,’’ and ‘‘Go!’’ Common was once again able to capture the attention of a national audience. Kanye West produced all but two tracks from the album (including all the singles). West’s skills seemed to help, as it went gold in less than two months. ‘‘Testify’’ describes a court room scene where a wife wants to testify before her drug-dealing husband is locked up. ‘‘The Corner’’ deals with similar subject matter, describing the life of a dealer on the corner. ‘‘Go!’’ was the most popular single on the record and featured Kanye West on the chorus. Common raps about his fantasy girl and the possibility of having anything that he wants. On another important track, ‘‘Chi-City,’’ Common advocates a form of rap that doesn’t tire out his listeners. The song asks where the future oh hip hop is going, and the answer is in the city, the city of Chicago. Finally, Common spent two more years with Kanye West to come out with his most recent album Finding Forever (2007). It started out at #1 on the Billboard charts, selling 250,000 copies in its first three weeks, and the album was certified as Common’s third gold record in October. The singles on this record are ‘‘The People’’ (a song for people hustlin’ on the streets), ‘‘The Game’’ (another track about the state of hip hop), and ‘‘Drivin’ Me Wild’’ (an upbeat collaboration with British singer Lily Allen). Finding Forever was nominated for three Grammy Awards, winning the Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for the song ‘‘Southside,’’ a collaboration with Kanye West. Common also follows up his musical success in cinema, most famously in 2007’s Smokin’ Aces and American Gangster. (A new album, tentatively called The Believer, is due out at the end of 2008.)

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DA BRAT Shawntae Harris (born April 14, 1974) grew up in Chicago and is probably most well-known for her loud, gritty outbursts; her baggy, militant, gansta fashion sense; and becoming the first female solo rapper to go platinum—she did it twice. She started rapping during the mid-1980s, and came in contact with the Atlanta native Jermaine Dupri via Kris Kross when the duo came to Chicago in 1992. Da Brat had just won an amateur rap battle which gave her the opportunity to meet Kris Kross, who then made the introduction to Dupri—the introduction that became Da Brat’s big break. Da Brat and Dupri immediately started working together, and Da Brat released her first completely Dupri-produced album, Funkdafied (1994). The title track ‘‘Funkdafied’’ was the most listened to single. It hit gold about two weeks after the album dropped and made platinum a month later. The album as a whole only took about six months to reach platinum and become the best-selling female rap album ever. With Dupri jumping in on the track, ‘‘Funkdafied’’ exemplified Da Brat’s unique female persona, ‘‘ain’t too many hoes that can hang with me.’’ The song was simple lyrically, but it grabbed the ears of her listeners across the nation. ‘‘Fa All Y’all’’ was a party song that illustrates Da Brat’s familiarity with thug life; she mentions her tendency to be quick with murder (in a song full of staged gun fire). ‘‘Give It 2 You’’ went gold a year after the album release, adding to her popularity. The track again portrays Da Brat’s gritty, gansta side, calling herself an O.G., glamorizing weed, and not holding back expletives, especially those directed at other women. Following her outrageously successful first-offering, Da Brat released Anuthatantrum in 1996. Perhaps riding on the success of the first album, it achieved gold status in under a year. The headlining single ‘‘Sittin’ on Top of the World’’ went gold before the album did. ‘‘Sittin’ on Top of the World’’ was the natural response to anyone who doubted her abilities, bragging she’s the Westside girl whose record went gold in a month. It’s hard to argue with her when albums are so successful, especially in light of other MCs from Chicago; it seemed like Da Brat couldn’t help but make hot records. The next single on Anuthatantrum was ‘‘Ghetto Love,’’ which went gold in April of 1997. This track speaks of love between a ghetto girl and her drug-pushing boyfriend. It shows the softer side of Da Brat, but still doesn’t lose her signature edginess. She also did a song on a Jermaine Dupri track in 1997 that went gold; it was called ‘‘The Party Continues.’’ During the early part of 2000, Da Brat was in the news for pistol-whipping a female bystander at a club in Atlanta. A month later, her Dupri, Timbaland, Kanye West, (et al) produced third album Unrestricted (2000) came out. The publicity for the album and the altercations in her personal life worked together to bring the album to gold in only a month. (It later reached platinum in September of the same year.) Featuring cameos from the likes of Lil Jon, Twista, and Ja Rule, the album achieved success, though her singles were not as popular as before. ‘‘That’s What I’m Looking for’’ describes the kind of thug she wants to be romantically involved

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with: a weed smokin’, do-rag wearing man who already has money to spend. The other single ‘‘Whatchu’ Like’’ was more popular on the charts than the former single. ‘‘Whatchu’ Like’’ documents the things Da Brat has to offer her man while at the same time taking every opportunity to say how unstoppable she is as an MC. Finally, her most recent album Limelite, Luv, & Niteclubz dropped in 2003. Songs like ‘‘Gotta Thing for You,’’ and ‘‘In Luv Wit Chu’’ were successful but not on the scale of her earlier albums. Even so, Da Brat used her popularity as an opportunity to try her skills in the movies and on television, taking parts in the movie Kazzaam (Shaquille O’Neal’s first movie) and the ABC sitcom, Sabrina, the Teenage Witch.

CRUCIAL CONFLICT Crucial Conflict is a rap group made up of four men from West Chicago, which they like to refer to as the ‘‘Wild, Wild Westside of the Chi.’’ Wildstyle, Coldhard, Kilo, and Never are known for their country attire, rodeo sense, ponytails, and also for a hyped-up, bouncing lyrical delivery. The group adopted a Western theme in 1996 with their first album The Final Tic, which included the hit single ‘‘Hay.’’ Both the single and the album went gold in the latter half of 1996. Their followup album, Good Side Bad Side (1998) didn’t garner the same kind of success as their first effort, but it solidified them as a major force in the Chicago hip hop scene. After production problems, Planet Crucon dropped in January 2008, featuring the single ‘‘Ride Out Dip.’’ The song that gave rise to their popularity was the influential sixth track, ‘‘Hay.’’ The basic premise of the song is the playful admiration of weed, which explains the title of the song and the reason the music video uses a barn as if it were an urban club. The Western theme is also evident when the group walks down the block in denim overalls and when they have an African American Lone Ranger dancing in the background. The group members all meet in the rural setting of the farm to smoke ‘‘hay’’ and drink Crown Royal and Bacardi. Brief references to the urban life are found in the lyrics and music video, but ‘‘Hay’’ is an overt party song while other songs reference more serious matters. For example, Crucial Conflict’s other well-known song, ‘‘Scummy,’’ was the highlight of their second album Good Side Bad Side. The video for ‘‘Scummy’’ follows the same Western theme, but here an all-black covered wagon pulled by two black stallions slowly creaks along urban streets and alleys. Women watch the wagon from the corner, front stoops, and balconies. Gang violence and group members running from police on the streets remind the viewer that partying doesn’t make the tough life in the hood disappear. Finally, the video for ‘‘Ride Out Dip,’’ from their latest album Planet Crucon, foregrounds the party scene and consists of the group performing amongst cars and scantily clad women. Here, the Western theme is relegated to their black T-shirts, which show their logo, two inverted and linked horizontal horseshoes.

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DO OR DIE Brothers Dennis ‘‘AK47’’ Round and Anthony ‘‘Nard’’ Round collaborated with childhood friend Darnell ‘‘Belo’’ Smith to create Do or Die, the other legendary Chicago male rap group of the mid-1990s. The trio is known for smooth lyrics, gansta sensibilities, as well as their religious faith. Like contemporaries Crucial Conflict, their biggest success occurred early in their career, followed by later efforts that solidified their fan base in Chicago but not far beyond. Their first album Picture This (1996) was released to an audience who had already consumed their single ‘‘Po Pimp,’’ which was a track that featured Chicago rapper Twista. The song and music video illustrate the luxurious life of a rich rap group, particularly one that is made up of experts in what they call ‘‘pimp-ology.’’ They roll up in their Cadillacs, wait for the women to arrive, drink Seagram’s gin, and smoke grass. ‘‘Po Pimp’’ went gold in October of 1996 and remains one of the most popular Do or Die songs ever, successfully pushing their first album to gold status in November of 1996. The other notable single from the album is ‘‘Playa Like Me and You,’’ which chronicles still another instance of partying in a Cadillac; the chorus asks, ‘‘Can you smoke and ride?’’ In their second effort, Headz or Tailz (1998), Do or Die returns to their already established themes with the song ‘‘Still Po Pimpin.’’ The first words in the song ask the now familiar question, ‘‘Do you wanna ride with me?’’ This song follows the same formula as its predecessors, but it also uses the act of riding in a car as a metaphor for sex. Again, Twista shows up as a guest MC, and the relative success of ‘‘Still Po Pimpin’’ pushed Headz or Tailz to a gold certification in May of 1998. The trio’s third album, Victory (2000), was a strong release, but it never sold as many copies as the earlier records. The single from this album was ‘‘Can You Make it Hot?,’’ which featured Mo Unique from Philadelphia. Since 2002, Do or Die has released five albums: Back 2 the Game (2002), Pimpin’ Ain’t Dead (2003), Do or Die: Greatest Hits (2003), D.O.D. (2005), and Get That Paper (2006). The trio worked with a number of well-known Chicago producers on these records including: The Legendary Traxter, Toxic, R. Kelly, Scott Storch, No I.D., Kanye West, and DJ Quik. Their relationship with the Legendary Traxter goes back to their first album, and the expertise he has brought to other groups like Twista, Crucial Conflict, and even Mariah Carey has indelibly marked Do or Die’s style. As they release their next album, Trunk Music, it seems that the trio is riding out their legendary status in Chicago but continue to miss out on national recognition. Unfortunately, Belo found recognition for more than his solo album (The Truth 2006) when he pled guilty to the second-degree murder of Raynard ‘‘B-Dog’’ Pinkston in October of 2007. The incident took place in November of 2002, a few blocks from Chinatown on the Southside of Chicago (Herman).

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CHICAGO’S CURRENT SCENE CCA CCA, or Concord Affiliated, is known in Gary as one of the forerunners of rap in northwest Indiana. CCA is known for having two members, ‘‘C-Mack’’ and ‘‘ E.G.’’ Even so, Aaron ‘‘Charlie-Mack’’ Davis is the most well-known MC of the group. CCA’s first album One Life 2 Live (1998) was the first of five records that they put out over the space of three years. CCA started producing their own songs in the mid-1990s and released all five albums on their own label, Laidback Records. Their music reflected the thug life that Gary is known for; in every way, their music is the definition of gangsta. In fact, their careers as rappers were eventually overshadowed by their careers as crack hustlers. The name CCA also stands for Concord Commons Affiliated, a Gary street gang that is ostensibly tied to the notorious Chicago gang, the Vice Lords (Dolan). C-Mack, Seantai Suggs, and brother Bobby Suggs were convicted of a drug-dealing conspiracy in 2002 and sentenced to jail; C-Mack is serving 33 years and 9 months, while the brothers are both serving a life sentence (Attorneys). Having been convicted, sentenced, and incarcerated, CCA hasn’t been able to release new music since their last album, For Tha Streetz Vol. 2 (2000). Authorities contend that the gang used drug money to bankroll the rap group, but CCA argues that they were only a rap group that sang about selling drugs. Whatever is true, their music is still popular among underground rap fans. Their first album, One Life 2 Live, featured songs like ‘‘Livin’ in tha Murda Cap,’’ ‘‘Street Life,’’ and ‘‘C.O.K.E.’’ In 1999, CCA released a collaboration with Tha Underbosses called Holdin’ It Down. The title track from this album personifies ‘‘Mary Jane’’ and narrates the rappers infatuation and intense relationship with her. It is perhaps CCA’s next album, Midwest Thug Niggaz (1999) that best typifies the group as a whole. One single off this album is called ‘‘If U Ain’t Affiliated,’’ citing the requirements for gangstas to hang, bang, and make crack with CCA. This song has drug-related content and is a favorite among fans. Their next album, Underground Thug Shit (1997–99) Mixes Vol. 1 (2000), was released to the underground rap scene but was superseded by their final album, For tha Streetz Vol. 2 (2000). This album had songs like ‘‘2000,’’ ‘‘Them Murdaz,’’ ‘‘Livin’ in tha Murder Cap,’’ and various remixes of successful songs from earlier albums. In a fitting homage in 2008, fans circulated a ‘‘Free C-Mack’’ image around the Internet.

MCGz This trio out of Gary has three albums out, but none of them are as acclaimed as their first album, 53 Chambers of Danger (2000). The ‘‘Great Lakes Remix’’ is one of the most popular songs in the northwest Indiana/Chicago underground rap scene. Their fast and melodic lyrical delivery and gangsta sensibilities set over

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slow background grooves are the trademark of the MCGz. Other notable songs from this first album are ‘‘Dollaz and Sense’’ (a lament about how they could live in a big house and own expensive cars if the police weren’t watching them), ‘‘Chiefin Reefa’’ (a detailed description of their need for and use of marijuana), and of course the ‘‘Great Lakes Remix’’ (where the group fronts anyone who wants to step to them, laying out all the artillery they have to defend themselves). The MCGz released an EP titled Da Slumpin EP (2002) to hold their fans over until their next album. Songs from Da Slumpin include ‘‘Slumpin’’ and ‘‘What U Workin Wit?’’ The second full-length and most recent album from the group is called Second Comin’ (2005). The first single ‘‘Now Where Ya’ll At?’’ illustrates the gansta in the MCGz by describing their arsenal of weaponry. Subsequently, ‘‘Ya’ll Don’t Wanna’’ warns anyone that wants to mess with the MCGz, and ‘‘No Way Out’’ is a slow but forceful song about how hard it is to get out of Gary. Most recently, group member Hit came out with a solo effort called Make Way Fo Da Bad Guy (2006), but any new activity for the group is limited.

Juice Terrence C. Parker grew up in Chicago and is nationally known for his freestyling skills. His most notable battle—although there are many, including one with Common—was with Eminem at the Scribble Jam freestyle battle in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1997. They met in the semifinals and battled six overtime rounds until Juice came out on top. At the time, Eminem wasn’t as well-known as Juice, but putting up a good showing helped get his name out. Juice ended up winning the competition by beating another Chicago native, Rhymefest (who also beat Eminem in the semifinals). Juice has put out four solo albums, but after his last record All Bets Off (2005), he has started using his hip hop talents in different ways. Juice’s new venture is his group Juice and the Machine, which came together almost randomly at a party in 2006. Since then, Juice departed from straight hip hop and rap sounds. His signature lyrical flow continues but is backed up by a group of five men who play all different kinds of music, from jazz to rock to soul. Russoul is the soul vocalist, Aaron Getsug plays the saxophone, Tim Lincoln plays bass, Brian Felix plays piano, and Brian Abraham plays drums. Though Juice is a freestyler, he has four solo albums and carries himself as a mature hip hop performer. On the Juice and the Machine song, ‘‘Sincerely,’’ Juice raps, ‘‘I’m not platinum or wax, but I’m platinum in the streets.’’ He thinks people know who he is, and he is going to keep doing his thing whether or not he signs a major record deal. In 2001, his freshman effort 100% J.U.I.C.E. dropped with Ground Control Records. His next two albums, Tip of the Iceberg (2003) and Listen2thaWerds (2003), were released on Moleman Records, where he also collaborated with Vakill in 2001. The single ‘‘Be on the Lookout’’ from Listen2thaWerds saw the most radio airplay. On this song Juice warns people in the hip hop world about his upcoming career and the fact that he ‘‘perfected the art of rapping.’’

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His solo album All Bets Off (2005) was released on Conglomerate Music, and the album features a song called ‘‘Conglomerate Music,’’ where Juice raps about the new work they are doing together. Finally, Juice’s new endeavor boasts a new album called, Juice and the Machine: Live at the Party (2006). This album includes live versions of ‘‘Black,’’ ‘‘A Day in the Life,’’ and ‘‘Sincerely.’’ Juice hasn’t garnered notoriety for more than his battle credentials beyond Chicago, but he continues to make innovative and original music as he waits his break.

Vakill Donald Mason (born in 1975) grew up in the Southside of Chicago in an area called the ‘‘Wild Hunneds’’ (referring to the street names in the hundreds like 119th where Vakill lived). He has been rapping since junior high and releasing albums since the mid-1980s. He has collaborated with many famous MCs in the area like MC Juice and Rhymefest and has been working with local label Molemen Records since 1997. In 2001, Vakill collaborated with Juice on the successful song ‘‘Urban Legend,’’ which was released on the Molemen compilation Chicago City Limits Vol. 1. Calling themselves the Triangle Offense, this song serves as a challenge to any other MCs who think they can step to Vakill or Juice. Artistic opportunities like this often come up for Vakill, but he doesn’t see rap as the most important thing in his life. Vakill is a family man, working blue-collar jobs to put food on the table when he’s not recording albums or touring. After making a name for himself in the Chicago underground, Vakill dropped his first studio album titled The Darkest Cloud in May of 2003 and three years later released his more mature 2006 album Worst Fears Confirmed. It may not be long until Vakill can live solely off his music, as his sophomore effort is beginning to elicit talk around the nation. His first album The Darkest Cloud was meant to be gritty and dark. Singles like ‘‘End of Days,’’ ‘‘Till the World Blows Up,’’ and ‘‘Cry You a River’’ offer a dose of reality from the streets but don’t glorify the violence they depict. In the chorus from ‘‘Till the World Blows Up’’ Vakill says that he won’t change no matter what happens, and he offers to metaphorically carry his friend who was shot. ‘‘Cry Me a River’’ follows the some of the same themes as Vakill raps (and cries) about a friend and role model who committed suicide. Vakill was true to his word, and the subject matter was bleak on this album. Even so, there was an element of victory over adversity that carried over to his next album Worst Fears Confirmed. The title track from this album acts as a segue as he frequently mentions ‘‘dark clouds’’ and the fact that he’s back. The ‘‘worst fears’’ belong to the MCs who thought Vakill wouldn’t make it; he admits he didn’t ‘‘go pop’’ but he knows he’s big in Chicago. The song ‘‘Mobstaz Ink’’ talks about how major labels think gangsta rap looks good on paper. Vakill knows his stuff is better, and he’s dreaming of making himself ‘‘Chicago’s king.’’

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The Grind Family Like CCA, The Grind Family is a well-respected group out of Gary, Indiana. Their group was first put together by a man named Will Scrilla and originally had five members: Will Scrilla, Ric Jilla, C.O.B., Soope, and Phil Mo. In 1999, Will Scrilla was sentenced to 35 years in prison for voluntary manslaughter after a fight and shooting in Hammond, Indiana (Appeal). In 2002, Ric Jilla went out on his own with his first album Free Agent. Ric Jilla has since enjoyed the success of six albums: Free Agent (2002), Mix Tape Vol. 1 (2002), The Pride of Indiana: Mixtape Vol. 2 (2003), Supernatural: Mix Tape Vol. 3 (2003), Upgrade (2004), and The Pride of Indiana Pt. 2 (2006). He also has a new album out called The Albulation Network (2007). Even with Jilla’s solo success, The Grind Family still carries on. ‘‘All I Eva Wanted’’ and ‘‘Dem Streetz’’ are ever-popular in Gary, the latter simply advocating the rapper’s love of the streets that they represent.

Daily Plannet Kevynn ‘‘Allstar the Fabulous’’ Bunkley, twin brother Keath ‘‘Spotlite the Big Idea with Status’’ Bunkley, and sometimes collaborator/childhood friend Antonio ‘‘the Strategist’’ Toppin make up this Gary, Indiana group. They are unique because they grew up in Gary, but they responded to their environment differently than other hip hop groups from the area. Daily Plannet was inspired by old-school hip hop and the Africa movement, and they produce socially conscious songs. They put out a number of singles over the years, including ‘‘Queens Get the Money,’’ ‘‘Paragon,’’ ‘‘We Like to Party,’’ and ‘‘Continuous.’’ These were followed up by their first full-length album Team Daily (2003). The group is also part of all larger collaborative group called The Family Tree (which includes the groups All Natural and Daily Plannet, along with Mr. Greenweedz, G(riot), Rita J, and Iomos Marad).

Iomos Marad Like Vakill, Iomos Marad (born Marcus Singleton, 1972) grew up in the Wild Hundreds of the Southside of Chicago. He is known for his jazz and reggae infused rap. His conscious and spiritual lyrics are delivered over the sound of a drum kit; he keeps his own beat with a snare as he raps. Even though he has seen the evils that occur in the streets, he believes that his mission is to speak truth as a rapper instead of dwelling on the themes of gangsta rap. In 1998, Iomos released a single called ‘‘Deep Rooted,’’ and his first album with the same name was released in 2003 with the Chicago record label All Natural, Inc. Later, Iomos worked with Profound & Single Minded Pros to produce the catchy single ‘‘Chicago Emcees’’ (2004). Most recently, Iomos was working on an album-length collaboration with Cap D called The Believer’s Project, and he is hoping to release his next album called Monumental in 2010.

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Shawnna Rashawnna Guy (born October 1, 1979) grew up in the Southside of Chicago. Next to Da Brat, Shawnna may be the most recognized female hip hop artist out of Chicago. Her first album Worth tha Weight was released in 2004 and was followed up by the more successful Block Music in 2006. She is well-known for being featured on the 2003 Ludacris #1 hit ‘‘Stand Up,’’ but her most successful solo single was ‘‘Gettin’ Some,’’ which was certified gold in June 2006 and platinum in December 2006. ‘‘Gettin’ Some’’ was a hit, partly for its party lyrics and partly because it allowed Shawnna the opportunity to share her motivations in the hip hop game. She says she’s all about the money and challenges anyone who tries to question that or take advantage of her because of it.

Kanye West Kanye Omari West (born June 8, 1977) officially broke onto the hip hop scene in 2004 with his hit solo album The College Dropout. This first effort went straight to platinum in two months and multiplatinum in another few months (two million sales). Two singles from this album—‘‘Jesus Walks’’ and ‘‘All Falls Down’’—also went gold within the first four months of the album dropping on February 10, 2004. West couldn’t have asked for a more successful first offering, but as it turned out, he was already a successful producer and steadily growing icon in the hip hop

Kanye West performs at ‘‘A Concert for Diana’’ on July 1, 2007. (NBC/ Photofest)

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world. Before his first record, West spent his time as both a producer (for the likes of Jay-Z, Common, and the Game) and student (at the American Academy of Art in Chicago and later at Chicago State University). West dropped out of both schools before graduating, thereby inspiring the theme for his first three albums: The College Dropout (2004), Late Registration (2005), and Graduate (2007). Even though West’s list of gold, platinum, and multiplatinum records rival the career sales of most artists, he is perhaps better known for his activism and outspoken personality. West tries to make a change in the world through the power of his words. Before his solo rap albums dropped, West created a mix tape called the High School Graduate. This album illustrates West’s focus on education, and his fund-raising efforts show he is an advocate for keeping kids in school (even though he dropped out of college). The Kanye West Foundation has the express purpose of helping high school students graduate. He often raises money for his foundation, an example being his benefit concert at the House of Blues in Chicago (August 24, 2007). More famously, and perhaps infamously, is West’s comment which occurred on the NBC special, A Concert for Hurricane Relief, in late 2005. West began the telecast by making an argument about how the media portrayed black people in New Orleans as looters, while white people were only portrayed as looking for food. After working up to his final comment over the course of an awkward sixty or so seconds, West dropped the controversial statement, ‘‘George Bush doesn’t care about black people.’’ The live broadcast allowed the American public to witness West’s opinion first hand, and for what it’s worth, the comment started a great many discussions. Since then, West’s outrageous comments keep him in the news, perhaps most notable is his ultimatum before the 2005 Grammy Awards. He said, ‘‘If I don’t win album of the year, I’m gonna have a problem’’ (Montgomery). The year after, West complained live at the 2006 MTV Europe Music Awards when his ‘‘Touch the Sky’’ video didn’t win; he actually interrupted the acceptance speech for Justice and Simeon’s ‘‘We Are Your Friends’’ video. Though West is known for his outrageous comments, when it comes to his music, he often addresses serious themes. At least three singles from his first album illustrate this. First, ‘‘All Falls Down’’ narrates the life of a college-age female who can’t choose a major and doesn’t want to drop out because of what her parents might think. She ends up becoming a low-paid hairdresser but has a shopping addiction she can’t afford. West uses this as a platform to discuss the materialism of hip hop and America at large. He says ‘‘but the people highest up got the lowest self esteem,’’ implying that the richest people choose to spend so much money on material things so that they can front a positive and confident image. West doesn’t get too preachy though; he admits he dropped 25 grand on jewelry before even buying a house. ‘‘Jesus Walks’’ was the next single to address a serious and infrequently discussed topic: religion in hip hop. The purpose of the song can be summed up in this line: ‘‘But if I talk about God my record won’t get played, Huh?’’ West cites the fact that songs about sex, violence, and drugs get

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played all the time, but talking about God on a rap song is apparently off-limits. Ultimately, the hip hop world embraced this song, as it went gold and won the Grammy award for Best Rap Song in 2004. (West shared songwriting credits on this Grammy with Che ‘‘Rhymefest’’ Smith and Miri Ben Ari.) The third single from The College Dropout was entitled ‘‘Through the Wire,’’ documenting a car accident and subsequent jaw surgery. West was inspired by the experience and recorded this song even when his jaw was wired shut. In contrast to these songs, West added the party hit ‘‘Slow Jamz’’ to this first album. This track was a collaboration with Jamie Foxx and Twista, which appeared on Twista’s 2004 album, Kamikaze. The single was a runaway hit, securing a #1 spot in the United States —a first for all three artists. West is known for spending countless hours reworking, perfecting, and reperfecting his tracks before his albums drop. Late Registration is not an exception to this approach, but he only had about a year and a half to get his sophomore album out. The results were not disappointing; the album went gold, platinum, and multiplatinum in less than a month—easily making him the most successful rap artist out of Chicago. The prereleased single, ‘‘Diamonds (from Sierra Leone)’’ went gold in December, while ‘‘Heard em Say’’ went gold and ‘‘Gold Digger’’ went platinum in February of 2006. That same month, Late Registration was certified as multiplatinum for a second time (indicating that he had sold over three million copies). Beyond record sales, both The College Dropout and Late Registration won the Grammy for Best Rap Album, while ‘‘Diamonds’’ won the Grammy for best rap song, and ‘‘Gold Digger’’ won for Best Rap Solo Performance. (In the same year, West also won a Grammy for Best R&B Song on the Alicia Keys song ‘‘You Don’t Know My Name.’’) On September 11, 2007, West dropped Graduation amidst much discussion and media attention. His original release date for the album was September 18, but West decided to change the release date to coincide with 50 Cent’s (born Curtis Jackson, July 6, 1975) most recent album Curtis (2007). During the months leading up to the dual release, Jackson ostensibly said that he would stop producing solo albums if West’s album sold more records. On August 14, however, MTV reported that Jackson said he wouldn’t stop making solo albums even if Kanye sold more records (Rodriguez). Whatever was originally proclaimed, Kanye came out on top, selling almost one million records in the first week (the most since Jackson’s The Massacre [2005], which sold 1.1 million). Since the release, Graduation went double platinum in October 2007, and the single ‘‘Stronger’’ went gold and platinum in December 2007. Following this success, West played a central role at the 2008 Grammy Awards, where he performed two songs—‘‘Stronger’’ and ‘‘Hey Mama’’—and won four Grammy’s (Best Rap Solo Performance for ‘‘Stronger,’’ Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for his collaboration with Common on ‘‘Southside,’’ Best Rap Song for ‘‘Good Life,’’ and Best Rap Album for Graduation). The ‘‘Hey Mama’’ performance was especially emotional because West’s mother Donda C. West died on November 12, 2007. Donda West,

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who was once an English Professor at Chicago State University, died from heart complications after a series of plastic surgeries in Los Angeles. Four days after the fitting tribute to his mother in his acceptance speech for Best Rap Album (He said, ‘‘And Mama, all I’m gonna do is keep makin’ you proud’’), West announced the dates for his Glow in The Dark Tour, featuring Rihanna, Lupe Fiasco, and the funk/rock band N.E.R.D. Kanye’s 2008 album 808s & Heartbreak furthered the tribute to his mother and dealt with the emotions surrounding her death. West classifies the album as a pop album rather than hip hop, and most of the vocals are sung instead of rapped.

