HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL APPROACH
Dr. D.A.Patil did his M.Sc. and Ph.D. in Botany from Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University (Aurangabad, M.S.) with Angiosperm as a subject of specialization in 1978 and 1983 respectively. He has about 29 years of research and teaching experience at graduate and postgraduate classes. His major research interest includes Taxonomy and Anatomy of Angiosperms, Floristics, Ethnobotany and Etymology. He has authored (i) Key to the Angiospermic Families of North Maharashtra, (ii)Flora of Dhule and Nandurbar Districts (Maharashtra), (iii) Origins of Plant Names, and co-authored, (iv) Ethnobotany of Nasik District (Maharashtra), (v) Ethnobotany of Jalgaon District (Maharashtra) and (vi) Forest Flora of Jalgaon District (Maharashtra). He has also edited a proceeding, 'Plant Diversity and Biotechnology'. He has 132 research papers to his credit published in national, international journals and journals of CSIR, India. Apart from his participation in several national and international conferences and symposia in India and abroad, many students in botany received his guidance for Ph.D. and M.Phil. degrees. He is member of Editorial Boards of four national journals and acted as a referee for Ph.D. and M.Phil. degrees for other universities. He has been awarded: (i) Dr. M.s. Swaminathan Award (1996) by Indian Botanical Society, (ii) Scientist of the Year 2004 by National Environmental Science Academy, (iii) Jivaka Ayurved Vishwa Sanman (2006) by International Academy of Indian Medicine and (iv) Life Time Education Achievement Award 2007 by Health and Education Development Association. He is ex-Dean, Faculty of Science, North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon, M.S. and also Ex-Chairman, Board of Studies in Botany of the same university. He is member of many prestigious academic and scientific bodies and societies. He also contributes for Marathi Daily news papers and creates interest about plants by delivering talks especially for younger generation.
HERBAL CURES TRADITIONAL APPROACH
Editor
Dr. D.A. PatH M.Sc., Ph.D. (Botany) Reader Post-Graduate Department of Botany S.S.V.P. Sanstha's L.K. Dr. P.R. Ghogrey Science College, Dhule-424 005 (Maharashtra)
Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors Jaipur 302 003 (Raj.) India
First Published in 2008 by Prem C. Bakliwal for Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors 807, Vyas Building, Chaura Rasta Jaipur 302 003 (Raj.) India Phone: 0141-2578159 e-mail:
[email protected]
© Dr. D.A. Patil
ISBN 978-81-7910-250-3
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or copied for any purpose by any means, manual, mechanical or electronic, without prior and written permission of the copyright owner and the publishers.
Printed at Sheetal Printers Jaipur (Raj.) India
•
PREFACE The science of medicine, whether traditional or folkloric, has undergone a phenomenal growth with a concomitant increase of interest among the plant scientists, ethnobotanists, anthropologists, pharmacologists, medicinal chemists and druggists. Medicine differs materially from other branches of knowledge like algebra, trigonometry, astronomy and the like. In other branches, independent development of each would be required before the principles of one be applied to the purposes of the other. But this is not the case in medicine. Medicine is developed from a desire from within, and not from any foreign impetus. Ailment! disease is not separate companion of life. The desire springs with the ailment simultaneously which soon turns into the effort to heal. It is this effort that has gone by the name of 'medicine' in every society, whether primitive or advanced. Also the origin of medicine cannot be traced to one man. It is natural and traditional in origin. The traditional communities living close to the nature acquired knowledge about the use of plant species. After a long period of observation and analysis, trial and errors, experimentation, apart from intuitive method, the innovative individuals of societies select and realize usefulness of the flora in their ambience. Their plantlore passes over generations. The development of medicine starts from tapping the traditional/indigenous wisdom after establishing rapport with the indigenous people. Bioassay-guided fractionation and determination of molecular structure are necessary. The task does not end with these in recent times. The IPR and benefit-sharing completes the success story of drug development. Thus a synergetic effort is needed involving the scientists from different disciplines, technologists and legal advisers. The present book 'Herbal Cures : Traditional Approach' includes total 22 articles on traditional plant uses in family welfare, wound care, diabetes and skin afflictions, ethnobotanical or ethnomedicinal plants from West Rarrh (West Bengal). Jharkhand, North Gujarat and Western Orissa, ethnotherapeutic leads from tribals of Orissa, ethnomedicinalleads from modern drug development programmes, parasitic angiosperms from mythology to medicine, graphic review of ethnbotany in Chhatisgarh and
vi veterinary medicines of Gond tribals (Madhya Pradesh). It also covers topics on development and standardization of herbal medicine, methods of tribal drug purification, ethnomedicinal uses of Neem plant and traditional knowledge with particular emphasis on ethnomedicines/traditional medicines. Articles on recent approaches in phytochemical and biological importance of Calendula officinalis, in vitro regeneration and phytochemical screening, antibacterial activity and hypoglycaemic effects of Ocimum sanctum. This book is the outcome of efforts of the experts. Their ideas, experience, thoughts and opinions shaped the book significantly and would be valuable immensely to its users. It will help popularize the subject of traditional medicine and provide instructions for the learners. I thank heartly to all honourable experts/ authors for contributing in such a scientific pursuit. The opinions and text contained herein are those of the contributors. The book will cater to the immediate needs of students, teachers and research workers. I would appreciate to pass on comments and suggestions from the users of this book which will help improve the future edition or print. Throughout its preparation, well wishers and colleagues freely gave their help and advice. It is thankfully acknowledged. I particularly appreciate and acknowledge the painstaking effort of Mr. Akshay Jain of Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors aaipur, Rajasthan) for publishing this book with full zeal and zest. Dhule (Maharashtra)
Dr. D. A. Patil
CONTENTS Preface
1. 2
Contributors Lit of Colour Plates Traditional Use of Plants in India in Family Welfare - Priyadarshan Sensarma Development and Standardization of Herbal Medicines : An Overview of Current Status
v ix xiii
1
41
- c.P. Malik, Bhavneet Kaur, Aman Verma and Chitra Wadhwani 3.
Plants Used in Wound Care
76
- Richa Deo and Usha Mukundan
4. 5.
Traditional Knowledge : Views, Necessity and Prospects -D.A. Patil Ethnomedical Leads and Good Raw Drug Handling Practices for Modern Drug Development Programme
105
115
-M. Brahmam
6.
Ethnotherapeutic Leads from the Tribals of Orissa (India) to Control Diabetes mellitus
129
-M. Brahmam 7.
In vitro Regeneration, Phytochemical Screening, Antibacterial Activity and Hypoglycemic Effect of Ocimum sanctum L.
145
- N. Chandrakala, E. Jennifer Nancy Rani, M. Prabakaran and M. Ayyavoo
8.
Ethnomedicinal Plants of North Gujarat Part-I - N.K. Patel, I.c. Patel, A. R. Seliya and D.N. Parmar
158
viii
9.
Ethnomedicinal Plants of North Gujarat Part-II
- N.K. Patel, I.C Patel, A. R. Seliya and D.N. Parmar 10. Folk Remedies against Skin Afflictions in Maharashtra
197 218
- Shubhangi Pawar, M. V. Patil and D.A. Patil
11. Ethnomedicinal Plants of Jharkhand, India
248
- Harish Singh
12. The Parasitic Angiosperms: From Mythology to Medicine - R.B. ladhav, S.P. Bhatnagar and
5.1.
264
Surana
13. In vitro Anthelmintic Activity of Some Medicinal Plants of Genus Buhinia Linn.
285
- Ravindra G. Mali, Shailaja G. Mahajan and Anita A. Mehta
14. Medicinal Uses of Plants as Revealed from Tribal Communities in Purulia District, West Bengal
295
- Sujit Kumar MandaI and Ambarish Mukherjee
15. Indigenous Knowledge of Veterinary Medicines among Gond Tribals of Noradehi Wildlife Sanctuary (M.P.)
302
- Anjali Rawat, Arti Gupta and T.R. Sahu
16. Ethnobotany of Western Orissa, India
316
-L.M. Behera and S. K. Sen
17. Ethnobotanical Survey in West Rarrh for Natural Health Care and Green Belt Movement
332
- Ashis Ghosh
18. Ethnobotany in Chhattisgarh (India) : A Graphic Review and Future Directions - Amia Tirkey 19. Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) : A Panacea - M. V. Patil, Shubhangi Pawar and D.A. Patil 20. Phytochemical and Biological Importance of Calendula officinalis L. - Madhurima, S.H. Ansari, Md. Sohail Akhtar and Prawez Alam 21. Methods of Purification of Tribal Drugs in India -D.C Pal and CR. Paul
340 348 368 387
22. Ethnobotanical Heritage on Traditional Drug Practices Relating to Diabetes in Magadh Region (Bihar) - R.K. Goel, Rajul Goel, B.K. Prasad and D.K. Yadav
390
CONTRIBUTORS Akhtar, Md. Sohail Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Jamia Hamdard, (Hamdard University), New Delhi-110 062. Alam, Prawez Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Jamia Hamdard, (Hamdard University), New Delhi-l1O 062. Ansari, S.H. Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Jamia Hamdard, (Hamdard University), New Delhi-110 062. Ayyavoo, M. Sri Gowri Biotech Research Academy, Nagai Main Road, Thanjavur-613 001, Tamil Nadu, India. Behera, L.M. P.G. Deptartment of Botany, G.M. (Auto.) College, Sambalpur-768 001. Bhatnagar, S.P. Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, BirIa Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi-835 215. Brahmam, M. Regional Research Laboratory (C.S.I.R.), Bhubaneswar-751 013, Orissa. ChandrakaIa, N. P.G. & Research Department of Microbiology, Ponnaiyah Ramajayam College, Thanjavur-614 904 Tamil Nadu.
x
Deo, Richa Plant Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Ramniranjan Jhunjhunwala College, Ghatkopar (W), Mumbai-400 086. Ghosh, Ashis Saraswati Vidyamandir, P.O. Midnapore, District-Paschim Medinipore-721 101, W. Bengal. Goel, R.K. Environmental Biology Laboratory, University Department of Botany, Magadh University, Bodh-Gaya-824 234, Bihar. Goel, Rajul Environmental Biology Laboratory, University Department of Botany, Magadh University, Bodh-Gaya-824 234, Bihar. Gupta, Arti Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar-470 003 (M.P.). Jadhav, R.B. Bioecology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacognosy, R.c. Patel College of Pharmacy, Shirpur-425 405, Maharashtra. Kaur, Bhavneet Institute of Biotechnology and Allied Sciences, Seedling Academy of Design, Technology and Management, Jaipur, Rajasthan. Madhurima Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Jamia Hamdard, (Hamdard University), New Delhi-110 062. Mahajan, Shailaja G. Department of Pharmacology, L.M. College of Pharmacy, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad-380 009. Mali, Ravindra G. Department of Pharmacology, L.M. College of Pharmacy, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad-380 009. Malik, c.P. Institute of Biotechnology and Allied Sciences, Seedling Academy of Design, Technology and Management, Jaipur, Rajasthan. MandaI, Sujit Kumar Department of Botany, Burdwan University, Golapbag, Burdwan-713 104, W. Bengal. Mehta, Anita A. Department of Pharmacology, L.M.College of Pharmacy, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad-380 009.
xi
MUKherjee, Ambarish Department of Botany, Burdwan University, Golapbag, Burdwan-713 104, W. Bengal. Mukundan, Usha Plant Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Ramniranjan Jhunjhunwala College, Ghatkopar (W), Mumbai-400086, Maharashtra. Pal, D.C Retd. Botanist, Industrial Section, Indian Museum, B.S.!., 1, Sudder Street, Kolkata-700 016, W. Bengal. Parmar, D.N. Sheth M. N. Science College, Department of Life Sciences, Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan-384 265, Gujarat. Patel, I.C Department of Biology, Sheth M. N. Science College, Department of Life Sciences, Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan-384 265, Gujarat. Patel, N.K. Department of Biology, Sheth M. N. Science College, Department of Life Sciences, Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan-384 265. PatiI, D.A. P.G. Department of Botany, S.s.V.P. Sanstha's L.K. Dr. P.R. Ghogrey Science College, Dhule-424 005 (M.S.). PatiI, M.V. Department of Botany, GET's Arts, Science & Commerce College, Nagaon-424 004, District Dhule (M.S.). Paul, CR. 48, Pioneer Park, Maa Sarada Road, Borasat (N), Kolkata-700 124, West Bengal. Pawar Shubhangi Department of Botany, Pratap College, Amalner-425401, District Jalgaon (M.s.). Prabakaran, M. P.G. & Research Department of Zoology & Biotechnology, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous), Poondi-613503, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. Prasad, B.K. Environmental Biology Laboratory, University Department of Botany, Magadh University Bodh-Gaya-824 234, Bihar. Priyadarshan Sensarma Retd. Professor, 8/9, Chandra Mondal Lane, Kolkata-700 026.
xii
Rani, E. Jennifer Nancy P.G. & Research Department of Microbiology, Ponnaiyah Ramajayam College, Thanjavur-614904 Tamil Nadu. Rawat, Anjali Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar-470 003, (M.P.). Sahu, T.R. Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar-470 003, (M.P.). Seliya, A.R. Sheth M. N. Science College, Department of Life Sciences, Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan-384 265, Gujarat. Sen, S.K. Department of Botany, Panchayat College, Bargarh-768 028. Singh, Harish Central Botanical Laboratory, Botanical Survey of India, P.O.-Botanic Garden, Howrah (West Bengal) 711 103. Surana, S.J. Bioecology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacognosy, R.C Patel College of Pharmacy, Shirpur-425 405. Tirkey, Amia School of Life Sciences, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur- 492 010, (CG.). Verma, Aman Institute of Biotechnology and Allied Sciences, Seedling Academy of Design, Technology and Management, Jaipur, Rajasthan. Wadhwani, Chitra Institute of Biotechnology and Allied Sciences, Seedling Academy of Design, Technology and Management, Jaipur, Rajasthan. Yadav, D.K. Environmental Biology Laboratory, University Department of Botany, Magadh University Bodh-Gaya-824 234, Bihar.
LIST OF COLOUR PLATES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
Abrus precatorius Abutilon indicum Acalypha indica Achyranthes aspera Adhatoda zeylanica Aerva lanata Andrographis paniculata Arachis hypogaea Argyreia nervosa Aristolochia bracteolata Bacopa monnieri Boerhavia diffusa Brassica juncea Kalanchoe pinnata Calotropis gigantea Canavalia gladiata Cannabis sativa Cassia italica Catharanthus roseus Cayratia tri/olia Celosia argentea Cephalonoplos segetum Chenopodium album 23.
177 177 177 177 177 177 177 177 178 178 178 178 178 178 178 178 179 179 179 179 179 179 179
xiv
24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
30. 31. 32. 33.
34:
35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44.
45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54.
55. 56. 57. 58. 59.
Cicer arietinum Cichonlm intybus Cissus quadrangula Cleome viscosa Clitoria ternatea Coccinia grandis Commelina diffusa Corchonls aestuans Crotalaria retusa Ctenolepsis cerasiformis Cucumis sativus Cuscuta reflexa Cymbopogon citratus Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Cynodon dactlJlon Cype.nlS rotundus Echinops echinatus Eclipta prostrata Enicostema axillare Euphorbia neriifolia Evolvlllus alsinoides Fagonia eretica Gloriosa superba Glycine max Gymnema sylvetre Indigofera tinctoria Ipomoea nil Jatropha curcas Lablab purpllreus Lagenaria siceraria 'Leptadenia reticulata Leucas aspera Luffa acutangula Luffa cylindrica Lycopersicon esculentum Momordica charantia
179 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 181 181 181 181 181 181 181 181 182 182 182 182 182 182 182 182 183 183 183 183 183 183 183 183 184 184 184
xv 60. 61. 62. 63. 64.
65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71.
72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96.
Momordica dioica Mukia maderaspatana Nicotiana tabacum Ocimum tenuiflorum Passiflora foetida Pergularia daemia Phaseolus vulgaris Phyllanthus amarus Physalis minima Pithecellobium dulce Pongamia pinnata Portulaca quadrifida Psidium guajava Pterocarpus marsupium Raphanus sativus Rosa damascena Sapindus laurifolia Saraca asoca Semecarpus anacardium Sesbania grandiflora Sida orientalis Syzygium cumini Syzygium malaccense Tamarindus indica Terminalia bellirica Terminalia catappa Terminalia chebula Thespesia populnea Trichosallthes dioica Triticum aestivum Typha domingensis Vigna radiata Vigna unguiculata Viola cinerea Vi tis vinifera Withania somnifera Xanthium strumarium
184 184 184 184 184 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 186 186 186 186 186 186 186 186 187 187 187 187 187 187 187 187 188 188 188 188 188 188 188 188
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Methodology
3.
Enumeration of information 3.1
Increasing the vitality and ensuring better sexual life
3.2
Treatment of semen
3.3
Treating leucorrhoea and menorrhagia
3.4
Infertility of woman
3.5
Ensuring easy delivery
3.6
Prevention of pregnancy
3.7
Termination of pregnancy
4.
Discussion and conclusions
5.
Summary
6.