Rhymefest Che Smith (born January 1, 1977) grew up in the far Southside neighborhood of Jeffrey Manor where he was raised mostly by his grandparents (his mother was 16 when she gave birth to him) (Derogatis). Named after the South American revolutionary, Che Guevara, Rhymefest has been aware of the idea of revolution from a very young age. His first album Blue Collar (2006) examined the life of working class people, allowing him to rap about his life as a blue-collar worker. In 2007, he plans to release his second album El Che, which he sees as a revolutionary hip hop record. This idea of revolution not only comes from his childhood but also from his track record as a rapper. He was never one to back down to from a battle, and he famously beat Eminem in the 1997 Scribble Jam freestyle battle in Cincinnati (eventually losing to MC Juice in the final). Blue Collar is an opportunity for Rhymefest to speak to the working class as well as to comment on his rise from the blue-collar jobs to that of a well-known rapper. The hit single from this album, ‘‘Brand New,’’ was produced by and featured Kanye West. The lyrics mostly discuss the life of someone with money, though Rhymefest rhymes about his blue-collar days, citing his rise to stardom by pointing out whom he was rapping with on this album. ‘‘Dynomite (Going Postal)’’ was another single from his first album, and it predates the revolutionary themes of El Che. Here, Rhymefest calls himself the keg, the powder, and the fuse that will ignite an explosion to the stereotype of normalized African American masculinity. He belittles crack pushers and men who would sell out their mother for a high. Finally, the No I.D. produced single ‘‘Fever’’ describes how Rhymefest has the fever to get women, and on a grander scale, to attract the attention of the industry at large. The singles from his new album—‘‘Angry Black Man on an Elevator,’’ ‘‘I Came Home,’’ and ‘‘Get Plugged’’—will undoubtedly expand the ideas on his first album, pushing his revolutionary hip hop ideals.

Lupe Fiasco Wasalu Muhammad Jaco (born February 17, 1982) grew up on the Westside of Chicago, yet his interest in classical music, comic books, and Star Trek

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Lupe Fiasco performs at the 2008 Lollapalooza Music Festival in Grant Park in Chicago on August 2, 2008. (Jared Milgrim/Corbis)

distinguished him from his peers. Lupe entered the hip hop scene with a featured verse on Kanye West’s 2005 ‘‘Touch the Sky,’’ and while ‘‘Lu’’ found success with his first release Food & Liquor (2006), the song ‘‘Kick, Push’’ brought him fame and notoriety. This single was nominated for two Grammy Awards, while the album as a whole was nominated for best rap album of the year. Though he didn’t win, the nominations put him in the national spotlight. The song ‘‘Kick, Push’’ is a narrative about a young skateboarding rebel who is trying to find ‘‘a place to be.’’ This song illustrates Lupe Fiasco’s unique style, as he raps about and identifies with a skateboarder. Other songs of his use this same technique. ‘‘I Gotcha’’ tells listeners that he has a new flavor, a new ‘‘realness’’ that you can’t find from those rappers who rap about pimps, cars, and mobsters. Additionally, ‘‘Daydreamin’’ features Jill Scott, and satirizes gangsta rap. In a characteristically humorous move, the video focuses on the animation of Lupe Fiasco’s robot action figure instead of the powerful meaning in his overt words. These lyrical moves continue in his second album, The Cool, which dropped on December 18, 2007. Singles like ‘‘Superstar’’ (a song where Lupe evaluates his success), ‘‘Paris, Toyko’’ (professing a rapper’s love for his girlfriend in spite of touring responsibilities), and ‘‘Dumb It Down’’ (a denunciation of hip hop haters and gangsta rappers) all showcase Lupe’s lyrical ingenuity and playful (but serious) attitude. Before The Cool came out, XXL Magazine’s November issue dubbed Lupe as one of the ‘‘Leaders of the New School,’’ a list that includes the likes of Saigon, Plies, Rich Boy, Lil’ Boosie, Gorilla Zoe, Joell Ortiz, Crooked I, Papoose,

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and Young Dro. Next up for Lupe was an opening spot on Kanye West’s Glow in the Dark Tour, which began in Seattle, Washington on April 16, 2008.

THE FUTURE One of the most obvious ways to illustrate the diversity of Chicago MCs is to look at their fashion choices. The MCs who produce gangsta albums tend to espouse traditional gangster attire, with do-rags, baggy pants, sports jerseys, and flawless baseball caps. The conscious rappers are more eclectic, trying out everything from casual, to preppy, to skater, to futuristic. Twista is the best example of the former category. He almost always has on an oversized T-shirt, baseball cap, and heavy chain. His many tattoos, rings, watches, and diamond-studded grill are themselves reminiscent of a supped-up car on any gansta rap music video (like the Bently he poses in for the August 2007 issue of The Source). Twista represents the fashion style that CCA, Do or Die, Crucial Conflict, the MCGz, and Grind Family front on album covers, music videos, and in magazine articles. Common is a different story. In the same issue of The Source, Common is alternately pictured wearing a herringbone hat with a tight leather jacket, a tribal hooded sweatshirt and jeans, and a casual, fitted long-sleeve shirt. Common is also famous for his Gap ads (where he dons softer clothes and shows his softer side) and his line of stylish newsboy hats called Soji (which he launched in January of 2007). MC Juice, Daily Plannet, Iomos Marad, Kanye West, and Lupe Fiasco fall more in line with Common’s casual but stylish fashion. Lupe Fiasco raps about his Nike SBs (Nike’s skateboarding shoe line) and is more often than not dressed more like a skater than an O. G. And perhaps Kanye West is in a fashion category all his own (sporting everything from pink sweater vests and fitted tweed jackets, to a futuristic, lightup jacket and signature oversized—even glow in the dark—sunglasses). Though hip hop fashion illustrates Chicago’s different styles, each artist’s work illustrates the diverse ways that Chicago MCs want to bring truth to the larger society: truth about their neighborhoods, their thoughts, and how real life intersects with politics. As we have seen, every MC has their own views and their own methodology. Many times, the conscious rappers work with gangsta artists or even blend the two genres into one musical flow (like Twista who rides on hardcore lyrics but also believes his music can positively affect his listeners). Also, up-andcoming acts like The Cool Kids and Kid Sister are breaking out with fresh, new sounds. The duo, The Cool Kids, which includes Antoine ‘‘Mikey’’ Reed and Evan ‘‘Chuck’’ Ingersoll, revives retro synth beats and post-2000s rock, while the solo act, Melissa ‘‘Kid Sister’’ Young takes a new spin on club rap, focusing her first hit (a song which features Kanye West) on a nail salon. Chicago veterans like Twista, Common, and now Kanye West showed younger artists like these that it’s possible to make it big. New sounds and new subjects make Chicago hip hop distinctive, and it is in this way that Chicago becomes a microcosm of the greater

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state of hip hop, where meaning, representation, and style are currently being reevaluated. Where do Chicago MCs hope to lead their fans in the future? As mentioned earlier, Kanye West shows us the beginnings of an answer in ‘‘Jesus Walks’’ by saying the Midwest is ‘‘young and restless’’; he evokes the feelings of change moving through the air. Iomos Marad’s song ‘‘Chicago Emcees’’ talks about how he wants to work for hip hop’s ‘‘reconstruction’’ and ‘‘advancement.’’ And Lupe Fiasco, himself, might be the biggest symbol of where Chicago hip hop (and hip hop across the nation) is going. The song ‘‘Dumb It Down,’’ off his latest album The Cool (2007), is practically speaking, a hip hop anthem for the new age. Even though it is ostensibly Lupe’s most serious song, he references The Matrix, Star Trek, and even Scuba Steve (an action figure from the 1999 Adam Sandler film Big Daddy). This typical humorous move on Lupe’s part attracts attention and allows his message to be better received. The chorus exhibits a repeated imperative to Lupe from his critics to dumb his message down. The last line of the song sums up Lupe’s attitude and is a symbol for the larger Chicago rap scene: ‘‘they told me I should come down cousin, but I flatly refuse I ain’t dumb down nothing.’’ The message of Chicago hip hop will not be dictated by anyone but the artists, and this defiance and creativity is the reason why the winds of change are moving in the Windy City. With new energy from artists like Lupe Fiasco and national success from veterans like Common and Kanye West, it’s safe to say that Chicago can no longer be forgotten between the coasts—one might even say that Chicago is a leader in a new hip hop era.

REFERENCES ‘‘Appeal.’’ November 8, 2005. http://www.in.gov/judiciary/opinions/pdf/ 11080503cld.pdf (accessed August 31, 2007). ‘‘Artistic Bombing Crew.’’ August 31, 2007. http://www.artisticbombingcrew.com (accessed September 6, 2007). ‘‘Attorneys, Agents Honored for their Work.’’ Northwest Indiana Times, October 29, 2005. http://www.nwitimes.com (accessed August 31, 2007). Briggs, Jonathon. ‘‘Footworkin’: A Made-in-Chicago Dance Wave.’’ Chicago Tribune, August 20, 2006. Derogatis, Jim. ‘‘Rhyme Time: Hip-hop’s Everyman Stays True to His ‘Blue Collar’ Roots.’’ Chicago Sun-Times, July 9, 2006. Dolan, Bill. ‘‘Three Gang Members Convicted of Gang Conspiracy.’’ Northwest Indiana Times, April 11, 2003. http://www.nwitimes.com (accessed August 31, 2007). Herman, Eric. ‘‘Rapper Gets 10 Years in ’02 Killing.’’ Chicago Sun-Times, October 12, 2007.

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Jacubiak, David. ‘‘Fancy Footwork Is Footworkin’, and Jukin’ Is All over the Joint.’’ Chicago Sun-Times, October 9, 2006. Jones, Pamela. January 2, 2006. http://cbs2chicago.com/topstories/local _story_002191128.html (accessed August 31, 2007). Kyles, Kyra. ‘‘Twista Talks.’’ Chicago Tribune Red Eye, May 11, 2007. Little, Darnell. ‘‘Census Measures Ethnic Shifts.’’ Chicago Tribune, August 9, 2007. Mehr, Bob. ‘‘Who the Hell Is Vakill?’’ Chicago Reader, January 27, 2006. http:// www.chicagoreader.com/ TheMeter/060127.html (accessed August 31, 2007). Montgomery, James. ‘‘Heard Him Say! A Timeline of Kanye West’s Public Outbursts.’’ September 12, 2007. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1569536/ 20070912/west_kanye.jhtml. Rodriguez, Jayson. ‘‘Kanye West Pounds 50 Cent in First Week of Album Showdown.’’ MTV News, September 19, 2007. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/ 1570001/20070918/west_kanye.jhtml. Roper, Richard. ‘‘Exhibit Tags Graffiti as Art.’’ Chicago Sun-Times, August 30, 1988. Wade, Carlton. ‘‘Ride with Me.’’ The Source, no. 213, August 2007. Wimsatt, William. ‘‘UPSKI.’’ Bomb the Suburbs. Chicago: The Subway and Elevated Press, 1994.

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY CCA (Concord Affiliated) One Life 2 Live. Laidback Records, 1998. Midwest Thug Niggaz. Laidback, 1999. Common Resurrection. Geffen, 1994. Like Water for Chocolate. Geffen, 2000. Be. Geffen, 2005. Finding Forever. Geffen, 2007. Crucial Conflict The Final Tic. Universal, 1996. Good Side Bad Side. Universal, 1998. Planet Crucon. Buckwild, 2008. Da Brat Funkdafied. Sony, 1994. Anuthatantrum. Sony, 1996. Unrestricted. Sony, 2000. Daily Plannet Team Daily. Touch & Go, 2003.

The Evolution of the Second City Lyric Do or Die Picture This. Rap-a-Lot Records, 1996. Headz or Tailz. Rap-a-Lot Records, 1998. Grind Family So Many Problems, So Much Pain. No Guts No Glory Records, 2002. Iomos Marad Deep Rooted. All Natural, Inc., 2003. Juice 100% J.U.I.C.E. Ground Control, 2001. All Bets Off. Conglomerate Music, 2005. Juice and the Machine: Live at the Party. Conglomerate Music, 2006. Kanye West The College Drop Out. Roc-A-Fella Records, 2004. Late Registration. Roc-A-Fella Records, 2005. Graduation. Roc-A-Fella Records, 2007. 808s & Heartbreak. Roc-A-Fella Records, 2008. Lupe Fiasco Lupe Fiasco’s Food & Liquor. 1st & 15th Entertainment, 2006. The Cool. 1st & 15th Entertainment, 2007. MCGz 53 Chambers of Danger. Skrewface Entertainment, 2000. Second Comin’. Skrewface Entertainment, 2005. Rhymefest Blue Collar. J Records, 2006. Shawnna Worth tha Weight. Def Jam, 2004. Block Music. Def Jam, 2006. Twista Runnin’ Off at Da Mouth. Loud Records, 1991. Adrenaline Rush. Atlantic Records, 1997. Kamikaze. Atlantic Records, 2004. The Day After. Atlantic Records, 2005. Adrenaline Rush 2007. Atlantic Records, 2007. Vakill The Darkest Cloud. Molemen Records, 2003. Worst Fears Confirmed. Molemen Records, 2006.

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CHAPTER 14 Heartland Hip Hop: Nelly, St. Louis, and Country Grammar Amanda Lawson In 2000, a young rapper emerged on the national hip hop scene with catchy tunes, a steady rhyme flow and a vocabulary of slang, or ‘‘country grammar,’’ the nation had never heard before. This rapper was Cornell Haynes Jr., known to the world as Nelly. On August 26, 2000, his debut album, Country Grammar, became number one in the country, something no other rapper from St. Louis, Missouri had ever achieved. Nelly was the first rapper from the city to become a pop superstar and put the spotlight on the region. With a population of 2,866,517, St. Louis is affectionately referred to as the Gateway City, STL, the Lou, and the 3-1-4. It is most famous for its skyline featuring the Gateway Arch, for its barbeque sauce, and, for hip hop fans, Nelly. Nelly’s success partially stems from the fact that being from St. Louis sets him apart from all of the prevailing rap styles that existed at the time he debuted. Anthony Bozza of Rolling Stone noted, ‘‘Nelly has turned what until now was a disadvantage—a Midwestern regional identity—into gold.’’ He didn’t just sound like he was from the South, nor did he sound as though he was from the East or West Coast. The rapper represented a region not often before heard from: the Midwest. While hip hop has been alive in St. Louis since the late 1970s, it is considered to have a relatively young history. Much of St. Louis’s hip hop history is traced back to Nelly because of his status as the city’s first star to emerge in the mainstream. ‘‘Before,’’ Nelly said, ‘‘you could basically count on both hands how many people were doing it, or how many people was really serious about it, or trying to put forth effort. Now, it’s like a full explosion, man, you know what I’m saying? It’s amazing’’ (‘‘Rappers Dream Big’’). Although Nelly was the first artist to make it big nationwide, St. Louis has roots in hip hop stretching as far back as the culture itself. Gentleman Jim Gates, a DJ for St. Louis’ WESL, was the first DJ in the country to ever play Sugar Hill Gang’s ‘‘Rappers Delight’’ on the radio (Hamilton). In 1979, Gates dropped the needle onto the vinyl and introduced St. Louisians to one of the first rap records ever 343

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Nelly (Reuters/CORBIS)

made. Although Gates was the first DJ nationwide to play this landmark song, many listeners in the STL had heard a precursor to this form in the call-andresponse routines of their own Dr. Jockenstein, a rhyming radio DJ. Roderick G. ‘‘Rod’’ King, was given the name ‘‘Dr. Jockenstein,’’ by George Clinton of Parliament Funkadelic. Jockenstein captured an audience of thousands of listeners who tuned in to hear ‘‘Dr. Jockenstein, operating on your mind’’ on his Roll Call show. He emphasized how everyone would want to call in and partake in this form of call and response. Jockenstein recalled, ‘‘I had letters from Southwestern Bell to change the time I was doing the ‘Roll Call’ show because I was tying up their switchboard’’ (Manderbach). Every day there was a formal routine that hypnotized the youth of St. Louis: Dr. Jockenstein would say, ‘‘Here we go on the ra-di-o, I’m the DJ Jock in ster-e-o. We’re gonna have a good time, On the Roll Call line.’’ Then Jockenstein would ask his callers: ‘‘Hey, what’s your name? What’s your sign? Give me that No. 1 school. Your favorite teacher with the golden rule. Your favorite station in the nation’’ (Manderbach). From there the show turned into much more. Soon enough, people were calling in to the Monday through Friday show who had made up their own rhymes and transformed the show into a place for freestyle. Many of the early rap groups from St. Louis were first heard on this program: Kid Rob, Kid Smooth, King Odie and the Golden Boys, for example. Jockenstein is remembered

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as the man who introduced the city of St. Louis to rap music and is often compared to New York’s Mr. Magic. Since the days of Dr. Jockenstein, DJs and radio have had an influential impact on hip hop in the STL (see sidebar: St. Louis Radio Shows). Along with Gates and Jockenstein, two of the most respected DJs in the city were King Odie and the Godfather, who would DJ and rap, as well as sing at his shows. These two inspired and worked along other MCs in the early days such as One Man Stan, Early Dead, Suave Tre, and Black Pearl. The early years of hip hop produced many more DJs such as Northside Posse, Captain Beat, BJ the DJ, the Godfather, and DJ Charlie Chan Soprano, who currently travels the world as the touring DJ for Darryl ‘‘DMC’’ McDaniels. Still active as a DJ for the Lou’s Hot 104.1, Chan is the recent winner of the ‘‘Legend Award’’ at the Traffic Music Awards. From the Peabody Projects, DJ Kut was another universally known DJ from the Lou. Starting on the scene around 1983, he has been strong from its beginning until today. He too started with house parties, moving to famous venues such as Saints and The Palace with younger crowds. As he got older and moved to the adult clubs he brought his

ST. LOUIS RADIO SHOWS African Alert, hosted by G-Wiz, was started during and gets its name from the Black Power era of hip hop, motivated by groups such as X-Clan and Public Enemy. The show took a lot of chances and was the first to play the best of the Wu-Tang Clan, CL Smooth, Black Sheep, Gang Starr, and De La Soul. This show later changed its name to ‘‘Street Vibes.’’ G. Wiz did a lot to advance the genre and is often considered the ‘‘Marley Marl of St. Louis.’’ His label, Wizitron Records, released some of the most original stuff St. Louis had seen in the underground, said to be one of the first to capture the St. Louis beat. Instituting songs that ‘‘always had a lot of bottom,’’ his efforts impressed many including Fab Five Freddy. Da Science Hip-Hop Show was a weekly radio broadcast on KDHX 88.1 from 10 PM to midnight started by D-Ex and D. J. Alejan. Starting in 1998, the show got its roots from African Alert, later Street Vibes. The show did live broadcasts from Blueberry Hill’s Elvis Room (which was also an underground scene hotspot) (Hixson). The crowd was diverse in gender and race and often transcended territorial borders to attend the show, where it was always guaranteed to be packed. The whole night was like one big house party with D-Ex as the master of ceremonies. The show officially ended in 2006 and was replaced by two shows; The Remedy and Deep Krate Radio. The Remedy is on Monday nights at 8 PM featuring G-Wiz and Nappy DJ Needles. Deep Krate Radio is on Fridays from 10 PM to midnight and features D-Ex & Furius ‘‘Iceman’’ Stylz.

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crowd with him. The DJ got some of his best experience at his playing artists that were not commercial on his Florissant or ‘‘Flo’’ Community College radio show, giving him the ability to recognize local up-and-comers. He is known as the first DJ to play the St. Lunatics on the radio. This worked out well for him, as he had the opportunity to tour with the group. Since then no matter what he has done with music he has always stayed with radio. At this point in his career he has made it all the way to New York, heavily representing the Lou while serving as a DJ on one of the Big Apple’s top hip hop stations, Power 105.1. DJ Kut attributes his success to St. Louis, as it gave him the broadest base of music possible. Many doubted him because of his origins in St. Louis. Confident in his background, he proved himself and received acclaim for his knowledge from many, including hip hop originator and inventor of the break beat, Kool Herc. The city’s DJs have continually represented the Lou inside and outside of its perimeter. Now, they are making DJs from around the world come to their domain. Jus Bleezy made St. Louis the capital for DJs. In March of 2008 he hosted the 2008 DJ Technology Retreat & Convention at the Ball Park Hotel in St. Louis. People came from all over including New York, Miami, South Africa, and Japan, for the free, informative and entertaining summit. The event featured an open panel discussion that included Joseph L Brim (Executive Producer at Warner Music Group), DJ Kut, DJ Kayslay, DJ Scratch, Murphy Lee, and Eddie F. All involved hope this landmark event will grow into a positive tradition for St. Louis and the hip hop community.

BREAKING AND HIP HOP CLUBS With the help of Jockenstein and Gates, St. Louis felt the hip hop revolution taking place in the country. The city embraced the elements of the culture and combined it with their own. Notable early breakers in Saint Louis include the Wrecking Crew, the 24 Karat Lovers, the Cut Up Crew, and Go-Go. At River Roads Mall there were often contests including a large event called Break 84. This was huge for the city and showed how involved people were becoming with hip hop culture. ‘‘I think the whole city showed up,’’ Chan states. Breaking maintained steady popularity until around 1987 when it slowly faded away. Hip Hop clubs and events also fed the city’s hunger for the new music culture. Animal House was the biggest thing to happen in St. Louis and was instrumental in creating the hip hop atmosphere. Located in the North County on Chambers Street off of Route 367, the old theater was the only place to be in St. Louis on a Saturday night. There was a dance floor, seating, standing room, and seating with tables inside. The club which aimed at those over 21 was open until 3 AM and then started closing at 1 AM because of the young crowds. Every artist would pass through there to prove themselves to the St. Louis community, similar to The Tunnel in New York City. Local acts were given the opportunity to open for the major artists rolling through. There was no audition for this; you simply had to ask the

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management. After Animal House closed for the night, everyone would go downtown to the Garage and stay out until it closed. Animal House closed in 1992 as an effect of the death of their owner, who had a lot of pull around town over gang violence and the uncooperative nature of Northside police. Since then several different owners have tried to revive it with different a different name and different owners, but none have been able to capture the excitement, momentum, or crowd it once had. In 1997, Chan and Luq, both being highly respected in the hip hop community, were able to gain a following and do something different at the Hi Pointe Cafe. The highlight of the night was the freestyle which at the end of the night would go for a whole hour. The unique freestyle had a tradition where if an MC dissed someone that was in the crowd or had just been on the stage they were stopped and that person would be brought on stage. Hi Pointe was a show that was very instrumental in discovering talent in St. Louis. Famed female rapper Ebony Eyez got her start battling on Monday nights at Hi Pointe. It also saw artists such as the Ruff Ryders, Julez Santana, DMac, and more. Hi Pointe sustained popularity until it ended in 2006. The success of Hi Pointe led to a radio show similar to the live club show on Q95.5. Another one of the most popular venues in 2008 is Club Casino, located on St. Louis’s East Side. The State Street hot spot has been around since the beginning under a bunch of different names. The club is open until 6 AM and it is where everybody goes when the other clubs close. It is always jam packed with roughly a thousand people on a Friday and one thousand five hundred people on a Saturday. The club supports locals and is where Huey’s ‘‘Pop, Lock and Drop It’’ first saw popularity in the city. These venues, as well as local record store Vintage Vinyl (see sidebar: Vintage Vinyl) created a local subculture in St. Louis that allowed artists to test their skills, going head to head with each other. Venues like Animal House and Hi Pointe attracted crowds that were genuinely invested in the hip hop culture in their city.

“IT’S A MIDWEST THANG . . . “ Nelly might have been the first major rapper from St. Louis, but he was not the first star in the Midwest. In the mid-1990s Twista, Rico Love, Bone Thugs-N-Harmony, Common, and Da Brat all emerged from different parts of the Midwest. However, artists that made it big from the region have almost no similar sound. Unlike the other major regions of hip hop such as the East Coast, West Coast, and South, the artists that have reached mass appeal from this area such as Nelly, Eminem, and Kanye West have almost no unifying sound or style characteristics. In 2006, the census bureau estimated that the term ‘‘Midwest’’ represents the location of roughly 66,217,736 people. These people live in an area that forms the central body or ‘‘Heartland’’ of America. The layout is characterized as the vast and wide-open space connecting the two coasts of America, creating

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VINTAGE VINYL Music havens such as the over 4,000 square foot Vintage Vinyl record store have been very supportive and become institutions in the hip hop community. The U. City store located at the Delmar loop was an important grassroots underground store which was opened in the 1980s. The owners had an idea to sell records of all types and had albums that you couldn’t find anywhere else. Vintage Vinyl had a major advantage over other large music chains because they had an excellent sense of musical knowledge and became known as the ‘‘music encyclopedia.’’ Instrumental in the early development of St. Louis Hip Hop, the owners of the store served as executive producers to one of the first hip hop recordings in the STL by Charlie Chan and Dangerous D. Support for the community continued as they helped underground recording pioneer DJ G-Wiz and his label from the mid-1980s to 1992. The founders’ encouragement of hip hop music started because of their musical knowledge leading to a love of samples. Vintage Vinyl was locally famous for having a section of hip hop albums in their store that wasn’t mainstream and could not be found anywhere else. Workers were trained to know every single artist and album from that section. Shelves in the store would be stocked with STL underground CDs or DJ mixtapes and was a staple outlet for local musicians to promote their music. Other music stores that were heavily known throughout the community were ‘‘mom and pop’’ places such as Peaches, Danny’s Records, Hudson Embassy, ZJ’s, and the legendary Joe’s Music Shop. Record stores and venues from all over the city helped develop and influence the region’s music by bringing different artists and genres to the masses.

extremely diverse regions within itself. Chicago is the largest city in the Midwest and one of the three largest in the country, yet the region known as the Midwest groups Chicago with smaller cities such as St. Louis that are considered to have a more laid-back, even country, feel. The Midwest is no one thing; this central region of the country has a wide range of culture and communities. This Midwest variety can also be seen in hip hop, where certain cities have individual styles. Kanye West, Lupe Fiasco, and Common have epitomized the city of Chicago and made it known for ‘‘conscious rap’’ or ‘‘think rap.’’ Milwaukee is known for Rico Love and as the hometown of MCs like Strickland and Speech from the Grammy-winning group Arrested Development, who were also characterized as conscious rap. Cleveland style was defined by the group Bone Thugs-NHarmony, the first Midwest rappers to go platinum. Detroit continued its Motown tradition with defining hip hop artists such as Obie Trice, Eminem, and D12. Kansas City experimented with the combination of Southern rap and the Hyphy sound

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and Minneapolis is known for its progressive underground scene. St. Louis has become famous for the music of Nelly, but has yet to define its own style. Because there is a lack of identity, the Midwest has not sustained itself as a major region yet. Artists are uneasy to define themselves as a rapper from this region because of such a major disunity. Until recently, no one defined themselves as Midwest style. Seeing a lot of Midwestern artists emerge, Twista raps, ‘‘Midwest keep going creeping on tha come up for years.’’ He appropriately titled the 2000 ode to the region ‘‘Midwest Invasion.’’ In the song, ‘‘Welcome to the Midwest,’’ Tech N9ne and Big Krizz Kaliko define themselves as from the Midwest, rather than from their native Kansas City. Nelly rapped about the Midwest in his song ‘‘Midwest Swing,’’ where he describes this culture as it pertains to St. Louis. Although rappers such as Kanye West and Bone Thugs-N-Harmony have mentioned the Midwest in their songs, no one has really been able to define the area or create any sense of togetherness. As slow strides are taken to make the Midwest known in hip hop, the geographical differences that result from the land being so spread out makes areas subject to different lifestyles by city, thus, continually affecting the style of music they produce.

STUCK IN THE MIDDLE Missouri is the most neighborly state in the country. Bordering eight states, it gains its culture from a wealth of different arenas. During the time of westward expansion, St. Louis was given the name, ‘‘The Gateway City’’ and is often called the ‘‘gateway to the West’’ as it is viewed as the Eastern/Western dividing mark for the United States. Ironically, its status as the ‘‘Gateway City’’ applies today with hip hop. The hip hop genre has become so specialized by location. St. Louis serves as the ‘‘gateway’’ connecting the East Coast, West Coast, and Southern styles and culture. This demand on St. Louis because of the physical location provides the city with a perpetuating identity crisis. At any time, the music will be influenced totally by what is popular at the time. Beginning with Dr. Jockenstein bringing New York’s East Coast style hip hop to the streets it has continued throughout the trends of hip hop’s history. St. Lunatics member Murphy Lee has stated, ‘‘we’ve got different sounds because we take in so much from the West Coast, East Coast and the South and North.’’ When gangster rap and West Coast style were popular, it would be the music that was played in St. Louis. When East Coast and Jay-Z were popular, that would be dominating airplay. Whatever region was dominating at the time would also affect production and content of local artists. In the beginning, the city was influenced by the East, as was the rest of the country. They were imitating these artists because they were all that was out. G-Wiz comments, ‘‘listening to and watching what New York was doing was a hip hop learning process, like going to school.’’ St. Louis artists imitated the cutting and scratching styles of the most prominent figures such as Grandmaster Flash and DJ Jazzy Jeff.

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When the gangs rolled through the city, they brought their music with them, which was the most popular at the time. The culture was heavily influenced by N.W.A., Too $hort, and E-40. As one of the first artists to get a record deal, Sylk Smoov, who Nelly claims was one of his biggest hometown influences, embraced West Coast style with singles such as ‘‘Clientele’’ and ‘‘Bitch/Trick with a Good Rap.’’ Sylk Smoov recruited his hometown friend King Odie, who has become most known for working to create the classic 1992 joints. Smoov signed on with Polygraph Records and was taken in by DJ Quik and AMG’s Los Angeles label Toll Track Productions. Right after them was JCB and the Dog Pound released A Day in the Life on DMC’s label National Southside Profile. Nelly is also showing much influence from the West Coast. The multiplatinum rapper has an album coming out where he changes styles and is said to be a ‘‘dedication’’ to the bay area. In it he raps in the styles of major St. Louis influences from the San Francisco Bay Area: Too $hort, E-40, and Spice One. Right now, there is no doubt that the South is what is most influential in St. Louis and throughout the whole country. Where there has been a decline of mainstream music from the rest of the country, the South has been dominating hip hop culture. It’s dominating the radio and clubs. Chan jokes, ‘‘You would come here and swear you were in Atlanta.’’ Yet, the style of rap made most famous by Lil John was always around in the STL—there just was no name to it. Locals such as Magic Mike had always had that same style of bass beat, there was just no label. St. Louis exchanges some of the culture with the ATL. Lil John was loved by the city and he loved them right back. The crunk king even gave St. Louis a shout out in the song ‘‘Real N***a Roll Call.’’ He was frequently around and was often called the ‘‘Mayor of the St. Louis.’’ Other aspects of hip hop lifestyle have transferred over to the car culture. This includes candy paint, low riders and there is a lot of riding around town. Their ‘‘tricked out’’ Cutlasses and Impalas blast the Southern beats. ‘‘The Southern beat sounds better coming from trunk,’’ Chan says. He also adds that the simple lyrics are easy to relate to while riding in your car. Other rappers traveling through St. Louis have also been inspired. DJ Kut says, ‘‘You can ask any performer that has traveled through St. Louis, they have some stories.’’ A few of these artists have even included them in their songs. The Lou is the subject of the song ‘‘My Summer Vacation’’ on Ice Cube’s 1991 album Death Certificate. In the song he shows himself ‘‘departing Los Angeles, final destination St. Louis.’’ Public Enemy mentions the city in ‘‘Miuzi Ways a Ton’’ and Too $hort raps about it in ‘‘Short Dog’s in the House.’’ MC Lyte has also reminisced about the city in her songs.

THE MASON-DIXON LINE In terms of region, the 260 square miles of the St. Louis metropolitan area splits itself into north, south, east, and west, as well divides St. Louis the city from St. Louis the county. Different people get introduced to hip hop in different ways

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according to where they are from. DJs, MCs, and dancers normally do not mix with people from outside their area. Luq explains, ‘‘It’s hard to define the areas, everyone just knew what neighborhoods were what.’’ Essentially, the Mississippi River divides East St. Louis from the rest of the area. East St. Louis is a part of Illinois. That leaves the North, South, and West sections. The boundaries separating the county from the city are far less complex. You officially travel into the county when you cross Skinker Avenue. The county is more territorial. While many in the city speak of simply Northside, Southside, etc., the county breaks it down even more. Rappers from the two major areas, North County and West County, often need to represent themselves by their particular part of the county. Another section that breeds rappers is the University City or ‘‘U. City’’ area where the main campus of Washington University is located. It is best described as being a mix of the county and the city. This is where Nelly and the St. Lunatics were formed. Although each area is a point of strong representation, there is no real difference between the areas shown in their music, image, or culture. In fact, it is a small city and every section is about 10 minutes from one another. All of the neighborhoods are pretty ‘‘hood.’’ There is a common perception between the different areas that each one is more dangerous than the next and that ‘‘you don’t go to another side of the city unless you know someone.’’ While it is still a bad neighborhood, the suburb right outside the city is said to give more of an opportunity to make it because parents tend to have better jobs. On Chingy’s first album Jackpot he dedicates the song ‘‘Represent’’ to these sections of the city as his chorus repeats, ‘‘Throw yo hood up if you representin, Northside, Westside, Southside, Eastside.’’ He also addresses hood pride in his collaboration with Gena and Huey entitled ‘‘St. Louis Niggaz.’’ In many of his songs and videos, notably ‘‘Air Force Ones,’’ Nelly makes it specifically clear that he is shopping for shoes in the U. City section of the city by zooming on banners that specify the area.

“WELCOME TO DA HOOD“ Characteristics of the Los Angeles gangster rap style remain in St. Louis long after the decline of the g-funk era of the 1990s. This is largely because the city was still subject to a lot of gang and drug related violence and lifestyle. There are two major opinions on how the gangs of L.A. became so influential in the 3-1-4. In their book Life in the Gang: Family, Friends and Violence, Scott H. Decker and Barrick Van Winkle concluded that: The powerful images of Los Angeles gangs, conveyed through movies, clothes, and music, provided a symbolic reference point for these antagonisms. In this way, popular culture provided the symbols and rhetoric of gang affiliation and activities that galvanized neighborhood rivalries. This helps to explain why the characteristics of gangs in Los Angeles, nearly two thousand

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The other view, held by many native St. Louisians recalls the heavy influence of the Los Angeles gangs through their culture brought to them by these gangs physically coming down Route 66 to expand their drug trade. As a result, a new meaning was given to the phrase ‘‘Wild West,’’ as the city has become what Ross Kemp calls one of ‘‘America’s most active and aggressive gang cultures.’’ Among these gangs are the Crips, the Bloods, the Gangster Disciples, Six Deuce, and 44 Bud. In 2006, USA Today reported that despite millions of dollars in urban renewal, a 20 percent rise in violent crime between 2004 and 2005 gave St. Louis the title of most dangerous city in the United States (Leonard). Kemp, who has traveled the world documenting gangs for his television show Ross Kemp on Gangs, did an extensive profile on St. Louis. The program shows everything from gang areas with houses full of bullet holes to the graffiti, used for tagging territories and representing the dead. The show depicts images of grieving families and of several trees with teddy bears on them to mourn those who have died from gang violence. He claims, ‘‘It all feels like the decline of a once great city, where the demise of traditional industries has left a massive gap, into which the gangs have stepped with their graffiti, drugs and turf wars.’’ Gangs have become increasingly apparent at the local hip hop night spots. In 2007 alone, there were ten shootings and two stabbings, making hip hop nightspots the location of five deaths. Clubs such as The 609 Lounge even began instituting policies for patrons, including a 25-year-old age minimum for men, and a dress code that forbade clothing such as tank tops, do-rags, and ‘‘tall,’’ or oversize, white T-shirts (this is common apparel within the hip hop community). The rap scene proves the saying, ‘‘you can’t spell hustler with out S-T-L,’’ as almost every performer has gang ties and connections. Artists are usually associated with the bloods or the crips. Well-known rapper Just Black aka Jus Bleezy, was always respected for having some of the most real lyrics about the street life of a hustler. This lead him to be the most known for being the victim of gang brutality. Homicide detectives outlined his body as he lay motionless in the street after he was shot with an AK-47 and nine millimeter seven times. Much of this violence is on the Northside of the city, where rapper Nelly got involved with dealing drugs and getting involved with crime after he was no longer a baseball prospect. Another member of the St. Lunatics who has seen the effects of this is Lavell Webb. Performing under the name City Spud, Nelly’s half brother, who is featured on his hit single ‘‘Ride Wit Me’’ and produced four tracks on Country Grammar, is currently incarcerated. His surroundings had shown him that dealing pot was not a big deal. Needing money right before Nelly and the St. Lunatics hit it big, he got himself involved in a drug-selling scheme. City Spud was unaware that it was going to turn into a shooting when he got involved. Charged as an accomplice, he will serve a 10-year prison sentence.

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Much of the community has embraced their surroundings and has let this way of life become extremely influential in their lyrical content. Nationally received recording artist J-Kwon has often talked about what it was like to grow up in the hood on and off his records. Hood Hop is dedicated to his upbringing. In the repetitive chorus of ‘‘Welcome to the Hood’’ he literally spells out what his surroundings were as he lists, ‘‘Now do you got a gun? Welcome to the hood. Got a pocket full of crack? Welcome to the hood. Lost your money shootin’ craps? Welcome to da hood. Have you eva been car-jacked? Welcome to da hood.’’ Drugs are the topic of many verses. Nelly had the whole country singing the infectiously catchy line in the chorus; ‘‘Light it up and take a puff, pass it to me now,’’ as well as ‘‘Smokin on dubs in clubs,’’ ‘‘Gin, tonic and chronic,’’ and ‘‘Smokin in Savannah’’ throughout the verse in his number one hit ‘‘Country Grammar.’’ On his debut album of the same name, he talked about drugs and gangs in every single one of his songs. Matt Diehl of Rolling Stone points out, ‘‘Lyrically, Nelly’s all over the map . . . On ‘Utha Side’ he preaches against gang life, but the next song, ‘Tho Dem Wrappas,’ finds him smoking blunts and getting a blow job.’’ Nelly responds, ‘‘That’s just life. You can be riding down the street, listening to a song and chillin’, but by the time the next song comes on, you could see a guy get shot’’ (Diehl). In ‘‘Glad 2 B Alive’’ Huey details his experience on the streets. He raps about finding a better way to make money than drugs, no more violence, running through from the cops or gangs and is glad he only has to wonder if he would be subject to these things if he didn’t make it out. In another song, ‘‘Nobody Loves the Hood’’ he addresses many problems in his community as he sees them. In the middle of the hook Huey tells the story and mentality of the inner city by rapping, ‘‘Kids just doing time, ain’t nothing but crime, because they don’t believe the sun can still shine.’’ The track asks parents where they’ve been because ‘‘the hood is out of control’’ and saying its time for action. Penelope, one of the Lou’s most popular female rappers, is another up-andcoming artist who has served jail time. Penelope was recruited by the St. Lunatics and even appeared in their video for ‘‘Midwest Swing.’’ This St. Louis Cardinal’s future was looking bright, but her career as a professional drug dealer put her in prison for three years after a sting involving her family. Her lyrics have since been dedicated to this time in her life and focused on telling the story of growing up on the streets of St. Louis. Her lyrics in this sense discuss women who do jail time on ‘‘My N***a.’’ She also talks to her own children and all single mothers on ‘‘Father Figure.’’ The view of St. Louis vocalized by Nelly, Huey, and Penelope inspire the stories delivered through the rhymes of the area’s artists as well as expose a variety of the problems of inner-city society. Young artists such as 16-year-old newcomer Jibbs feel growing up in an area of constant violence that most adults have never even seen has forced him to turn his experiences into maturity. Jibbs sees his hometown

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friends acting out of control and feels that his age can reach out to them and others in similar situations. He is trying to do this by reaching out to them in his songs while they are young and still have time to change. FLAME, another rapper from the streets of the Lou, took his inner city upbringing and focused it into a different type of rap. Although he was very influenced by the hip hop culture, his grandmother, who was also his best friend, shaped him. She introduced him to Christianity. Mixing his love of hip hop with his faith, he started recording gospel rap. In 2005, he became the first national hip hop artist from the Midwest. FLAME’s turned his upbringing into the desire to spread the Gospel to those influenced by the hip hop and inner-city culture.

ST. LOUIS BLUES The STL has always been known for its connection to ragtime, the blues, and jazz music. From the late twentieth century, its status as a river city and railroad center allowed several prominent musicians to pass by bringing new music and inspiring the greatest of artists. Becoming a musical hot spot, St. Louis was able to create its own brand of music. Just as hip hop often speaks to those struggling on the streets, blues hits from St. Louis touched millions of people during the Great Depression. St. Louis was also a center for ragtime music and jazz. Jazz innovator Miles Davis got his start in the Eastside of the Gateway City and took St. Louis sound all over the world. The inner-city youth passed down stories from their parents about the foundations of jazz, rock and soul music artists in East St. Louis, most notably Davis, Chuck Berry and Ike Turner and Tina Turner. The history of blues music has directly had an effect on the city. The hip hop generation is often going to blues clubs and mixing with some of the older musicians for influence. You can see this still today at the blues review shows at the Imperial Palace, formerly known as Club 54. The Lou’s influential nature in this area has promoted a strong tradition of African-Americanism and ingrained its musical legacy into the culture. This is seen today with the city’s heavy hitters. Nelly has been quoted as saying that he incorporates the soulful nature of St. Louis into his music. He claims his influence is shown in his style and delivery as he states, ‘‘Instead of getting on top of the beat, I get inside it, as if I’m adding another instrument to the groove’’ (Diehl). Even though the city may be divided by section, there is an overwhelming sense of community felt throughout the city. The familial feeling is gone in cities such as Atlanta where urban sprawl and mass migration to the city have changed the nature of living in the ATL. This is why St. Louis is said to have a ‘‘country’’ feeling to it. Nelly has stated that he likes to just chill on his porch all day long, ‘‘It just makes my style more down-home.’’ St. Louis has a very laid-back personality as a whole.

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COUNTRY GRAMMAR LESSON The Lou is a mix of Southern country and an urban environment. The ‘‘country’’ is seen in images of the laid-back style that Nelly speaks of. Many people in St. Louis don’t understand why they are called country, often saying, ‘‘there are no farms here.’’ Yet, the ‘‘country’’ is more representational of the ‘‘down-home’’ nature the city possesses. In interviews he often talks about getting inspiration from sitting on his porch. As a form of ‘‘Southern hospitality,’’ Kanecc talks of business J-Kwon and he have conducted while barbequing. Many music videos put several images together to create the ‘‘country’’ feeling. Nelly’s single ‘‘Country Grammar’’ implies the ‘‘country’’ lifestyle in the title and video. Stereotypical aspects of Southern African American culture include a large block party barbeque with someone standing behind too large bowls of fried chicken and women in hair salons. Chingy’s hit single ‘‘Right Thurr’’ starts by showing him relaxing on the porch of a house typical of Southern urban architecture and J-Kwon’s ‘‘Hood Hop’’ and Huey’s ‘‘Pop, Lock and Drop It’’ depict the rappers in a barber shop. The ‘‘country’’ is also seen in the dialect of the natives. St. Louis has become known for its unique pronunciation and accompanying vocabulary. Mainstream America was first introduced to the St. Louis accent and slang—a mix of rural Southern and Midwestern terms and pronunciation—via Nelly. Diehl quotes Nelly as saying ‘‘My whole purpose was to make people who speak country grammar not ashamed of how they talk, and turn it into the hot slang.’’ Diehl’s article, from the time Nelly was introduced in 2000, has him giving us a crash course in the language of St. Louis. He explains that in the 3-1-4 all friends are called ‘‘mo,’’ like, ‘‘That’s my mo’’; female friends are referred to as ‘‘mo-ette’’ (Diehl). Songs such as ‘‘E.I.’’ means it’s on and cracking. ‘‘Hot in Herre’’ did not only send Nelly to the top of the charts, but it emphasized the way natives of this area pronounce words differently. Most notable is the pronunciation of the ‘‘e’’ sound in many words. Instead of saying ‘‘here’’ they say ‘‘hur.’’ The words ‘‘thurr’’ (there), ‘‘wurr’’ (were), and ‘‘urr’body’’ (everybody) are also recognizable in lyrics from St. Louis. Along with these, ‘‘deerty’’ (dirty) has become the most popular word in the Lou. Aside from being the name of Nelly’s own record label, ‘‘Deerty’’ can serve as a noun, adjective, verb, or adverb and is the perfect beginning or ending to every sentence. While Nelly introduced the mainstream to this dialect, it is not unfamiliar in St. Louis. Most hip hop songs from the 3-1-4 feature this style of speech. St. Louis is known for having a quirky accent, just not the one of Nelly and other rap artists. As a whole, the dialect situation in Missouri is diverse. The accent featured in the hip hop culture is exclusive to the large African American population. This speech creates a ‘‘country’’ sound by mixing ‘‘Southern drawl and Midwest twang.’’ The rest of St. Louis has a distinctively different speech. Here the North or North Midland dialect is spoken, similar to that of areas such as Southern New Jersey, parts of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware as well as most of the northern Midwest.

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Excluding the two major linguistic sounds of St. Louis, Missouri as a whole is found to have mostly Southern or South Midland dialect. For hip hop artists, their distinct vernacular is a sense of pride in their hood.

GATEWAY TO UNITY St. Louis artists are very skilled in displaying their city throughout the different elements of their music. Pride for the STL is most notably shown through their lyrics, music videos, fashion, and other media outlets. Nelly paved the way for St. Louis rappers to make it big and be proud to boast about the Midwestern city. Lyrically they talk about St. Louis the way N.W.A talked about Compton or JayZ talks about New York. In his first album Country Grammar Nelly name-drops St. Louis in eight out of the fourteen songs and the Midwest a bunch of times as well. Many of the songs are a mixture of St. Louis pride with telling the stories the city gave him. ‘‘St. Louie’’ goes as far as to boast the city in its title. There are frequent references to his neighborhood, U. City and identification with the STL area code 314. His group the St. Lunatics, who dropped the name of the city in 12 of the 15 songs, also writes songs purely dedicated to St. Louis such as ‘‘S.T.L.,’’ where they brag, ‘‘St. Louis is small but we still do it all.’’ Rappers continue to be proud to tell the stories of their city. Murphy Lee, a member of Nelly’s St. Lunatics who has also had some commercial success, gets up and close with the city and asks the question ‘‘Who Said St. Louis Ain’t Hip

Chingy (Lisa O’Connor/ZUMA/Corbis)

Heartland Hip Hop | 357 Hop?’’ by making this question the title of his sophomore album and a catch phrase in the Lou. Chingy is also a St. Louis success story who specifically names his home city with songs such as ‘‘All the Way to St. Lou,’’ ‘‘St. Louis Niggaz,’’ and named his sophomore release The Soul of St. Louis. This album is said to be emotional and really goes into the culture of St. Louis. J-Kwon has titled one of his new songs ‘‘314,’’ and the list of songs with the Lou in the title goes on and on. Although a certain St. Louis style wasn’t public or accepted until Nelly, themes of the Lou would pop up in those who were strongly influenced by the East, West, or South. Just hearing early 1990s underground rapper Lil Whit you would swear he was from Compton. The smooth meshing of a psychedelic funky beat coupled with slowly drawled lyrics sounded extremely West Coast. Sporting a forward facing hat with dark shades, he looks as though he could pass for Dr. Dre. In his video for ‘‘True OG’’ beyond looking like a West Coast rapper, he proudly sports the Saint Louis Cardinals ‘‘StL’’ logo on his chest. The background of his video focuses on the landscape of life in the Lou. Images of local hot spots on the Northside are included as well as the Gateway Arch and local underground venues. In this way he is able to represent where he’s from as well as show how the streets of St. Louis paint his story. Almost every rapper from greater St. Louis has done a video with similar images for the same reasons. No matter what style the artist is most influenced by they either include the Gateway Arch, their section of the city, wear some sort of St. Louis Cardinals apparel, or all of the above. Nelly epitomizes this. Always in ‘‘StL’’ gear of some sort, he puts the 630-foot steel structure in a lot of his and the St. Lunatics’ videos, including: ‘‘Country Grammar,’’ ‘‘Summer in Da City,’’ in the background of the St. Lunatics’ ‘‘Trading Cards,’’ in ‘‘Batter Up,’’ ‘‘Gimme What You Got,’’ ‘‘Breathe In, Breathe Out,’’ ‘‘Let Me in Now,’’ and on the back of a jacket in the beginning of ‘‘Air Force Ones.’’ Other notable artists that have included what has become the tag of the Lou are J-Kwon in ‘‘Tipsy’’ and ‘‘Hood Hop,’’ Da Hol’ 9 in ‘‘Urrbody in da Club’’ and Huey’s ‘‘Pop, Lock and Drop It’’ and ‘‘Adidas’’ (see sidebar: Saint Louis Fashion).

STOP “RIGHT THURR“ Although many of hip hop’s critics argue that large record companies are making hip hop too commercial, the actions of the record companies have a different effect on St. Louis. As an urban region, it has been involved in hip hop for a long time and had not produced any nationally played artist until 2000. Many feel that after Nelly, A and R was only going to St. Louis rappers for club songs and catchy pop hits. Forcing this style from the city and not allowing room for the creation of an identity in style, lyrics, and sound is believed to be hindering St. Louis from developing its own individuality. This is not completely inaccurate. In September of 2006, The St. Louis PostDispatch published an article with the ‘‘25 songs that landed on the national

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SAINT LOUIS FASHION The Lou has some distinct characteristics when it comes to fashion. As discussed above, the wearing of athletic jerseys and symbols showed pride. Sports have always been an influence on hip hop in the region. Rams football attire and Blues hockey jerseys are often worn, but do not compare to the popularity of St. Louis Cardinal apparel. The city is extremely proud of the 10 time World Series Champions (second to only the New York Yankees). Cardinals jerseys, shirts, and hats have become the major fashion statement and the ‘‘StL’’ cap insignia has served as the symbol which has become as synonymous with the image of St. Louis hip hop as the Gateway Arch. Nelly proved to be a pioneer of fashion in addition to musical sound. His song ‘‘Air Force Ones’’ brought the sneaker back to an overwhelming mass popularity. Huey also dropped a track about his favorite shoe brand called ‘‘Adidas.’’ After getting a cut on his face from a basketball game in the summer of 2001, Nelly accidentally set the trend of wearing a band-aid on one cheek. That same summer he brought back a version of Kris Kross style by wearing backwards sports jerseys in the summer. Seeing his ability to set trends, Nelly branded his style by starting Vokal Clothing Company (which he mentions in ‘‘Midwest Swing’’). Realizing he had a large female fan base, he started the culturally chic clothing company Apple Bottoms. In 2006, Jibbs burst on the scene with his single ‘‘Chain Hang Low’’ which he claims is exactly how St. Louis likes to wear their neck jewelry. The hood also subscribed to the ‘‘grillz’’ movement and the plated teeth trend exploded in popularity during the 2000s. Other than that, St. Louis tends to take matching very seriously. Color coordinating is often done precisely between all elements of outfits and accessories. ‘‘Chain Hang Low’’ also shows that matching is no joke as Jibbs talks about color coordinating his ‘‘grillz’’ into his ensemble as well. In addition, the crisp long white tee is the classic style spotted everywhere in the city.

charts’’ (Johnson). 56 percent of the songs on the list belong to Nelly and all of the songs are the product of only seven different artists. First of all, the list spans six years, where the budding hip hop empire only had 25 hits, 14 of them belonging to one person. Secondly, in the same six years there have only been seven artists to reach commercial success, when there are hundreds upon hundreds of rappers with potential. One of those seven artists was Ebony Eyez, who was unfortunately pigeonholed as a one-hit wonder for the clubs. Considered to have the most original sound coming out of St. Louis, Ebony became known for her song, ‘‘In Ya Face’’ instead of

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her individual style. Record companies thought that because she was associated with Trackstarz, the producers of J-Kwon’s hit, she would know how to produce hits as well. Ebony Eyez is reclaiming her title of queen of STL hip hop by returning to the streets, releasing several mixtapes. She is ready to emerge with another album learning from the mistakes of her past. J-Kwon also had quite the learning experience after getting dropped from his label and now he’s taking a stand. The founder of Hood Hop Entertainment, he has announced that he is ‘‘retiring’’ from the rap game. Known for his club song ‘‘Tipsy,’’ he is turning in creating music in order to be the next music mogul. His label, Hood Hop, has big plans for the city. Calling for all to ‘‘stand up a little more for our city,’’ his goal is for the Lou to become united. He strongly urges the labels of the city to collaborate with one another. With Kanecc and the rest of Hood Hop, J-Kwon plans on accomplishing this. ‘‘We just need to be cooler with each other, man and quit hatin’,’’ J-Kwon remarks. Talking about the importance of unity he continues, ‘‘I got the most beefs in the city . . . and I’m gonna leave that alone this year.’’ Artists are not equipped to handle their own business in the same way that performers from areas like Atlanta do. Since the industry isn’t developed enough in the city and there are constant territorial wars by section, there is no unity amongst artists in the business end. Another goal of J-Kwon and his label is to help artists learn to promote themselves. Saint Louis is beginning to embrace technology by taking themselves to the Web. Myspace and YouTube are being utilized to universalize mixtapes and gain exposure. Rappers have started to band together through Web sites such as stlhiphop.com, the major online hub of all things hip hop in the STL. The site is a one-stop shop for the community containing articles, booking, profiles for those involved in the scene, and a forum to communicate with one another. Advancements in business seems to be a slow process, but small steps are being taken. The question now is whether St. Louis will ever be able to build up their business industry and give their performers a few finance and economics lessons. When is the region considered to have fully first represented their hood? Is it in 2000, the year that marked when the mainstream and majority of Americans learned to speak ‘‘country grammar’’ and was endearingly called ‘‘derrty’’? Or does representation begin with Dr. Jockenstein, Gentleman Jim Gates, and others who paved the way? Either way, the Lou has been through a lot, and there is a long legacy of tradition. Being the first to play ‘‘Rappers Delight’’ and showing innovation with the show ‘‘Roll Call’’ put the city at the pulse of hip hop for as long as it’s been beating and it has established places for the music and culture to be brought to the streets such as Animal House and Saints (see sidebar: Saints Roller Rink). DJs and MCs realized the potential of something that was new and decided to be a part of it. St. Louis’s unique position in the ‘‘heartland’’ of the country allows the Lou to see all angles of hip hop from the East Coast, West Coast, and the South. This has had multiple effects. The first is an ‘‘identity crisis,’’ not allowing one

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SAINTS ROLLER RINK Saints Roller Rink was the number one place for the younger crowd. In the West County city of Olivette, the rink was equipped with a skating rink, table hockey, arcade, and a dance room. Roller skating and hanging out at the rink was extremely popular and the host to a number of hip hop talent shows. DJs would mix while people danced and skated. Saints also formed the foundation of break dancing where people would come to pick up and learn new moves. Sunday night was the night everyone went. Many underground DJs and performers got their start at this venue. The owners of Saints opened another place, called The Palace, that paved the way for MCs and DJs.

distinctive sound to emerge from the 3-1-4. The second is that it equipped its citizens with the best overall view of hip hop. Being right in the center of the country and the buffer between the three major areas of hip hop has created a lack of a collective sound amongst Midwestern cities. As a result, the Midwest has not been able to band together under the name of their region and become a powerhouse like the other areas of the country.