Appendix A & B
7.
Suggested Readings
1. INTRODUCTION The expression 'Family Welfare' with special reference to this subcontinent implies 'Family Planning'. This is perhaps inescapable in the context of population explosion and increasing poverty of the larger section of the society. But can the economically backward societies, plagued with lack of education, afford to respond positively to the measures of population control, unless their conjugal life is made more pleasant with cheap but effective steps? It is a hard fact of life tl:at poor people have very limited opportunities of enjoying life, either in physical or mental or in both spheres. Better conjugal life is seldom enjoyed by the poor for various factors and reasons. One of the major reasons is the great increase in the number of children-which enhances
2
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
poverty and other problems. In such situation it becomes imperative on the scientists to suggest cheap but hygienic measures to improve upon the quality of conjugal life of the poor and backward people. This idea persuaded the present author to search the traditional use of plants in India for various aspects of family welfare. India is a country of diversity-The land mass may be divided into almost all the known climatic zones, and there are two groups of islands situated in Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. Being rich in biodiversity this country has been included in the list of the 12 mega diversity centres of the world. There are more than 400 scheduled tribes of different ethnicity residing in various ecological niche, besides the inheritors of the Vedic and Pre-Vedic cultures. It is obvious that the spectrum of knowledge about the life and the universe and the skill of utilizing the resources vary among these communities of men. It is only natural that there will be divergence among them in the use of plants-it may be remembered that normally men like to utilize the resources available in their ambiance. In this condition to get an idea about the traditional use of herbal course of different diseases in India, the ethnic societies and literary works should be studied. It needs to be mentioned here t1}at there are numbers of literary works written in Sanskrit, Pali, Tamil, Persian, and some other languages. Further in additional to the texts on medical science (Ayurveda) there are many other works, in Sanskrit, which contain reckonable volume of information about the traditional approach towards the plants and their use. Hence, the job of collecting data about the traditional use of the herbal cures in India is vast and complex. But an humble beginning can, perhaps, be made with some selected texts and ethnic societies. Being guided by this idea the present ethnobotanical venture has been made. The ethnobotanical exploration in India was perhaps initiated by Mitra (1913-1916, 1919, 1922, 1933 to 1939), subsequently a great philip was given by Bodding (1925, 1927, 1940); since the last half of the 20th century Jain (1956, 1963a, 1963b, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1979, 1971, 1975, 1981, 1991), Maheshwari (1961, 1980, 1986), Pal (1970, 1972, 1973, 1980), Pal and Jain (1998), and many others are carrying out methodical studies among the tribals of India, but the vast literary sources of India are still awaiting through investigations. Albeit some efforts have been made by Majumdar (1938), Basu (1966), Karnick (1975), Sensarma (1984, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1995 etc.), Manilal (1988) and others. Hardly any attempt has been made to correlate the information collected from the tribal studies with the same gleaned from the literary sources. For obtaining a comprehensive idea regarding the traditional use of plants in this subcontinent corroboration and correlation of information are important. Before accepting or rejecting the ethnobotanical information for practical application in the modern society, the veraity of the same is to be ascertained. In accomplishing this important but great task, the ethnobotanist is dependent on the cooperation of phytochemist and pharmacologist. A preliminary effort, in ascertaining the veracity of the ethnobotanical information, collected from textual and tribal sources, however, may be made by comparing the same with the Ayurvedic and Yunani Pharmacopias on one hand, and the chemical properties of the contents of the concerned plants on the other. This exercise of verification will not help to draw the conclusive inference, but may be a significant supportive step towards the objectives.
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
3
Keeping the above in view, the present attempt has been made : (i) to correlate the textual and tribal information regarding the use of plant materials in the physiology of human reproduction, and (ii) to compare the same with the Ayurvedic and Yunani systems of medicines as also with the chemical data available from authentic sources.
2. METHODOLOGY The textual information have been collected from five non-ayurvedic texts, viz., Agni Purana, Garuda Purana, Indrajala Tantra, Prayoga Cintamani and Vijacintamani Tantra. Information regarding uses of plants by three tribes, viz., the Bhats, the Bhils and the Santals, have been obtained from published works and the field surveys. The medicinal and chemical information have been gathered from The Indigenous Drugs of India (1896/1984) of K.L. Dey, Indian Medicinal Plants (4 Vols. 1918/1981) by Kirtikar and Basu, Second Supplement to GlossanJ of Indian Medicinal Plants with Active Principles (1992) by L.V. Asolkar, K.K.Kakkar and O.J.Chakre and from Wealth of India published by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, India. The ethnobotanical information have been classified into following groups : (i) Increasing vitality and ensuring better sexual life, (ii) Treatment of the semen, (iii) Treatment of leucorrhoea and menorrhagia, (iv) Treatment of infertility of women, (v) Ensuring easy delivery, (vi) Preventing pregnancy, and (vii) Termination of pregnancy. Generally the botanical names of the plants have been used, and the Sanskrit names have been given parenthetically in case of textual sources, and in those cases where the botanical equivalents of the Sanskrit names could not be ascertained the Sanskrit names have been put in capital letters. In case of tribal sources also the Sanskrit equivalents of the botanical names, wherever possible, have been mentioned in parenthesis.
3. ENUMERATION OF INFORMATION
3.1
Increasing the vitality and ensuring better sexual life
(a)
Textual sources
The Agni Purana states that (i) application of the sap of Anthocephalus chinensis (Lamk.) Rich. ex Walp (kadamba) along with honey and cane-sugar over the sex-organs in beneficial for conjugal life, (ii) the sap of Limonia acidissima L. (kapittha), Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Mcbride (madhuka), Magadhi (many botanical equivalents have been suggested, e.g. Dioscorea bulbifera L., Jasminum officinale L., Piper longum L.), mixed with honey also serve the same purpose. (iii) the sexual vigour of a man increases immensely by regular consumption of milk in which the following have been boiled : the decoction of fruits of Terminalia chebula Retz.(haritaki), Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (vahera), and Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (amalaki), wood of Santalum album L. (candana), juice of Bacopa monnirei (L.) Wettst. (bhrnga), and Marsilea quadrifolia L. (cuncuka), HEMA (Datura metel L. or Mesua nagassarium (Burm. f & Kosterm), and DOSHA (Curcuma longa L.?), (iv) man who consumes equal quantities of powdered grains of Vigna radiatus (L.) Wilczek (syn. Phaseolus radiatus L. var. roxburghii) (masa), Hordeum vulgare L. (yava), Piper
4
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
peepuloides Wall. (pippali), Triticum aestivum L. (godhuma), and a variety of OnJza sativa L. (sali), boiled with Piper peepuloides Wall. (whole plant?), and drinks milk with canesugar, can have longer duration of copulation, (v) if a man applies the paste of Wedelia calendulacea Less. (bhrngaraja), Biophytum sensitivum L. (lajjaluka) and Adansonia digitata L. (goraksa) externally over the penis, he can keep the woman extremely satisfied; (vi) the woman who washes her sex organs with the extract of Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (vahera), Terminalia chebula Retz. (harikati) and Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (amalaki) can win her husband completely. (b) Tribal sources To increase the potency of a man the Bhils (Maheshwari, Kolakoti and Lal, 1986) give him (i) to drink the water containing root paste of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (satavari) for fifteen days in the morning; (ii) the seedling roots of Bombax ceiba L. (salamali) to chew; and (iii) administer ghee mixed with root paste of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (musali). To treat the impotency of man the Santals (Bodding, 1925/1986, p.357) administer, for a period of one month, pills made by pestling the roots of Themeda gigantea Hackel and Tragia involucrata L. (vrscikali) along with camphor.
3.2
Treatment of the Semen
(a)
Textual sources The Agni Purana states that (i) the quantity of sperms can be increased by consumption of ghee either boiled with the juice of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (satavari) or along with the grains of Vigna radiatus (L.) Wilczek (masa) and Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. (kalamvi); (ii) the use (specific method not mentioned) of Santalum album L. (canadana), Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum. (malati), Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (laksa) and Plectranthus barbatus Andi. (girimrttika) can help curing the deformed sperms. The Vijacintamani Tantra contains a long list of herbal medicines. According to this text, (i) consumption of 2 tola powder of sundried Cressa cretica L. (rudanti) before lunch for a period of one month improves the quality of sperms-the text, however, adds that for the particular month, the lunch of the patient should be constituted of rice and milk only; (ii) the entire vegetative plant of Wedelia calandulacea Less. (bhrangaraja) along with its roots should be dried in sun, powdered, and consumed along with stale rice for a period of six months to treat the defective sperms and to increase the quantity of the healthy sperms, but during those six months the patient should eat only rice and milk and must not consume any salted food; (iii) consumption of equal quantities of powdered fruits of Embelia ribes Burm. f. (vidanga) and Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. (hijjala) mixed with honey and oil (seasame? ) makes the sperms effective; (iv) consumption of sundried and powdered roots of white variety of Boerhavia diffusa L. (punarnava) along with milk for a period of one month, makes the sperm healthy. (b)
Tribal sources The Bhils (Maheshwari et al., ibid (i) chew 5 or 6 leaves of Grewia rhamnifolia Roth
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
5
for 20 days to concentrate the semen; and (ii) to treat the nocturnal pollution, they consume the flowers of Bombax ceiba L. (salmali).
3.3
Treating leucorrhoea and menorrhagia
(a)
Textual sources
According to the Agni Purana a lady should consume (i) white or red flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa) for treatment of the white or red discharge; (ii) Mimosa pudica L. (samanga), flowers of Grislea tomentosa Roxb. (dhataki), Symplocos racemosa Roxb. (lodhra), and Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (nilotpala) with milk. The Prayoga Cintamani prescribes the following herbal medicines for the treatment of leucorrhoea: (i) the paste of root bark of Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker (rohitaka) or the seeds of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (amalaki) should be consumed along with sugar and honey; (ii) consumption of fruits of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. along with honey stops the white discharge; (iii) consumption of roots of Gossypium herbaceum L. (karpasa) along with the water, in which sun-dried rice has been washed, cures the disease; (iv) the sap of Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. (guduchi) or the extract of roots and leaves of Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. (vasaka) along with honey make a good medicine for this disease; and (v) a good medicine is obtained by pasting the roots of Eragrostis cynosuroides Beauv. (kusa) in the water in which sundried rice has been washed. (b)
Tribal sources
In leucorrhoea the Bhils give the stem-bark extract of MitragtJna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. (dhulikadamba) with sugar to ladies till cure (Maheshwari, Kalakoti & Lal, 1986). The Santal women take root-powder of Smilax perfoliata Lour. with rice powder in the form of cake to cure white and blood discharge with urine (Mudgal & Pal, 1980). Bodding (pp.359-362) records a long list of medicines used by the Santals for treatment of menorrhagia. The herbal ones are as follows : (i) the flowers of Hibiscus rosasinensis L. Gapa), Nymphaea lotus L. (kamal), Erythrina indica Lam. (paribhadra), Pterospermum acerifolius Willd. (karnikara), the roots of Helianthus annuus L. (survyyamukhi), the flesh of the fruits of Diospyros embryopteris Pers. (tinduka), the flowers and leaf or bark of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (sephalika), should be boiled together, and the liquid thus obtained should be given to the patient to drink daily till the discharge gradually ceases; (ii) the flowers of Nymphaea lotus L. (kambala), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. (Karanikara), the roots of Helianthus annnus L. (suryyamukhi), and the wood of Pterocarpus santalinus L. f (raktacandana) should be pestled together, and pills made from this paste should be consumed daily by the patient till cure; (iii) pills made from the paste obtained by grinding the flowers of Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw. (atibala), barks of Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don (kutaja) and Streblus asper Lour. (sakhotaka) along with some opium should be consumed by the patient with the juice of roots of Ficus glomerata Roxb. (udumbara) daily; (iv) twenty one pills should be made from the paste obtained by grinding the flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), Nymphaea lotus L. (kambala), flesh of the fruits of Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Sw.
6
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
(nagaranga), along with twelve black peppercorns, the patient should swallow the pills three times a day with about an ounce of spirit; (v) the patient should daily consume a pill made from the paste obtained by grinding together the flowers of Nymphaea lotus L. (kambala), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), Nerium indicum Mill. (karavira), Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. (karanikara), roots of Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw. (atibala), Helianthus annuus L. (suryyamukhi), and little opium; (vi) a liquid medicine is prepared by boiling the paste of the roots of Michelia champaca L. (campaka), Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. (dhataki), flesh of the fruit of Diospyros embryopteris Pers. (tinduka), and the wood of Pterocaropus santalinus Lf. (raktacandana), a mixture of saltpetre and Anthemis pyrethrum should be added, and then the patient should drink it; (vii) the roots of Indigofera pulcheUa Roxb., Desmodium triflorum DC. (tripadi), and Commelina suffruticosa Bl. should be grinded with the rice made from sundried grain of a variety of black paddy, this paste should be mixed with the refuse of molasses-the same should be consumed by the patient; (viii) the patient should drink for fifteen days the medicine obtained by boiling in water the paste of the roots of Michelia champaca L. (campaka), flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), Nymphaea lotus L. (kambala), and a little wood of Pterocarpus santalinus Lf. (raktacandana), (ix) the patient should consume daily the pill made with the bulb and flower of Nymphaea lotus L. (kambala), flower of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), roots of Helianthus annuus L. (suryyamukhi), and a little opium; (x) pills made with the roots of Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw. (kankatika), Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G.Don (kutaja), Bombax ceiba L. (salmali), bark of Streblus asper Lour. (sakhotaka), and a little of opium should be taken regularly by the patient.
3.4
Infertility of Woman
(a)
Textual sources
The Agni Purana states that if the lady, who often suffers from miscarriage, consumes the root of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (padma), Sesamum orientale L. (ilia), Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Mcbride (madhuka) and sugar the conception becomes secure. For treating the infertility of women, the Garuda Purana states that (i) plant of
Vernonia cineria (L.) Less. (sahadevi) along with its roots should be collected on some particular day; the same should be dried in shade and powdered, this powder should be consumed twice daily with milk of one-coloured cow for few days. According to the Indrajala Tantra, a sterile lady should consume the root of Clitoria
ternatea L. (aparajita) with goat's milk for a few days. The Prayoga cintamani prescribes the following herbal medicines for the treatment of a barren lady. The patient should consume (i) the paste of young leaves of Cardiospermum helicacabum L. Gyotismati) with ghee, or (ii) flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), with stale rice, or (iii) the roots of red variety of Gossypium herbaceum L. (raktakarpasa) and Artemisia nilagirica (C.B.Clarke) Pamp. (nagadamani) specially during the period of menstruation, or (iv) equal quantities of paste of roots of Sida cordifolia L. (bala) and Piper nigrum L. (marica) for three days, and (v) a medicine obtained by pestling
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
7
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (asvagantha), roots or Mandragora officinarum Berlt. (ll}kamana), and the young prop roots of Ficus benghalensis L. (vatavyala) along with milk-consumption of this medicine for seven consecutive nights would surely make a women fertile. (b) Tribal sources The Santals have some medicines to treat the barrenness in women-but they are not purely herbal in nature. These are complex mixtures of chemicals, plants and animals (Bodding, p.357).
3.5
Ensuring Easy Delivery
(a)
Textual sources
To facilitates smooth delivery of the child, the Agni Purana gives two prescriptions. The first one states that the paste of Datura metel L. (dhustura), Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. (sahadevi), Cardiospermum helicacabum L. (rudrajata) and Biophytum sensitivum L. (lajjaluka) should be applied externally over the womb. According to the second one, if the paste of any of the following plants-Solanum nigrum L. (kakamci), Gloriosa superba L. (languli) or Justicia gendarussa Burm. f (atarusaka) is applied on the lower side of the naval region of the pregnant, the delivery will be smooth and easy. The Garuda Purana also contains similar idea-it states that if the paste of any \one of the following plants is plastered to the lower side of the naval region and in the mouth of vagina of the pregnant lady, the delivery will be smooth and painlessGloriosa superba L. (languli), Achyranthes aspera L. (apamarga), Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don (kutaja) and Stephania elegans Hk. f & T. (patha). The Indrajala Tantra contains the following three observations (i) introduction of the powdered roots of Boerhavia diffusa L. (punarnava) into the vagina at the time of delivery makes the process easy and painless; (li) affixing the roots of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. (sahadevi) on the waist of the pregnant serves the purpose, and (iii) tying the 'north extending roots' of Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. (vasaka) with seven threads on the waist of the pregnant ensures smooth and easy delivery. According to the Prayoga cintamani, the paste of anyone of the following plants is useful : Stephania elegans Hk. f & T. (patha), Gloriosa superba L. (languli), Rajata (Achyranthus aspera L. ?) and Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. (sinhasya). (b)
Tribal sources
The Bhils (Maheshwari et al., 1986) have the following two recipes: (i) the stembark of Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. (aksikiphala) is powdered, mixed with water, filtered, sugar candy is added to the filtrate, and this mixture is given to the ladies two times a day for three weeks, and (li) the root of stem (about 8 cm long) of Echinops echinatus Roxb. (tiksnagra) is crushed and the paste mixed with water is given once to the pregnant lady. The Santals (Boding, p. 363) use the following methods : (i) stick the root or the entire plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (apamarga) into the top of the doorway before
8
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
delivery but remove it immediately after delivery; (li) insert the roots of Ocimum sanctum L. (tulasi) (pulled out by one breath) into the pregnant's hair of the head; (iii) extract of the root Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R. Br. (arka) should be mixed with black pepper corns-some amount of this liquid should be drunk by the pregnant and a portion should be warmed and applied over her abdomen.
3.6
Prevention of Pregnancy
(a)
Textural sources
No herbal medicine for this purpose could be gleaned from the texts under the present study. (b)
Tribal sources
The Bhats (La! and Lata, 1980) give the ladies to consume (i) the leaves of Lycium barbatum L., Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (yastimadhu), roots of Sida spinosa L. (nagabala), anthers of Mesua forrea L. (nagakesara), and galls of Pistacia integerrima L. (karkatasmgi), mixed with honey, cow's milk and ghee daily; (i) powdered leaves of Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq. (plaksa) and fruits of Cuminum ClJminum L. Giraka) with water after menstruation; (iii) young leaves of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (palasa) homogenously mixed with cow's milk as a slow sterilizer; (iv) the decoction of equal quantity of fruits of Cleorodendron indicum (L.) Kuntze (bharangi), Sesamum orientale L. (tila), Moringa oleifera Lamk. (sigru), Piper nigrum L. (marica) and molasses for 20 days; (v) the powdered seeds of Citrus medica L. (matulunga) along with the milk of a cow having recent male offspring as a strong sterilizer; (vi) decoction of leaves of Sphaeranthus africans L. (mundi), fruits of Xanthium strumarium L. (sankhapuspi) and Tinospora malabarica Lamk. (amrta) in the morning for 14 days. The Santals and some other tribes of Mayurbhanj (Mudgal and Pal, 1980) use the following to prevent pregnancy : (i) stem-bark decoction of Bridelia crenulata Roxb. with country liquor is given after menstruation; (li powdered seeds of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (palasa) mixed with country liquor is given for three days after menstruation; (iii) powdered stem-bark (or decoction of the same) of Dendrophthoe falcata (Lf) Etting (vrksadani with liquor of Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. (madhuka) after three days of menstruation, and (iv) flower-paste of Thysanolaena maxima (Retz.) Kuntze Guma) is given with country liquor after menstruation.
3.7
Termination of Pregnancy
(a)
Textural sources No information could be obtained from the texts under study.
(b)
Tribal sources
The Bhat women (Lal and Lata, 1980) consume anyone of the following as abortifacient: (a) equal quantity of leaves of Ficus religiosa L. (asvattha), fruits of Embelia ribes Burro. J. (vidanga), borax with cow's milk, (b) ash of seeds of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (palasa) with latex of Ferula alliacea Boiss. (bahlikam) and cow's milk.
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
9
The Bhils (Maheshwari, Kolakoti and Lal, 1986) with pulp of heartwood of Borassus
flabellifer L. (tala) to ladies one or two times only. The Santals (a) use fresh roots (about 3 cm long) of Achyranthes aspera L. (apamarga) as mechanical means for causing abortion, (b) apply bruised roots and nuts of Semecarpus anacardium L. f (bhallataka) to uterus of 3 to 5 months pregnant woman for abortion, and (c) give seed-powder of Annona reticulata L. (ramphala) with that of Piper nigrum L. (marica) for causing termination of pregnancy upto 3 to 4 months.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The number of plants, mentioned in the texts and used by the tribes for each purpose, vary to a considerable extent (Table-I). This deviation may be an index of the extent of knowledge of the sources studied with regard to the use of plants for these purposes. The textual sources, studied for the present work, do not reveal any information on the use of plants in preventing and terminating pregnancy (Table-II). It may be mentioned in this connection that Ayurvedic works like Caraka Samhita and Susruta Samhita also do not throw light on these aspects, but they contain instructions about better sexual life, treatment of penis, semen, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, menstrual disorders, etc. (Appendix-A). All these texts were prepared either in ancient or in medieval ages. During those period the problem of population control did not arise, rather in those periods every clan could get greater dominance and influence with its numerical increase. This idea derives strength even by analyzing the studies made on the tribals at different decades of the twentieth century; as for example, the Santal Medicine and connected folklore (1925, 1927, 1940) monumental contribution of Bodding, who spent nearly thirty years amongst the Santals earlier, do not contain much information in this regard, while most of the modem studies of the tribes bring out some information on this important aspect. And some of the later Ayurvedic works mention about the use of vegetal materials in preventing and terminating pregnancy (Appendix-B). In this connection it must be admitted that the information regarding the use of plants by the Bhats is incomplete, the community which uses a large number of plants for prevention and termination of pregnancy must be utilizing some plants of for other purpose of family welfare too. Amongst the textural sources, the Agni Purana mentions maximum number of plants for all aspects of conjugal life, while the Garud Purana, Prayoga Cintamani, and Indrajala Tantra concentrate only on the ailments of females. Should it be imagined that those texts were ignorant/ indifferent about the ailments of the males, or ailments among the males were comparatively less then? More investigations are required to get the appropriate answer. Though more than one hundred plants have been referred to' in this article, only seven plants viz. Achyranthes aspera L., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Embelia ribes Burm. f, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L., Holarrhena pubescens Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don, Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn., and Sesamum orientale L., are common in the lists of plants in the texts
10
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
and tribes; all these seven plants are also not used for the same purpose in the texts and by the tribes (Table-Ill). Generally speaking, the method of using plants by the tribes differs from the same mentioned in the texts. It may be argued that since the tribals represent the Laukika culture and the texts belong to the Sastriya culture (Saraswari, 1970), the difference is only natural. But this hypothesis does not hold good, as divergence in use of the plants exists among the tribes themselves, and in between the textual sources too (Table -IT). These differences among the tribes may be caused by ecological factors, at least to some extent ; the Bhils live in Madhya Pradesh, the Bhats in Rajasthan, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, while the Santals live in Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. There may be other contributing factors. To assess the nature, extent, and reason (s) of these differences ethnobotanists need the cooperation of phytoanthropologists (Sensarma and Ghosh, 1995). It appears that a through probe into these divergences by competent investigators may bring out new information about the history of utilization of plant vis-a-vis the socio-cultural evolution from the plant perspective. It is interesting to note that most of the plants mentioned in this article are recognized by the Ayurveda and Allopathy system as medicinal plants, while the Yunani and Homeopathy systems acknowledge the therapeutic properties of many of them. All these systems utilize the plants as medicines for purposes other than those mentioned in this article, and seldom use of the plants in the physiology of reproduction is met with. The therapeutic uses prescribed by different systems of medicine of the seven species of plants, common in the lists of texts and tribes, along with the chemical contents of the same have been shown in Table- IV. Information regarding the use of the species of plants, mentioned in this article, as could be gathered from investigations conducted by different scholars on some ethnic communities and literary sources of India, has been separately enumerated (Table -Y). This observation brings out clearly the necessity of verification of the textual and tribals information, as stated earlier, by both the methods, viz., phytochemical and pharmaceutical analysis, and proving. It may, however, be said on the basis of the information mentioned in this paper that the ethnobotanical studies of texts and tribes may help in finding out the utilities of easily available herbal materials with efficacy for various aspects of family welfare.
Any ethnobotanical study not only brings out new information about the manplant relationship, but the same also indicates new areas of research in plant science, and involved socio-cultural history of man. Thus the importance of ethnobotany is not limited to its utilitarian significance, this branch of scientific persuasion also helps to comprehend the progress of human civilization.
5. SUMMARY The author has shed light on traditional medicinal plants used for family planning in India. The traditional drugs or drug yielding plants have been evaluated comparatively. Textural information from five non-ayurvedic texts viz., Agni purana, Garuda purana, Indrajala Tantra, Prayoga Cintamani and Vajacinatamani Tantra, as well as Indian folklore of three tribes viz., the Bhats, Bhils and Santals have been analyzed critically. The information is also discussed alongwith the data from Ayurvedic, Unani, Siddha
11
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
and Allopathy. The author has pointed out some aspects which are not covered by the monumental works in Ayurveda and causes of divergence in using plants by the tribes studied and the textual sources, apart from new areas of research. To facilitate the analysis of the materials, four Tables have been prepared; and for the sake of brevity abbreviations used have been used in the Tables Abbreviation
Full Denomination
AP
Agni Purana
GP
Garuda Purana
IT
Indrajala Tantra
PC
Prayoga Cintamani
VC
Vijacintamani Tantra
I
Increasing vitality and ensuring better sexual life
II
Treatment of semen
III
Treatment of leucorrhoea and menorrhagia
IV
Treatment of infertility of women
V
Ensuring easy delivery
VI VII
Prevention of pregnancy
MOD
Termination of pregnancy Medicine for other disease(s) TABLE 1
Number of species of plants mentioned in the sources for various purposes
I
II
PURPOSES III IV V
17
06
05
Sources Agni Purana Garuda Purana Indrajala Tantra
06 05
Prayoga Cintamani Vijacintamani Tantra Bhat Bhil Santal
05 02
02
01 22
05 01 01
07
09
04
VI
VII
16
04
04
03
02 03
01 04
04
t-I N
TABLE-2 Table Use of Plants in Family Welfare Sources
Better Sexual Life
I Agni Purana Adansonia digitata, Anthocephalus chinensis, Bacopa monnieri, Bjophytum sensitivum, Hordeum vulgare, Limonia acidissima, Madhuca longifolia, Marsilea quadrifolia, Oryza sativa, Piper peepuloides, Emblica officinalis, Santalum album, Termiinalia bellirica, Terminalia chebula, Triticum aestivum, Vigna radiata, Wedelia chinensis Garuda Nil Purana
Prayoga Cintamani
Nil
Purposes Treatment of Treatment of Infertility Semen Leucorrhoea and Menorrhagia IV II III Aganosma Grislea tomentosa, Madhuca dichotoma, Hibiscus longifolia, rosasinensis, Nelumbo Asparagus racemosus, Butea Mimosa pudica, nucifera, monosperma, Nelumbo nucifera, Sesamum Ipomoea orientale Symplocos aquatica, racemosa Santalum album, Vigna radiata
Nil
Nil
Nil
Adhatoda zeylanica, Aphanamixis
Vernonia albicans
Ensuring Easy Delivery V Biophytum sensitivum, Cardiospermum helicacabum, Datura me tel, Gloriosa superba, Justicia sp., Solanum nigrum, Vernonia albicans
Achyranthes aspera, Gloriosa superba, Holarrhena pubescens, Stephania elegans Artemisia Achyranthes nilagirica, aspera, Adhatoda Cardiospermum zeylanica,
Prevention of Pregnancy VI
Tennination of Pregnancy VII
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
~
~
tl
>
'en"
il:
> Z Nil
Nil
C/l rrl Z
en
> Contd ...
'~"
>
~
... Contu.
:=
I
II
III
V
IV
VI
VII
-> t:j '"'l
Desmostachya bipinnata, Gossypium herbaceum, Emblica officinalis, Tinospora cordifolia
Vijacintamani Barringtonia acutangula, Boerhavia Tantra diffusa, Cresssa cretica, Embelia ribes, Wedelia chinensis Nil Indrajal Tantra
Bhat
Nil
Nil
Nil
helicacabum, Ficus bengalensis, Gossypium herbaceum, Hibiscus rosasinensis, Mandragora officinalis, Piper nigrum, Sida cordifolia, Withania somnifera Nil
Gloriosa superba, Stephania elegans
0
~
r"'
c::
CIl
!!'l
0
"rl
I-d r"'
~ ....Z
->-~ CIl
Z
Nil
Nil
Nil
~
> ;s::
~
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Clitoria ternatea
Nil
Adhatoda zeylanica, Boerhavia diffusa, Vernonia albicans Lycium barbatum
Nil
Nil
~
r"'
"rl
> := !!'l Butea monosperma, Citrus medica, Clerodendrum indicum, Cuminum
Butea monosperma, Embelia ribes, Ferula alliacea, Ficus Contd ...
I-l
(,jJ
~
...Contd.
~
I
Bhil
Santal
Asparagus racemosus, Bombax ceiba, Curculigo orchioides Themeda gigantea, Tragia involucrata
II
Bombax ceiba, Gre111ia rhamnifolia Nil
III
Mitragyna paruifolia
Abutilon indicum, Anthemis pyrethrum,
IV
Nil
Nil
V
VI
cyminum, Ficus arnottiana, Gly.cyrrhiza glabra, Lycium barbarum, Mesua ferrea, Moringa oleifera, Piper nigrum, Pistacia chinensis sub sp. integerrima, Sesamum orientale, Sida spinosa, Sphaeranthus africanus, Tinospora sinensis, Xanthium strumarium Nil
Dillenia pentagyna, Echinops echinatus. Borassus A chyranthes aspera, Boerhavia flabellifer,
VII
religiosa, Oercxiendrum indicum
:P Borassus flabellifer
~
t::l
>
'::t::" CIl
>
Z
Achyranthes aspera, Contd ...
r:J) ttl
Z
CIl
>
'"
~
>
...Contd. I
II
III
Bombax ceiba, Borassus flabellifer, Citrus aurantium, Commelina suffruticosa, Desmodium triflorum, Diospyros malabarica, Erythrina indica, Ficus racemosa, He/ianthus annuus, Hibiscus rosasinensis, Holarrhena pubescens, Indigofera cassioides, Michelia champaca, Nelumbo nucifera, Nerium indicum, Nyctanthes arbortristis, Pterospermum acerifolium, Pterocarpus santalinus, Smilax perfoliata, Streblus asper, Woodfordia jruiticosa, Marsilea quardifolia
IV
V
diffusa, Bombax ceiba, Calotropis gigantea, Ocimum sanctum
VI
Bridelia crenulata, Butea monosperma, Dendrophthoe falcata, Madhuca longifolia
VII
Annona reticulata, Gloriosa superba
16
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
TABLE 3 Complete list of plants and their uses Sr. Name of the Plant No.
Family
1. 2. 3. 4.
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Achyranthes aspera L. Adansonia digitata L. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic
Malvaceae Amaranthaceae Bombacaceae Acanthaceae
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum. Annona reticulata L. Anthemis pyrethrum L. Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) Rich. Aphanamyxis polystachya (Wall.) Parker Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. Asparagus racemosus Willd. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. Biophytum sensitivum L. Boerhavia diffusa L. Bombax ceiba L.
Apocynaceae Annonaceae Asteraceae Rubiaceae Meliaceae Asteraceae Liliaceae Scrophulariaceae Myrtaceae Oxalidaceae Nyctaginaceae Bombacaceae
17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
Borassus flabellifer L. Bridelia crenulata Roxb. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. Cardiospermum helicacabum L.
Arecaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Asclepiadaceae Sapindaceae
22. Citrus aurantium L. 23. Citrus medica L. 24. Clerodendron indicum (L.) Ktze. 25. Clitoria tematea L. 26. Commelina suffruticosa B1. 27. Cressa cretica L. 28. Cuminum cyminum L. 29. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. 30. Datura metel L. 31. Dendrophthoe falcate (Lf.) Etting 32. Desmodium triflorum DC. 33. Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf.
Rutaceae Rutaceae Verbenaceae Fabaceae Commelinaceae Convolvulaceae Apiaceae Amaryllidaceae Solanaceae Loranthaceae Fabaceae Poaceae
Uses prescribed by Texts Tribes GP:V AP:I PC:III,Vi IT:V APII
Sant:III SantV, VII
Sant:VII Sant:III AP:I PC:III PC:IV AP:II AP:I VC:II AP:I,Vi IT:V VC:II Bhil:I,IIi Sant:III Bhil:VII SantVI AP:II Sant:V AP:Vi PC: IV Sant:III Sant:III Bhat:VII IT:IV Sant:III VC:II Bhat:VI Bhil:I AP:V Sant:VI Sant:III PC: III Contd ....
17
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
... Contd. Sr. Name of the Plant No.
Family
34. Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. 35. Diospyros malabarica (Descr.) Kost. 36. Echinops echinatus Roxb. 37. Embelia ribes Burm. f. 38. Erythrina variegata 1. 39. Ferula alliacea Boiss. 40. Ficus amottiana (Miq.) Miq. 41. Ficus benghalensis 1. 42. Ficus racemosa 1. 43. Ficus religiosa 1. 44. Gloriosa superba 1.
Dilleniaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Myrsinaceae Fabaceae Apiaceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Liliaceae
45. Glycyrrhiza glabra 1.
Fabaceae
46. 47. 48. 49. 50.
Gossypium herbaceum 1. Grewia rhamnifolia Heyne Grislea tomentosa Roxb. Helianthus annuus 1. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 1.
51. Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don 52. Hordeum vulgare 1. 53. Indigofera cassioides RottI. ex DC. 54. Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. 55. Justicia gendarussa Burm. f. 56. Limonia acidissima 1. 57. Lycium barbatum 1. 58. Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Mcbride 59. Mandragora officinalis 1. 60. Marsilea quardrifolia 1. 61. Mesua ferrea 1. 62. Michelia champaca 1. 63. Mimosa pudica 1. 64. Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. 65. Moringa oleifera Lamk. 66. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. 67. Nerium indicum Mill.