THE FUTURE OF HIP HOP IN ST. LOUIS With recognized areas like Northside, Southside, Eastside, Westside, North County, South County, and U. City, the small city of St. Louis has broken itself into several classifications by area has collective and unity pride for one thing: St. Louis. This pride has not only affected the community within the city and beyond its limits, it has even inspired others in hip hop. The city that has become increasingly dangerous due to gang violence has provided stories for rappers to develop their craft. These tales are behind most of the songs of underground rappers and helped propel some to the national stage, starting with Nelly in 2000. Nelly introduced the Lou and has become the epitome of many elements of today’s distinct hip hop culture in the city. Now, their fashion, dialect, demeanor, and extreme pride are recognizable throughout the country. Part of the reason St. Louis has emerged as a recognizable city in hip hop is because it branded the ‘‘Gateway Arch’’ and ‘‘StL’’ logo as trademarks and images of them unifying the city. However, the record companies only want hits like Nelly’s from the STL, making it very hard for artists to emerge. The lack of organized business in the city has left the community uneducated and unsure of how to deal with the music industry. Its sudden explosion onto the scene has made everything a learning process where the city is still trying to find its place.

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The short history makes what will happen next with St. Louis’s representation in hip hop questionable. Since things are constantly changing it will be interesting to see what happens in the future. Will the city help the Midwest sustain itself and bring the unity of the city to the Midwest? Will the city and Midwest find an identity? Can the 3-1-4 develop a successful music industry? Though there are different perspectives on its place in the past, present, and future, the Lou’s involvement is undeniable. With such a strong link to the genre, Murphy Lee is justified in wondering, ‘‘Who Said St. Louis Ain’t Hip Hop?’’

REFERENCES Bozza, Anthony. ‘‘Hip Hop’s Heartland Hero.’’ Rolling Stone, 853, November 9, 2000. http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/nelly/articles/story/5924133/hiphops _heartland_hero. Decker, Scott H., and Barrick Van Winkle. Life in the Gang: Family, Friends and Violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Diehl, Matt. ‘‘Nelly Puts St. Louis Rap on the Map: Talking Slang, St. Louis, and Baseball with Nelly.’’ September 14, 2000. http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/ nelly/articles/story/5923431/nelly_puts_st_louis_rap_on_the_map. Hamilton, Keegan. ‘‘Old School: Unearthed in a Cluttered Storeroom, a Pair of Vintage St. Louis Hip-Hop Recordings Help Tell the History of Rap.’’ Riverfront Times, October 21, 2008. http://www.riverfronttimes.com/2008-10-22/ news/old-school-unearthed-in-a-cluttered-storeroom-a-pair-of-vintage-st-louiship-hop-recordings-help-tell-the-history-of-rap. Hixson, Sean. ‘‘Diversity Reigns at the Science Hip-Hop Spin.’’ Sauce Magazine, June 8, 2003. http://www.saucemagazine.com/article/3/10 (accessed July 10, 2008). Johnson, Kevin C. ‘‘On the Rap Map: St. Louis’ Party Style Sets Scene Apart.’’ St. Louis Post-Dispatch, October 2, 2006. Leonard, Christopher. ‘‘St. Louis Ranked Most Dangerous City.’’ USA Today, October 30, 2006. http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-10-30-citycrime_x.htm. Manderbach, Kerry. ‘‘Dr. Jockenstein, Operating on Your Mind.’’ St. Louis Journalism Review, March 2003. ‘‘Rappers Dream Big in St. Louis: City Known for Its Blues Fast Becoming New Hip-Hop Capital.’’ September 16, 2004. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/ 6011700.

FURTHER RESOURCES Barlow, Philip, and Mark Silk, eds. Religion and Public Life in the Midwest. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2004.

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Sisson, Richard, Christian K. Zacher, and Andrew Robert Lee Cayton. The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007.

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY Chingy Jackpot. Capitol, 2003. Powerballin’. Capitol, 2004. Hoodstar. Capitol, 2006. Hate It or Love It. Disturbing tha Peace, 2007. Ebony Eyez 7 Day Cycle. Toshiba, EMI Japan, 2005. FLAME FLAME. Cross Movement, 2004. Rewind. Cross Movement, 2005. Our World: Fallen. Cross Movement, 2007. Our World: Redeemed. Cross Movement, 2008. Huey Notebook Paper. Jive, 2007. Jibbs Jibbs Featuring Jibbs. Geffen Records, 2006. J-Kwon Hood Hop. So So Def, 2004. Just Black aka Jus Bleezy Who Can Relate. The Orchard, 2001. Lil Whit For the Fellas. Flatline Records, 1994. Nelly Country Grammar. UMVD Labels, 2000. Nellyville. UMVD Labels, 2002. Da Derrty Versions: The Reinvention. UMVD Labels, 2003. Suit. UMVD Labels, 2004. Sweat. UMVD Labels, 2004. Sweatsuit. UMVD Labels, 2005. Brass Knuckles. Universal, 2008.

CHAPTER 15 From St. Paul to Minneapolis, All the Hands Clap for This: Hip Hop in the Twin Cities Justin Schell The #16 bus runs along University Avenue, one of the main corridors between the Twin Cities, Minneapolis and St. Paul. While riding it one day, I hear a fellow passenger freestyling rhymes in the back. ‘‘I defy any rapper on the East Coast’’ is one of the lines. This chance moment crystallizes the Twin Cities hip hop scene: hip hop is produced everywhere—from Minneapolis to St. Paul and back, eloquently captured in the lyrics from the Heiruspecs’ ‘‘Relax’’ that forms part of my title. And while the ability of my fellow bus traveler to challenge ‘‘any rapper on the East Coast’’ may be in question, there should be little doubt in the minds of listeners that the Twin Cities possess one of the most vibrant and multifaceted hip hop scenes in the country. The Twin Cities possess a degree of isolation from the larger national hip hop scene. Much writing on hip hop that focuses on the Midwest neglects the Twin Cities and many people are surprised that Minnesota has hip hop at all. According to MC Toki Wright, the scene is ‘‘too far North to be part of the Midwest, too far West to be part of the East Coast, and too far East to be part of the West Coast.’’ Artists and writers have called it everything from the ‘‘Midwest coast,’’ ‘‘the middle,’’ to ‘‘no coast,’’ as the St. Paul group the Abstract Pack rapped in 1998 on their song of the same title. Given that the Twin Cities share a border, there is considerable overlap in the scene, which makes any strict geographical division nearly impossible. There are, however, distinctions between the two cities. Minneapolis hip hop divides into three more or less distinct neighborhoods: North, South, and, to a lesser extent, Northeast, whereas St. Paul is usually considered as a single geographic unit. Most of the concert venues for hip hop are located in Minneapolis, and some artists from St. Paul even refer to themselves as being from Minneapolis to writers and fans outside of the Twin Cities. The origins of Twin Cities hip hop go back nearly three decades, as the four elements of hip hop have existed here since the early 1980s. While the Sugar Hill 363

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DUNATION.COM A virtual landmark of the Twin Cities hip hop scene, DUNation.com was begun in the summer of 2001 by Robbinsdale, Minnesota, native Lars Larson (Terhark 2004). The site originally began as a techno Web community called ‘‘Division Underground,’’ but was shortened to ‘‘DU’’ when it became more hip hop oriented. The site is the online place to go for information on the Twin Cities hip hop scene, with an updated show calendar, artist profiles, music, videos, a forum for extended writing, links, the Twin Cities Hip hop Directory, and a message board. It is this last element that gives DUNation its special place in the Twin Cities scene. It encompasses the best aspects of the Twin Cities hip hop scene, a place for artists and fans to discuss hip hop, share songs, as well as find information on upcoming concerts, but also is the place for inane internet wars on the boards, reducing people to petty name calling. DUnation has also released a compilation of Twin Cities hip hop, DUNation.com: Volume Won (2005), with otherwise unreleased songs by Brother Ali, The C.O.R.E., Unknown Prophets, Sims, Desdamona, and others. In March of 2003, however, Larson sold the site to Vital Vinyl, a Twin Cities record store that specializes in 12’’ techno, house, and hip hop music. Larson now runs the Web site of the Fifth Element and the owners of Vital Vinyl have assured users of the site that it will continue in much the same way as before.

Gang’s ‘‘Rapper’s Delight,’’ the first nationally popular rap record, could be found in record stores like Minneapolis’s Electric Fetus, and numerous DJs were rocking parties around the Twin Cities a la Afrika Bambaataa and Kool Herc in the Bronx, it is Travis Lee (1963–) who can be considered the ‘‘godfather’’ of Twin Cities hip hop. Coming to Minneapolis from Brooklyn to attend the University of Minnesota in 1981, ‘‘Travitron,’’ as he came to be known, brought not only records with him, but also the style of hip hop, the gold ropes, record-scratching, and nearly indecipherable show flyers with wildstyle lettering. Indeed, the histories of graffiti and break dancing intertwine with the history of rap in the Twin Cities, as they do throughout hip hop’s history. Travitron, as well as other DJs like Brother Jules, Delite, Verb X, Freddy Fresh, Tim Wilson, LST, Big Funk, Billy Bump, Kansas City, Farrow Black, Cowboy, Plaz, King IXL, and others began spinning records at Twin Cities clubs like Oz, the Fox Trap, Daddy’s, Club Hip hop, and Duffy’s, where both Kurtis Blow and Grandmaster Flash performed in 1982. Blow also performed a year earlier in North Minneapolis’s Northgate Roll-Arena, which, along with other roller rinks, was a prominent early venue for hip hop in the Twin Cities. These DJs also threw parties at various parks and community centers, especially a number of Twin Cities

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YMCAs and YWCAs, as well as the University of Minnesota. Soon, the 7th Street Entry began holding ‘‘Club Wild Style,’’ a weekly, all ages hip hop afternoon named after the seminal early hip hop film Wild Style (Scholtes ‘‘Doomsday’’). There is some historical discrepancy as to the first rap record to emerge from Minnesota. Ice-T can be credited with the first hip hop record produced in Minnesota, recording ‘‘The Coldest Rap’’ b/w ‘‘Cold Wind Madness’’ for Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis in 1983. Two records from Twin Cities artists were released soon afterwards: a song by Kyle Ray based on ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ and ‘‘Twin Cities Rapp,’’ by David ‘‘T.C.’’ Ellis (1959–). These and other hip hop records hit the Twin Cities’ airwaves around this time. Travitron hosted the Cities’ first hip hop show on KMOJ in 1984, ‘‘The Hip Hop Shop,’’ although radio DJs like Allen Freed, Pharaoh Black, Mike ‘‘Wax Attack’’ Mack, and MC ‘‘Kid’’ Delight had begun playing hip hop as part of the station’s regular rotation. Already at this early stage, rivalries emerged between the various geographic locales, with specific artists representing St. Paul, North Minneapolis, and South Minneapolis, oftentimes erupting in violence at shows. Beginning in the mid1980s, these differences were exacerbated by the influx of crack into the Twin Cities, as well as numerous national gangs, including the Bloods and the Crips. Some remnants of these rivalries, with less overt gang allegiances, still persist today, but for the most part there is a fluid interchange between Minneapolis and St. Paul artists. Hip hop emerging from the Twin Cities at this time received relatively limited national exposure, with a few notable exceptions. The I.R.M. Crew put out the Cities’ first nationally distributed single, ‘‘Uh Baby,’’ on K-Tel records, which was also distributing some of Gang Starr’s early records. The group went on to release a number of other 12’’ singles, as well as a short EP, before disbanding in 1987. Other groups like Soul Purpose and Style Posse were signed to Jerry Sylver’s Wide Angle records, which represented the early 1980s electro group, The Information Society. (Wide Angle previously released a hip hop EP in 1984 that did very well on Twin Cities charts and radio stations.) One of the members of Soul Purpose, Derrick Stevens, better known as Delite, was chosen by Paula Abdul to voice the character of Skat Kat, the animated feline that appears in the video for ‘‘Opposites Attract’’ at the end of 1989. Rapper DMG, short for Detrimental Gangxta, participated in an MC battle which included Scarface (of Houston rap legends The Geto Boys) as a judge; eventually, Scarface signed DMG to his Houston-based label, Rap-A-Lot. Around the same time that DMG moved to Houston, the foundational group The Micranots formed out of separate Twin Cities crews. Out of the Metro Unit came DJ Kool Akiem (Akiem Elisra, 1971–) and Self One (Chaka Mkali, 1973), who is now known as I Self Divine, while TruthMaze (William Harris, 1968–) came out of the Mixed Breed. Both Self One and DJ Kool Akiem moved to the Twin Cities from California in the late 1980s, part of a larger nationwide immigration to the Twin Cities, due in part to available jobs and social welfare programs. As

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part of the Universal Vibe Squad, the group began performing around the Twin Cities, particularly at the 7th Street Entry. TruthMaze soon left the group, and Self One and Akiem relocated to Atlanta in 1994, citing a lack of adequate infrastructure within the Twin Cities hip hop community that could support artists (Ricketts). One person who worked with the Micranots before they left was Brent Sayers (1970–), known then as Stress, and now known as Siddiq. Working mainly as a concert promoter, he organized a number of regular hip hop nights, including the Microphone Checks and the Universal Parliament of Hip hop. A large number of young hip hop artists began regularly attending and performing at these nights, and they eventually formed the Headshots crew. The origin of the name is a combination of a nickname given by the crew to St. Paul (‘‘Shots Paul’’), and the group’s desire to reach the true hip hop fans, or ‘‘heads.’’ The original members of the mixed-race crew—The Abstract Pack, Urban Atmosphere, Phull Surkle, Black Hohl, and Beyond (now known as Musab)—consisted of MCs, DJs, and producers, along with management by Siddiq. Later, artists like Extreme, Illusion, The Native Ones (later Los Nativos), and the Sixth Sense (later Eyedea and Abilities) would join, bringing the crew’s total number to over 20. The group released a series of Headshots cassettes, the first of which, WBBOY Sessions, was released in 1993 and featured a series of freestyles by the crew. Later versions (the last was released in 1999) incorporated not only more freestyles, but also four-track recordings by different Headshots members, as well as bootleg concerts of national rap acts, including the Fugees and the Roots. The difficulties of maintaining such a large crew, however, eventually led to the dissolution of Headshots. In 1995, however, before the crew dissolved, Slug (Sean Daley 1973–), Ant (Anthony Davis, 1970–) Siddiq, and Spawn (Derrek Stevens, 1969–) formed Rhymesayers Entertainment. (The name arose from a play on Siddiq’s last name. See McPherson 2006.) While the other, non-Rhymesayers members of the Headshots crew supported the early Rhymesayers records, such as Beyond’s Comparison (1996), some members, such as the Abstract Pack, struck it out on their own, while others, such as the Native Ones, joined Rhymesayers. There was other hip hop happening in the Twin Cities at this time as well, including a minor hit by Lil’ Buddy called ‘‘What’s the Haps,’’ as well as music by the Eloquent Peasants and School of Thought, but it was the success of Rhymesayers that made people take notice of the Twin Cities scene. Slug and Siddiq appeared on National Public Radio’s All Things Considered in October of 1996 to discuss not only their own work, but also the current state of hip hop, addressing much of rap’s violent lyrical imagery and its increasing corporate control. They also performed at Jesse ‘‘The Body’’ Ventura’s gubernatorial inauguration in January of 1999. Rhymesayers also made connections with many of the more established underground record labels, including Anticon, Def Jux, and Fat Beats. Numerous other groups worked with Rhymesayers acts at this time, including Kanser, Oddjobs, which has now become Kill the Vultures, and Heiruspecs. It

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THE FIFTH ELEMENT The Fifth Element is the storefront of Rhymesayers Entertainment. Located in Minneapolis’ Uptown area on Hennepin Avenue, it was opened in August 1999 and has become one of the best places to find hip hop in the Twin Cities, along with St. Paul’s Urban Lights Music. Not only does the Fifth Element stock Twin Cities, regional, and national artists, both on CD and vinyl, they also sell hard-to-find DVDs, T-shirts, DJ gear, books, and magazines, including the essential graffiti and all-around culture magazine from the Twin Cities, LifeSucksDie. The store also has a large selection of mixtapes that can only be found at select Twin Cities record stores. The Fifth Element is not only concerned with recorded music, however; they also have hosted numerous in-store performances by artists from around the country, including Rhymefest, Evidence, Alchemist, Strange Fruit Project, DJ Pam the Funkstress, and others. Album release parties for Rhymesayers artists are always packed, with lines stretching down Hennepin Avenue for blocks. Before moving in to new offices in downtown Minneapolis, the main office of Rhymesayers was located in a small room off the back of the store, yet on a given day, you’re still likely to see Slug, Ant, Siddiq, and other Rhymesayers artists floating around.

was during the late 1990s that the scene around Dinkytown’s Bon Appetit coalesced, marking the first time that all parts of the Twin Cities hip hop scene could come together peacefully in one place (see sidebar: Dinkytown). Since 2000, the scene has exploded. In any given week, there are five to six shows, usually with three or four artists or groups, at venues across the metropolitan area. This is due to a number of factors both internal and external to the Twin Cities. Internally, many artists and groups saw the success of Rhymesayers, and began attempting to emulate it in their own work, as well as take advantage of the many doors that Rhymesayers had opened. Many local bars and clubs recognized the monetary potential for hip hop and began booking hip hop shows much more regularly, giving these newer artists valuable exposure. At the same time, national trends in hip hop’s popularity affected the Twin Cities. One of the first major hip hop events after the closing of Bon Appetit was a weekly MC battle at the Loring Pasta Bar, just down the street in Dinkytown. By the time the series had run its course after about a year, the lines stretched around the block, with many of the participants inspired by Eminem’s freestyles in the film 8 Mile. New developments in music production software, as well as the ubiquity of MySpace, have allowed more people than ever to record and distribute music. In turn, more record labels have sprung up, including Interlock, which began in 1997, Hecatomb, Loonatix Productions, Doomtree Records, and others. Such an expansion

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DINKYTOWN Dinkytown is the area adjacent to the University of Minnesota’s East Bank in Minneapolis, a dense enclave of bars, restaurants, clubs, bookshops, and cafes. In previous musical generations, Dinkytown was the neighborhood of Bob Dylan. Beginning in the 1990s, however, and continuing today, Dinkytown is one of the epicenters of Twin Cities hip hop. The Varsity Theater, originally built in 1915 as the University Theater, ran into controversy with the surrounding neighbors and businesses for hosting hip hop shows, called ‘‘Peace Parties,’’ in the early 1990s. In an act of defiance after local businesses attempted to ban hip hop from Dinkytown, the owners booked 2 Live Crew in 1991. That show turned out to be the last hip hop performance in Dinkytown for nearly 15 years (Scholtes ‘‘Rhyme’’). In the late 1990s, a weekly hip hop night began at Bon Appetit, or Bon App for short, a small sandwich shop run by a Lebanese immigrant. Known as Headspin, the series served as the first time that artists and fans of hip hop from across the Twin Cities could meet and perform in a single, neutral space. Organized by Kanser’s New MC (also known as ‘‘Big Zach’’), it featured numerous artists, including Brother Ali, Atmosphere, Heiruspecs, Kanser, Unknown Prophets, and many other artists who got their first break at Headspin, as well as breakdancers and graffiti artists, all crammed into the restaurant’s small back room. It was even featured in The Source in a short profile of the Twin Cities scene (Arnold 1999). The series ran for 50 straight Sunday nights, before being shut down by the building’s owner. Soon after, however, Zach began a weekly night of MC battles at the nearby Loring Pasta Bar. By the time that series ended, the lines to participate stretched around the block. Today, the Dinkytowner (just across the street from the former Bon Appetit) has taken over the mantle of hip hop in Dinkytown. Booked for the last three years by Unicus from Kanser, it hosts at least four shows every week, including a weekly series called ‘‘The Hook Up.’’ St. Paul artist Capaciti (Dave Cupryna, 1978–) even has a hidden track on his album The Blind Cinema Sessions dedicated to the bar, giving his listeners a lyrical tour of this epicenter of Twin Cities hip hop.

of the scene, however, is not without its tension. Many of the more established MCs, while welcoming the new blood, also want newcomers to recognize and respect the history of Twin Cities hip hop, to pay their dues to the people who opened up opportunities for them. Over the course of nearly 30 years, artists have developed a number of techniques and features that help to identity hip hop from the Twin Cities for the scene’s ever-increasing national presence. These range from the unique geographic

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spaces and places of the Twin Cities to vaguer characteristics of artist identity, musical style, and verbal content. As a scene that possesses a variety of local strategies of representation, it offers artists a way to both represent their home, as well as make a larger contribution to the hip hop nation and the world. The most immediate of such strategies are incorporating geographic features of the Twin Cities themselves. MCs will often work the area codes ‘‘612’’ and ‘‘651’’ into their rhymes (Minneapolis and St. Paul, respectively), as in Atmosphere’s ‘‘Sound Is Vibration,’’ where Slug drops ‘‘612, my present location.’’ There is even a clothing company which produces hats emblazoned with one of the two area codes, in addition to the ubiquity of the Minnesota Twins’ ‘‘TC’’ logo on hats, jerseys, and shirts. The Cities’ main thoroughfares are often referenced in songs, like Lyndale, Broadway, Hennepin, Nicollet, Selby, Franklin, and Snelling, University, and Lake. Minneapolis DJs and producers will often find obscure snippets of recorded text, culled from various archaic audio recordings, that contain the Cities’ names. Similarly, MCs have employed a number of nicknames for the Twin Cities over the years. For Minneapolis these include ‘‘the Minneap,’’ the ‘‘Miniapple,’’ and the more infamous ‘‘Murderapolis,’’ which even made it to the pages of the New York Times in 1996 when the murder rate in Minneapolis abruptly skyrocketed (Johnson). As I noted above, the Headshots crew coined the term ‘‘Shots Paul’’ around the same time to describe St. Paul, while another variation is ‘‘St. Peazy.’’ All of these terms are still in use today. Another element that artists mold into their material is the Twin Cities bus system, known as Metro Transit. The extensive bus line crisscrosses all parts of the Twin Cities, as well as extending into nearby suburbs; in addition, there is a light rail that runs from the Mall of America to downtown Minneapolis. Brother Ali (Ali Newman, 1978–) on ‘‘Five Line King’’ talks about taking the #5 bus back to North Minneapolis after a show and finding a number of his fans making the journey with him. On Atmosphere’s ‘‘The Number One,’’ Slug reminisces about riding the bus to the suburbs to meet his high school sweetheart. Some artists, however, make a more metaphorical use of the bus. Beyond (Musab Ali S’aid, 1975–), on his song ‘‘Growth,’’ uses a bus ride to downtown Minneapolis as a time for introspection on his life and goals, and how he doesn’t want to end up ‘‘like these people on the bus.’’ Many artists in the Twin Cities also incorporate, play with, and subvert various stereotypes of Minnesota and, more generally, the Midwest. The most employed trope is that of Minnesota’s legendary winters. I Self Divine, on ‘‘Ice Cold,’’ talks about different degrees of coldness, as he raps from ‘‘live from the ice-cold streets of the Minneap,’’ relating the cold winter to cold-blooded murder on the streets of Minneapolis, by both citizens and police officers. Others ironically play with the concept of ‘‘Minnesota Nice,’’ part of the supposed abnormal Midwestern kindness and generosity. The NuYorican MC Maria Isa (Maria Isabelle Perez Vega, 1987–) does this most explicitly in ‘‘MN Nice,’’ where she shows how people in

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her idea of the Twin Cities ‘‘ain’t so nice.’’ P.O.S. (Stefan Alexander, 1981) raps on ‘‘Half-Cocked Concepts’’ about ‘‘sippin’ whole milk motherfucker!’’ Likewise, Brother Ali’s ‘‘Room with a View,’’ a sonic snapshot of his former home in North Minneapolis on a warm summer day, shreds any fantasy of a supposedly pure American heartland, telling of drugs, violence, prostitution, and the shame of parents forced to raise their children in such an environment. In taking a closer look at the specific styles of hip hop within the Twin Cities, there are numerous variations. The Rhymesayers label, and Slug in particular, has often been tagged as epitomizing the ‘‘backpack’’ genre of hip hop, named after the backpacks that the mainly white college-age fans carry to shows. Harder, more gangsta-oriented hip hop can be found all over the Twin Cities, but especially in North Minneapolis and St. Paul, represented by artists such as Moochy C and the Street Kingz, respectively. Also, the Southern sounds of bounce and crunk can be heard in the music of artists like Contac (Londell Anderson, 1977–) who had Lil Jon & The Eastside Boyz guest on his album Eeyeaya (2004). Doomtree, whose members emerged out of a punk and hardcore background, often achieve a punk-rap hybrid; for member P.O.S.’s Audition (2006), released on Rhymesayers, he and coproducer Emily Bloodmobile sample local hardcore band Song of Zarathustra. There are also numerous diasporic artists, such as M.anifest (Kwame Tsikata, 1982–), Maria Isa, Delicious Venom, made up of brothers Tou Saiko Lee, (1979–) and Vong Lee (1982–), who make connections to where they come from, both through different languages as well as other musical traditions, while also establishing their musical presence in the Twin Cities. Such stylistic dimensions cannot be heard outside of the musical history of the Twin Cities, with Bob Dylan, the Replacements, Hu¨sker Du¨, the Jayhawks, and, above all, Prince representing just a few of the Cities’ seminal artists. Prince himself employed a number of MCs in the late 1980s and early 1990s, including Tony Mosley (better known as Tony M) and David ‘‘T.C.’’ Ellis, both rapping as part of The New Power Generation. Mosely can be seen in Prince’s follow up to Purple Rain, Graffiti Bridge, as he begs Prince to let him rap, finally getting his chance as the end credits roll. Prince even tried to rap himself, with mixed results, on the so-called Black Album (1987), on the songs ‘‘Dead On It’’ and ‘‘Bob George.’’ Rap artists often reference Prince, as well as other elements of Twin Cities musical history. Purple Rain especially is a touchstone for many artists. In a song by members of the Interlock Record label called ‘‘Plastic Silverware,’’ they talk about Minnesota as the land where they write songs about ‘‘purple rain’’ and Los Nativos has a song entitled ‘‘When Jaguars Cry,’’ not far removed from Prince’s ‘‘When Doves Cry.’’ Slug makes numerous references to the Twin Cities indie rock band Lifter Puller, including naming a song after them on Atmosphere’s album Seven’s Travels (2003). Similarly, on Kanser’s ‘‘Heard It from Here,’’ Unicus (Harry Philbert, 1975–) imitates the chorus from the global mega-hit ‘‘Funkytown,’’ which was written by Minneapolitan Stephen Greenberg (as Lipps, Inc.) and sung by a former Miss Black Minnesota Cynthia Johnson. In doing so, he

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not only stylizes the Twin Cities, but also invokes its distinct contribution to musical history. Looking at the lyrical dimension of Twin Cities hip hop, while many MCs creatively write about their own rhyming ability, the so-called ‘‘rapping about rapping’’ style, a general trend within the lyrical content is an emphasis on storytelling that utilizes subject matter outside what is normally found in hip hop. The Heiruspecs’ ‘‘Meters’’ is a semiabstract tale of a taxi-cab driver, while Eyedea and Abilities’ ‘‘Powdered Water Too’’ imagines and explores life as a fish, with the aquarium serving as a metaphor for Eyedea’s own mind. Slug has become famous for his lyrical introspection and self-deprecation; such content has often earned artists like Slug and others who explore similar lyrical themes the label of ‘‘emo-rap’’ (Caramanica). While the Twin Cities are certainly home to artists who rap about more stereotypical subjects associated with hip hop (drugs, gun violence, hypermasculinity, the bashing of homosexuals, and sexually objectified women), they seem far outweighed by artists who either do not partake in such subjects, or turn these subjects around to make more subtle statements about themselves or the world around them. A key distinction for many artists is how to discuss drugs and violence, whether it is a glorification of these topics, or if it is a call to not only identify those responsible for community problems, but also to propose and advocate for solutions. Oftentimes, many lyrical and musical differences are organized around racial identity, with more gangsta-oriented lyrics coming mainly from predominantly African American neighborhoods in North Minneapolis and the Eastside of St. Paul. Yet another distinctive feature of the Twin Cities hip hop scene is the wealth of racial identities that make the music. While it may have started out mainly within African American subcultures in its beginnings, Latinos, Africans, Caucasians, Asian Americans, and Indigenous groups can all fall under the banner of ‘‘Twin Cities hip hop.’’ Further, there is much greater openness to cross-racial collaboration, with many of the artists forming multiracial groups. This is not to say, however, that there is not tension along racial lines, especially in terms of audience. The majority of most Twin Cities hip hop audiences are white, which is standard for much of the U.S. independent hip hop circuit. There is, however, less suspicion of such white participation in hip hop, be it on stage or behind it. Part of this is due to the substantial amount of multiracial artists in the Twin Cities, including Slug, who was born of a white mother and an African American father, making it much harder to make easy distinctions among artists along strict racial lines. Also, many artists believe that questions of class and infrastructure, such as opportunities for performance in one’s own area, also play a role. The Southside of Minneapolis, for example, is generally regarded as having more venues for performance than the generally more impoverished North Minneapolis community and suspicions of racism towards African Americans on the part of club owners also is present amongst many within the hip hop community.