Malvaceae Tiliaceae Lythraceae Asteraceae Malvaceae Apocynaceae Poaceae Fabaceae Convolvulaceae Acanthacee Rutaceae Solanaceae Sapotaceae Solanaceae Marsileaceae Clausiaceae Magnoliaceae Mimosaceae Rubiaceace Moringaceae Nelumbonaceae A pocynaceae
Uses prescribed by Tribes Texts Bhil:V Sant:III Bhat:V VC:II Sant:III Bhat:VII Bhat:VI PC:IV Sant:III Bhat:VII AP:V, GP:V, PV:V SantVII, Bhat:VI PC:I1I, IV Bhil:II AP:III AP:III, PC:lV GP:V
Sant:III Sant:III Sant:III
AP:I Sant:III AP:II AP:V AP:I Bhat:V AP:I,IV PC:IV AP:I
Sant:I1I BhatVI Sant:III
AP:I1I
AP:III,IV
Bhil:III Bhat:VI Sant:III Sant:III Contd ....
18
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
... Contd. Sr. Name of the Plant No.
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. 69. Ocimum sanctum L. 70. Oryza sativa L. 71. Emblica officinalis Gaertn. 68.
72. 73. 74.
Piper nigrum L. Piper peepuloides Roxb. Pistacia chinensis Bunge subsp.
75. 76.
integerrim L. (Stew.) Rech. F. Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. f
77. 78. 79.
80. 81. 82. 83.
84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98.
99. 100. 101.
Santalum album L. Semecarpus ana cardium L.f Sesamum orientale L. Sida cordifolia L. Sida spinosa L. Smilax perfoliata Lour. Solanum nigrum L. Sphaeranthus africanus L. Stephania elegana HK. f & T. Streblus asper Lour. Symplocos racemosa Roxb. Terminalia belllrica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Terminalia chebula Retz. Themeda gigantea Hackel Thysanolaena maxima Ktze. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Tragia involvucrata L. Triticum aestivum L. Vernonia albicans DC. Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilo Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. Xanthium strumarium L.
Family
Uses prescribed by Texts Tribes
Oleaceae Lamiaceae Poaceae Euphorbiaceae Piperaceae Piperaceae Pistaciaceae Sterculiaceae Fabaceae Santalaceae Anacardiaceae Pedaliaceae Malvaceae Malvaceae Smilacaceae
Sant:III Sant:V AP:I AP:I, PC: III Bhat:VI AP:I BhaT:VI Sant:III Sant:III AP:I, II Sant:VII AP:IV PC:IV
Bhat:VI . Sant:III
AP:V Solanaceae Asteraceae Menispermaceae GP:V, PC:V Moraceae Symplocaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae Poaceae Poaceae
Fabaceae Asteraceae Solanaceae Lythraceae Asteraceae
Bhat:VI
Sant:II1 AP:III AP:I AP:I Sant:I Sant:VI
Menispermaceae PC:III Menispermaceae Euphorbiaceae Poaceae Asteraceae
Bhat:VII
Bhat:VI Sant:I
AP:I GP:IV AP:I, II VC:II PC:II Sant:III Bhat:VI
~
TABLE 4
1::0
Therapeutic uses of seven species of plants in different systems of medicine Sr. No.
Name of the Plant
Texts
Tribes
Ayurveda
Unani
Uses Prescribed by Homoeopathy Allopathy
=l
Chemical contents of the plants
0
Z
>
t"'"
e
[J'l
1.
2.
Achyranthes aspera L. (Amaranthaceae) Asparagus racemosus Willd.
GP:V, PC:V AP:II
Santal:V, VII Bhil:I
MOD
The root is galactagogue, and MOD
3.
Embelia ribes Burm f (Myrsinaceae)
4.
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. (Malvaceae)
VC:II
AP:III, PC:IV
Bhat:VII
Santal:III
Cures urinary discharges, and MOD
The buds are used to treat uterine and vaginal discharges, seminal weakness, and flowers fried in ghee are used to check excessive menstruation.
MOD
The root is galactogogue, and useful in gonorrhoea MOD
MOD
MOD
The plant is rich in potash
tT1
0
'Tl
~ t"'"
> ~
MOD
--[J'l
Z
MOD
MOD
The drug contains embelin, quercitol, christembine, a resinoid, tannins, fatty ingredients, and minute quantities of volatile oil. Some parts The flowers of the plant contain moisture, are nitrogen, fat, crude demulcent fibre, calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid. The leaves contain carbotone.
Z 0
>
Z
~
s::
~
~
t"'"
'Tl
> ::=
tT1
~
Contd...
.\C
I-.J
·..Contd. Sr. No.
0
Name of the Plant
5.
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don
6.
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (Nelumbonaceae)
Texts GP:V
Tribes Santal:1II
AP:III, IV Santal:1II
Ayurveda
Unani
MOD
The bark checks excessive menstrual flow; the leaves are useful to regulate menstruation, and MOD
Anthers are sedative to the uterus; seeds are sedative to the pregnant uterus, and all parts are MOD
The root is good to treat spermatorrhoea; seeds are tonic to the uterus, useful in menorrhagia and leucorrhoea, and many parts are MOD
Uses Prescribed by Homoeopathy Allopathy MOD
The bark and seeds are antiperiodic, they are used after delivery to give proper tone to vagina
Chemical contents of the plants The therapeutic value of this lant is due to the presence of alkaloids which occur as tannate. The principal alkaloid is conessine; there are seventeen other alkaloids. In addition to alkaloids it contains gums, resins, tannins, some types of alcohols
MOD I-c:I liI:l
~
0
> liI:l til ::r: > Z C/l ttl
Z
til
> liI:l Contd...
•
== >
•
... Contd. Sr. No.
Name of the Plant
Texts
AP:IV
7.
Sesamum orientale L. (Pedaliaceae)
Tribes
BhatVI
Ayurveda
Unani
The roots and The seeds seeds cure galactogogue, menorrhagia, useful in and MOD urinary concretions, and MOD
Uses Prescribed by Homoeopathy Allopathy
MOD
Chemical contents of the plants The seeds yield edible oil and important as a source of protein for human nutrition. The seeds also contain carbohydrates, oxalic acid, calcium, phosphorus, and other mineral matters
22
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
TABLE 5
Use of the species of plants by other tribes and texts in family welfare 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Birhor : Leaf decoction is used as wash for vaginal infection and dried seed powder as abortifacient. In Ayurvedic and unani systems of medicine, it is used as anti-inflammatory agent of genital organs, and in spermatorrhoea, besides many other diseases. In allopathic system, the species is considered as medicinal. Achyranthes aspera L. Tribes of Chotanagpur and Bastar : Root is as abortifacient. Ethnic communities of Arunachal Pradesh and Tharus employ root to women for treatment of antifertility. Ethnic communities of Orissa and Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) use root in bleeding in delivery. Asurs, ethnic Communities of Meghalaya and Orissa use root for fascilitating childbirth. Since the time of the Atharvaveda this species is regarded as medicinally important, and in Ayurvedic system it is used for treatment of many diseases. In homoeopathic system, it is used in menorrhagia. In allopathic system, too different parts of the plant are used for treatment of various diseases. Adansonia digitata L. In Ayurvedic system, the fruits are used for treatment of many other diseases. In allopathic system leaves are used as diaphoretic, and also as polyphylactic against fever. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. It is an important medicinal plant in Ayurvedic and allopathic systems, but no part of the plant is used in family welfare. Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum. In tribal, Ayurvedic and allopathic systems various parts of the plant are used in treatment of different diseases, but not for any purpose of family planning. Annona reticulata L. Different parts of the plant are used as antidysenteric and anthelmintic in the folk and allopathic systems. Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) DC. (Santal : Akor Kora) According to Bodding, Santals use the plant (Santal name : Akor Kora) as an ingredient of the medicines of puerperal fever and menorrhagia. Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) Rich. Ethnic communities of Orrissa use bark in antifertility. In Sukla Yajurveda : bark extract is noted in rectifying defects of semen. Later Ayurvedic works mention roots and flowers as abortifacient; and in allopathic system stem bark extract is used as anthelmintic and hypoglycaemic. Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker Ethnic communities of Chhotanagpur employ bark in pain after child birth. Totos use various parts of the plant in different diseases, but not in family welfare.
Contd...
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
23
Contd ...
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Later Ayurvedic works note decoction of root-bark in menorrhagia, while according to Caraka Samhita stem bark and flowers are useful in many diseases. In homoepathic and allopathic systems different parts of the plant are used in various diseases, including cancer. Artemisia nilagirica (Cl.) Pamp. Garhwalis employ the plant in menstrual disorders. Totos, Garos, and ethnic communities of Dehradun (Uttaranchal), Kashmir, Khed Taluka (Maharashtra) use the whole plant and different parts of the same for various other diseases. In allopathic system the herb, leaves and flowers are used as anthelmintic, antispasmodic and stomachic. Asparagus racemosus Willd. In tribal, Ayurvedic and unani systems the plant, its roots and leaves are used in many deficiencies and diseases, but not in the physiology of reproduction, though roots and leaves are regarded as galactogogue. In allopathic system the root is used in impotency and azcospermea besides other diseases. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Nayadis, Bhils, ethnic communities of Arunachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Maharashtra use the herb as tonic and different parts in many diseases but not in family welfare. According to Atharva Veda the herb improves the quality of semen; in Ayurvedic system it is used for invigorating sex and in many disabilities and diseases; in unani and allopathic systems the herb is considered useful in low adynamic conditions and many other diseases. Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. Mikirs, Santals,. and some ethnic communities of Orissa find different vegetative parts useful for various ailments, but not in family welfare. The Ayurvedic works as well as unani and allopathic systems recognize the utility of this species in some other ailments.
Biophytum sensitivum L. Rural folk of Orissa and ethnic communities of Sagar district consider the plant as antiexcitant. Bhils use root to decrease sexual vigour; and the ethnic communities of Ratan Mahal Hills (Gujarat) maintain that smoking dried leaves with tobacco reduces the reproductive capabilities of man, and excessive use of the same renders him impotent. Kasis, Jaintias and Santals find different parts of the plant beneficial for diverse diseases. The medicinal usefulness of the leaves has been reCOgnized by the allopathic system.
.
15.
Boerhavia diffusa L. Ethnic communities of eastern Rajasthan, Dahanu forest use leaf in child birth, whereas tribes of Sagar district employ root in treatment of gonorrhoea. Leaves and other parts are used in the treatment of a number of diseases by many ethnic communities of India. The medicinal importance of this species has been Contd...
24
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Contd ...
16.
17.
18. 19.
20.
21.
22.
recognized since the days of the Rigveda: it is being used in Ayurvedic, siddha, unani, homoeopathic and allopathic systems of medicine for treatment of a wide range of diseases. Bombax ceiba L. Rural folk of Assam use leaf to treat infertility; Santals find seedling spermatorrhoea. Garhwalis and tribes of Dahanu forest use root to treat impotency. A large number of tribal societies use different parts of the plant for treatment of many diseases. In Ayurvedic system the root of sapling is used in the treatment of weakness of sex, insufficiency of sperms, gonorrhoea, and lOot-bark in menorrhagia. Borassus flabellifer L. Santals employ many parts for treatment of various ailments and diseases. The medicinal importance of the species has been recognized since the days of the Atharva Veda. Different parts of the plant are used in Ayurvedic, siddha and allopathic systems of medicine. Bridelia crenulata Roxb. Ethnic communities of Orissa use the stem-bark for treatment of antifertility. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Ethnic communities of Mayurbhanja (Orissa) use seeds as contraceptive, whereas ethnic societies of Kannanore (Kerala) employ flowers in infertility. Many tribal communities of India use different parts of the plant for treatment of many diseases. According to the Atharva Veda, the extract of stem is beneficial for sperms and helps securing conception. In Ayurvedic system the leaves are regarded as sex stimulant and useful in menorrhagia, while flowers as sex stimulant. Further, different parts of the plant are considered of medicinal importance in Ayurvedic, siddha, unani, and allopathic systems of medicine. In modern medicine the usefulness of alcoholic extracts of bark, flower in the physiology of reproduction is acknowledged. Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. Nagas administer root-decoction in leucorrhoea. Sfu'ltals do so in post-natal complaints. Irulars use the latex as abortifacient. Miris, Nagas, Lodhas, Oraons, Santals, Tharus, Kumaonis, Dangs and Vasavas use different parts of the plant in many diseases. This species is considered medicinal in homoepathic and allopathic systems. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Lodhas, Mundas, Oraons use root and leaves in the treatment of some diseases. The species is ti~ed in unani and allopathic systems of medicine. Citrus aurantium L. Traditionally different parts of the plant are used in some gastro-intestinal problems. In allopathic system extracts of stem and leaf are used mainly as antimicrobial, but the peel of fruits against antifertility. Contd...
..
TRAomONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
25
Contd ... 23.
Citrus medica L. Traditionally ripe fruits are considered effective in amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea. The species is regarded as medicinal in unani system.
24.
Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Ktze.
25. 26. 27. 28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
Ethnic communities of Chhotanagpur use the root as abortifacient. In Ayurvedic and allopathic systems different parts of the plant are used for treatment of many diseases but not for family welfare. C[itoria ternatea L. Ethnic communities of Cannanore (Kerala) use the roots as abortifacient. Commelina suffruticosa B1. No other information could be obtained. Cressa cretica L. Some ethnic communities of Orissa eat the plant as vegetable. Cuminum ClJminum L. Irulars, Kotas and Todas use seeds to reduce labour pain, while ethnic communities of Chhotanagpur use the same to accelerate child delivery. Tribal societies of Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) employ fruits in inflammation of testicles and breasts. In Ayurvedic, unani, and allopathic systems different parts of the plants are used for various diseases. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Ethnic communities of Purulia (West Bengal) use roots in venereal diseases. Tribes of Hazaribagh Gharkhand) employ roots in leucorrhoea. Ethnic communities of East Rajasthan find useful roots in impotency. The species is considered medicinally important in tribal, Ayurvedic, siddha, unani, and allopathic systems, and different parts are used for various purposes. Datura metel L. Santals and ethnic communites of Sagar use leaf in gonorrhoea and syphilis. Different parts of the plant are used in tribal, Ayurvedic, and allopathic systems for treatment of many diseases. Dendrophthoe falcata (Lf) Etting Ethnic communities of Tejpur (Assam), Chhotanagpur Gharkhand), Mayurbhanja (Orissa) employ the plant in antifertility, while the tribals of Bastar (Chhatisgarh) use the same for treatment of impotency. The plant is recognized as medicinal in Ayurvedic and allopathic systems. Desmodium trijlorum DC. Different parts of the plant are used by the Mundas in a number of diseases. In allopathic system of medicine too this species is considered important. Contd...
26
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Contd... 33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39. 40.
41.
42.
Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf. While Cakradatta holds roots beneficial in menorrhagia, almost all Ayurvedic authors prescribe different parts of the plant for treatment of a number of diseases. Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. Totos of West Bengal, ethnic communities of Orissa and Abujhmarh reserve area find different parts of the plant useful for diverse diseases. Diospyros malabarica (Descr.) Kost. While ethnic communities of Madhya Pradesh, and some ancient Sanskrit works recommend the use of fruits mainly for the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and some skin diseases. Later Ayurvedic works recommend aqueous extract of green fruit in menorrhagia. Echinops echinatus Roxb. Ethnic communities of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh use the parts of the plant in some diseases, and in allopathic system alcoholic extract of the plant is considered as spasmogenic. Embelia nOes Burm. f Ethnic communities of Garhwal, Kamrup and North East India use fruits and seeds in a few diseases. Some Sanskrit works, including the ayurvedic texts, recommend use of different parts of the plant for a large number of diseases, but not for . anything connected with family welfare. Erythrina variegata L. Medicinal importance of the species is recognized by some ethnic communities and in many Ayurvedic works. In the Ayurvedic system the stem-bark and leaves are recommended in dysmenorrhoea. Ferula alliacea Boiss. It is considered by some modern botanists as an economically important species. Ficus arnottiana [Miq.] Miq. According to some Ayurvedic works this species is beneficial for semen and in vaginopathy. Ficus benghalensis L. Bhoxas and ethnic communities of eastern Rajasthan use latex in spermatorrhoea; while many other tribal societies use different parts of the plant for various diseases. In ayurvedic system the bark is used in seminal weakness, leucorrhoea and gonorrhoea. In modern science the bark decoction is considered for antifertility. Ficus racemosa L. While many communities use different parts of the plant in treatment of various diseases. Manipuries use the juice of pith in menorrhagia and spermatorrhoea. Contd...
TRAomONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
27
Contd ... In Ayurvedic, siddha and allopathic systems the species in considered medicinally
43.
44.
45.
46.
47. 48. 49.