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Regardless, that many artists still collaborate across racial lines suggests how people in these communities, both artists and listeners, might build alliances, large and small, across different races, ethnicities, and genders, in order to bring about social change. Given the wealth of talent in the Twin Cities, it is extremely difficult to narrow my selections as those most successful and/or most important to the Twin Cities hip hop scene. As the Twin Cities have so many different sounds coalescing into its own sound, it is best to see the Twin Cities as a microcosm of larger national ideas of hip hop, and how the scene both refutes and perpetuates those ideas. Understanding Twin Cities hip hop can only be accomplished by recognizing that these artists look well beyond their hometowns as they simultaneously mark themselves within their local cultures. This is not only true of artists who attempt to find success in hip hop’s more traditional stylistic categories, to make it big in other markets besides the Twin Cities, but also of groups normally considered marginal to hip hop’s usual identities within America. In this way, they both participate in their local musical culture, building the necessary musical and social infrastructure to support a scene, as well as recognize that they are part of the larger hip hop nation.

ARTIST PROFILES If you’ve heard of only one hip hop artist out of the Twin Cities, it’s probably Atmosphere. The core members of the group are MC Slug and producer Ant, although many artists from the Twin Cities have performed under the ‘‘Atmosphere’’ name. The group began as ‘‘Urban Atmosphere’’ in the early 1990s as part of the original Headshots crew, and included another MC, Spawn, who is no longer associated with Rhymesayers and now goes by the name Rek the Heavyweight. Over the years, Eyedea and Abilities have performed as part of Atmosphere, as have members of Heiruspecs and other backing musicians in recreating Ant’s beats on live instruments. Atmosphere has released five full-length albums, Overcast (1997), Lucy Ford: The Atmosphere EPs (2001), Godlovesugly (2002), Seven’s Travels (2003), You Can’t Imagine How Much Fun We’re Having (2005), as well as numerous EPs, including the 11-volume Sad Clown/Bad Dub series. There are also numerous unofficial Atmosphere compilations of rarities and bootlegs. The various incarnations of Atmosphere have toured all over the United States, as well as the world, including Japan, Sweden, Denmark and the 2001 All Tomorrow’s Parties festival in England. They have also brought many lesser-known Twin Cities and Rhymesayers artists as supporting acts, including Brother Ali, Los Nativos, Grayskul, and Mac Lethal. With a distinctive baritone and a lyrical flow that can run the gamut from relaxed conversation to frenetic hyperactivity, Slug is undeniably the most famous hip hop artist from Minnesota. Before becoming an MC in high school, he went

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Atmosphere: Slug and Ant (AP Photo)

through stages of break dancing, graffiti writing, and DJing and counts MCs from both coasts as well as previous artists from the Twin Cities as inspiring him to become an MC himself. Over the course of his career, Slug’s lyrics changed from a boasting, battle-focused MC who just liked hearing himself rap to one exploring stories with more introspective and especially self-deprecating themes. Slug’s name, shortened from ‘‘Little Sluggo,’’ explores this dual nature of confidence and self-loathing: not only could it mean the slug that comes from a gun, but also one of the slowest-moving forms of life on the planet (Scholtes ‘‘Rhyme’’). On songs like ‘‘WND,’’ he deflates the masculinity demonstrated by so many MCs through gun violence, as he spends the entire song vowing revenge, yet discovers that he doesn’t even have a gun. For many of the early Atmosphere records, Slug obsessively deployed a character trope of ‘‘Lucy,’’ who could embody figures from a young girl to an ex-lover; on ‘‘Fuck You Lucy,’’ he simultaneously hates his exlover and hates himself for still being in love with her. On more recent work, however, Slug has expanded beyond autobiographical lyrics to take on issues such as violence against women. This issue hits hard on ‘‘That Night,’’ as he attempts to make sense of the murder of Marissa Mathy-Zvaifler, a young woman raped and murdered in Albuquerque while cleaning up after an Atmosphere show. Slug has collaborated with numerous artists both within and beyond the Twin Cities. These include not only Rhymesayers labelmates but also some of the more gangsta-oriented MCs in the Twin Cities such as Moochy C and Muja Messiah. Slug has also established his presence on the national hip hop underground by

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working with El-P, Aesop Rock, Molemen, the Living Legends, Sage Francis, and Murs, as well as artists from outside hip hop, including Craig Finn (from Lifter Puller and the Hold Steady) and Tom Waits. Slug’s collaboration with Murs has proven to be extremely fruitful for both: as Felt, they have released two albums together and they also started their own record label, Women Records. Ant, who is originally from Oklahoma and moved to the Twin Cities at the age of 20, makes beats for a number of Rhymesayers artists besides Atmosphere, including I Self Divine and Brother Ali. His beats on the early Headshots series, as well as Beyond’s Comparison and Atmosphere’s Overcast, are sparse constructions of eerie drums and instrumental samples (see, for instance, Atmosphere’s ‘‘Aspiring Sociopath’’). Over the years he has expanded his palette to include samples of soul, funk, reggae, gospel, and rock on songs like Atmosphere’s ‘‘Get Fly’’ or Brother Ali’s ‘‘Whatcha Got.’’ Countering the trend of moving away from samples in hip hop, Ant not only foregrounds his sampled material, but inventively combines multiple sources into seamless musical textures. He only recently began performing as a DJ with Slug, overcoming his social anxiety to perform at Atmosphere’s eight-night stand of sold-out concerts at the 7th Street Entry in 2005 and continues performing live today. Atmosphere’s success, however, would not be possible without the few, but important groups that provided the foundation for hip hop in the Twin Cities. The I.R.M. Crew, which stood for ‘‘Immortal Rap Masters,’’ came out of North Minneapolis and consisted of Devastating Dee (Doug Shocklee), Kel-C (Kelly Crockett, 1966–), TLC (Curtis Washington, 1966–), and Cuttin’ Kal (Calvin Jones). It also featured the beat boxing of B-Fresh, also known as I.B.M. who would later become TruthMaze. They were managed by Charles Lockhart, who owned his own record label, Cchill Productions, based in St. Paul. The group released an EP entitled The I.R.M. Crew (1986), which featured the songs ‘‘I Dream of DJs,’’ ‘‘Diseased America,’’ ‘‘Unh Baby, and Let’s Dance.’’ ‘‘I Dream of DJs’’ incorporates the ‘‘I Dream of Jeannie’’ theme song a year before DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince sampled it for ‘‘Girls Ain’t Nothing but Trouble,’’ while nationally distributed record company K-Tel picked up ‘‘Uh Baby’’ as a single. They also released two 12 inches, ‘‘Baseball’’ b/w ‘‘The Cchill Cut’’ (1987); ‘‘R U Ready 2 Change the World?’’ b/w ‘‘Who Said Our Dee Jay Couldn’t Cut?’’ (1988). Due to internal burnout and the bungled distribution and management of K-Tel, the I.R.M. Crew broke up soon afterwards (Scholtes ‘‘Doomsday’’). TruthMaze, however, has continued to work in music and social activism. A poet, MC, multifaceted drummer, and social activist, he is widely considered to be one of the legends of the Twin Cities hip hop scene. It was during his time with the I.R.M. Crew that he formed the Minneapolis B-Boy Organization, a group dedicated to countering the surge of violence that crack and various national gangs brought to the Twin Cities. This act has made some refer to him as the ‘‘Afrika Bambaataa of the Twin Cities.’’ After his father’s murder in North Minneapolis in 1985, as well as his own desperate situation after the dissolution of the I.R.M.

From St. Paul to Minneapolis, All the Hands Clap for This | 375 Crew—he was living on the streets at the time—he rechristened himself ‘‘TruthMaze.’’ He formed the Micranots in 1991 with I Self Divine and DJ Kool Akiem, but broke with the group before the release of any of their widely available albums. Moving to Atlanta, he began to study other musical and belief traditions, including those of the Yoruban culture of West Africa. Returning to Minneapolis in 1996, he worked with a variety of groups, as well as performing as part of the spoken word scene. His first solo record, Expansions + Contradictions (Psoems 1:1) (2006), was released by Speakeasy Records, part of the multidisciplinary entity Tru´ Ru´ts, which encompasses spoken word, music, film, management, and other artistic endeavors. It mixes blues, jazz, and Yoruban drumming traditions, with hip hop; one song, ‘‘In This City,’’ was recorded live on the streets of Minneapolis, discussing the problems of the streets, who’s at fault, and what can be done about it. The album ends with ‘‘Universal Shout Outs,’’ a testament to all those who influenced him, including his family tree, prior hip hop artists, both in the Twin Cities and beyond, as well as victims of police brutality. Another figure that was there at the beginning of Twin Cities hip hop and is still active today is David ‘‘T.C.’’ Ellis. Ellis began playing drums in a number of local bands and, as noted above, put out one of the first rap records in Minnesota, entitled ‘‘Twin Cities Rapp.’’ He also recorded a song based on the Batman comic saga, entitled ‘‘Bat Rap.’’ Later, he joined Prince and began to rap with the New Power Generation, one of Prince’s side-projects, along with Tony Mosley and is briefly featured in Prince’s film Graffiti Bridge. In addition to appearing in Graffiti Bridge, Ellis released his own album, True Confessions, on Prince’s Paisley Park records, where he calls himself the ‘‘dope beat boy from the land of snow.’’ The album featured not only Prince but also George Clinton. In 1995, Ellis opened a recording studio in downtown St. Paul and found himself constantly bombarded by youth rapping in the building’s skyways. After a client cancelled, he opened it to the kids, and the seeds were planted for Studio 4/The High School for Recording Arts, which was founded a year later. Located in St. Paul, the school provides opportunities for at-risk youth to learn basic and advanced sound recording skills, as well as participate in its student-run record company, Another Level Records. There are also locations in New York and Los Angeles. In recognition of his efforts, Ellis was honored as an Oxford University Round Table Fellow in 2005. I Self Divine, who formed the seminal early 1990s hip hop crew The Micranots, along with TruthMaze and DJ Kool Akiem, was born and raised in South Central Los Angeles and moved to Minneapolis in the late 1980s. This group was responsible for popularizing hip hop in the Twin Cities on a wider scale than had previously been accomplished. After leaving the Twin Cities for Atlanta in 1994, the group recorded two cassette-only EPs, Hoods Pack the Jam and The Catacomb Files, after which Truth Maze left the group. I Self and Akiem went on to release three more albums, Obelisk Movements (2000), The Emperor and the Assassin (2003), and Return of the Travellahs (2003). In addition to I Self Divine’s first solo record, Self-Destruction (2005), he has performed as Semi-Official with DJ

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Abilities on The Anti-Album (2003) and with Slug, Musab, and Gene Poole on The Dynospectrum (1998). On all of these records, as well as in his life, I Self brings not only greater militancy to his rhymes, but also solutions, as he is a youth organizer at the Minneapolis nonprofit organization, Hope Community, Inc. as well as an advisor for the B-Girl Be Summit (see sidebar: B-Girl Be). On a different stylistic register, DMG, which is short for ‘‘Detrimental Ganxta’’ (H. Armstrong), is a St. Paul rapper who was discovered by Scarface during a 1991 MC battle in the Twin Cities. Soon afterwards, the Houston-based Scarface signed DMG to his Rap-A-Lot label, which promoted much harder, gangsta-oriented rap as compared to the Twin Cities. While with Rap-A-Lot, he recorded his own album, Rigormortiz (1993), which reached #40 on the Billboard hip hop chart, making it the highest-selling hip hop record from a Twin Cities artist up to that point. On Rigormortiz, DMG combines references from both his hometown, including ‘‘growing up on Selby,’’ one of St. Paul’s main thoroughfares, and referring to himself as the ‘‘St. Paul assassin’’ on ‘‘Psycho,’’ as well as the ‘‘gulf-coast flavor’’ of Houston’s Rap-A-Lot. Producer N. O. Joe samples Stevie Wonder’s ‘‘Pastime Paradise,’’ which was famously used two years later for Coolio’s ‘‘Gangsta’s Paradise.’’ Since Rigormortiz, DMG made guest appearances on albums by the Geto Boys, Facemob, and Devin the Dude, and his most recent release is Black Roulette (2003). Back in the Twin Cities, Carnage (Terrell Woods, 1975–), who originally came to Minneapolis in 1978 from Chicago, began his own career in hip hop. Growing up in a series of group homes around the Twin Cities, he formed The Overlords in 1992 with DJ X-Caliber, which then morphed into NEMNOCH and later, after the addition of two more MCs, Pagne and Concentrate, into the futuristically themed group S.W.E.E.P.S. (Sub-Terrestrial Wordsmiths Exhibiting Extraordinary Poetic Structure). Following in the footsteps of Rhymesayers, he started his own crew and record label, Hecatomb in 2004. Currently, the other artists with Carnage on Hecatomb include Concentrate, Illusion, X-Caliber, Desdamona, Fundamentalist, Capaciti, and Project 13. He sold 3,000 copies of a solo EP entitled The Carnology Vol. 0.5 (2004) single-handedly out of his backpack, and has gained much exposure by beat boxing with Desdamona (1973–) as Ill Chemistry. (His use of a live looping mechanism to record himself beat-boxing and then rhyme over his own loops sets himself apart from many other beat-boxers, both within the Twin Cities and beyond.) His first full-length album, The Sense of Sound (2007) features production by Booka B (Adam Booker, 1979–), as well as DJ and turntablist Jimmy2Times (Dan J. Marcoulis, 1981–). Possessed with an astonishingly quick and versatile vocal delivery, both in his rhymes and his beat boxing, Carnage uses hyperquick changes in vocal inflection and rhythmic syncopation in his rhymes, and his words engage subjects outside the stereotype of hip hop lyrics. These range from the African slave trade to monster narratives; if MF Doom channels The Fantastic Four’s nemesis Dr. Doom for his identity, then Carnage, with his XXXL frame, is the Incredible Hulk.

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B-GIRL BE Held annually at Minneapolis’ Intermedia Arts, the B-Girl Be Summit brings together women not only from the four elements of hip hop, but also the four corners of the world. The goal is to bring women in hip hop together and combat the limited and often degrading representations that mark women in hip hop. The Summit began as the Encyclopedia of Hip hop Evolution concert series in 1999, organized by Jamaica Del Mar, Desdamona, Toki Wight, and Larry Lucio. First there were monthly concerts that featured performers from all over the Twin Cities, as well those outside of hip hop. For one show a year, they decided to have an all-female lineup, and it became their most popular show. Soon, they had four all-female shows per year, with workshops in between. Ultimately this morphed into B-Girl Be, which was begun in 2005 by a number of women: Desdamona, hip hop scholar and filmmaker Rachel Ramist, Deanna Cummings, Leah Nelson, manager and hip hop scholar Melisa Rivie´re, and Intermedia Arts director Theresa Sweetland. In its current form, the Summit not only features performances by many of the most important female artists working in hip hop, including Lady Pink, Collective 7, Ursula Rucker, DJ Pam the Funkstress, DJ Shortee, and Asia One, it has also brought in a number of female hip hop scholars for keynote addresses, including Gwendolyn D. Pough, Roxanne Shante, and Rosa Clemente. The outside of the building is repainted with aerosol art during each festival, and there is a special art exhibit inside the gallery, entitled ‘‘The Art of T&A: Truth and Activism.’’ Women from all over the world come to Minneapolis for B-Girl Be, and it was featured in Martha Cooper’s collection of photographs and stories from b-girls around the world, We B*Girlz (Cooper 2005). A mix of activism and education, celebration and inspiration, the Summit strikes a balance between celebrating women in hip hop without validating the often patronizing labels such as ‘‘female MC.’’ While foregrounding past and present achievements of women in hip hop culture, it seeks to understand and overcome the obstacles that women face participating in hip hop.

The Abstract Pack was a St. Paul-based hip hop crew that formed around the same time as the Overlords and consisted of members Glorius L (Glorius Martin), MSP (Mark Beasley), Knowledge MC (Alfonzo Greene, 1974–), Rasta (Dean Brewington, 1975–), Eklipz (Dietrick Williams), RDM (Roosevelt Darnell Mansfield III, 1974–), and Sess (Herbert Ford Foster IV, 1975–). With the exception of Eklipz, originally from Colorado and attending college in the Twin Cities, the rest of the Pack were at Central High School when the group formed. Performing first at school talent shows, the group then formed part of the original

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Headshots collective. A pivotal point for the entire crew was when Sess, considered by everyone in the group to be its best MC, was killed by a drunk driver in 1996 (Scholtes ‘‘Doomsday’’). His death made many of the members of the Headshots crew take hip hop more seriously; the fourth Headshots cassette, entitled History, was dedicated to Sess, and the first and last songs on the Abstract Pack’s only record, Bousta Set It (For the Record) (1998) contain some of Sess’s recorded verses. The album, which has become a classic of Twin Cities hip hop, is filled with an array of eclectic, Native Tongues-style samples and lyrics which creatively deploy and transform both local and national references on songs like ‘‘For the Record,’’ ‘‘Let Me Show You,’’ and ‘‘No Coast.’’ Much like the breakup of Headshots in general, the Pack soon broke up after the release of Bousta Set It, yet many of its members are still involved in hip hop. Glorius, Rasta, and Eklipz formed the group Braille Method and relocated to Los Angeles; Knowledge MC released a Christian rap CD in 2005; and RDM has recorded and produced a number of his own songs, as well as serving as producer for other Twin Cities MCs. One of the most prolific members of Headshots alongside the Abstract Pack was Beyond, who is now known as Musab. He began writing rhymes as a young teenager, but did not get serious until after he witnessed the murder of his cousin at the age of 17. To escape the violence of his neighborhood, he had two choices, college or rap. Choosing the latter, he took his name from the all-powerful Marvel comics character the Beyonder. As a member of the original Headshots crew, it was generally agreed that Musab had the most material out of any of the crew’s members; he and Ant recorded three to four times per week, amassing upwards of 100 songs at any given point. Musab soon released the first CD by a Twin Cities hip hop artist, Comparison (1996). His next album, Be-Sides (1999), featured not only an anthem for his hometown and his own hip hop autobiography (‘‘South Side’’), but also found him leaving Beyond for his real name, Musab. He and Rhymesayers parted ways after his next album, Respect the Life (2002). After a mixtape entitled Mack Music (2006), his latest full-length album, Slicks Box (2007), was produced by Minneapolis’s King Karnov and released on Hiero Imperium, the record label of the Oakland hip hop group Hieroglyphics. With Slicks Box, Musab embraces the lifestyle of the mack, which has a long history within hip hop and beyond. Numerous references to Iceberg Slim and other elements of the past and present of the mack lifestyle dot the sonic landscape of Slicks Box. Not only has Musab changed record labels, he has also changed locales, moving to the warmer climate of Las Vegas, yet he still records all of his music in the Twin Cities. Eyedea and Abilities also came to prominence as part of Headshots and Rhymesayers. Composed of MC Eyedea (Micheal Larson, 1979–) and DJ Abilities (Gregg ‘‘Max’’ Keltgen, 1979–), they eventually became two of the best known artists in the national hip hop underground. Both grew up in St. Paul and attended Highland Park High School. Two years his senior at 16, Abilities moved in with Larson’s family after leaving home and the two soon began working together after

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acquiring turntables. They began performing as the Sixth Sense as part of Headshots before changing their name to ‘‘Eyedea and Abilities.’’ While still a teenager, Larson began winning some of the most high-profile MC battles in America. These included the Scribble Jam MC Battle in 1999, RockSteady Crew MC Battle in 2000, the 2000 Blaze-Battle in Chicago 2000, and the nationally televised, HBO Blaze-Battle World Championship in 2000. Larson took the prize money from his victories and built his own studio, E&A Studios. Not to be outdone, Abilities won the 1999 and 2001 DMC Regional Championship. Eyedea and Abilities have released two albums together, First Born (2001) and E&A (2004). In addition, Larson crafted The Many Faces of Oliver Hart or How Eye One the Write Too Think (2002). Abilities released a mixtape entitled Finally (1999), which has been reissued on CD by Rhymesayers, as well as . . . For Persons with DJ Abilities (2000). He also performed all of the scratches for El-P’s debut album Fantastic Damage (2002). On both of their records, the duo have tried to push the boundaries of what constitutes hip hop, as Eyedea crafts abstract, often cerebral lyrics, while Abilities explores sonic combinations far outside the mainstream of hip hop. Both have been pursuing outside projects for the last three years, such as Larson’s explorations in improvised jazz and rock with his groups Face Candy and Carbon Carousel. Eyedea and Abilities reunited to perform for the first time in over three years at the 6th Twin Cities Celebration of Hip hop in August of 2007 and toured together at the end of 2007. Closely associated with Headshots but not official members were the members of Kanser, one of the most established and influential crews in Twin Cities hip hop. Formed at Minneapolis’s South High School in 1992 as part of the Interlock crew, the group has changed members over the years, consisting now of New MC (Zachariah Combs, 1977–) and Unicus. Unicus is originally from Haiti, first moving to Connecticut and then to the Twin Cities in 1992. A number of producers and DJs have worked as part of Kanser, including Mesh, DJ Elusive, Big Jess from the Northeastern Minneapolis group Unknown Prophets, and, on their early records, Ant from Atmosphere. Rocking numerous house parties on 14th Avenue in South Minneapolis, they released two cassettes, Network (1997) and Now (1999). In 1998, Big Zach began the weekly Headspin series at Bon Appetit in Dinkytown, and soon afterwards the weekly MC battle at the nearby Loring Pasta Bar (see sidebar: Dinkytown). Unicus has booked hip hop for the Dinkytowner for the last three years, as part of a series called ‘‘The Hook Up,’’ which has helped build the venue into one of the most important sites of Twin Cities hip hop. The group has released four full-length CDs, Inner City Outer Space (2000), Quintessential (2001), It Wrote Itself (2002), and Self-Titled (2005). The group’s lyrics have changed over the course of their albums, from the more party-oriented themes of their first records to exploring ideas of violence, religion, and politics on Self-Titled. Big Zach’s first solo album, White Jesus, was released in November of 2007.

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The live hip hop band Heiruspecs began in 1997 while all of its members were attending St. Paul Central High School. The name is derived from ‘‘haruspex,’’ which was a Roman soothsayer who predicted the future by examining the entrails of sacrificed animals. The two original members still with the group are Felix (Christopher Wilbourn, 1979–), one of the groups MCs, and Sean ‘‘Twinkie Jiggles’’ McPherson (1981–), the group’s bassist. While playing shows at Central as well as various coffee shops and community centers, they released two albums, Live from the Studio (1998) and Antidisestablishmetabolism (2000). After the release of their third album, Small Steps (2002), on the St. Paul-based Interlock label, the group hit the road as a backing band for a variety of underground hip hop artists, including Atmosphere, Aesop Rock, and Sage Francis. Their last record, A Tiger Dancing (2004) was released on the nationally distributed Razor & Tie record label, and brought the group national attention. After a van accident in the winter of 2006, the group took a break from touring and have worked on different individual side projects. At the end of 2007, Heiruspecs celebrated their tenth anniversary with a pair of concerts on December 22, a day proclaimed ‘‘Heiruspecs Day’’ by St. Paul mayor Chris Coleman. The concert also marked the release of 10 Years Strong, a collection of B-sides, rarities, and live recordings culled from the group’s decade of making music. Since the late 1990s, a number of artists have become extremely successful both within and beyond the Twin Cities. Brother Ali (Ali Newman, 1978–) is a legally blind, white Albino Muslim MC. He was born Jason Newman in Madison, WI, yet converted to Islam in his teens after he his family moved to North Minneapolis in 1992. His first album, the cassette-only Rites of Passage (2000), was completely

Brother Ali (Getty Images)

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self-recorded and self-produced; it caught the attention of Rhymesayers, who not only rereleased the album on CD, but also added him to their roster. Around this time Ali achieved the attention of the larger underground hip hop community by upsetting Eyedea at the 2000 Scribble Jam MC battle. Ali has toured with Rakim, MF Doom, GZA from the Wu-Tang Clan and most recently as part of the Paid Dues Independent Festival, a touring festival of independent hip hop artists including Slug, Sage Francis, Murs, and others. Ali has since released two albums, Shadows on the Sun (2003), The Champion EP (2004), and The Undisputed Truth (2007). The latest album has garnered Ali national media attention and even a spot in The Source’s prestigious ‘‘Hip hop Quotable’’ section (Brother Ali 2007). On the album, Ali confronts not only his own problems, such as the breakup of his marriage and his homelessness after the release of Shadows on the Sun, but also the joy his son Faheem brings, as well as lambasting the socioeconomic inequalities in America. He engages explicitly with questions of race and hip hop on ‘‘Daylight,’’ foregrounding his own whiteness in ‘‘Daylight,’’ both in its ‘‘excess’’ as well as the privilege it conventionally brings. Further, Ali aligns himself with African Americans and other marginalized groups in an attempt to critique American racism and injustice. Overturning both Albinism’s historical associations with nineteenth-century freak shows and contemporary stereotypes of the ‘‘evil Albino,’’ Ali has become one of the most critically acclaimed figures of Twin Cities hip hop. Toki Wright (1980–) is one of the most active MCs within the Twin Cities hip hop scene, and an artist who also brings an explicit community and political orientation to his music. Born in North Minneapolis, he began like many hip hop artists, rapping and dancing at school talent shows. Eventually, he met Adonis D. Frazier in 1998, with whom Wright formed The C.O.R.E. (The Children of Righteous Elevation). Frazier’s father ran the Circle of Discipline boxing gym in Minneapolis’ Powderhorn neighborhood, one of the more economically depressed areas of South Minneapolis, and it was here in the gym that Frazier and Wright began hosting hip hop. The C.O.R.E. has released one album, Metropolis (2003), and continue to perform as part of The Chosen Few, a Twin Cities super-crew that incorporates some of the harder, more gangsta-themed MCs of the Twin Cities, as well as Scribble Jam beatbox champion DJ Snuggles. Wright has also released a number of solo EPs, in advance of his forthcoming full-length debut, A Different Mirror. In addition to his extensive touring over the last two years as Brother Ali’s hypeman, Wright’s work in hip hop has taken him to Africa. While writing for The Source on hip hop in Africa, he conducted a hip hop workshop between Tutsis and Hutus and has also performed with a number of hip hop groups in Uganda. The recorded result of these trips can be heard on his song ‘‘Kyendi Kyendi,’’ which means ‘‘I Am What I Am,’’ with Ugandan artists Sylvester and Abramz. Wright’s other hip hop activities include working at the Minneapolis-based youth nonprofit organization, Yo! The Movement. He is instrumental in organizing not