50.
important, while Madana nighntu states that it is useful in antifertility. Ficus religiosa L. Manipuris and ethnic communities of Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) employ the bark in gonorrhoea. The Ayurvedic works state that different parts of the plant are useful in sex-debility, night pollution, and to cure disorders in the female sex organs. In allopathic system also the species is treated as medicinal. Gloriosa superba L. Mundas and Oraons use tuber for antifertility purpose. Santals and Garhwalis and ethnic communities of Orissa use tuberous roots for abortion. Rajanigantu, Madangnighantu and Bhavaprakasa consider it as abortifacient, while Cakradatta maintains that application of root-paste ensures easy delivery of child. According to Susruta the plant is useful in post-natal complaints. Allopathic system also recognize the medicinal importance of the species. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Medicinal properties of the species have been enumerated in many Ayurvedic works, and according to modern science the root-extract is estrogenic. Gossypium herbaceum L. Ethnic communities of Hazaribagh and Ranchi districts (Jharkhand) find root-bark and seed useful as abortifacient. The Ayurvedic system also consider the roots and seeds as abortifacient. In modern science, gossypol-a chemical obtainable from root, stem, and seed is a safe antifertility drug for male. Grewia rhamnifolia Heyne No further information could be collected. Grislea tomentosa Roxb. No further information could be collected. Helianthus annuus L. Manipuris and the ethnic communities of Salsette island (near Mumbai) use different parts of the plant for various purposes, and in modern system of medicine too it has many applications but not for any purpose of family welfare. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Manipuris employ juice of flowers in amenorrhoea. Bodos, use root in menstrual complaints and gonorrhoea. Ethnic communities of Kamrup (Assam) use flowers as contraceptive, whereas ethnic communities of Hazaribagh (Jharkhand) use flowers in impotency, and also to accelerate child birth; ethnic communities of Ranchi (Jharkhand) use bark as abortifacient, ethnic communities of Saurashtra (Gujrat) employ flowers in menorrhagia. In Ayurvedic system roots and flowers are used in seminal weakness, menorrhagia, and venereal diseases; in unani system too flowers are utilized in menorrhagia. In siddha and allopathic systems also the species is considered as medicinally important. Contd ...
28
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Contd ... 51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57. 58.
59. 60.
61.
Holarrhena . pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don Mundas use root and leaf iI1' excessive hemorrhage after child birth. Ethnic communities of Abujh-Marh (Madhya Pradesh) find bark useful in menstrual difficulties. Many tribal communities of India use different parts of the plant in various diseases. In Ayurvedic, siddha, and unani systems the species is used against wide range of diseses. In allopathic system, alcoholic extract of fruits is used to regulate menstruation and in many other ailments. Hordeum vulgare L. Santals, Garhwalis and Kashmiris use the grains in various diseases. In ayurveda, unani and allopathy systems the species in considered important medicinally. Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex DC. Many ethnic communities of India eat the flowers as vegetable. In modern science the alcoholic extract of root is regarded as antiviral and spasmolytic. Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. Ethnic communities of Hazaribagh and Ranchi (Jharkhand) employ stem is gonorrhoea, whereas ethnic communities of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra find stem, leaf and flowers beneficial for treatment of some diseases. In Ayurvedic system stem extract is used in gonorrhoea and a galactagogue, while other parts in treatment of different diseases. In modern science, the alcoholic extract of the plant is considered as spasmolytic. Justida gendarussa Burm. f Mikirs and Nayadis use leaf in bone dislocation and fracture. It is used in Ayurvedic system for orthopedic purposes. Limonia addissima L. Ethnic communities of Jharkhand, Oriassa and Madhya Pradesh use various parts of the plant in different diseases. Lydum barbatum L. No further information could be collected. Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Mcbride Various parts of the plant are used by diverse ethnic communities of India in a number of other diseases. In Ayurvedic systems flowers are used in menorrhagia. Mandragora offidnalis L. No information could be collected. Marsilea quadrifolia L. In ayurveda it is considered as a medicinal plant fit for treatment of many other diseases. Mesua ferrea L. Bodos, Khasis, and some other ethnic communities of Assam and West Bengal use different parts of the plant in various ailments.
Contd...
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
29
Contd ... 62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
Michelia champaca L. Ethnic communities of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh : roots in menstrual complaints and stem-bark as abortifacient. Powder of stem-bark is prescribed in ayurveda for treatment of amenorrhoea. Mimosa pudica L. Some ethnic communities of West Bengal use the root for facilitating child-birth, whereas some tribal societies of Assam find the root beneficial in antifertility. In ayurveda, decoction of the plant is used in wounds in vagina and for vaginal plugging. Seed-oil is utilized in strengthening the erectile muscle of penis. Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. Ethnic communities of Madhya Pradesh consider bark as contraceptive, while Dangs use the same in syphilis. Moringa oleifera Lamk. Todas , Kotas, Irulars, and ethic communities of Jharkhand use bark and gum as abortifacient, whereas bark and leaf are used in menstrual complaints by Nayadis. Many other ethnic communities apply different parts of the plant in a number of ailments and diseases. In Ayurvedic and unani systems too all the parts of the plant are treated as medicinally important. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Ethnic communities of Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) use flowers in diarrhoea and cholera, whereas many other communities eat different parts of the plant as vegetable. In ayurveda, decoction of root is prescribed in irregular menstruation, and leaves in prolapse of uterus. Nerium indicum Mill. Ethnic communities of Jharkhand employ stem and root as abortifacient; while some tribal societies of West Bengal and Haryana use latex in various diseases. In ayurveda, different parts of the plant and latex are used in a number of ailments. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. This species occupies important position in Ayurvedic and tribal systems as medicine for many other diseases. Ocimum sanctum L. Ethnic communities of Jharkhand apply leaf as abortifacient. This species occupies an important position in tribal and Ayurvedic systems of medicines mainly for its antibacterial properties. Oryza sativa L. Some ethnic communities of Bihar use flowers in antifertility. In ayurveda, the grains are used in many other diseases.
Contd...
30
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Contd ... 71.
72.
73. 74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80. 81.
Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Some ethnic communities of Jharkhand apply fruits in vaginal complaints. In ayurveda, the fruits are used to treat semens and leucorrhoea. The fruits have wide application in tribal and Ayurvedic systems in many diseases. Piper nigrum L. Nayadis apply stem and leaf to facilitate child birth. Assamese use fruits in antifertility. In ayurveda, the fruits are used in gonorrhoea and also to improve the quality of semen. Piper peepuloides Roxb. In Sikkim and Darjeeliing root, stem and fruits are used in leprosy and cough. Pistacia chinensis Bunge ssp. integerrima (Stew. ) Rech. f Garhwalis use kernel in dysentery and as antidote to bites of scorpion and snake. In ayurveda, the species is used in few diseases. Pterospennum acerifolium Willd. In tribal and Ayurvedic systems bark, leaf, and flowers are used as medicine of other diseases. Santalum album L. Ethnic communities of Sagar district use seeds are abortifacient. In tribal and Ayurvedic systems, the wood is used in many diseases. Semecarpus anacardium L. f Ethnic communities of Mirzapur district apply root in impotency. Ethnic communities of Ranchi and Hazaribag disricts use bark in gonorrhoea. In tribal and Ayurvedic systems this species is used in many other diseases. Sesamum orientale L. Ethnic communities of Ranchi and Hazaribag districts apply seeds as abortifacient. Seeds of the plant are used in many diseases in ayurveda and by some tribal societies of India. Sida cordifolia L. Ethnic communities of Ranchi, Hazaribag and Varanasi districts consider the plant useful in venereal diseases. Ethnic communities of Delhi area use seeds in spermatorrhoea and gonorrhoea. In Ayurvedic system root-extract is used in leucorrhoea and menorrhagia. Different parts of the plant are used in many other diseases in Ayurvedic and tribal systems. Sida spinosa L. In ayurveda, the species is recognised as medicinal. Smilax perfoliata Lour. Garos use flowers in child birth, whereas some ethnic communites of Madya Pradesh apply roots in veneral diseases. Ethnic communities of Jaintia, Mayurbhanj,
Contd...
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
31
Contd ...
82.
83. 84. 85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
Sagar and Dehradun districts use different parts of the plant in many other diseases. Solanum nigrum L. Garhwalis and ethnic communities of Sagar district use leaf to treat inflammation of testicles. Leaves and fruits of the species are widely used in tribal and Ayurvedic systems. Sphaeranthus africanus L. No further information could be collected. Stephania elegans HK. f. & T. No further information could be collected. Streblus asper Lour. Different parts of the plant are used in many diseases in tribal and Ayurvedic systems. Symplocos racemosa Roxb. Stem of the plant is used by some ethnic communities of Jharkhand to prevent miscarriage. Bark is used in ayurveda to prevent miscarriage and in treatment of leucorrhoea. Besides these, different parts of the plant are used in ayurveda for treatment of various ailments. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn. ) Roxb. Ethnic communities of diverse regions of India use the fruits in many diseases but not in the physiology of reproduction. In Ayurvedic system the kernel of seed is used to treat the semen, and fruits are used in many other diseases. Terminalia chebula Retz. Some ethnic communities of Mirzapur use the fruits in menstrual complaints, while in the tribal and Ayurvedic systems of medicine the fruits have wide application in many other diseases. Themeda gigantea Hack. Santals use different parts of the plant for many other diseases; no other information about the medicinal use of the species could be collected. Thysanolaena maxima Ktze. Ethnic communities of Bastar use the seeds as abortifacient, whereas ethnic communities of Mayurbhanja employ flowers to treat antifertility. Tribal societies of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh apply the root for the same purpose. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. Ethnic communities of Mirzapur use the stem to increase vitality and ensuring better sexual life. Ethnic communities of Salsette islands employ the plant in menstrual disorder, while ethnic communities of Purulia use the plant in veneral Contd ...
32
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Contd... complaints. Different parts of the plant are used by various ethnic communities of India as medic'ne in many other diseases. Extract and decoction of this plant are used in many diseases in Ayurvedic systems. 92. Tino~pora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Ethnic communities of Santal Parganas apply the stem as galactagogue, whereas tribal societies of Jaintia Hills and Terai region use stem and leaf for other diseases. The species is regarded as medicinal in Ayurvedic system. 93. Tragia involucrata L. Ethnic communities of Medinipur employ the roots as galactagogue. Ethnic communities of Meghalaya, Assam, Jharkhand, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh use different parts of the plant as medicines for many other diseases. In Ayurvedic system too various parts of the plant are used in many diseases . 94. Triticum aestivum L. While straw is used to make soles of grass shoes by ethnic communities of Lahul. The grains have medicinal use in the Ayurvedic system. 95. Vernonia albicans DC. Ethnic communities of Dhasan Valley find the root beneficial in leucorrhoea. Some ethnic communities of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Kerala use different parts of the plant in many diseases. In Ayurvedic system the extract of stem is given in irregular menstruation. 96. Vigna radiata (L.) Wilc. Some ethnic communities of Maharashtra and Goa eat the seeds. 97. Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck.) Merr. It is an important plant in Ayurvedic system. Extracts of leaf and stem are used in many diseases. 98. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Roots and leaves are used by many ethnic communities as medicines in many other diseases. In Ayurvedic system, powder of root is used for improvement of semen and in many other diseases. 99. Woodfordia fruiticosa (L.) Kurz. Some ethnic communities of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh use flowers in treatment of ailments related to pregnancy. Ethnic communities of Bhagirathi Valley and Dhasan Valley employ flowers in menorrhagia, whereas many ethnic communities of India use various parts of the plant in a number of diseases. In Ayurvedic system flowers are used in treatment of semen and menorrhagia besides some other diseases. 100. Xanthium strumarium L. In tribal medicines, different parts of the plant are used in many diseases, but not in the ailments connected with physiology of reproduction.
.
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
33
APPENDIX : (A) CARAKA ON USE OF PLANTS IN THE PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION Caraka's prescriptions about the use of herbal materials in various aspects of physiology of reproduction are briefly enumerated below
1.
Treatment of semen
To improve the quality of semen, drugs having sweet taste (madhurausadha) should be administered to a man (Sarirasthana, ch.8, sloka 4).
2.
Regimens for a son of excellent qualities
Caraka states that if a lady desires to procreate a son having the following quaJities-(i) a massive body, (ii) fair complexion, (iii) strength like that of a lion, (iv) vigour, (v) strong mind, then she should eat a thin gruel (mantham), prepared by boiling white barley with the milk of a white cow having a white calf, for a period of one week starting from the first day of her purificatory bath after the menstruation (Sa.8.9). Caraka states that for this purpose some Vedic rites too should be performed by the couple desiring the child. In this rite, the priest should offer the wood of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (palasa), Balanites aegyptica Delile (ingudi), Ficus racemosa 1. (udumbara) or Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. (madhuka) as oblation to the god Agni. Sticks of Butea monosperma (palasa) should be used to bind the limits of the alter of the yajna, while stems of Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf. (kusa) should cover the alter (Sa.8.24).
3.
Pumsavana
Pumsavana is a sacrament performed by a pregnant lady out of the desire of having a male child. Caraka states that the pregnant lady should be administered pumsavana therapy before the manifestation of the sex of foetus. There are many steps in the pumsavana therapy, but only those steps which involve use of vegetal materials are enumerated below. (A) During the conjunction of pusya star with moon, the lady should be made to drink curd mixed with either two grains of Phaseous radiatus L. (dhanyamasa), or white variety of mustard (sarsapa) endowed with excellent qualities along with two buds (sunga) of Ficus benghalensis L. (nyagrodha) growing on grazing ground of cow (gostha). (B) The lady should drink milk in which anyone or two or three of the following has/have been boiled-Achyranthes aspera L. (apamarga), Barleria cristata L. (sahacara), JIVAKA (Trema orientalis Blume or Malaxis acuminata D. Don, or Pentaptera tomentosa Bedd., or Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth, or Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) W. & A., and RSABHAKA (Mucuma pruriens (L.) DC. ?). (C) The lady, during pusya conjunction, should inhale the steam emanating from the paste of grains of Oryza sativa L. (sali) during roasting of the same. She
34
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
should also drop the juice, extracted from the paste of Sali rice after adding water to it, in her right nostril with the help of a cotton swab (Sa.8.19).
4.
Measures for maintenance of pregnancy
According to Caraka (Sa.8.20), a pregrant lady should wear the following medicines on her head or right hand in the form of a talishman for maintenance of pregnancy-Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (aindri), Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. (brahmi), Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (sataviryajsahasravirya), Stereospennum colais (Buch.-Ham. ex Dillwyn) Mabb. (amogha), Terminalia chebula Retz. (avyatha), SIVA (Curcuma longa L. or Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce or Terminalia chebula Retz.), ARISTA (Azadirachta indica A. Juss. or Melia azedarach L. or Sapindus emarginatus Vahl or Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennell or Xanthium strumarium L.), Sida cordifolia L. (vatyapuspi), ana Aglaia elaeagnoidea Guss.) Benth. (visaksenakanta). Caraka continues that during pusya conjuction the lady should take bath in water boiled with these articles. Further, she should consume milk or ghee in which drugs have been boiled. She should also use, in the above manner, all the medicinal elements mentioned under jivaniya (vitalizing) group.
5.
Management of miscarriage
Sometimes during the forth month of pregnancy or there-after bleeding starts from the genital tract of the pregnant lady. If immediate attention is not given to rectify this abnormality, it may lead to miscarriage. Caraka suggests (Sa. 8.24) certain procedure to be adopted for termination of bleeding and maintenance of pregnancy. The steps which involve the use of vegetal materials are outlined below: (A) After laying the pregnant lady with her lags upwards and the headside downwards, a cool cotton Swab, dipped in ghee and mixed with the powder of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Yastimadhu), should be placed over the vagina.
(B) The entire body of the lady, below the navel, should be sprinkled with extremely cold cow milk, decoction of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Yastimadhu), and the same of Ficus benghalensis L. (nyagrodha). (C) After bathing her with cold water, cotton swabs, dipped in the latex of latex of laticiferous trees and the juice of trees having astringent taste (Ksirinam Kasayadrumanam), should be placed inside the vagina.
(D) The lady may be given milk or ghee boiled with the bud (sunga) of Ficus benghalensis L. (nyagrodha) to consume in the dose of an aksa (approx. 12m!.).
(E) Pollens of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (padma), Nymphaea alba L. (Kumuda), Nymphaea caerulea Savign. (utpala) along with honey and sugar may be given to her to liCK. (F) Seeds of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (puskara), Scirpus grossus Lf. (kaseruka) and fruits (?) of Trapa bispinosa Roxb. (srngataka) should be given to her to eat. (G) She may be given to drink the milk in which buds of Ficus benghalensis L. (nyagrodha), cut and dried fruits of Ficus racemosa L. (udumbara), rhizome of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (saluki), blue variety of Nymphaea alba L.
TRAomONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
35
(sitotpala), and PRIYANGU (Aglaia elaeagnoidea ijuss.) Benth. I Callicarpa macrophylla Vahll Prunus mahaleb L. have been boiled. (H) She may be give to eat soft, fragrant and cold rice of red variety of Oryza sativa L. (sali) along with honey and sugar, mixed with the milk in which the following have been boiled-Sida cordifolia L. (bala), ATmALA (Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet I Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet I Sida rhombifolia L.), Saccharum officinarum L. (iksu) , roots of SASTIKA (a variety of OnJza sativa L.) and KAKOLI (Fritillaria roylei Hook. I Lilium 'polyphyllum Doni Zizphus napeca Willd.).
6.
Regimens for a pregnant lady
For ensuring appropriate growth of the foetus within the womb and for maintenance of proper health of the pregnant lady, Caraka prescribes monthwise regimen for the entire period of pregnancy (Sa. 8.32). The lady should consume wholesome food, constituted of adequate quantity of milk and rice, twice daily. Gradually drugs having sweet taste, honey, ghee, butter, etc. should be added to the milk. During the seventh month, Caraka observes, Kikkisa (white abdominal lines ) appear on the skin of abdomen of the pregnant lady, because of the pressure of the growing foetus. Caraka prescribes the following measures for the management of such a condition : (A) She should be given one tola (approximately 12g ) of butter boiled with certain selected sweet drugs (madhurausadhi) along with decoction Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. (Kola) to drink regularly. (B) The following should be applied over her breast as ointment : (i) paste of Santalum album L. (candana) and the stalk (mmala) of lotus (Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. ?) , (ii) powder of Albizia lebbeck Benth. (sirisa), Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. (dhataki), Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (madhuka), and SARSAPA (Brassica napus L. I Brassica nigra (L.) Koch.), or (iii) paste of Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.Ham.) Wall ex G. Don (Kutaza), seeds of Ocimum basilicum L. var. basilicum (arjaka), Cyperus rotundus L. (musta), Curcuma longa L. (haridra), or (iv) past of Azadirachta indica A. juss (nimba), Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. (Kola), SURASA (it appears that in Sanskrit the word Surasa has been used to designate many species, some of them are mentioned here-Aloe barbadensis Mill. I Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. / Cinnamomum tamala Nees & Ebem. I Ocimum basilicum L. var. basilicum I Ocimum tenuiflorum L. and Rubia cordifolia L. (manjistha). (C) Oil, in which leaves of Nerium indicum Mill. (karavira) have been boiled, should be gently massaged over the abdomen. (D) Mfusin should be given with water boiled with Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum. (malati) and Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (madhuka).
7.
Treatment of udavarta
During the eigth month of pregnancy the pregnant lady may suffer from udavartaan acute condition in the abdomen along with constipation. This condition, if not properly attended to, may cause death of the foetus alone or along with the pregnant lady.
36
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
For treatment of this condition Caraka prescribes administration of a mixture, when slightly warm, as corrective measure. This particular mixture should be prepared by boiling in milk the roots of the undermentioned plants : Oryza sativa L. (sali), SASTIKA (a variety of sali), Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf. (Kusa), Saccharum spontaneum L. (kasa), Vetiveria zizanoides (L.) Nash (virana), Hygrophila schulli (Buch. -Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida (iksuvaika), VETASA (Calemus extansus Roxb.jCalamus tenuis Roxb./ Salix caprea L.), Pterospermum acerifolium (L.) Willd . (parivuyadha), BHUTIKA (Cymbopogon citrates (DC.) Stapf.j Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. / Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karsten / Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague). ANANTA (Alhagi pseudalhagi M. (Bieb.) Desv./ Barleria prionitis L. / Catunaregum spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvengadum / Cynodon dachJlon (L.) Pers. / Fagonia cretica L. / Gloriosa superba L. / Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. / Ichnocarpus fruitescens R. Br. / Premna serratifolia (L.) Gmelina arborea Roxb. (Kasmarya), Grewia asiatica L. (parusaka), GlYClJrrhiz glabra L. (madhuka), and Vitis vinifera L. (mrdivika). To this decoction should be added the paste of Buchanania lanzan Spreng. (priyala-part not specified), pulp inside the seed of Terminalia bellirica Roxb. (bibhitaka), and grains of Sesamum orientale L. (tila).
8.
Facilitating easy delivery
Sometimes delivery does not take place on time in spite of severe labour pain. In this situation certain measures, according to Caraka, should be adoted to facilitate the delivery. one of the measures is frequent inhalation by the pregnant lady of the powder of the following vegetal materials: Acorus calamus L. (vaca), Derris indica (Lam.) Bennet (cirabilva), Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton (ela), Gloriosa superba L. (langalika), Piper chaba Hunter (cavya), Plumbago zeylanica L. (citraka), and Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke (Kustha). And the maternituy home should be fumigated with bark of Betula utilis D. Don (Bhurja) and the pith of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (simsapa).
9.
Removal of placenta
Sometimes the placenta does not come out immediately after delivery. To bring out the placenta Caraka suggests certain steps, some of which include the use of vegetal materials. These are enumerated below : (A) Vagina of the progenitress should be fumigated by burning the bark of Betula utilis D. Don (bhurja) along with quartz and slough of snake. (B) In the genital tract of the progenitress should be placed a cotton swab soaked in oil boiled with Catunaregum spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvengadum (madana), Ferula narthex Boiss. (hingu), Foenicum vulgare Mill. (satapuspa), and Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke (kustha). With this oil she should be given unctuous enema. (C) A decoction of BALVAJA (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. ?) PHALA (Catunaregum spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvangadum ?), IKSVAKU (Cucumis lagenarius Dum. ? ), Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. (krtavedhana), Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem (dhamargava), Luffa echinata Roxb. Gimuta), Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham) Wall. ex G. Don (kutaja), and Scindapsus officinalis Schott. (hastipippali) should be used for corrective type of enema.
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
37
(D) Two types of drinks should be given to the progenitress. Preparation of the drinks are mentioned below. A paste of Saussurea lappa c.B. Clarke (kustha) and Abies spectabilis (D.Don) G. Don (talisa) should be mixed with either of the following: (a) decoction of Dolichos biflorus L. (kulattha), or Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (mandukaparni) and Piper longum L. (pippali) or Balvaja (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. ?, or (b) the scum of maireya sura type of wine. (E) Caraka prescribes another drink for the progenitress. It states that a paste of Elettaria cardamommum (L.) Maton (suksamaila), Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud. (kilima), Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke (kustha), Zingiber officinalis Roxb. (nagara), Embelia ribes Burm. f (vidanga), Piper longum L. (pippali), Piper chaba Hunter (cavya), Plumbago ze1jlanica L. (citraka), Nigella sativa L. (upakuncika), and black variety of Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. (kalaguru) should be mixed with the smashed fleshy cut right ear of a wild bull (kharavrasabha). The paste should then be soaked in the decoction of BALVAJA (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch ?) for some time. Then the mixture should be sieved, and the remaining
liquid form the drink.
10.
Management of mother after delivery
Caraka suggests (sa.8.48) use of some vegetal materials for proper maintenance of health of the mother who has recently delivered. He says that power of Piper longum L. (pippali), Piper chaba Hunter (cavya), Plumbago zeylanica L. (citraka), and Zingiber officinalis Rosc. (srnzavera) should be given to the mother along with ghee, or oil, or vasa, or bone marrow to eat when she feels hungry. The quantity of this should be in conformity with the capability of the said mother to digest. The main food, however, should be a liquid gruel boiled with Piper longum L. (pippali).
APPENDIX: (B) AYURVEDA ON USE OF PLANTS IN BIRTH CONTROL It appears that the Ayurvedic works, since sixteenth century AD, contain some information about the use of vegetal materials in controlling sexual urge, and in preventing pregnancy. Some of these data are briefly mentioned below:
1.
Controling sexual urge
It is said that the daily drinking of juice of five leaves of Aegle marmelos Corr. ex Roxb. (bilva) by a man during adolescent age, reduces his urge for sex-life. Continuous use of this drink may cause deep slumber of sperms.
2.
Prevention of pregnancy
The oil of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (nimba) possesses antifertility property. External application of this oil over genital organ in useful. Consumption of the paste of root of Piper betle L. (tambula) causes infertility. According to Bhava Misra (the author of Bhavaprakasa), if a lady, during the first three days of menstruation, consumes in empty stomach, the paste of thre leaves
38
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
of Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. (nadeyi) along with molasses, she will remain infertile for a period of one month. It is said that if a lady repeats this process continuously for a few months, she becomes barren permanently. A woman may be made infertile with the aid of Artemisia maritima L. (nagadamani). The lady should consume a soft drink containing the paste of the root (approximately 3 gm) of this herb once daily, during the first three days of menstruation, for few oconsecutive months. It is said that consumption of leaf paste of Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. (karbudaraka)
along with the sundried grains of paddy helps prevention of ovulation, and thus the possibility of pregnancy is eliminated. If a lady consumes the paste of few leaves of PATHA (Stephania hernandifolia Walp./ Cissampelos pareira L. ?) in empty stomach for consecutive five days, from the onset of menstruation, she will loose fertility for that month.
SUGGESTED READINGS Abdul Kareem, M. (1997) Plants in Ayurveda. Foundation for Revitalization of Local Helath Traditions, Bangalore, India. Asolkar, L.V., Kakkar, KK & Chakre, D.J. (1992) Second Supplement to Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants with Active Principles. Publications and Information Directorate (CSIR), New Delhi, India.
.
Balapure, KM., Maheshwari, J.K & Tandon R.K (1987) Plants of Ramayana. Ancient Sci. Life. VII.2:76-84. Banerji, S.c. (1980) Flora and Fauna in Sanskrit Literature. Naya Prokash, Calcutta. Basu, S.K (1966) A Glossary of Plant Names Mentioned by Valmeeki and Kalidasa. West Bengal Forests, Centenary Commemoration Volume, Calcutta, pp.53 to 56. Bodding, Rev. D.P. (1925) Studies in Santal Medicine and Connected Folklore: The Santals and Disease. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 10:1-132. Bodding, Rev. D.P. (1927) Studies in Santal Medicine and Connected Folklore-II. Santal Medicine. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 10:133-426.
Bodding, Rev., D.P. (1940) Studies in Santal medicine and Connected Folklore. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal. 10:427-502.
Dey, KL. (1996/1934) The Indigenous Drugs of India. Dehra Dun, India. Jain, S.K. (1956) On a Botanical Trip to Nainital. Indian For. 82:22-33. Jain, S.K. (1963a) Studies in Indian Ethnobotany-Less known uses of 50 common plants from tribal areas of Madhya Pradesh. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 5:223-226. Jain, S.K & Tarafder, c.R. (1963b) Studies in Indian Ethnobotany-Native plant remedies for snakebite among the Adibasis of Central India. Indian Med. J. 57:307-309. Jain, S.K (1964) Wild plant foods of the tribals of Bastar (Madhya Pradesh). Proc.Nat. Inst. Sci. India 30B(2):56-80. Jain, S.K (1965) Medicinal plantlore of the tribals of the Bastar. Econ. Bot. 19:236-250. Jain, S.K. (1966) Grasses and rural life. Khadigramodyog. 12:324-326. Jain, S.K. (1967) Ethnobotany : Its scope and study. Ind.Mus.Buli. 2(1):39-43.
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
39
Jain, S.K. & Tarafder, CR. (1970) Medicinal plantlore of the Santals (A Revival of P.O. Bodding's work). Econ. Bot. 24(3):241-278. Jain, S.K. (1971) Some magico-religious beliefs about plants among Adibasis of Orissa. Adibasi 12:39-44. Jain, S.K. (1975) Search for new herbal medicines. Magnolia 1(2):26-31. Jain, S.K. (1981) Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany. Oxford and IBM Publishing Co., New Delhi, India. Jain, S.K. (1991) Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany. Deep Publications, New Delhi, India. Karnick, CR. (1975) Ethnobotanical records of drug plants described in Valmiki Ramayan and their uses in Ayurvedic system of Medicine. Quart./.Crude Drug Res. 13:143-154. Kirtikar, K.R. & Basu, B.D. (1981) Indian Medicinal Plants (4 Vols.). Delhi, India. Lal, S.D. & Lata, K. (1980) Plants used by the Bhat community for regulating fertility. Econ. Bot. 34:273-275. Maheshwari, J.K. (1961) The food-producing crops in the tropics. Bull. Bot. Surv. India.3:153-162. Maheshwari, J.K., Singh, K.K. & Saha, B. (1980) Ethnomedicinal uses of plants by Tharus, Kheri district, Uttar Pradesh. Bull. Medico. Ethnobot. Res. 1:318-37. Maheshwari, J.K., Kolakoti, B.S. & Lal, B. (1986) Ethnomedicine of Bhil tribe of Jhabua District, M.P. Anc.Sci.of Life. V(4):255-261. Majumdar, G.P. (1938) Some Aspects of Indian Civilization (In Plant Perspective). Kolkata, India. Manilal, K.S. (1988) Linkages of Ethnobotany with other sciences and disciplines. SEBS News Letter 7(1-3):1-2. Mitra, S.C (1913-1916) A Note on the worship of the Pipal tree in Bengal. Jour.Anthrop.Soc.Bombay 10:302-306. Mitra, S.C (1919) The mango tree in the marriage ritual of the aborigines of Chotanagpur and Santalis. /oum. Bihar & Orisssa Res. Soc. 5:259-271. Mitra, S.C (1922) On the cult of the tree-goddess in eastern Bengal. Man in India 2:228-241. Mitra, S.C (1933 to 1939) Studies in Plant Myths, J. Mythic. Soc. Vols. 23, 28, 29 & 30. Mudgla, V. & Pal, D.C (1930) Medicinal plants used by tribals of Mayurbhanj (Orissa). Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 22 : 59-62. Pal, D. C (1970) Plants associated with Durga Puja ceremony in W. Bengal. Beng. Nat. Hist. Soc. and Nat. Hist. Mus. 36: 61-67. Pal, D. C (1972) Magico-religious belief about plants among adibasis of Bihar. Folklore 13 (12): 466-447.
Pal, D. C (1973) Tribal folklore about some plants associated with eye treatment. Ibid 14 (12): 446-447.
Pal, D. C (1980) Observation on folklore about plants used in veterinary medicine in Bengal. Orissa and Bihar. Bull, Surv. India, 22 : 96-99. Pal, D. C and Jain, S. K. (1998) Tribal Medicine. Naya Prokash, Kolkata, India. Ray, P., Gupta, H. N., & Roy, M. (1980) Susruta Samhita. Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi. Saraswati, B. (1970) Contribuation to The Understanding of Indian Civilisation, Karnataka University, Dharwar, India.
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Sensarma, P. (1984) Ethnobotanical investigation in the Indian Puranas V. The Vamana Purana. Jour. Econ. Tax. Bot. , 5: 634-644. Sensarma, P. (1987) Ethnobotanical investigation in the Indian Puranas VI. The Kurma Purana. Jour. Econ. and Tax. Botany 8:287-297. Sensarma, P. (1988) Ethnobotanical investigations in the Indian Puranas, The Vayu Purana. Man in India 68:278-291. Sensarma, P. (1989) Plants in the Indian Puranas : An Ethnobotanical Investigation. Naya Prakash, Kolkata. Sensarma, P. (1998) Ethnobotanical Informaton in Kautiliya Arthasastra. Naya Prokash, Kolkata, India. Sensarma, P. & Pal, D.C. (1990) Ethnobotanical investigation m the literary sources. Folklore 31(1): 1-6. Sensarma, P. & Ghosh, A.K. (1995) Ethnobotany and phytoanthropology. In : Ethnobotany : Evolution of a Discipline (pp.69-71), (Eds. R.E. Schultes and Siri Von Reis) Dioscorides Press, Portland, U.S.A. Sharma, R.K. & Dash, B. (1976) Agnivers'a Caraka Samhita. Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, India. Bhattacharyya, S. (1380-1400 BS) Ciranjiva Banausadhi (In Bengali) 11 Vols. Ananda Publishers (P) Limited, Kolkata, India.
000
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF HERBAL MEDICINES : AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STATUS C.P. MALIK, BHAVNEET KAUR, AMAN VERMA AND CHITRA WADHWANI
Chapter Outline 1. Introduction 2.
Herbalism
3.
World health organization: Traditional healing facts sheet
4.