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only the group’s many community activities and projects, but also the annual Twin Cities Celebration of Hip hop. Toki Wright, then, is not just one of the most established and active Twin Cities hip hop artists, but he is also instrumental in shaping the present and future of it through his community action. Toki Wright was instrumental in giving Doomtree, a mixed gender and mixedrace hip hop crew that emerged out of South Minneapolis in the late 1990s. Past and current members include P.O.S., Dessa, Cecil Otter, Marshall Larada, Mike Mictlan, Sims, Emily Bloodmobile, Emynd, Lazerbeak, Paper Tiger, Tom Servo, and Turbo Nemesis, a mixture of MCs, DJs, and producers. While there has not been an official full-length crew album released, many of the artists have released individual albums under the False Hopes series; the first was a 2002 CD-R featuring P.O.S. and Cecil Otter, and Sims, Dessa, Paper Tiger, and Mictlan have also released future installments. The best-known member of Doomtree is P.O.S. (Stefan Alexander, 1981–) whose name can stand for a number of things, including ‘‘piece of shit’’ (see Scholtes ‘‘Doomsday’’). He has released two albums for Rhymesayers, Ipecac Neat (2004) and Audition (2006), the latter of which received critical acclaim within and beyond the Twin Cities. He has performed alongside Sims on the Vans Warped Tour and also performs with a hardcore band named Building Better Bombs. Many of the members, in fact, emerged from the Twin Cities punk and hardcore scenes, and a number of Twin Cities hardcore bands are sampled on Audition. Lazerbeak is also in the indie rock band The Plastic Constellations. While there are occasional full-crew shows, especially the yearly ‘‘Blowouts’’ that are one of the highlight of the Twin Cities musical year, individual members perform solo or in groups under the ‘‘Doomtree’’ label. Dessa (Dessa Wander, 1981) has become a substantial presence in both the hip hop and the spoken word scenes, and was given the Sound Unseen Film Festival’s ‘‘Artist of Distinction’’ award in 2007. The Minneapolis-based producer and DJ Cheap Cologne, who has worked with a number of artists both within and beyond the Twin Cities, was briefly in the national spotlight in 2004 when he created his own remix of Jay-Z’s The Black Album, combining it with Metallica’s eponymous Black Album, thus creating the Double Black Album. Standing out from the slew of remixes created after the notoriety of Danger Mouse’s The Grey Album, even Metallica lead-singer James Hetfield expressed his admiration for the album (Sperounes 2004). It also attracted the attention of the Recording Industry Association of America. After receiving threatening letters from the RIAA, he went on MTV and said it was a joke and, amazingly, the RIAA relented. Since then, Cheap Cologne has released two albums, Just a Little Sample (2003) and Something Random (2005) and has performed as part of the Vans Warped Tour. Finally, Muja Messiah (Robert Hedges, 1970–) is an MC who was born in North Minneapolis and first came to prominence in the late 1990s with the group Raw Villa. The group released an EP entitled Rebellion (2000) and have finished work on another album called The Way Things Should Be that is awaiting release. Muja

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Messiah’s solo work aims at producing a harder, more gangsta-oriented sound, one that has historically been less accepted in the Cities. His first solo record, The Adventures of the B-Boy/D-Boy features collaborations with I Self Divine, Slug, and The Roots’ Black Thought. A member of the 5 Percent Nation, along with other members of the Twin Cities scene including St. Paul Slim (Meyer Warren, 1978), he does not shy away from oppositional politics in his music. On ‘‘Patriot Act,’’ he muses why he should be afraid of Al-Qaeda when he ‘‘was already afraid of America first.’’ Elsewhere, on songs like ‘‘You Betcha’’ and ‘‘Get Fresh,’’ he proudly affirms his Minnesota home, yet in a way that brings light to the violence that plagues parts of the Cities. At the same time, however, he embodies the socalled ‘‘No Coast’’ sound by drawing on musical styles emerging from all over the country; ‘‘Get Fresh,’’ for instance, draws on the synth-laden beats of the Dirty South. As discussed above, one characteristic of Twin Cities hip hop is that it is home to many artists that fall outside standard categories of hip hop. The numerous female hip hop artists that make the Twin Cities their home have attained a level of success in the Twin Cities that equals and often surpasses the recognition enjoyed by their male counterparts. There are also numerous diasporic artists that have come to the Twin Cities from places like Laos, Ghana, Puerto Rico, Vietnam, Iran, Mexico, and Liberia, artists whose music makes connections between their old home and their new home. Finally, there is a strong contingent of so-called ‘‘homo hop’’ artists, queer figures in hip hop that buck the pervasive homophobia that dominates so much of hip hop. For the most part, these artists are not ghettoized into a limited subculture: some are founding members of the scene, while others collaborate with the Cities’ more established artists. The ones discussed below are only a handful of those working in the Twin Cities today. When Desdamona moved from Iowa to the Twin Cities in the summer of 1996, she found an exciting scene just starting to coalesce, though one that was overwhelmingly male. The multitalented vocalist, expertly adept at vocal styles ranging from spoken word, singing, as well as straight-up, boom-bap MC, can largely be credited with changing that. Winning the Minnesota Music Association’s ‘‘Best Spoken Word’’ award five times, she caught the attention of the wider hip hop scene in 2000 with her song ‘‘We Will Always B,’’ which Brother Ali included on Rites of Passage. Touring with Carnage as Ill Chemistry as well as on her own, she was eventually signed to the nationally distributed FS Music label. Her music often critiques the historic exclusion of women in hip hop as well as carving out her own space within that history. In ‘‘I Wanted 2 Be an MC,’’ she tells the tale of her own journey through hip hop, how she was forced to ‘‘call all her rhymes poetry’’ when people told her she couldn’t be an MC. Desdamona also actively works to foster new spaces in which women can not only participate in hip hop, but succeed. She took part in organizing the Encyclopedia of Hip hop Evolution concert series, which morphed into B-Girl Be (see sidebar: B-Girl Be). This is evident in the numerous women MCs in the Twin Cities, including Tish Jones

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(1977–), Indigo (Leah Bartizal, 1980–), Autumn Compton (1976–), and Maria Isa, to name just a few. Maria Isa actually bridges two different groups within the scene, that of women and diasporic artists, as she was born on the Westside of St. Paul to Nuyorican parents. Both her parents were involved in the Young Lords; her mother, Elsa Vega-Perez, began a number of Latino and Latina organizations and has become one of the most important and community activists in the Twin Cities. Isa has performed Puerto Rican bomba since she was five, but made her hip hop debut in 2005, opening up for Los Nativos. Work on her first album, M.I. Split Personalities (2007) began almost immediately. Traversing bomba, hip hop, and reggaeto´n on the album, Isa adopts three personae on the album to explore her diasporic identity, Moochie, Lolita, and Maria Isa. ‘‘Sabrosa’’ (roughly translated as ‘‘tasty’’) encapsulates much of the vocalist’s work. Entwining multiple strands of history, not only does it share a title with a song from the Beastie Boys’ Ill Communication (1994), but the song is based around a thundering bomba by Raices (‘‘Roots’’), an AfroPuerto Rican music and dance ensemble based at El Arco Iris (‘‘The Rainbow’’), a community organization where Isa teaches. Affirming her ‘‘Sota Rican’’ identity, as well as the importance of Puerto Ricans to the history of hip hop (Rivera 2003 and Flores 2000), Isa simultaneously affirms the inclusiveness of the hip hop scene in the Twin Cities, as well as the many cultural influences that go into the art form as a whole. Other artists use their music to make connections beyond the Twin Cities. M.anifest explicitly links his music to his home country of Ghana. M.anifest was born in Accra and moved to the Twin Cities in 2001 to attend Macalester College in St. Paul and study economics. The grandson of legendary ethnomusicologist J. H. Nketia, he grew up listening to all of his grandfather’s records. M.anifest foregrounds his Ghanaian identity through his hip hop, not only by including Ghanaian drumming patterns in the beats of his songs, but also by rapping in the Ghanaian language of Twi, as well as engaging in Twi call-and-response with his audiences, and dressing in the red, yellow, green, and black color scheme of the Ghanaian flag. He has performed with Carnage, Desdamona, and I Self Divine, among others. His first solo album, M.anifestations, was released in September of 2007. In a time where African artists are achieving much more widespread success than the standard ‘‘world music’’ record bin by moving beyond the stereotypical ‘‘world music’’ characteristics, firmly entrenched in hip hop rather than the often exoticised fantasies of diversity and hybridity. M.anifest’s breathless motto, heard throughout Manifestations is ‘‘represent Africa with a spectacular street vernacular,’’ and the MC breathes, speaks, and lives all that this statement entails. Delicious Venom is a Hmong hip hop group that consists of brothers Tou Saiko Lee (1979–) and Vong Lee (1982–), the latter going by the MC name of Knowstalgic. Tou Saiko was born in the Nongkai Refugee Camp in Thailand; after emigrating to the United States, he and his parents lived in Syracuse and Providence (where his brother Vong was born), before finally coming to the Twin Cities in

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1991. The Twin Cities, and especially the Eastside of St. Paul, have one of the largest Hmong populations outside of Laos. They have released one EP, The Injection, and helped to organize The H Project, an album composed of artists of different styles form different parts of the country, designed to raise awareness of the plight of thousands of former American-allied Hmong soldiers murdered in Laos. Tou Saiko is also involved in musical projects outside of Delicious Venom, including the rock band Outer City Project, as well as ‘‘Fresh Traditions,’’ in which Tou Saiko collaborates with his grandmother Youa Chang in the traditional Hmong art of kwv txhiaj, a form of poetic chanting. As director of Creative Development and Outreach at CHAT (Center for Hmong Arts and Talent), a St. Paul nonprofit organization that aims to nurture Hmong artists, Tou Saiko organizes a series of open mic nights, coordinates after school specials, and helps to organize the annual Hmong Arts and Music Festival. Finally, Los Nativos consists of MC and Producer Xilam Balam, MC and Drummer Felipe Cuauhtli, and DJ Tekaptl. The group originally was known as ‘‘The Native Ones’’ and were original members of the Headshots crew. Their first show, recorded at First Avenue, can be heard on the second Headshots cassette. They have released one full-length album, Dia de Los Muertos (2004), and a EP entitled Red Star First (2005). They have toured Mexico on their own, as well as touring with Atmosphere and Eyedea and Abilities, travels that have taken them as far as Japan. Their work has earned them praise from The Source, which wrote that if ‘‘Emiliano Zapata and Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara were alive today, Los Nativos would probably be there rap group of choice’’ (Trivin˜o). Their lyrics and music combine the various cultures, races, and ethnicities that make up their identities (Felipe, for instance, is Chicano and Black) and incorporate traditional Mexican music and languages, especially the Nawat language, into their beats and rhymes. Unabashedly oppositional in their politics, Los Nativos attempts to unite the indigenous Indian communities from across North and South America, wherever they may be. They have organized an Anti-Columbus Day event for the past five years, and Felipe cofounded the Multicultural Indigenous Academy in St. Paul, which aims to teach students of different cultures through culture, not just about culture, as well as building understanding and alliances between groups that may not normally interact with each other. One of the key figures of the national homo-hop movement, marginalized due to the pervasive homophobia of many hip hop artists, is Tori Fixx (1974–). Raised in Minneapolis, the MC, DJ, and producer, Fixx got his start DJing with Prince at Paisley Park, before moving out to San Francisco and joining one of the first homo hop groups, Rainbow Flava. After returning to Minneapolis to work as a DJ and producer, he also founded US2 Records, which represents other national queer hip hop artists. Fixx actively works to foster a musical community beyond the Twin Cities, evidenced by an event he organized last summer. After a screening of Alex Hinton’s documentary Pick Up the Mic, which examines the past and present of American homo hop, Fixx helped organize a concert with many of the

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FIRST AVENUE Made famous by Prince’s Purple Rain in 1984, downtown Minneapolis’s First Avenue began its life as a Greyhound bus depot in the 1937, before being opened as a club under the name The Depot on April 3, 1970. It went through a number of name changes until it was christened ‘‘First Avenue’’ in 1981. Since that time, the venue has become the pinnacle of success for Twin Cities artists. The club is divided into two spaces, the Mainroom, which holds around 1,500 people, and the smaller 7th St. Entry, which holds roughly 250. Numerous hip hop groups have played First Avenue, including Run DMC and Public Enemy, who played memorable concerts. Jam Master Jay’s turntables were suspended from the ceiling, since the stage moved so much that the records skipped; when Public Enemy performed, they had to literally tiptoe on the stage to avoid making Terminator X’s records skip (Scholtes ‘‘First Love’’). Other groups to perform at First Avenue are The Roots, Wu-Tang Clan—both together and individually—Aesop Rock, and Ice Cube, whose 1992 concert ended in a riot that temporarily suspended hip hop shows at the venue. The 7th Street Entry, while also hosting smaller national acts, is often a space for less-known or new Twin Cities hip hop artists to get exposure to a wider audience. One of the most memorable events with Twin Cities hip hop occurred in January of 2005 when Atmosphere performed a sold-out eight-night stand, reminiscent of a similar series of shows performed by the Replacements in 1985. First Avenue also hosts the Twin Cities Celebration of Hip hop, a three-day festival that not only takes over the club’s two venues, but also the surrounding streets for workshops and performances.

artists from the film, including Deadlee, the Aggracyst, and Katastrophe. He has released six albums that have traversed hip hop and house music; the title song of his latest album Code Red (2007), was written in response to Tim Hardaway’s comments against homosexuality. Fixx, however, has had little collaborative contact with the rest of the Twin Cities hip hop scene, in no small part on account of the pervasive homophobia that marks nearly all hip hop, including antihomosexual feelings within the Twin Cities hip hop scene itself. Due to the work of these and other artists, the Twin Cities have become one of the top independent hip hop scenes in the nation in the eyes of the larger independent rap community. Like everything else pertaining to Twin Cities hip hop, the future of it lies both inside and outside the Cities themselves, not only how the music is viewed by the larger nation (and the world), but also how the scene itself continues to thrive.

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The Twin Cities hip hop scene, represented especially by Rhymesayers, is in a position to gain more exposure than ever before. In March of 2007, Rhymesayers signed a major distribution deal with the Alternative Distribution Alliance (ADA), run by Warner Brothers’ Independent Label Group. The ADA has become a leader in independent music distribution, both physical and digital, with hip hop artists such as Madlib, Sage Francis, the RZA, as well as artists and groups outside of hip hop, including Spoon, Arcade Fire, and The New Pornographers, in its ranks. Rhymesayers has never been associated with a major label before, although every one has come calling in attempt to sign Atmosphere. This deal is unique in that it allows Rhymesayers to buy the promotion and distribution services of a major label if desired, and even sign a Rhymesayers artist to a major-label contract, but they are not tied to the label on a daily basis, creatively or otherwise. Such a deal offers Rhymesayers the ability to remain as independent as they wish, yet gives them the opportunity to distribute its records to more places than ever before. While national and international visibility is a goal for many Twin Cities artists, many also recognize the necessity of building and supporting younger artists who will continue and develop the scene. Artists such as I Self Divine, Desdamona, Maria Isa, Felipe Cuauthil, Carnage Big Quarters, and others teach hip hop classes to children ranging from grade school to high school, both in schools and community centers across the Twin Cities. Such programs encourage participation and fosters greater understanding of hip hop and what it (and its practitioners) can do for the communities of Minneapolis and St. Paul. Such an emphasis on building a community ties in more generally to the strength of local neighborhoods within the Twin Cities. A number of organizations use hip hop to help the communities of the Twin Cities, as well as its residents. One of the most prominent is Yo! The Movement. The organization, begun in 1995 by Dick Mammen, facilitates a number of youth-based programs in the Twin Cities, but is best known for the annual Twin Cities Celebration of Hip hop, now in its sixth year. Featuring performances by acts from the Twin Cities and across the country (past headliners have included Slick Rick, MC Lyte, Jean Grey, and Naughty By Nature) the festival also includes roundtable discussions about issues within and beyond hip hop, including the myths of street credibility, the relationship of generation hip hop to the civil rights era, and ways to end youth violence. The third hip hop festival, held in 2005, was even declared a ‘‘Hip hop Weekend’’ by Minneapolis mayor R. T. Rybak. A emphasis on the larger communities of the Twin Cities was also on display following the collapse of the I-35W bridge on August 1, 2007, as many artists and venues coordinated benefit concerts to help victims and victims’ families. Focusing on communities outside of the mainstream geographic axes of the hip hop nation such as the Twin Cities can say much about where that nation’s been and where it might be going. It not only shows the rapid spread of hip hop, as well

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as the internal tensions that such expansion brings with it, but also the ability of hip hop to affect and influence more people than ever before, as well as create the conditions for social change. All of these elements of hip hop are present within the Twin Cities, and despite all of the changes that the scene has undergone, the undeniably talented and broad scene has proven that its sounds and messages can reach hearts and ears well beyond the shores of the 10,000 lakes.

REFERENCES Arnold, Eric K. ‘‘Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN: A Tale of Twin Cities.’’ The Source, June 1999, 113–14. Brother Ali. ‘‘Hip Hop Quotable.’’ The Source, August 2007, 86. Caramanica, Jon. ‘‘Emo Rap: Up from the Underground.’’ Spin, February 2004, 70–73. Cooper, Martha. We B*Girlz. New York: Powerhouse Books, 2005. Flores, Juan. From Bomba to Hip Hop. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Forman, Murray. The ’Hood Comes First: Race, Space, and Place in Rap and Hip Hop. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2002. Johnson, Dirk. ‘‘Nice City’s Nasty Distinction: Murders Soar in Minneapolis.’’ New York Times, June 30, 1996, 1. McPherson, Steve. ‘‘Inside Rhymesayers.’’ Pulse of the Twin Cities, March 5, 2006. Ricketts, Dave. ‘‘Here Comes the Sun: After a Decade Underground, The Micranots Are Ready to Shine.’’ LifeSucksDie, Winter 2000, 14–15, 52. Rivera, Raquel. New York Ricans from the Hip Hop Zone. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. Scholtes, Peter S. ‘‘Doomsday!’’ City Pages, March 3, 2004. ———. ‘‘First Love: The Oral History of First Avenue.’’ City Pages, September 3, 2003. ———. ‘‘One Nation, Invisible: The Untold Story of Local Hip hop.’’ City Pages, August 18, 2004. ———. ‘‘Rhyme Out of Joint.’’ City Pages, July 5, 2000. ———. ‘‘Varsity Cheer.’’ City Pages, March 9, 2005. http://www.citypages.com/ 2005-03-09/arts/varsity-cheer/. Sperounes, Sandra. ‘‘Patron Saint of the Angry Man.’’ The Edmonton Journal, March 19, 2004, E1. Terhark, Chuck. ‘‘One Nation, Under Ground.’’ City Pages, August 4, 2004. http:// www.citypages.com/2004-08-04/arts/one-nation-under-ground/.

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Trivin˜o, Jesus. ‘‘Los Nativos.’’ The Source, December 2003. http://www.losnativos .com/press.htm. Wright, Toki. Personal interview. July 22, 2007.

FURTHER RESOURCES ARTICLES Anderson, Kyle. ‘‘Slug: Music That Changed My Life.’’ Spin, December 2005, 50. Daley, Sean. ‘‘Got Punk?’’ Spin, September 2004, 100–102, 104, 106. Diers, James. ‘‘It Takes a City of 366,000 to Hold Us Back.’’ City Pages, August 27, 1997. Reeves, Marcus. ‘‘Regional Scenes.’’ In The Vibe History of Hip Hop, edited by Alan Light, 216–27. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1999. Scholtes, Peter S. ‘‘Blazin’ on $20 a Day.’’ City Pages, September 17, 2003. ———. ‘‘Give Me the B-Boys and Free My Soul.’’ City Pages, August 31, 2005. ———. ‘‘And on the Ninth Day Sean Rested.’’ City Pages, January 19, 2005. ———. Where the Ladies At?: The Battles and Breaks behind the First Female Hip-Hop Festival.’’ City Pages June 7, 2007.

FILMS Hinton, Alex. Pick Up the Mic: The Evolution of Homohop. Rhino Films, 2006. Steelman, Austyn. Exposing Headshots: Hip Hop Below 0°. Overgreenland Productions, 2006.

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY Abstract Pack Bousta Set It (For the Record). Self-released, 1998. Atmosphere Overcast. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 1997. Lucy Ford: The Atmosphere EPs. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 2001. Godlovesugly. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 2002. Seven’s Travels. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 2003. You Can’t Imagine How Much Fun We’re Having. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 2005. Beyond Comparison. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 1996. Be-Sides. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 1999.

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Brother Ali Shadows on the Sun. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 2003. The Undisputed Truth. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 2007. Carnage Sense of Sound. Hecatomb, 2007. Desdamona The Ledge. Zlink Entertainment, 2005. The Source. FS Music, 2007. Dessa False Hopes. Doomtree, 2005. The Dynospectrum The Dynospectrum. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 1998. Eyedea The Many Faces of Oliver Hart. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 2002. Eyedea and Abilities First Born. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 2001. E&A. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 2004. Heiruspecs Small Steps. Interlock Records, 2002. A Tiger Dancing. Razor & Tie, 2004. I Self Divine Self-Destruction. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 2005. Kanser Inner City Outer Space. Interlock, 2000. Quintessential. Interlock, 2001. It Wrote Itself. Interlock, 2002. Self-Titled. Interlock, 2005. Maria Isa M.I. Split Personalities. Emetrece Productions, 2007. P.O.S. Audition. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 2006. Rhymesayers Entertainment Headshots, Volume 1: WBBOY Sessions. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 1993. Headshots, Volume 2: Arrogance. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 1994. Headshots, Volume 3: Compensation. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 1995. Headshots, Volume 4: History. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 1996. Headshots, Volume 5: Effort. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 1997. Headshots, Volume 6: Industrial Warfare. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 1998. Headshots, Volume 7: Se7en. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 1999. Semi-Official The Anti-Album. Rhymesayers Entertainment, 2003.

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Tori Fixx Marry Me. US2 Records, 2005. Truth Maze Expansions and Contractions: Psoems 1:1. Tru´ Ru´ts/Speakeasy Records, 2006. Various Artists Interlock, Volume 1. Interlock, 1999. Call It What You Want. Interlock, 2006.

CHAPTER 16 Welcome to tha D: Making and Remaking Hip Hop Culture in Post-Motown Detroit Carleton S. Gholz If Detroit had not existed, hip hop’s first generation in Uptown Manhattan and the Bronx would have to have invented it. Musically Detroit has had tremendous influence on the sound of hip hop, including the 1960s soul sound of record labels like Motown, the 1970s funk provided by artists like George Clinton and his Parliament-Funkadelic, and the 1980s proto-techno acts like Juan Atkins’ work in the groups Cybotron and later Model 500. Detroit’s wider cultural legacy has also greatly influenced hip hop since its early days, especially in its subject matter and through the wide dissemination of books by Detroit’s pimp-turned-novelist Donald Goines. This is not to mention the influence of Detroit as a spectacle of post-World War II industrial demise and social meltdown caused by joblessness, drugs, and structural racism. This latter influence has come out most notably in Barry Michael Copper’s screenplay for the 1991 hip hop stylized film New Jack City which was largely based on 1980s Detroit famous crack dealers The Chambers Brothers, and, of course, Eminem’s semiautobiographical film 8 Mile in 2003. Despite these, and many other Detroit-based influences, hip hop itself did not start in Detroit. Moreover, Detroit was relatively slow in picking up on the genre of rap as its favored musical interest so Detroit had a long period before it established its own, locally popular, rap scene. Despite ephemeral rap music singles and albums going back into the early and mid-1980s, rap did not dominate Detroit’s airwaves or clubs until the late 1990s, even though Detroit had a sizeable African American market and major hip hop artists toured the region since the early 1980s. Instead, Detroit’s early appreciation of hip hop music focused on the electro sound of New York labels such as Tommy Boy, which featured artists like Afrika Bambaataa & The Soulsonic Force. This electro music—based on reoccurring synthesizer vamps, pounding bass beats, short snare claps, and cymbal-like crashes provided by drum machines, like the Roland 808—had far more influence initially on Detroit ears then early rap. It would take years of dissemination and incubation before the Detroit area could offer its own version of rap music tied to 393

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an organic hip hop movement within its neighborhoods. When Detroit hip hop finally did reach a critical mass in the early 1990s, the impact would be felt around the world, with groundbreaking acts like Esham, Boss, Jay Dee, Slum Village, and Eminem proving that the city was not just living in its musical past but charting out hip hop’s future.

1980–1983 In 1980, just a year after Sugarhill Gang’s ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ became a national hit, New Yorker Duane ‘‘Spyder D.’’ Hughes cowrote and performed the song ‘‘Big Apple Rappin’ ’’ while attending college in Michigan, and released it via a new record label started by his mother, Doris Hughes. (the record was rereleased in 2006 as the title-track on a double-disc archival compilation by England’s Soul Jazz Records). The track, a 10-minute plus, funky, synthesizer-filled tourist brochure, mentions New York City landmarks, neighborhoods, DJs, and MCs, as well as the Big Apple’s proclivities for crime and fun. Ironically though the track featured former Motown bass player Billy ‘‘Motley’’ Wilson, current head of the Motown Alumni Association, and the label was named Newtroit. Eventually Spyder D. would hop from label to label throughout the 1980s, and Newtroit would release only one record. This little-told story of ‘‘Big Apple Rappin’ ’’ illustrates a major negative factor working against early Detroit rap music: the lack of a nationally significant record industry presence, a deficit that began with Motown Records’ departure in 1972. Despite the high quality of the musicians still available in the former Motown the evisceration of the indigenous hit-making infrastructure, so famous throughout the world in the 1960s, made something like Spyder D.’s career untenable in Detroit. Returning to New York City created the possibility of a major record deal. Detroit’s dearth of popular rap artists though did not stop the ascendance, through radio, of a new style of DJing influenced by hip hop. Detroit audience’s focus on the dance music sound emerging in early hip hop from New York, Los Angeles and, later, Miami, was greatly stimulated by two major radio forces: The Electrifying Mojo and The Wizard. Charles ‘‘Electrifying Mojo’’ Johnson ruled Detroit’s airwaves in the late 1970s and early 1980s on the radio station WJLB. Mojo, with his deep, spectral-sounding voice and studio effects, famously encouraged listeners to help him land the Mothership (a direct allusion to the fantasies of Detroit’s famous funk band Parliament-Funkadelic) by shining flashlights out their bedroom windows and blinking the lights on their cars. While that was occurring, Mojo would play an all-embracing set list that could range from soul music to classic rock to early local electro within minutes. Only a few years after making the transition to the FM dial in 1979 Mojo had a competitor in Jeff ‘‘The Wizard’’ Mills. Hired in the mid-1980s by WJLB’s FM competitor WDRQ, The Wizard went head-to-head with Mojo but not by talking. Instead, the then teenage Mills brought a new hip hop style out of local clubs and cabarets to the studios of WDRQ

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and then later in the 1980s at WJLB after Mojo had left. This fast-paced mixing style, in which Mills would mix individual records together for only seconds, as opposed to minutes, before throwing them aggressively onto the DJ-booth floor, quickly became legendary. Using multiple turntables, drum machines, eight-track effects, as well as other sound-recording equipment, Mills created a robust sonic collage that highlighted the slick, percussion heavy, technologically advanced sounds of early hip hop music. Before radio stations had a format for hip hop music, mix-shows filled the vacuum, and Mills was the preeminent pioneer in Detroit. Mojo and The Wizard were quintessential to bringing early hip hop records and DJ styles budding in New York to a mass audience in Detroit. From music producer Jay Dee and his progeny’s soulful sampling in their underground rap songs, to the local dance-floor friendly ghettotech DJs with their emphasis on scratching records speeding by at 150 beats per minute, to Dabrye’s synthesizer heavy laptop programming and its emphasis on distortion and off-kilter structures, many contemporary Detroit hip hop artists have drawn energy from the Mojo vs. Mills battles of the 1980s. The era eventually came to an end in the late 1980s and early 1990s as the pressures of media conglomeration brought Detroit’s unruly musical mixing in line with national rap and R&B formats dictated from the coasts. But through the circulation of radio mixes and folklore, Mojo and Wizard’s nimble skills and encyclopedic knowledge of Motown, rock, funk, electro, and hip hop established the horizon for rhythmic creation in Detroit.