National activities concerning medicinal plants
5. Herbal treatments for various diseases 6. Other popular herbal products and their uses 7. Herbal formulations 8. Challenges in drug discovery from medicinal plants 9. Statistical figures as marker for popularity of herbal drugs 10. Conduding remarks 11. References
. 1. INTRODUCTION The early part of the 20th century has witnessed an unprecedented evolution of the Global Pharmaceutical Industry. The advent of genomic research and new molecular tools has culminated into highly specific biological assays that are employed routinely in industrial drug discovery program. High throughput screening methods in conjunction with combinatorial chemistry have significantly impacted the lead compound generation and drug discovery processes. Resultantly, crude drugs have been replaced by pure chemical drugs and the developed countries have experienced a decline in popularity of medicinal plant therapy. The modern medicinal system has grown phenomenally as manifested by global pharmaceutical sales which have increased to 7 % ($ 643 billion) in 2006 fueled by strong international demand for cancer treatments and robust growth in the US market (TOI, 2007). "There has been
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a dramatic growth in the Pharmaceutical market in India, during the last two decades. Indian Pharmaceutical industry, growing at 11 % annually compared with the global industry rate of 7%, is now worth $ 6 billion in the global industry that's worth $ 651 billion" according to the latest market research report on Indian healthcare sector "Opportunities in Indian Healthcare Sector" by RNCOS (RNCOS, 2006). However, the route of a compound from drug discovery to the clinic is much longer and is controlled by multiple factors, consequently, the pendulum has swung again and there is a resurgence of interest in study and use of medicinal plants primarily due to one or more of the disadvantages of chemical drugs as listed below: -
Accumulation of tissue residues due to chemotherapeutics Environmental pollution Development of drug resistance in pathogens Immunosuppressants
The consumer preference, for traditional systems of medicine, which constitute an important segment of Pharmacopeias for remedies to various disorders, is increasing exponentially. Traditional houses of ayurveda in India, which make up for small share of global herbal industry of US $ 120 billion, have taken ayurveda to export markets. Coimbatore based AVP (Arya Vaidya Pharmacy), by introducing chyawanaprash - an admired health tonic that helps boost energy, memory and immunity - in the form of a biscuit, has been the pioneer in this respect. The product has been developed bearing the tastes of both new and old generation in mind. All ingredients of chyawanaprash have been retained in the biscuit so as to ensure better health, enhance immunity and energy of the consumer. The biscuit will soon hit the export market. Punarnava Ayurveda - another ayurveda firm based in Coimbatore - is also planning to launch ayurvedic biscuit that will contain all essential ayurvedic ingredients. "Indian ayurveda firms are expanding their export market by producing an array of ayurvedic products like ayurvedic biscuits, herbal ketchup, and jams" according to a senior research analyst at RNCOS (RNCOS, 2006). There has been an explosion of alternative treatments and the therapeutic potential of herbal medicines cannot be ignored and is highlighted in few examples provided below (Crone and Wise, 1998): 1.
Feverfew: Feverfew has been used since ancient times for curing fever, headache, menstrual irregularities, and stomach discomfort. It is very beneficial in case of migraine headaches and provides relief by reducing their frequency and severity. The leaves contain an active component, parthenolide, a sesquiterpene lactone. This compound has activity as a serotonin antagonist, which inhibits release of serotonin from platelets, and prevents or reduces blood vessel spasm. The action of feverfew is believed to be similar to migraine agents such as methysergide (Tyler, 1994).
2.
Ginger: Ginger has been used as an effective antiemetic for motion sicknessinduced nausea. The therapeutic action of ginger may be in the gastrointestinal tract, as research indicates that ginger has no effect on the central nervous
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system. Active components are contained in the volatile oil or oleoresin, which can be extracted by brewing an herbal tea from pieces of ginger root (Tyler, 1994). Powdered ginger capsules or ginger tea has been successful in reducing the nausea brought about by medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor agents. Recently, extracts of ginger were found to be most powerful, among several plant extracts tested for antifungal activity (Ficker et al., 2003). Zingiber offtcinale Rosc., or ginger, has been warranted as a potent antifungal agent especially as this plant is generally regarded as safe for human consumption. It has been found to be effective against a wide variety of fungi some of which were highly resistant to amphotericin Band ketoconazole. 3.
Milk Thistle: Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) is used by cirrhotic patients because of its putative ability to slow liver damage. Ripe fruit from the milk thistle plant is used to derive a concentrated extract known as silymarin (Ferenci et al., 1989). In vitro as well as animal and human studies suggest that silymarin protects hepatocytes from the toxic effects of substances such as carbon tetrachloride and phalloidin (amanita mushroom). In humans exposed to hepatotoxins, silymarin has been able to reduce the likelihood of developing more extensive liver failure. Silymarin is thought to act by the presence of a large number of flavonolignans, which work on the cell membrane to prevent the entry of toxic substances into the hepatocyte. Protein synthesis is also stimulated, which accelerates the regeneration and production of new hepatocytes.
Standardized milk thistle extract has been used by Wilasrusmee et al., (2002) in a mouse lymphocyte proliferation assay in vitro. They found that lymphocyte proliferation consistently increased and the effect was associated with an increase in interferon-gamma, interleukin-4 and interleukin-10. The effect increased in a dose-dependent manner. Milk thistle extract has been found to promote neuronal differentiation and survival, suggesting potential benefits of chemicals contained in this plant for the nervous system (Kittur et al., 2002). Growth is shifting toward emerging markets for traditional plant-based remedies which are back in use and find increasing patronage strengthened by their application as: a source of direct therapeutic agents raw material base for the elaboration of more complex semi-synthetic chemical compounds models for new synthetic compounds, and taxonomic markers for the discovery of new compounds A recent survey conducted by WHO, approximates 80 % of the world population to depend mainly on the traditional medicines for primary health care (Bannerman, 1983). The production, consumption and international trade in medicinal plants, which provide an eco-friendly and complementary alternative medicine [CAM], are growing and expected to grow in future quite Significantly. CAM comprises a relatively new frontier of medical research. Herbals are moving from fringe to mainstream (Malik, 2006).
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India is one of the eight important Vavilovian centers of origin and crop plant diversity. It is immensely rich in medicinal and aromatic plants occurring in diverse ecosystems. Like all other old cultures, in India the plant medicines have been used both for primary health care as also remedies. The indigeneous knowledge has been formulated, documented and eventually acquired the shape of the organized four sub-systems of traditional Indian medicine: Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha & Yoga and Naturopathy. Advances in phytochemistry led to extraction of a number of active principles of medicinal plantsl herbs, which became an indispensable part of modern drug manufacturing.
Ayurveda "Ayurveda", an ancient system of health care, native to the Indian subcontinent roughly translates as the "knowledge of life". According to Charaka, "life" itself is defined as the "combination of the body, sense organs, mind and soul, the factor responsible for preventing decay and death, which sustains the body over time, and guides the processes of rebirth" (Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia; http:/ I en.wikipedia.orgl wikil Ayurveda). According to this perspective, Ayurveda is concerned with measures to protect" ayus", which includes healthy living along with therapeutic measures that relate to physical, mental, social and spiritual harmony. Ayurveda is also one among the few traditional systems of medicine to contain a sophisticated system of surgery (which is referred to as "salya-chikitsa"). Three traditions of Ayurveda exist today: two of them based on the compendia of Charka and Sushruta Samhitas, and a third tradition known as Kiishyapas. However, Ayurvedic remedies prior to these traditions also exist, as mentioned in the earlier Vedic literature (2nd millennium BC). Ayurveda operates on the precept that various materials of vegetable, animal, and mineral origin have some medicinal value. The medicinal properties of these materials have been documented by the practitioners and have been used for centuries to cure illness and/or help maintain good health. Ayurvedic medicaments are made from herbs or mixtures of herbs. These are made either alone or in combination with minerals, metals and other ingredients of animal origin. The metals, animals and minerals are purified by individual processes before being used for medicinal purposes. In the early 20th century, Ayurvedic physicians began to organize into professional associations to promote their case for national recognition and funding; which became a reality after independence of India in 1947. Ayurveda is now a statutory, recognized medical system of health care in India. The Central Council of Indian Medicine [CCIM] governs and recommends policies for the research and development of the system. An Encyclopedia on Ayurveda - Ayushveda.com has been developed to promote the knowledge of Ayurveda worldwide. In certain states in India, Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita are included in the curriculum of modern medical courses (M.B.B.S). Mitra et al. (2002) have described the chemical constituents and antioxidant activity of the Ayurvedic drug, Swarnabhasma (gold ash). The gold ash consisted of Realgar (Arsenous sulphide), lead oxide, pure gold, and latex. Qualitative analysis showed the presence of several microelements such as Fe, AI, Cu, Zn, Co, Mg, Ca, As, Pb. The material was free from organic compounds. Oral administration showed no mortality in mice in acute doses of up to 1 mIl 20 g using a Swarmabhasma suspension containing 1 mg
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of the drug. Animals treated chronically with Swarmabhasma showed significantly increased activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase, two enzymes that reduce free radical concentration in the body.
Unani "Unani" (in Arabic, Hindustani, Persian, Pashtu, Urdu, etc) means Greek. It derives from the Greek word Ionia, the Greek name of the Asia Minor coastline. It is also used to refer to Graeco-Arabic or Unani medicine based on the teachings of Hippocrates, based on the four humours Phlegm (Balgham), Blood (Dam), Yellow bile (Safra) and Black bile (Sauda) - it seems to mean hard substance and black material. Though the threads which comprise Unani healing can be traced all the way back to Claudius Galenus of Pergamum, who lived in the second century of the Christian Era, the basic knowledge of Unani medicine as a healing system was collected by Hakim Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna). The time of origin is dated at Circa 980 AD in Persia. As an alternative medicine, Unani has found favor in Asia, especially India. In India, Unani practitioners can practice as qualified doctors, as the Indian government approves their practice. Unani medicine is very close to Ayurveda. Both are based on theory of the presence of the elements (in Unani, they are considered to be fire, water, earth and air) in the human body. According to followers of Unani medicine, these elements are present in different fluids and their balance leads to health and their imbalance leads to illness. Most medicines and remedies (often common herbs and foods) used in Unani are also used in Ayurveda. While Unani was influenced by Islam, Ayurveda is associated with Vedic culture. The base used in Unani medicine is often honey. Honey is considered by some to have healing properties and hence is used in food and medicines practiced in the Islamic world. Real pearls and metals are also used in the making of Unani medicines depending on the kind of ailment it is aimed to heal (Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia; http:/ / en. wikipedia.org/ wikijUnani).
Siddha In the ancient period Indian saints handled the plants and herbs for long life with better health and lived for several years. The sages were called Rishis in the North and Siddhars in the South and their systems were known as Ayurveda and Siddha. According to Siddha predictions, it is known to the world that Lord Siva taught the Siddha principles and philosophies to Matha, Sri Parasakthi. After that the Siddha principles were presented to the followers of Lord Siva and Sakthi, to Siddhars, starting with Siddhar Nantheesar, then to Siddhar Thirumoolar, Agathiyar and other disciples along with the 18 Siddhars and so on. All the Siddhars adopted the principles of Saiva Siddhantham. It is an excellent philosophical theory to human beings with holy life. In all Siddhars, Agathiyar was considered the prominent leader with his later guru Lord Subramaniyar. From the old Siddha literature we can understand that Siddhar - Agathiyar was first taught by Lord Siva, Sakthi and later by Lord Subramaniyar. Along with him we have Siddhars like Sattanathar, Korakkar, Kaalangi, Pulasthiyar, Theraiyar, Pulippani, Bogar, Ko~ganavar, Machamuni and so on. All the Siddhars taught their principles along
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with their well experienced medicines to their disciples under Gurugulavasa. They brought the secrets in the palm leaves manuscripts with several code words for their understandings. In later stages, those code words were not clear and were not known to the next generations except the followers of hereditary and traditional people of Siddha medicines. Most of their predictions are classified with several formulations which could be followed and adopted according to the land, climate and age, severity of the disease, food and circumstances (Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia; http:/ / en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddha). In general, single and even compound medicines are advised for the patients by knowing the pulse diagnosis methods, the variations of Naadi in their hands by means of Vall, Azhal, Aiyyan, or in other words called Va~tham, pitham and kapam, respectively. These three vital forces of cosmic elements are named under three Thosham, or Mukkuttram and this is activated by the functions of Punchaboothas. The five major concepts of Punchaboothas, are named as Nilam, Neer, Neruppu, Kattru and Vell, which are respectively in hands known as Prithivi, Appu, Theyu, Vayu, and Akash. According to this theory, all the substances in the universe are created under the actions or reactions of the Punchaboothas only. Even for disease also, disease occurs in the living objects (body) by means of less quantity of the ratio of the Punchaboothas only. If the ratio differs from one to another any disease may attack the body (human beings, animals, birds, flies etc.) by the way of the deficiency of certain vitamins and minerals. Siddhars in olden days followed and adopted the principles for preparing all medicines like herbal, minerals and metals. They cautioned the administration of certain Bhasmas, and Sinduras, which are well oxidized stages of metals and minerals, and advised for in taking periods, diet restrictions, according to the age, climate and land etc. Siddhars classified the diseases in different topics and accounted the total diseases for human body as 4448 diseases. They mentioned about the curable and incurable diseases along with the symptoms of the body and predicted the concerned, proper medicines also. Siddhars thoughts are derived to the medicines for curing toughest and chronic diseases like, cancer, brain tumors, blood cancer, cardiac diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, oesteoarthritis etc. All the Siddha preparations are doing wonders from patient to patient with better ailments. Nowadays the trained traditional Siddha practitioners are doing well, even with the old highest proficiency processes which were kept by their ancestors and some people make challenges with other systems for healing and curing diseases like AIDS diseases. Generally with this system several processes are there to improve the haemoglobin as well as the immunization of the AIDS patients without any side effects. More and more herbal preparations are predicted from one Siddhar to another with different kinds of Herbals. Very simple Herbal processes are advised by the Siddhars for the diseases like migraine, sinusitis, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, gynaecological disturbances, leucoderma and psoriasis, asthmatic attacks, piles and fistula, rheumatisms, dental problems etc. Siddha system of science is the most effective and valuable system for the human beings in all occasions without any side effects. Everybody can follow Siddha system of medicine even for the whole family and even for the entire earth in all circumstances. Siddha system of science is an everlasting principle to the world.
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Siddha System presents the slogan, "Food is being medicine and medicine is being food" to people.
Naturopathy Naturopathic medicine is a school of medical philosophy and practice that seeks to, improve health and treat disease chiefly by assisting the body's innate capacity to recover from illness and injury. It may include a broad array of different modalities, including manual therapy, hydrotherapy, herbalism, acupuncture, counseling, environmental medicine, aromatherapy, nutritional counseling, homeopathy, and so on. Practitioners tend to emphasize a holistic approach to patient care. Naturopathy has its origin in the United States, but is today practiced in many countries around the world in one form or another, where it is subject to different standards of regulation and levels of acceptance. Naturopathic practitioners prefer not to use invasive surgery, or most synthetic drugs, preferring "natural" remedies, i.e. relatively unprocessed or whole medications, such as herbs and foods (Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia; http:j j en.wikipedia.orgjwikijNaturopathy). Licensed physicians from accredited schools are trained to use diagnostic tests such as imaging and blood tests before deciding upon the full course of treatment. Naturopathic Practitioners also employ the use of prescription medications and surgery when necessary and refer out to other medical practitioners. Conventional medicine is required to undergo rigorous testing; drug trials often lasting for a decade. A criticism of alternative therapies is that they are not subject to detailed safety assessment. Advocates of naturopathy respond that many of their therapeutic interventions have been in use for hundreds and in some cases thousands of years: what is lost in formal study design is more than made up for by the breadth and depth of human experience with the interventions in question. Restrospective analysis of various herbal agents, have found some to be as or more effective than their pharmaceutical equivalents, whereas others to have little therapeutic value, and a few to be harmful. 'NaturaY does not necessarily mean beneficial or even benign. Also of concern is the ambiguity of the word "natural" and poor agreement as to its meaning. Naturopathic modalities may be controversial (e.g. homeopathy), or have proven effectiveness only for very specific conditions (e.g. acupuncture, aromatherapy). Some naturopaths may use these modalities as panacea or to improve the patient's quality of life.