1984–1990 Because of the influence of young DJs like The Wizard, music at local parties and cabarets heavily favored electro artists and break-neck DJing. There were few would-be rappers and those that existed would have to appeal to local tastes in a place where the DJ was king. These early MCs, like Prince Vince and Merciless Amir, therefore had to find their audience not in the party scene but on different media outlets and on the streets, neighborhoods, and basements of Detroit. One such place where rap music would be featured was on WGPR radio’s TV affiliate, one of the oldest black-owned TV stations in the country. ‘‘The Scene,’’ one of WGPR’s most popular shows from 1975 to 1987, was Detroit’s version of the nationally popular dance music show ‘‘Soul Train.’’ ‘‘The Scene’’ with its host Nat Morris, later to be rechristened as ‘‘The New Dance Show’’ and hosted by R. J. Watkins, became a Detroit institution. Starting in the early 1980s, its theme song, ‘‘Flamethrower Rap,’’ written by Felix & Jarvis and produced by now famous rock producer and former Detroiter Don Was, highlighted the show’s openness to new music. According to local hip hop historian Khary Turner, in the 1980s the show also gave young Detroit rappers like Mark ‘‘Gallo’’ Legree and Woody Easter cameos, eventually inspiring a segment called ‘‘Rap-A-Dance’’ in which local rappers would battle. Though national acts that came through town could also

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be seen on the show, these ‘‘Rap-A-Dance’’ segments were the first televised images of locally based rap talent, providing a major inspiration. WGPR’s radio station was also important in supporting early rap efforts with DJ Billy T’s ‘‘The Rap Blast’’ and ‘‘Billy T’s Basement Tapes,’’ starting in the mid-1980s and extending into the early 1990s. A new generation of Detroit rappers raised on ‘‘The Scene’’ and DJ Billy T— and conscious of Detroit’s fast-paced, bass-heavy tastes—emerged in the late 1980s. For example, Papa J. Smoove, who shared a record label with another local rap group, Rap Mafia, on Hittin’ Home Records, peppered his rhymes about lyrically battling with the devil in the midst of an electro beat on ‘‘Keep Dancin’’ (1990). Similarly, female rapper Smiley’s ‘‘Smiley But Not Friendly’’ (1990) found her streaking her vocals on top of electronic drum rolls. The track was recorded for the Detroit-based label Bryant Records, headed by former studio musician Joel H. Bryant, and was remixed by The Wizard himself (see Women Artists). Rapper J. to the D.’s ‘‘Sack Chaser’’ (1990) included a slow version and fast mix from his album Living on the Edge that was distributed by Atlanta’s independent Ichiban Records. The fast version barely allows enough time for the artist to level his disses against the ‘‘skeeze’’ who pursues him. These early rap artists came dance-ready with their hits and New York-styled deliveries. However a more street-oriented realism and slower, funkier approach was making permanent inroads with Detroit-area audiences. After years of experiencing Reagan and Bush economic policies and drug war tactics, not to mention suffering through Detroit’s own chaotic local budgeting, politics and police, audiences were primed for a tougher message. A group of local artists with a swagger in their style and rhymes offered Detroiters a funkier, more militant, visage. The aforementioned Prince Vince sampled P-Funk’s hit ‘‘Flashlight’’ for his major label single ‘‘Gangster Funk’’ (1988) for Mercury records. Another group, Awesome Dre & the Hardcore Committee sampled ‘‘Pick Up the Pieces’’ by the funky Average White Band for its boasting rap on the signature cut on ‘‘You Can’t Hold Me Back’’ (Bentley Records/Priority). Though sampling such an obvious funk standard at the time may not seem so revolutionary, the trench coats and sunglasses the front man Awesome Dre wore seemed very serious—as did the image of him holding two gang members hostage by gun point, Detroit’s skyline behind him, on the cover of their 1988 album for the nationally distributed Los Angeles label Priority. And despite the obvious New York rap influences on label-mates E.Z. B and DJ Los, the rap group Kaos & Mystro transcended coastal influences through their political visibility in Detroit’s larger community (see Kaos & Mystro). By the late 1980s, Detroit rap acts were finally articulating a larger culture of hip hop, with fashion styles, personal histories, lyrical flows, and sonic inventions that reflected a deep commitment to hip hop as a complete lifestyle. Three of these rap artists, A.W.O.L., Detroit’s Most Wanted, and Esham, could be seen as tipping points that brought something different to Detroit hip hop that would have long-

Welcome to tha D | 397 term effects (see AWOL, Detroit’s Most Wanted and Esham). Detroit hip hop was finally a musical force to contend with regionally and was beginning to pique the interest of national audiences, helping a new generation of MCs and hip hop producers in Detroit to chart their own paths.

1991–1996 With full-length albums from Kaos & Mystro, E.Z. B. & DJ Los, Awesome Dre, J. to the D., Kid Rock, Esham, ICP, Smiley, A.W.O.L., and DMW in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it’s clear that stylistically and culturally Detroit hip hop was finding its legs. Somehow, though, Detroit’s first national success came north of 8 Mile —the long road that marks the city’s northern border (see 8 Mile)—when Flintnative Eric ‘‘MC’’ Breed’s funk-heavy song ‘‘Ain’t No Future in Your Frontin’ ’’ (1991) became a national hit. Flint’s denizens had caught many of the same hip hop bugs as Detroit and, as represented in films like Roger and Me (1989) by Michael Moore, had many of the same postindustrial difficulties as Detroit, the larger city an hour to the south. ‘‘That’s Life’’ off of Breed’s 1991 album MC Breed and DFC shouted out Flint over all other geographies (‘‘I ain’t speaking on Compton, L.A., Detroit, NYC/Man I’m talking about Flint.’’). But Breed’s stylistic focus on creating a hybrid Flint rap sound would die hard as he began to work with West Coast and Southern rappers in the 1990s. Breed’s deepest commitment musically was former Detroiter George Clinton who Breed sampled throughout his career and worked with on the commercially successful Funkafied (1994). Breed brought the Midwest and, indirectly, Detroit to a national stage, performed and rapped with some of the biggest names in hip hop, and despite leaving the area for significant portions of his career, held down the funk in the region’s sonic heritage. One possible explanation why Flint had a rap hit before Detroit was that dance music genres like techno and house were being sought after from Detroit—not rap. In 1988 Techno!: The New Dance Sound from Detroit on England’s Virgin Records was released. The English had picked up techno fever through clubs like Manchester’s Hacienda where mid-1980s Detroit dance tracks, soon to be marketed as techno, kept an ecstatic dance scene humming. Internationally, journalists of this ‘‘new’’ dance music accepted a distinction between techno and rap in Detroit, despite the fact that both genres, at least in Detroit, took initial cues from DJs like the Electrifying Mojo. What was an aesthetic distinction in Europe, though, had a lot to do with class distinctions in Detroit. Some flyers from early techno dance events had explicitly banned ‘‘jits,’’ a derogatory term for undesirable elements from Detroit’s black working class youth. Of course, these same supposed undesirables were some of the same youth that turned to hip hop. But at local dance clubs like the famous Music Institute in downtown Detroit, founded by Detroit disco and house-lovers and DJed by the likes of techno producer Derrick May, this classist stance against hip hop culture spilled on to the dance floor: no rap was tolerated.

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8 MILE The broad media perception of 8 Mile is hard to balance with the local experience of the street’s economic, racial, and visual diversity. How, for instance to balance Dogmatic’s ‘‘8 Mile Road’’ from 8 Mile Chronicles (2005), where the long-time MC mentions the 8 Mile Skoneys, one of Detroit’s many 1980’s era gangs, and fallen friends, with the impression of middle-class normality of many 8 Mile neighborhoods? The answer is not to choose. One can see middle-class neighborhoods (especially west of Woodward Avenue, the arbitrary border between Detroit’s Eastside and Westside), and abandoned buildings, strip clubs that neighborhoods wish were not next door, and old jazz clubs that should probably be on the nationally historic register, all within one car ride. The survey line for the Northwestern Territory in 1787 (8 Mile’s other name is ‘‘Base Line Road’’ because of this connection), the road is legally and symbolically the border that separates Detroit from its northern neighbors. It also connects the glorious old-money environs of Grosse Pointe at the end of the road to the east, to the World War II-era plants on the street’s north side in Warren, to the Cold War era malls of the street’s west side in Southfield. Driving and stopping along 8 Mile’s length, more than wallowing in its televisual image, presents a strong argument for the street as not merely a door to understand Detroit but also to understand America in the twentieth century. The danger though is to believe in the surfaces that slide by the car window, something that recent media and even local attentions have fallen prey to. Proof was killed in a club on East 8 Mile in the spring of 2006, a tragedy that did not encourage nuanced evaluations of 8 Mile’s reputation. More recently, according to Rodd Monts, the road has gone through a number of surface improvements due to the help of the Eight Mile Boulevard Association. 8 Mile—as well as greater Detroit—is neither merely saint nor sinner. How to reflect beyond good and evil? Get in your car . . . but roll down the window.

If international consumption patterns and local class tensions were not enough, the white DJ turned MC Kid Rock, one of the first rappers from Detroit to sign a national record label deal, had his career derailed in the backlash over white rapper Vanilla Ice. The Dallas native had famously lied about his background, destroying his credibility, and putting a cloud over any white rapper’s claims to hip hop authenticity. The result for Detroit’s Kid Rock was the muting of his early major label success and the splitting up of his own local crew. He would only reemerge in the late 1990s after revamping his sound and performing on MTV shows, linking his career with the rise of ‘‘rap-rock’’ groups like Limp Bizkit (see The

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Insane Clown Posse (Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images)

Blackman). For the rest of the scene, a well-documented collapse of national rap tours at the time made it difficult for even larger local groups to get any national coverage. Record label buy-outs and shutdowns inspired by corporate conglomeration and the tightening of the airwaves due to the rise of companies like Clear Channel, would virtually guarantee that ‘‘regional’’ hip hop artists would not surface successfully until the late 1990s. If Detroit artists were going to succeed, they would have to define success on their own terms. There were multiple strategies. Some artists like Kid Rock and Boss picked up and left in order to pursue coastal opportunities (see The Blackman). Others responded by gathering around Maurice Malone’s early 1990s nomadic hip hop party, the Rhythm Kitchen, which finally settled at The Hip Hop Shop (see The Hip Hop Shop). This ‘‘Golden Age’’ community, which included a poetry scene (see sidebar: Spectacles), provided a place where local MCs could develop their skills with a small but dedicated audience inspired by the global explosion of hip hop culture. While these scenes were predominantly black, the culture, from B-Boying to beats, crossed over at places like Alvin’s, a club near Wayne State University, with its Family Funktion Wednesdays. Featuring DJs Ron ‘‘Papa Ron’’ Olson, Brian Gillespie, Alvin ‘‘Munk’’ Hill, and Jim Stone, the night of diverse musical sounds, from Acid Jazz to hip hop, started off as a one-off record release party in the spring of 1995; by popular demand the night did not end until almost three years later. Family Funktion, unlike the Music Institute, mixed genres bringing a diverse group of music lovers—black, white,

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THE HIP HOP SHOP The Hip Hop Shop (1993–1997), located at 15736 West 7 Mile Road and started by Maurice Malone, was the center of Detroit’s underground hip hop community during its golden age. In an interview Malone discussed the shop, Detroit hip hop, and his relationship to it. Malone was a long-time member of Detroit’s post-Motown music scene since the early 1980s. He first started as a party promoter in high school within the nascent techno scene before discovering fashion design as a practical passion. In 1989 he started a members-only loft party called Underground Nation in downtown Detroit. An outgrowth of his fashion interests, the party featured techno and house music and inspired many in the early rave scene. But it was his early 1990s travels to New York and Brooklyn in order to push his line of jeans that changed his musical allegiances. There he connected with that city’s hip hop culture, with artists like A Tribe Called Quest’s Q-Tip and attending parties that looked and sounded like little he had seen in Detroit. The experience encouraged Malone to try to throw parties with rap performances back in Detroit. By the fall of 1991 Malone was back in Detroit in order to bring what he had seen in NYC back with him. With a new partner, Tracey ‘‘Trac Bryd’’ Byrd, Malone started the Rhythm Kitchen. Though associated with Stanley’s Chinese Restaurant, the Rhythm Kitchen was more of a production company than a physical space that would throw open mic parties and promote rap concerts, like Gang Starr and Leaders of the New School, at bigger venues in town. At the open mics, Malone would DJ, this time as DJ Soul Finger, with an MC performance in the middle. It was these performances, many at Stanley’s and later at The Hip Hop Shop, where the likes of Phat Kat met people like Jay Dee, Proof hosted battles with Eminem, and local heroes Laswunzout featuring Loe Louis would bubble on the brink of success. Detroit’s nascent hip hop scene, with Malone’s forward thinking, had found a formula that was working. The blueprint for the shop was the sale of Malone’s jeans and other hip hop culture specific commodities with open mic battles on Saturday afternoons. B-Boys danced in the shop, while on Saturday evenings from 5 to 7 PM rap battles raged overseen by long-time employee Proof. Shoppers came from everywhere since the shop was, according to Malone unique in the entire world in the early 1990s. It was wholly dedicated to hip hop culture, a place where visitors could hang out with MCs, buy hip hop fashion, and talk about hip hop culture, as well as battle your way to a Hip Hop Shop T-shirt (and bragging rights). To illustrate the point, Wu-Tang Clan came by just to check the store and liked it so much they were willing to play a concert for free. Malone set up the show at the Music Institute space on Broadway downtown, a space that had been central to the height of the techno scene.

Welcome to tha D | 401 The Shop had made it possible. Tags from all over the world filled the dressing room walls and everyone who was there who is still making music cites it as an influence. Malone closed The Hip Hop Shop and went back to New York City in 1997. Much to Malone’s chagrin, a shop with the same name opened in 2005 under different management but has since closed. Over the years, other venues, like the Wired Frog in Eastpointe, and even Proof’s Fight Club nights held downtown near his Iron Fist offices attempted to take over the open mic scene after the Shop’s closing. A lone video of Eminem and Proof at The Hip Hop Shop now sits on Maurice Malone’s ‘‘Hip Hop Shop by Maurice Malone’’ Web site copyrighted in 2004, a placeholder for Malone’s plans for reopening The Hip Hop Shop as a worldwide franchise.

gay and straight—together. According to cofounder Stone, ‘‘Everyone was hungry for something new and different.’’ These venues would eventually produce many of the artists now considered to represent Detroit hip hop, from Slum Village to Eminem. But this underground scene, convinced of its own authenticity and largely shut out from larger corporate opportunities on national labels or even local radio, was largely invisible and impenetrable to outsiders. The result was that even at its creative height in the mid-1990s, Detroit’s underground could not make either Eminem’s Infinite (1996) or Slum Village’s Fantastic Vol. 1 (1997) hits outside its own environs. Instead, another even more unlikely ‘‘underground’’ scene in Detroit was getting their group a major label deal and four straight gold and platinum records. Spurned by the local rap underground and ignored initially by national labels, Insane Clown Posse (ICP) chose to focus their attention on growing a loyal fan-base with obsessive local promotion, interactive high-energy stage-shows, and numerous giveaways and collectibles revolving around their Esham and Geto Boys inspired ‘‘horrorcore’’ sound. The loosely defined genre featured sexualized tales of murder and mayhem, most of them screamed by vile-mouthed, angry young men, over methodical, dirge-like production. Many in the Detroit area loved it. The result was an audience that at least in numbers was the envy of every rap group in Detroit.

1997–2006 While ICP and its diehard fans, called Juggalos, were expanding regionally and The Hip Hop Shop regulars were honing their skills locally, it was the Detroit mass’s commitment to DJs and dance music exemplified by the genre that has come to be known as ghettotech that made for true crossover musical excitement in the mid-1990s (see Ghettotech). But ghettotech by itself did not become commercially mainstream despite its infectious sound and its—at least local—

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SPECTACLES With Maurice Malone long gone from the Detroit scene, the best place to dip into Detroit’s blend of urban culture and style is at the place where Malone debuted his merchandise before The Hip Hop Shop ever existed: Spectacles. Located on 230 East Grand River in a downtown shopping area called Harmonie Park, Spectacles features up-to-date street fashion and accessories from across the country and in Detroit, as well as music, magazines, and books. In other words, it’s the perfect place to buy an outfit for Saturday night as well as buy copies of Donald Goines’ books. The store’s owner, and former business manager for Malone, Zana Smith, has been involved in small businesses in Detroit since the 1970s, eventually becoming a club promoter that worked with proto-techno DJs after the fall of disco in the late 1970s. As a sign of her long-standing reputation in this area, the last time Jeff ‘‘The Wizard’’ Mills came ‘‘home’’ to play Detroit in 2008 it was at a show promoted by Smith. Smith was also critically involved in the Detroit’s nascent poetry scene in the early 1990s. Inspired by the New York poetry scene, local poets and emcees had begun to recite their poetry and verses when they came into Smith’s shop which led her to start a Tuesday night event at the recently opened Pour’ Me Cafe´ downtown in 1994. What started as an off-night experiment became the venue’s strongest night and another spark for the local scene. After a falling out with the cafe, Smith moved the night to Carl and Cyrus Shaw’s Cafe´ Mahogany where it ran for approximately three years under her guidance. These years saw artists like Proof, Black Thought, Common, Jay Dee, Dwele, and many others hone and show off their emerging skills in a vivrant scene that complimented what was going on at venues like The Hip Hop Shop. After Smith left the night it continued, this time under the direction of Girard Ivory, DJ Carl ‘‘The Invisible Man’’ and Fluent, until the venue closed shortly after getting a liquor license in the late 1990s. Dwele’s song, ‘‘Lady of Mahogany,’’ off of Subject (Virgin, 2003), pays tribute to the venue (‘‘While she’s getting’ the soda, I’m gonna slide to the sofa and proceed to kick monopoly to lady of Mahogany.’’) The poetry scene’s inspiration can be found in the more conscious moments of Mahogany-regulars Slum Village’s work as well. The musicians from Mahogany’s later years—a group that includes rapper and freelance writer Khary Turner—would go on to form The Black Bottom Collective. Smith, like she has since 1984, continues to throw parties and invite producers, DJs, poets, scene members and even tourists to interact under the elevated ceiling of her store.

Welcome to tha D | 403 crossover appeal. That would be left to artists like Eminem who were able take advantage of shifts at the center of youth marketing. The late 1990s saw the rise of what PBS correspondent Douglas Rushkoff in the 2001 documentary Merchants of Cool called the ‘‘mooks’’ and the ‘‘midriffs’’ as marketing terms in the wars over teenage dollars. The midriffs stereotype was provided by Brittney Spears and Christina Aguilera while the ‘‘mooks’’ were modeled after characters on MTV’s ‘‘Jackass’’ and ‘‘Tom Green Show.’’ This moment fit well with three Detroit acts, all of which were represented in the Billboard charts in the summer of 1999: Kid Rock, ICP, and Eminem. The first two artists began to expand their audience in time to rise with artists like Limp Bizkit at the large, nationally televised Woodstock 1999 concerts. But it was Eminem’s mushrooming popularity in 1999 that radically changed Detroit’s hip hop scene. Using his newly found commercial success, Eminem shepherded certain local artists onto an international arena while his mere presence in the media spotlight reflected attention onto Detroit’s wider culture, whether that attention was wanted or not (see Eminem). While Eminem’s major label success starting in 1999 eventually provided opportunities for his closest compatriots, like the members of D-12, it was Jay Dee’s rise as a top producer and master of the 1990’s sampling technology that moved another set of more independently minded artists to national and international exposure (see Jay Dee and Slum Village). Detroit-raised artists like Phat Kat (see Phat Kat), Guilty Simpson, Frank ’n’ Dank, Waajeed, Black Milk, and others regularly cite Dilla, even after his death in 2006, as a source for beats and inspiration. A series of independent labels—though few Detroit-based—have released records by these rappers, including San Francisco’s Look and Los Angeles’s Stones Throw. The result has been Detroit rap’s continuing underground popularity around the country and world. In early 2006, Detroit hip hop writer, fan, and Renaissance Soul Blog writer, Kelly ‘‘K-Fresh’’ Frazier argued this very point stating in an article from Real Detroit Weekly, ‘‘Detroit hip-hop has got its foot in the door in all aspects of the game. We have major label, national independent, regional and local releases. Our artists have the ability to pack crowds locally, as well as sell out venues worldwide. Unfortunately, none of this is accomplished on a reasonably consistent basis, and our ‘potential’ is limitless’’ (Frazier ‘‘Breakin’ Records’’). Beyond Hollywood films and still operating home studios, there has also been Detroit’s developing as a major front in the struggle over hip hop politics. In Hip Hop Matters (2005), author S. Craig Watkins describes the campaign, election, and administration of current Detroit Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick in 2002—Detroit’s ‘‘hip hop Mayor’’—as a case-study in the struggles over a post-Civil Rights agenda for those born in the age of hip hop. (187–92, 196–205) Kilpatrick, who is still in his thirties, has made Detroit youth a center of administration goals with his ‘‘Mayor’s Time’’ initiative, a program designed to address and engage Detroit youth by providing activities to fill teens’ potentially unstructured time after school (197–99). Watkins sees Kilpatrick then as a harbinger of a new, global as

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GHETTOTECH During the late 1990s it was the Detroit mass’s commitment to DJs and dance music exemplified in the ghettotech genre that made for true crossover musical excitement in the mid-1990s. A resurgence in the electro dance sound manipulated by a generation of DJs and producers raised on The Wizard but no longer forced to compete with him, ghettotech or booty music integrated cutting edge electronic music—from drum and bass to local Detroit techno—with dirty, bass-heavy homemade 12’’ records. According to ghettotech scholar Gavin Mueller, producers like Craig ‘‘DJ Assault’’ Adams and Ade ‘‘Mr. De’’ Mainor created tracks like ‘‘Ass ’n’ Titties’’ to be played and manipulated by a series of local new Wizards in local clubs and various radio stations across the FM dial. The only authenticity these booty-mixing soldiers—Wax-Tax-N-Dre, Don Q, Fingers, Zap, and Gary Chandler just to name a few—were interested in was outdoing each other and propelling crowds to dance. The result was that weekend nights in the mid-1990s on Detroit radio—and at radio-sponsored club nights— were venues for a tongue-in-cheek, sex-crazed musical genre that spoke across 8 Mile. Local record labels sprouted up to provide product, with Adams and Mainor’s Assault Rifle/Electrofunk label setting a high standard for low-down dirtiness. Two suburban labels also broke through with the sound. Brian Gillespie, Brian ‘‘DJ Godfather’’ Jeffries, and DJ Dick’s Twilight 76 took off by remixing Miami Bass records before producing their own, Detroit-style versions. Twilight 76 sold records like hot-cakes at local record stores. The short-lived, suburban Intuit-Solar also brought forth a DJ Assault LP, Jefferson Ave., in 2001. Few artists from this intensely Detroit-styled scene were able to crossover their local prowess into national success. There have been a few exceptions. ‘‘Ass ’n’ Titties’’ for one has become such a global hit that it was mentioned by the lead character in Gary Shentgart’s best-selling novel Absurdistan (2006). Another sign is that a Japanese company produced one of the few documentaries about the scene, The Godfather Chronicles. There was also the momentary success of the Detroit Grand Pubah’s ‘‘Sandwhiches,’’ an underground electro-booty pop hit (‘‘You can be the bun I can be the burger girl we can make sandwiches.’’) that eventually garnered the at the time two-man group—Andy Toth and Paris the Black Fu—a date on England’s ‘‘Top of the Pops.’’ The record was locally produced by Brian Gillespie’s Throw label and distributed by Twilight 76 before being picked up by the New York based Jive Electro. Another ghettotech artist, area native David ‘‘Disco D.’’ Shayman, produced the song ‘‘Ski Mask Way’’ off of 50 Cent’s The Massacre (2005). Ann Arbor-raised Shayman, who committed suicide in 2007, coined the term ghettotech, and was one of the few artists in the scene to crossover his rep as a booty DJ and producer into rap music production.

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well as national, hip hop politics rooted in youth and community activism. In a little over 10 years, from the mid-1990s production of Jay Dee to the mid-2000s with the world-conquering success of Eminem and rise of figures like Kilpatrick, Detroit had changed both the sonic landscape of hip hop and, for some, its politics.

ARIST PROFILES Women Artists Though the names that regularly surface in discussions of Detroit hip hop, from Awesome Dre to Eminem, are male, the scene has a noteworthy history of hip hop women. Local radio host Ms. Smiley’s rap career only amounted to a smattering of locally produced releases but what a career it was. Lynette ‘‘Smiley’’ Michaels’s The Smile Gets Wild (Bryant Records 1989), which featured the local hit, ‘‘Smiley But Not Friendly,’’ was produced by label-mate Duncan Hines of the group Detroit’s Most Wanted at a time when that seminal group had only one single. With remixes and radio play by The Wizard, the song, a response to 2 Live Crew’s ‘‘Get It Girl,’’ with its staccato-delivery from Smiley (‘‘I got a friendly face with an out-cold attitude.’’), is remembered as one of the first local rap singles to have gotten any notice. An earlier single had been even more explicit in its proto-rap-feminist take: ‘‘I Don’t Have 2 Sack 2 Collect.’’ Another female MC from that time, Kalimah ‘‘Nikki D./Eboni and Her Business’’ Johnson, is still in the scene as well. Johnson put out an early single as Nikki D. for Urban Suburban called ‘‘Work that Sucka’’ that got enough buzz for Johnson to be the opening act for artists like Public Enemy and Boogie Down Productions when they played in Detroit. But her career went south when a name dispute with another Nikki D. forced her to change her name. Then her album for World One Records, the same label that put out Kaos & Mystro’s full-length, garnered little attention. She rejoined the scene in the late 1990s when poetry was bubbling up in Detroit coffee houses and has recently hosted an open mic night in downtown Detroit. Just a few years later, Smiley’s sassiness would look like child’s play compared to that of Lichelle ‘‘Boss’’ Laws, the only Detroit artist featured in Tricia Rose’s seminal hip hop book, Black Noise (1994). It was Boss’s song ‘‘Recipe for a Hoe’’ from Born Gangstaz (Def Jam/Rush 1993), which sampled and teased the Geto Boys ‘‘You Gotta Let a Ho Be a Ho,’’ that gave Rose pause because of the tune’s lyrical ‘‘revenge fantasies’’ against misogynistic men. The album, in a similar vein, sported images of women with shotguns on the cover; perhaps this was not Rose’s idea of positive feminist rap. But for Detroiters there was more than just feminist politics at stake. Boss, along with her DJ, Irene ‘‘Dee’’ Moore, struggled but eventually signed with a major label, got three videos produced for their album, and worked with major artists, like Erick Sermon and MC Serch. She showed that someone from Detroit could make it—that Detroit had a hip hop community worth paying attention to. A product of Detroit Catholic Schools and

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community rap youth programs, Boss made her debut as ‘‘Lady the Boss’’ on the Knowledge Is Power (1990) local rap compilation put out by Ton Def, a label run by R. J. Rice (former manager of Slum Village and now head of Barak Records) and Jewel Silas. But it was Boss’s move to New York and years in L.A. that precipitated being signed by Def Jam, a deal that brought Boss a number one rap single with ‘‘Deeper’’ (1993). Boss eventually asked to be dropped from Def Jam and moved to Texas where she was radio host in the late 1990s. Further professional and medical problems—she had to have a kidney transplant—stalled Boss’s career. Laws recently resurfaced in 2007 as a rapper on a verse for ‘‘Detroit Stand Up,’’ a track and video set up by Esham to unite Westside and Eastside rappers with artists like Big Herk, Al Nuke, and Proof, amongst others. Her flow, as well as her dark sunglasses in the video, were still intact. The year after Boss’s full-length release, female vocalist and Detroit-raised Aaliyah, who died in a plane crash in 2001, made her MTV debut with her street-savvy R&B song, ‘‘Age Ain’t Nothing But a Number.’’ In a move for local authenticity, the video featured Proof and others wearing Hip Hop Shop T-shirts. At the same time, Kori ‘‘BombShell’’ Blake was having a local hit with ‘‘What You Gonna Do? (You Can’t Get Wit The BombShell)’’ produced by techno producer Anthony Shakir. Though her career did not take off, she has had a recent revival with her album Rhapsody (2007). Though Detroit’s hip hop scene stayed underground in the 1990s, when it finally surfaced nationally women came with it. 8 Mile (2002) showed off a number of local residents and artists in short cameos but only a few got to freestyle in the same space as Eminem during the shoots. One of them was Miz Korona, who is seen rap battling Xzibit in the film. Formerly known as Pimpette before changing her performance name to Korona, she bubbled in the local open mic scene in the late 1990s and early 2000s before stepping out in the film. As for the future of Detroit women in hip hop, there is Invincible, an artist who mentions feminist-critic Audre Lorde and Detroit’s own militant techno group Underground Resistance on her Myspace page. She has only recently released a full-length LP but has already had a career that goes back to the late 1990s when she lived in New York City and hooked up with an all-female hip hop crew called Anomolies. In Detroit she dropped some verses on Paradime’s ‘‘Paragraphs’’ 12’’ (Federation 1999). It was her writing for MTV’s lyricist lounge, though, and a guest appearance on a Rawkus Records compilation from 2000 that hinted at a long-term career. More recently she rapped on the Plantinum Pied Pipers’ album Triple P (Ubiquity 2005), two songs on Dabrye’s Two/Three (Ghostly International 2006) and two more on Waajeed’s The War LP (2007). The last project included a blistering ‘‘Place Where We Dwell,’’ an insightful rap introduction to Detroit politics, personalities, and concerns, with high-hat cymbals lifted from Led Zeppelin’s ‘‘Rock & Roll.’’ Her first solo album, Shapeshifters, was released on Bling47 in June 2008.

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Kaos & Mystro Jason ‘‘Mystro’’ Wilson and Teferi (DonRico) ‘‘Kaos’’ Brent (born May 7, 1971) performed on one of the most sonically complex and politically daring albums in Detroit’s early hip hop history, Outcast Vol. 1 (World One Records 1989), channeling black nationalist politics through fast-paced beats as Kaos & Mystro. Their short career reveals a complicated relationship between the ascending hip hop culture and Detroit’s preexisting sonic and political mix. In an interview, Brent described his and the group’s musical history. Brent moved around the city a lot as a kid, spending time on the Westside before finding his way to Highland Park, a city surrounded by Detroit, where he met up with Wilson. Despite having parents with solid blue-collar jobs behind him, Brent was not immune from hanging in Detroit’s neighborhood gangs, both on Detroit’s Westside and Highland Park. Fighting and getting in trouble were his modus operandi and it was enough of a problem that Brent was kicked out of a private school and forced to attend Highland Park High. It was not just gangs that were grabbing his interest. Brent was of the generation that bought Sugar Hill Gangs’s ‘‘Rapper’s Delight’’ when it first came out and attended the Fresh Fest with their early Def Jam lineups in the early 1980s. He rapped all night in his complex, the Gabrielle Houses, with local groups like the Food Stamp Boys and with people like Amery ‘‘Big Herk’’ Dennard, who still raps with the Rock Bottom Collective, in Wilson’s basement. Rap was not a career idea for Brent until some older economic players stepped into the picture. Here the influence of P-Funk and Motown on Detroit hip hop is critical to understanding Kaos & Mystro’s early successes as well as the context of many early rap recordings in the city. According to Brent, the group was discovered by John Maxey, a relative brother of ‘‘Ivory’’ Joe Hunter (a pianist for the Motown house band in the 1960s called the Funk Brothers), and a band manager for R&B groups in the 1960s and 1970s in his own right. Maxey was a special education teacher at the time at Brent’s high school. Maxey’s partners included Carl ‘‘Butch’’ Small. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Small had been a percussionist for the P-Funk affiliated Sweat Band and Parlet, as well as Robert Troutman’s Zapp. According to Brent, Small could hear that ghetto-funk, an updated version of the P-Funk sound sampled for the rap generation, was becoming popular in the late 1980s and saw an opportunity to capitalize. ‘‘They were opportunists,’’ Brent said. ‘‘They had the skills and the resources.’’ Though Small would later work for Death Row Records, his rap production career began with the Westsidebased World One Records, a studio that came out of Proving Ground Records, a project he had set up with other P-Funksters but had only released one single in 1987. For World One, Small, along with his other partner Gene David, had already put out Untouchable (1988) by E. Z. B. and DJ Los (Small’s son) when Maxey hooked Brent and Wilson up with the fledgling label.

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Production and label management from an older generation was not the only influence in Kaos & Mystro’s career. Another was Dr. Errol Henderson who at the time worked with SOSAD (Save Our Sons and Daughters) to help mothers in their grieving process when they had lost their children to violence in the city. Brent met Henderson when Brent’s mother took him to one of SOSAD’s meetings and Brent rapped a song about black history. Henderson, who is now a political science professor, had a rap group himself and was part of getting Africana Studies started first at the University of Michigan and then at Wayne State University. His afrocentric politics inspired Kaos & Mystro’s lyrics and look. ‘‘He engaged and educated many of us politically in the early 1990s.’’ The other force was Reverend Wendell Anthony of Fellowship Chapel Church. The Reverend radically changed Brent’s life. ‘‘We were all street babies until we heard Anthony preaching Jesus the way he did.’’ The head of the local branch of the NAACP since 1993 and the pastor for long-time Detroit rapper Proof’s funeral in 2006, Rev. Anthony mixed Civil Rights politics with hip hop in the process gaining respect in the youth community. It was Rev. Anthony that set up Kaos & Mystro with an opening slot at Tiger Stadium to perform as an opening act for South African freedom fighter Nelson Mandela in June of 1990 in front of 49,000 people. Brent remembers rocking the crowd and even giving shout-outs to Detroit’s own political prisoners, including former Detroit Black Panther Ahmad Rahman, now a political science professor at University of Michigan-Dearborn. These influences, one from funk, another steeped in afrocentrism, and another in the church, helped crystallize the Kaos & Mystro style. Brent calls it, ‘‘Christianity with a nationalist flavor.’’ Outcast Vol. 1, the group’s only full-length album, finds Kaos & Mystro mixing samples of peers like Chuck D. of Public Enemy (who had family in Detroit at the time and knew Kaos & Mystro) and heroes like Malcolm X with uptempo drum machine patterns. The cover features Brent in a Pistons basketball jacket and Wilson in a Kente-cloth outfit designed by the duo. ‘‘Mystro on the Flex,’’ one of the key songs from the album, foregrounded Wilson’s turntable skills and with the help of then high-quality videos became a local hit. But the focus of the music was on Brent’s conscious delivery and up-from-the-streets revolutionary ideology. Though Brent did end up at Maurice Malone’s early Rhythm Kitchen shows at Stanley’s Chinese Restaurant that would end up inspiring The Hip Hop Shop (see sidebar: The Hip Hop Shop), his political orientation was different from the more secular approach to flow offered by the Rhythm Kitchen. Brent would leave World One Records for Joel Bryant’s Push Play Records for one solo record, Doin Time On Earth, before going back to college. His last rap project was The Foundation, a group that featured Brent as one of four MCs produced by Anthony ‘‘AntLive’’ Singleton, a rapper who at one point flirted with major labels in the early 1990s. According to Brent, internal differences stopped the recordings from seeing the light of day. He is presently completing his MBA while working as a supervisor at Chrysler. He plans on getting his master’s in divinity as well and eventually

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entering the seminary. Wilson, now known as J. ‘‘Maji’’ Wilson, has formed Yunion, a ‘‘hip hop ministry,’’ with an extensive online article archive with advice, according to the Web site, for ‘‘the troubled youth of America.’’

The Blackman James ‘‘The Blackman’’ Harris (born May 20, 1965) still resides in Donald Goines and Henry Ford’s Highland Park. He and his wife own The Black Whole, an African culture shop on Woodward Avenue, where he throws house parties in the basement. In an interview he described his career in Detroit and in music— an autoworker’s son, Harris grew up middle class on Detroit’s Eastside, starting to DJ as a young kid in the 1970s as well as playing around with reel-to-reel tape machines, eight-track players, and belt-driven turntables. Harris, a disco fan in the 1970s, remembers hearing rap for the first time on tracks like King Tim III’s rapping over the Fatback Band on Spring Records in 1979 and ‘‘The Bumble Bee Rap’’ off of the disco label Salsoul Records in 1981. But, according to the Blackman, Detroit at that time was into the fast-paced, drum-machine driven electro sound from Los Angeles instead of the more disco-sounding early rap that he enjoyed from places like New York. The Blackman bounced around a couple of Eastside high schools before finishing at a vocational tech school in 1983 right around the time that New York rap act Run DMC was about to partially break through Detroit’s electro exterior with ‘‘Sucka MCs’’ and ‘‘It’s like That.’’ ‘‘Before that it [rap] was a novelty,’’ Harris argues. ‘‘It was a big ass joke.’’ But Harris had learned how to DJ from disco where seamless mixing was the thing and was never fascinated by The Wizard. ‘‘He went too fast—it really annoyed me.’’ It was rap that gave Harris his break as a DJ for the Fresh 4 Crew, a young teen rap group made of 12-year-old kids with connections to the promoter and a 19-year-old Harris. They played the Fresh Fest in 1984 at the Fox Theater. The Fresh Fest featured LL Cool J., Sparky D., Divine Sounds, Jeckyl and Hyde, Melle Mel, and MC Shan amongst others. The group got to tour the Midwest, playing major cities in Ohio and Pennsylvania. The increased cultural capital and connections from being one of the only Detroiters on stage was the most important by-product of the fest for The Blackman. He was already beginning to hang out with a group of 20 or so rappers and DJs that became the Beast Crew, a loosely tied group that would meet in his basement. The crew included artists that are still acive, such as Brian ‘‘Champtown’’ Harmon and, eventually, Robert ‘‘Kid Rock’’ Ritchie (born January 17, 1971). In 1987, the Crew was doing a party out in Mt. Clemens at a cabaret and Kid Rock, according to the Blackman, ‘‘was a kid trying to get on. He just had a dream in his pocket.’’ (Kid Rock talks nostalgically about this era in ‘‘I Wanna Go Back’’ on his The History of Rock album.) Kid Rock became a part of the crew and The Blackman became one of Kid Rock’s street aficionados.

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The Blackman became, in his words, the executive producer for Kid Rock’s first full album, Grits Sandwiches for Breakfast (Zomba 1990). ‘‘I made sure it was street.’’ He also maintained a level of irreverence that spawned tracks like ‘‘Yodellin’ in the Valley,’’ Kid Rock’s ode to satisfying women orally. ‘‘We were just taking apart our influences and adding the stupid stuff we did everyday—stupid sayings we said everyday. It wasn’t real thought out—make a beat, like a beat and talk over it.’’ Harris joined Kid Rock in NYC to try to make it big, hanging out in Times Square before it got cleaned up. (see ‘‘New York’s Not My Home’’ on Grit Sandwiches). They supported Too $hort and Ice Cube on a big arena tour, playing 20,000-seaters every night. Harris remembers that it was not easy crossing Kid Rock over on those tours. ‘‘We sold it to America. Sometimes things would start with booing . . . later though there would be cheering.’’ But conditions were changing quickly. Insurance companies stopped putting up money for big rap shows, killing arena tours for hip hop for almost a decade. At the same time Vanilla Ice made life hard for white rappers by lying about his background. Harris came off the tour for Grit Sandwiches and ‘‘stepped off.’’ ‘‘It was going somewhere that I didn’t need to be,’’ according to Harris, ‘‘I would have been a real fast has-been. What Proof did for Eminem I wouldn’t do for Kid Rock.’’ Champtown, instead, would become Kid Rock’s hype-man in the mid-1990s, wearing a green afro and calling himself ‘‘The Incredible Green-Headed Negro.’’ In 1998, Kid Rock, after a long period of reinvention, this time without the Beast Crew behind him, reemerged with ‘‘Bawitdaba’’ from Devil Without a Cause, an MTV hit that gave him a second shot at fame. At the same time, The Blackman kept his hand in the local scene, DJing for Soul Clique, a group that also featured P-Funk member Duminie DePorres, and the rock band Detroit City Council. In 2006, Harris released a solo album, Collector’s Edition, on Black Shu Records.

A.W.O.L. Afrocentric Wicked Old-School Lyricists (A.W.O.L.) members Kevin ‘‘The Last Soulman’’ Johnson, Marqui ‘‘Boogie Mack’’ Vaughn, and Bennie ‘‘DJ Homicide’’ Herron (who was shot dead in 1996), released two full-length records, What It Be Like (Bryant 1993) and Detroit 4 Life (Boostrap/Rock-a-fella/I.N.D.I. 1994), during their time together. A reformed A.W.O.L., minus Herron, released two more in 2003 (Back 2 Tha Future) and 2005 (Life Sentence), before breaking up again. They released their first single, the fast-paced pimp-slap-style ‘‘You Don’t Want None of This’’ in 1989 on Bryant Records. According to historian Khary Turner, it is impossible to disassociate A.W.O.L.’s sound from their visual style in their videos on ‘‘The Box’’ and on BET in the 1990s. They wore high fashion (Coogi sweaters and Dobb hats) with a Detroit nonchalance that was ahead of its time, even by New York standards. A fight over the name A.W.O.L. with a now unremembered label-mate of the now-famous Brooklyn rapper Jay Z., prompted Jay Z. to create Roc-A-Fella records (AWOL’s label without the ‘‘k’’). The struggle

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created unnecessary trouble for AWOL, who were trying to break out of Detroit. Herron’s involvement in a homicide and armed robbery further frustrated the successes that the group had built up during the 1990s. Despite this, the group’s early influence was eventually honored: the local Detroit Hip Hop Awards gave a lifetime achievement award to the group in 2002.

Detroit’s Most Wanted Formed in 1986, Detroit’s Most Wanted, led by 1960’s soul-singer Jackie Wilson’s grandson ‘‘Motsi Ski,’’ were the first to wear gangster suits in Detroit. According to Turner, during their career they name-checked local gangs, bragged about their own drug connections (financing for their pre-Bryant Records work, according to Turner, came through a local drug dealer), and competed with other local groups to make it big. The group—Reginald ‘‘Motsi Ski’’ Abrams, MC Lee, and DJ Duncan Hines—released a number of singles and albums in the 1990s starting with their Bryant Records single ‘‘I Save My Words 4 Wax’’ (1989) recorded at PFunk’s old stomping grounds, United Sound. They would eventually procure national distribution through Atlanta’s Ichiban Records with Tricks of the Trade Volume 2 (1992). Their 1990 self-titled LP featured hardcore lyrics by Abrams and a funk-sampled feel spearheaded by Hines. ‘‘City of Boom’’ became a local hit from the album, with a 12’’ remix and a video, while another cut from the album, ‘‘Fenkell Strip’’ was important for its explicit call out to their Westside connections (Fenkell is ‘‘Five Mile’’ on Detroit’s Westside). The group’s career lasted three full-length records before conflict and opportunity broke the group up. Hines, who had produced for Detroit Boxx & Step 2, as well as other Bryant artists like Smiley, formed a group with Lee and went on to work with MC Hammer. Though it was a chance at major label exposure, it killed off the group’s original feel as Abrams took the group and its sound down a g-funked path, creating a hollow version of Dr. Dre’s West Coast sound. Abrams recorded two solo albums and formed a short-lived quartet which included Proof called the 4 Fathers. Lee rejoined Abrams for a couple of songs for the Tricks of the Trade reissue in 2004 and the original threesome reunited in 2006 to record but with little commercial success.

Esham Another major Detroit rap artist has been Rashaam ‘‘Esham’’ Smith (born 1977). Jason Birchmeier’s biography and album reviews, following the rapper’s career until the early 2000s, is the most sustained criticism on Esham, and provides the context for his inclusion here. Despite the solidness of Birchmeier’s work, the relative paucity of commentary on Esham and his career is troublesome considering the length of that career, Esham’s local influence on artists like ICP., Kid Rock, and Eminem (not to mention those more closely related to his own camp, like

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Mastamind and T.N.T., that have made albums and performed with him as N.A.T.A.S. for years), and his deranged, yet highly creative, take on hip hop in the early 1990s. Looking back on Esham’s early years—his first albums were made as a high school student on Detroit’s Eastside—it is hard not to see the rapper’s stripped-down musical palate and sexually charged, jack-the-ripper approach to lyrics as a prediction of the darkness that would creep into hip hop’s heart during the 1990s. This darker turn in hip hop’s content and character came to an international head when Eminem—who on his first full-length album described himself as cross between the New York rapper Nas, Black Sabbath lead singer Ozzy Osbourne, and Esham—sold and offended millions with his terrifying, offhanded, cartoonish tales of murder and suicidal tendencies. Whether it is now called ‘‘hardcore rap,’’ ‘‘horrorcore,’’ ‘‘acid rap,’’ ‘‘murdercore,’’ or simply the end of Western civilization, for Detroiters it was, for better or worse, nothing new. A transplant from Long Island, New York, to Detroit’s Eastside, the teenage Esham was stimulated by the lyrical flow of fellow Long Island rappers Run DMC, the violent imagery (and samples) provided by Houston rappers the Geto Boys, and rock and roll on his first album, Boomin Words from Hell (1990). The album, as Birchmeier points out, is ‘‘primitive,’’ with few samples and bare bones instrumentation—bass, guitar, piano, and drum machine. Given the state of Detroit hip hop at the time though—and even national rap coming from the coasts—the album is a revelation, with Esham’s L.L. Cool J. meets Freddy Kruger persona seemingly fully formed from the beginning. Though similar lyrically, Judgement Day Vol. 1 and Vol. 2, his 1992 releases, are sonically different, with a heavier use of rock samples that in retrospect seems to predict rock-rappers like Kid Rock years before they finally broke. The albums are sometimes cited as the first rap double-CD and are evidence—three studio length records in two years—of Esham’s early energy and ambition. It was during this period that Esham also began his work with N.A.T.A.S. or Nation (or Niggaz) Ahead of Time and Space. The group has put out seven albums over the years amidst Esham’s solo work putting Esham’s total LP output—not counting the various EPs, singles, and guest appearances—to 23 and counting. This unbelievable amount of rap hustling though did not lead to major label success until after over a decade of work. In 2000, after the success of Eminem, Esham began making a series of records for the major label T.V.T., a partnership that expanded Esham’s audience somewhat but, as Birchmeier points out, did nothing to put him in the league of other Detroit successes. Commenting on one of Esham’s T.V.T. albums, Tongues (2001), which came out after Esham’s highprofile work with fellow bizarre, sex-crazed lyricist Kool Keith, Birchmeier stated: ‘‘Yet if everyone was looking at Tongues as the album that would enable Esham to cross over to mainstream success, they were foolish. Tongues is too far out of the ordinary to cross over—creative, yes, but also odd.’’ ‘‘Creative, yes, but also odd,’’ seems to sum up Esham’s continuing career. Only a few years ago he was releasing records with ICP’s Psychopathic Records but no

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longer. He is currently back releasing his own music on his own label. Though his delivery has seemed to mellow over the years, with recent songs like the new ‘‘World Hustle’’ encouraging dancing and the ‘‘stacking’’ of paper (making money), Esham still tends to trade between Halloween-style darkness and leering stripper tunes on his full-length releases. A semiregular Podcast from his Web site, acidrap.com, features new releases and commentaries from the man himself.

Jay Dee and Slum Village The recently deceased James ‘‘Jay Dee’’/‘‘J Dilla’’ Yancey (February 7, 1974– February 10, 2006) is already a legend. His shadow looms large over Detroit hip hop, his lyrics and production work still appearing ghostlike on tracks coming out of artists both new and old. Jay Dee learned to play multiple instruments as a child and was the son of a jazz musician and doo-wop singer. He also apprenticed with 1980s P-Funk instrumentalist, Joseph ‘‘Amp’’ Fiddler, who helped him master rap’s ‘‘Golden Era’’ sampling and production equipment. But it was Jay Dee’s own hard work weighted in basement tape experiments with early collaborators and his raw yet laid-back vocals inspired by his relationship with neighborhood peers that eventually birthed the talent that will be the measure for any future underground Detroit star. Raised in the predominantly black neighborhood of Conant Gardens on Detroit’s Eastside, Yancey attended Pershing High School with Titus ‘‘Baatin’’ Glover and R. L. ‘‘T3’’ Altman in the late 1980s. The three friends’ first group would be called Senepod, ‘‘dopeness’’ backwards, before changing their name to

J Dilla (AP Photo)

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Slum Village. They were all Rhythm Kitchen attendees. Taking advantage of Maurice Malone’s stylish social networking ideas, the crew flexed their skills, built a small but loyal fan base, and connected with eventual long-term compatriots, from Proof to House Shoes. But it would be Jay Dee’s early work with Ronnie ‘‘Phat Kat’’ Cash that would cement the artist his first deal as a member of a group. The two artists met, as so many did in those days, at Malone’s Rhythm Kitchen shows at Stanley’s. The group, named 1st Down, would only release one record on the Payday label (see Phat Kat). The artistic breakthrough came with Slum Village’s first album, Fan-Tas-Tic Vol. 1 (1996), which was made with home-studio samplers and synthesizers. The album was then made as a cassette that was sold for money to buy better technology to make more tapes. In the short-term, this early tape would only get a deal for Jay Dee. Slum Village would meet Q-Tip of A Tribe Called Quest at a local mall in 1994 resulting in Q-Tip becoming Jay Dee’s manager. The connection allowed him to begin producing for national acts as well as join the Ummah production team with Q-Tip and Ali Shaheed Muhammad. But long-term, Slum’s early experiments signaled that Detroit had finally been able to produce an organic classic without the explicit backing of a major studio, drug dealers, Civil Rights activists, or religious leaders. Instead Slum Village was largely a product of its own initial investments in its own creativity brought forth by Detroit’s own fertile musical landscape. Slum Village’s intervention into Detroit hip hop comes from the group’s unadorned approach to hip hop production and their commitment to a backpacking aesthetic—an overt, historical focus on hip hop skills instead of searching for mainstream popularity—in the midst of a larger gangsta rap revolution. Success would be delayed due to the corporate hip hop reshufflings of the mid-1990s despite a label deal with A&M in 1998. The result was that their ‘‘first’’ album, Fantastic Volume 2, would come out on Goodvibe in 2000, while their original first album would not be released officially until 2005. It is one of the major artistic crimes in the history of Detroit music-making. Because of this debacle, Slum Village’s sound with Jay Dee at the controls would be heard first through other acts, singles, and albums throughout the 1990s produced by Dilla. Whether it was the ‘‘vivrant’’ drum snaps on Q-Tip’s Amplified as a member of the Ummah, the minimalist nu-soul of D’Angelo’s Voodoo with the Soulquarians (which included The Roots’ drummer-producer Questlove), or an early definitive release for Detroit Tda Pimp’s ‘‘Looking Hard,’’ Jay Dee was as deeply committed to the sonic messages encapsulated in Kraftwerk albums as he was by soul LPs and ‘‘donuts’’— also known as 45s. Jay Dee worked with the best of 1990s American hip hop, marking out a subtle and crisp, funky, and sexy approach to drum sounds and sampling that define that moment. 1996 was a key year with Jay Dee producing albums by A Tribe Called Quest (Beats Rhymes and Life), Busta Rhymes (The Coming), and Pharcyde (Labcabincalifornia), not to mention standout tracks by De La Soul (‘‘Stakes Is

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High’’), and, again, Busta Rhymes (‘‘Woo-Hah!’’). At the same time, Dilla also had time for local production for 5-Elementz featuring Proof (The Album Time Forgot), as well as early solo compilation tracks for the maturing Proof. Up until the final months of his life, Jay Dee would continue to produce for some of the nation’s best and brightest (including Janet Jackson, The Roots, Common, Erykah Badu, D’Angelo, Pete Rock, and Mos Def amongst many others) and Detroit’s most ambitious (5-Elementz, Proof, Innerzone Orchestra, Bizarre, Tda Pimp, Royce Da 5’9,’’ Big Tone, Frank N Dank, Amp Fiddler, Elzhi, Platinum Pied Pipers, Phat Kat, Dwele, and of course Slum Village). In the early 2000s, Dilla also began to focus on his own career as both a producer of beats and an MC. Welcome 2 Detroit (2001) for England’s BBE label and the Official Instrumental Series Vol. 1 (2002) for Waajeed’s Bling47 label, were turning points in this regard. The first album introduced Jay Dee as a visible personality and lyricist committed to Detroit’s unique mixing of sounds to a global public while the second release cemented his control and competency in the production of soulful, off-centered beats. Slum Village, without Jay Dee, put out the Dirty District compilation in 2002, featuring Black Milk, Phat Kat, and Elzhi among others. Elzhi would join Slum Village to replace Jay Dee for Trinity—Past, Present and Future (2002), an album that finally featured a hit, ‘‘Tainted,’’ which got video play and allowed for a world tour. Bipolar disorder though caught up with Baatin during this era and he left the group. According to an interview with writer Kahn Davison in 2007, Baatin has begun to release singles and plans on releasing full-length solo records after a bout with significant drug problems. Curtis ‘‘Black Milk’’ Cross helped produced Slum Village’s Slum Village in 2005. Black Milk’s stellar second full-length Popular Demand (Fat Beats 2007) featured a recovered Baatin reunited with T3 and Elzhi. Slum Village’s most current DJ is named Dez, an artist who releases house tracks as Andres for the Detroit-based Mahogani Records and instrumental hip hop beats for Hipnotech Records, also in Detroit. Elzhi has recently collaborated with another local producer Nick Speed. The two Detroiters call themselves Libido Sounds and have written beats for national artists like G-Unit. Elzhi is also working on his own solo career. Jay Dee’s final records reinforced the two connected poles of his work. The instrumental Donuts (Stones Throw 2006), released days before his death and recorded while he was in the hospital, emphacized Dilla’s commitment to soul sounds, while The Shining (BBE 2006) featured his own street-level lyrical talents. Ruff Draft, a record that Jay Dee had written and produced on cassette and vinyl in 2003 was rereleased by Stones Throw after his death. The album was critically acclaimed. Kelly Carter’s exceptional piece, ‘‘Jay Dee’s Last Days,’’ chronicles Yancey’s struggles with Lupus (an inflammatory disease that affected almost every aspect of the artist’s life) and the hospital bills that the producer collected while staying committed to the creative process.

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Hip Hop in America

Proof According to the notice of his death in the Detroit Free Press, Deshaun ‘‘Proof’’ Holton (October 2, 1973–April 11, 2006) was the ‘‘ambassador’’ of Detroit hip hop (Schmitt and Carter). There were few in Detroit’s hip hop scene that he did not work with or befriend, from Jay Dee to Eminem. A long-time hip hop veteran, Proof’s death in 2006 from a bouncer’s gun in a nightclub on 8 Mile put a freeze on a solo career that had finally begun to take off in 2005 with his first full-length solo album. Proof made his local name in the scene as a regular at Maurice Malone’s Rhythm Kitchen and eventually as the master of ceremonies at The Shelter and The Hip Hop Shop (see sidebars: The Hip Hop Shop and Saint Andrew’s Hall). Though an off-again, on-again member of the local group 5ELA with Reginald ‘‘Mud’’ Moore and Bernard ‘‘Thyme’’ Russell (the group continued after Proof’s exit in 1999), Proof’s name will forever be tied to Eminem. Proof was a member of groups with Eminem beginning in 1995 and continued to record with the international star until the end of his life with D-12. On Eminem’s world tours and TV performances, Proof was Eminem’s not-so-straight man, hyping the crowd and providing a dynamic foil for Eminem’s circus-like psychiatric verses. When Maurice Malone started his own record label, Hostile Takeover Records, in 1999, he signed Proof. At that point he had been a recent freestyle champion as well as been recognized by The Source in its ‘‘unsigned hype’’ column. It would be Proof’s long-time compatriot Eminem’s success, though, that would bring national attention and commercial success for Proof. Proof, as part of D12 or Dirty Dozen, composed of rappers Rufus ‘‘Bizarre’’ Johnson (also a member of the Outsidaz with Eminem), Ondre ‘‘Swift’’ Moore, Denaun ‘‘Kon Artis’’ Porter, and Von ‘‘Kuniva’’ Carlisle, made two records under Eminem’s management, Devil’s Night (2001) and World (2004) on Interscope/Aftermath. An earlier member, Karnail ‘‘Bugz’’ Pitts was killed before D12’s major label moves. But Proof’s first fulllength solo efforts would not be on Eminem’s Shady record label but instead on Iron Fist, a label that Proof cofounded with longtime friend and manager of one of Proof’s earliest groups, 5ELA, black nationalist activist Khalid el-Hakim. The label released Proof’s mixtape I Miss the Hip-Hop Shop (2004) and the sprawling, funny and funky album Searching for Jerry Garcia (2005). Earlier in 2002 on Promatic and then again on 8 Mile Chronicles (2005), Proof joined up with Kevin ‘‘Dogmatic’’ Bailey, an MC and Sicknotes production member who had been originally known as K-Stone. Dogmatic had released material with Bryant Records, the same label as AWO