2. HERBALISM Herbalism, also known as medicinal Botany (a neologism by Dr. K. Seshagirirao, University of Hyderabad, India), medical herbalism, herbal medicine, herbology, botanical medicine and phytotherapy, is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on the use of whole plants, plant parts and plant extracts. Tyler (1994) defines herbal medicines as "crude drugs of vegetable origin utilized for the treatment of disease states, often of a chronic nature, or to attain or maintain a condition of improved health." WHO has delineated a working definition of traditional medicine as "including diverse health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal, andj or mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well-being, as well as to treat, diagnose or prevent illness" (WHO, 2002). Herbs have been portrayed as "wonder drugs" whose healing properties
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have been used to cure many ailments dating back to prehistory. There is evidence that suggests Neanderthals living 60,000 years ago in present-day Iraq used plants for medicinal purposes (found at a burial site at Shanidar Cave, Iraq, in which a Neanderthal man was uncpvered in 1960. He had been buried with eight species of plants). These plants are still widely used in ethnomedicine around the world. The plant parts used include seeds, berries, roots, leaves, bark and flowers. In Cherokee medicine three categories of herbs can be distinguished (Winston, 1992). The "food herbs" are gentle in action, have very low toxicity, and are unlikely to cause an adverse response. Examples of "food herbs" include Lemon Balm, Peppermint, Marshmallow, Ginger, Garlic, Chamomile, Hawthorn, Rose hips, Nettles, Dandelion Root and Leaf, and fresh Oat extract. These herbs can be utilized in substantial quantities over long periods of time without any acute or chronic toxicity (it is important to note that allergic responses like with foods are possible, as are unique idiosyncratic reactions, and even common foods such as grapefruit juice, broccoli, and okra can interact with medications). The second category is the "medicine herbs". These herbs are stronger acting - they need to be used with greater knowledge (dosage and rationale for use) for specific conditions (with a medical diagnosis) and usually for a limited period of time. These herbs are not daily tonics and they should not be taken just because "they are good for you". These herbs have a greater potential for adverse reaction and in some cases, drug interactions. The "medicine herbs" include Andrographis, BlueCohosh, Cascara Sagrada, Celandine, Ephedra, Goldenseal, Jamaica Dogwood, Oregon Grape Root, Senna, and UvaUrsi. The last category is the "poison herbs". These herbs have strong potential for either acute or chronic toxicity and should only be utilized by clinicians who are trained to use them and clearly understand their toxicology and appropriate use. The first generally accepted use of plants as healing agents was depicted in the cave paintings discovered in tlle Lascaux caves in France, which have been radiocarbon dated to between 13,000 - 25,000 Be. Plants have an almost limitless ability to synthesize aromatic substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives such as tannins. Most are secondary metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated, a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total. In many cases, these substances (esp. alkaloids) serve as plant defense mechanisms against predation by microorganisms, insects, and herbivores. Many of the herbs and spices used by humans to season food yield useful medicinal compounds. The use of and search for drugs and dietary supplements derived from plants (Samuelsson, 2004) have accelerated in recent years. Herbal medicines are now in great demand in the developing world for primary health care not because they are inexpensive but also as they have better cultural acceptability, better compatibility with the human body and minimal side effects. Pharmacologists, microbiologists, botanists, and naturalproducts chemists have galvanized into action together, combing the earth for phytochemicals that could be developed for treatment of various diseases. In fact, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have been derived from plants. The use of herbs to treat diseases is almost universal among non-industrialized societies. A number of 'traditions came to dominate the practice of herbal medicine in the Western world at the end of the twentieth century:
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The Western, based on Greek and Roman sources, The Ayurvedic from India, and Chinese herbal medicine (Chinese herbology). Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to Western physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. Herbal medicine is a major component in all traditional medicine systems and a common element in ayurvedic, homeopathic, naturopathic, traditional Chinese medicine, and Native American Indian medicine. According to the WHO, 74% of 119 modern plant-derived pharmaceutical medicines are used in ways that correlated directly with their traditional uses. Major pharmaceutical companies are currently conducting extensive research on plant materials gathered from the rainforests and other places for possible new pharmaceuticals. Medicinal plants, since times immemorial, have been used in virtually all cultures as a source of medicine. The widespread use of herbal remedies and healthcare preparations, as those described in ancient texts such as the Vedas and the Bible, and obtained from commonly used traditional herbs and medicinal plants, has been traced to the occurrence of natural products with medicinal properties. The use of traditional medicine and medicinal plants in most developing countries, as a normative basis for the maintenance of good health, has been widely observed (UNESCO, 1996). Furthermore, an increasing reliance on the use of medicinal plants in the industrialised societies has been traced to the extraction and development of several drugs and chemotherapeutics from these plants as well as from traditionally used rural herbal remedies (UNESCO, 1998). Moreover, in these societies, herbal remedies have become more popular in the treatment of minor ailments, and also on account of the increasing costs of personal health maintenance. Indeed, the market and public demand has been so great that there is a great risk that many medicinal plants today, face either extinction or loss of genetic diversity.
3. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION: TRADITIONAL HEALING FACTS SHEET Up to 80% of people in the south use Traditional Medicine (TM) or CAM as part of primary health care. TM has been fully integrated into the health systems of China, North and South Korea and Viet Nam. In western countries, growing numbers of patients rely on CAM for preventive or palliative care: In France, 75% of the population has used complementary medicine at least once. In Germany, 77% of pain clinics provide acupuncture. The global market for traditional therapies stands at US$ 60 billion a year and is steadily growing. In the USA, expenditure on complementary or alternative medicine stands at US$2.7 billion per year.
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About 25% of modern medicines are descended from plants first used traditionally. The Chinese herbal remedy Artemisia annua has been found to be effective against resistant malaria and couid give hope of preventing many of the 800,000 deaths among children from severe malaria each year. The efficacy of acupuncture in relieving pain and nausea has been well established. Convincing evidence shows that therapies such as hypnosis and relaxation techniques can alleviate anxiety, panic disorders and insomnia. Other studies have shown that yoga can reduce asthma attacks while tai ji techniques can help the elderly reduce their fear of falls. In Africa, North America and Europe, three out of four people living with HIV / AIDS use some form of TM/ CAM for various symptoms and conditions. In South Africa, studies on the plant Sutherlandia microphylla show efficacy in increasing energy, appetite and body mass in people living with HIV. Asia and Pacific Australia - Traditional Chinese medicine has been practiced in Australia since the 19th century. Approximately AU$ 1 billion is spent on CAM. Bhutan - More than 2990 medicinal plants are used in Bhutanese traditional medicines. About 70% of raw materials for herbal preparations are available in the country. There are more than 300 herbal products produced in Bhutan. China - Traditional Chinese medicine is fully integrated into China's health system. 95% of Chinese hospitals have units for traditional medicine. Traditional medicine accounts for 30-50% of total consumption. There are 800 manufacturers of herbal products with a total annual output of US $ 1.8 billion. India - ayurveda, siddha and unani systems of medicine have coexisted with yoga, naturopathy and homeopathy for centuries. Traditional medicine is widely used in India, particularly in rural areas, where 70% of the population lives. Traditional Indian medicine is provided in 2860 Indian hospitals. Indonesia - 40% of Indonesia's population uses traditional medicine; 70% in rural areas. At the end of 1999, there were 723 manufacturers of traditional medicines, 92 of which were large-scale industries. Japan - In 2000 the herbal medicine market in Japan was worth US $ 2.4 billion. An October 2000 survey showed that 72% of registered western-style doctors use kampo medicine (the Japanese adaptation of Chinese medicine) in their clinical services. Thailand - Thai traditional medicine draws from Chinese and Indian traditions. In 1993, Thailand established the National Institute of Traditional Medicine. By 1999, Thai traditional medicine was integrated into the facilities of 1120 health centers.
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Vietnam - Traditional and oriental medicines are fully integrated into Vietnam's health system. 30% of patients receive treatment with traditional medicine. The Vietnam National Association of Acupuncture has 18,000 members, 4500 of whom work in public hospitals. A look at the following data (Table 1 & 2) will give a very clear idea of the current situation. TABLE 1 Numbers and plants used medicinally worldwide (Schippmann et al. 2002) Country
Plants species
Medicinal plant species
Percentage
26,092 15,000 22,500 15,500 6,973 4,950 8,931 3,314 11,625 21,641 10,500 13,366 422,000
4,941 3,000 1000 1,200 700 300 850 550 1,800 2,564 1,800 1,700 52,885
18.9 20.0 4.4 7.7 10.0 6.1 9.5 16.6 15.5 11.8 17.1 12.5
China India Indonesia Malaysia Nepal Pakistan Philippines Sri Lanka Thailand USA Vietnam Average World
TABLE 2 Some values of herbals in 9 regions of the world (Raskin et al., 2002) Region Europe North America Japan Asia Austral-Asia Africa & Middle East Latin America Eastern Europe Rest of World Total
1994 6.00 1.50 1.80 2.70
0.50 12.40
Sale Value (billion US $) 1997 1999 7.00 7.00 1.60 3.80 2.40 2.20 2.20 5.10 0.12 0.19 0.60 0.37 0.80 0.20 14.00 19.58
2002 8.90 4.50 2.90 6.00 0.14 0.21 0.83 0.80 0.30 24.18
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4. NATIONAL ACTIVITIES CONCERNING MEDICINAL PLANTS Kumar (2004) has reviewed the literature and the emerging policy issues on valuation of plant diversity for pharmaceutical uses. Some of the acclaimed valuation works done in the last 15 years (1985-2000) have been considered for this purpose. Their methodologies have been scrutinized, findings evaluated and policy recommendations examined. Since these studies were meant to address different concerns, it is difficult to arrive at a general conclusion. However, the value of a medicinal plant varies from $ 0.2 to $ 340 million per annum. Conservation of biodiversity based on the benefits of medicinal plants or bioprospecting is the subject of dissenting views. A conservation strategy on the basis of the benefits of bioprospecting alone will need detailed area-specific study instead of a general and large landscape valuation. The Indian Medicine Central Council was established through the Indian Medici..lle Central Council Medicine Act of 1970 to oversee the development of Indian systems of medicine and to ensure good standards of training and practice. Training is in separate colleges, of which there are now over 100. These offer a basic biosciences curriculum followed by training in a traditional system. Thirty years on, however, the Department of Indian Systems of Medicine has expressed concern over the substandard quality of education in many colleges, which in the name of integration have produced hybrid curriculums and graduates, unacceptable to either modern or traditional standards. The department has made it a priority to upgrade training in Indian systems of medicine (Cho, 2000). Focusing primarily on the Indian Scenario entirely, it is imperative to state that Alternative systems of medicine have picked up in the country. A Government sponsored programme was launched in 1993 for implementation by an NGO called "Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions." Thirty in situ "Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas" (MPCA), 15 ex situ "Medicinal Plant Conservation Parks (MPCP), and one Model Production Unit (MPU) were established in the programme, for large-scale production in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. A Herbal Gene Bank at the Tropical Botanic Garden Research Institute at Thiruvananthapurnam has been established. It encompasses AllIndia ethnobiological project for the development of drugs from medicinal plants and herbs for promotion of ethnopharmacological research. Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) in Lucknow, which deals with plant tissue culture of medicinal plants of commercial significance. It also monitors All-India Co-ordinated project on Conservation of Endangered Plant species; maintenance of living herbaria or plant gardens that feed traditional systems of medicine such as Ayurveda, Unani and Sidha. Ayurveda. Another initiative is Germplasm Bank, Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary Tamil Nadu, where, more than 40 species of medicinal plants are maintained and protected. Examples are Manilkara hexandra to treat jaundice, Salvadora persicum to treat ulcers; Mucuma purata used for preparation of a health tonic. Priorities for Indian systems of medicine include education, standardization of drugs, enhancement of availability of raw materials, research and development, information, education and communication, and larger involvement of this type of medicine in the national system for delivering health care. The Central Council of Indian systems of
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medicine oversee research institutes, which evaluate treatments. The government is adding 10 traditional medicines into its family welfare programme, funded by the World Bank and the Indian government. Medicines are available for anaemia, oedema during pregnancy, postpartum problems such as pain, uterine, and abdominal complications, difficulties with lactation, nutritional deficiencies, and childhood diarrhoea (Departments of Indian Systems of Medicine and HQmeopathy, 2000). New regulations were introduced in July 2000 to improve Indian herbal medicines by establishing standard manufacturing practices and quality control. The regulations outline requirements for infrastructure, manpower, quality control and authenticity of raw materials, and absence of contamination. Of the 9000 licensed manufacturers of traditional medicines, those who qualify can immediately seek certification for good manufacturing practice. The government has also established 10 new drug testing laboratories for Indian systems of medicine and is upgrading existing laboratories to provide high quality evidence to licensing authorities of the safety and quality of herbal medicines. This replaces an ad hoc system of testing that was considered unreliable. Randomized controlled clinical trials of selected prescriptions for Indian systems of medicine have been initiated. These will document the safety and efficacy of the prescriptions and provide the basis for their international licensure as medicines rather than simply as food supplements (Departments of Indian Systems of Medicine and Homeopathy, 2000). Medicinal plant-related trade in India is estimated to be around Rs. 550 crores per year (Nair, 2007). In India, of the 17,000 species of higher plants, 7500 are known for medicinal uses. This proportion is the highest for plants known for their medical purposes than in any other country of the world. The Pharmaceuticals Export Promotion Council, under the Ministry of Commerce, along with Ayush (ayurveda, yoga, unani, siddha and homeopathy) is working on to standardize some herbal products and register the product through a research panel. The Government is proposing to resource map all medicinal plants available in the country.
Biodiversity: Indian Scenario India has a rich culture, traditions and natural biodiversity, hence offers a unique opportunity for drug discovery studies. This knowledge-based country is well recognized for its heritage of the world's most ancient traditional system of medicine, Ayurveda. Even, Dioscorides (who influenced Hippocrates) is thought to have taken many of his ideas from India. We in India have two (Eastern Himalaya and the Western Ghats) of the 18 hotspots of plant biodiversity in the world. Interestingly, we are seventh among the 16 mega diverse countries, where 70% of the world's species occurs collectively. We are rich in our own flora, i.e. endemic plant species (5725 angiosperms, 10 gymnosperms, 193 pteridophytes, 678 bryophytes, 260 liverworts, 466 lichens, 3500 fungi and 1924 algae). Unfortunately, due to various reasons including inaccessibility of some tough terrains, only 65% flora of the country has been surveyed so far. With the dwindling population of taxonomists and rare introduction of youngsters in this field, it might take another 2030 years with the current pace to survey the complete flora of the country.
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According to 'The Biological Diversity Rules, 2003' of the Govt. of India (notified on 24 March 2004), any person who is not a citizen of India (foreigner, non-resident Indian) or any foreign corporate, seeking approval of the Authority (National Biodiversity Authority-NBA) for access to biological resources and associated knowledge for research or for commercial utilization shall make an application in Form I as given in schedule. Every application shall be accompanied by a fee of Rs 10,000. The Authority on being satisfied with the merit of the application, may grant the approval as far as possible within a period of six months of receipt of the same. One has to specify each time the quantity to be collected of exact species, quantum of monetary and other incidental benefits and also guarantee to deposit a reference sample of the biological material sought to be accessed with the repositories identified and submitting to the authority a regular status report of research and other developments. However, according to the Biodiversity Act 2002, a citizen of India need not seek permission of NBA for the access of biodiversity, but one has to inform the respective State biodiversity boards for collection of plant material. As the process of plant-based drug discovery involves continuous collection of plant material from different places at various point of time, it is rather impractical to wait for obtaining permission each time. At the same time, the authorities cannot also give blanket permission for any collector. We have to find a way out. A lot of field experience and wide floristic knowledge is required if one wants to go for the random collection programme required for preliminary screening. Once found active, target plant collection in bulk quantity may be a problem due to its threatened status in some cases, or biomass and scattered distribution in others. Authentication of plant material is an important and most crucial factor in plant-based drug discovery. This needs to be supported by a set of suitable voucher specimens of the target species authenticated by a botanist and then deposited with a recognized herbarium. In the absence of vouchers, it is next to impossible to remember the location/ phytogeographical conditions and time/ season of collection of the exact plant material for repeated studies. Reproducibility of the results depends on various other factors too. Proper collection procedures need to be laid and documented. Collection practices should ensure long-term survival of wild populations and their associated habitats. Management plans for collection should provide a framework for setting sustainable harvest levels and describe appropriate collection practices that are suitable for each medicinal plant species and plant part used. This should also include good field documentation, use of global positioning system to pinpoint site locations, mapping of sites and availability of good supporting databases. In case of tree or shrub species where root or bark is being used or found active, phytochemical and biological evaluation of leaves, twigs, stems, flowers and fruits must be done in order to ensure sustainable utilization of the plant. Potential herbs have an added advantage over others, as the bulk quantity and quality of target material can easily be assured through cultivation using Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Good Collection Practices (GCP). Another important issue here is the pharmaceutical evaluation of rare or endangered species. According to the Govt. of India notification (Notification No. 2(RE- 98)/19972002), 29 taxa have been banned and the export of plants, plant portions and their derivatives and extracts obtained from the wild is prohibited. These species, including
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF HERBAL MEDICINES
55
other Red-listed threatened species, following the current International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) norms, cannot be collected from the wild and in turn remain dead for science as far as their pharmaceutical potential is concerned. Interestingly, many of these species do find mention in our traditional Indian systems/tribal systems of medicine. After collection, the drying procedures that vary for different plant materials may alter the chemical properties of the material. The commonly employed drying procedures are sun- and/or shade-drying. Right kind of packaging procedures adopted in order to avoid fungal infection, also need to be carefully worked out before transportation of material to the laboratory. Processing of plant materials mainly includes pulverization and then preparation of extracts. Various extracts such as hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, n-butanol and ethanol or 70% ethanol are generally prepared for chemoprofilings as well as for biological screening.
Glimpse of Indian Initiatives on Plant Prospecting Various GOI agencies e.g. Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Department of Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy (AYUSH), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare have initiated efforts on bioprospecting. DBT initiated the network programme on 'Bioprospecting of biological wealth using biotechnological tools' during the 9th plan in 13 institutions. The objectives of the programme were characterization of biodiversity in different agro-ecological regions, bioresearches mapping, inventorization and monitoring of biological diversity, characterization and conservation of Himalayan endangered species, including medicinal and aromatic plants, and bioprospecting of molecules and genes for product development. The data obtained from the first phase of bioprospecting are subjected to detailed investigation, with a focus on product and process development and then commercialization. CSIR has initiated a coordinated programme on drug discovery with a network of 19 CSIR laboratories and other R&D institutions working in the field of traditional medicines as well as universities. The programme began in 1996, and intends at discovering new bioactive molecules from plants, fungi, microbes, insects, etc. using new technologies. The Planning Commission sponsored the New Millennium Indian Technology Leadership Initiative (NMITLI), one of the most innovative bioprospecting programmes. NMITLI started a major herbal drug development programme for developing effective herbal remedies for diabetes, arthritis and hepatic disorders, which has shown highly encouraging results within a short period of time. The Management of Health and Safety of Work (MHSW), GOI initiated two important task-force programmes relating to creation of Traditional Knowledge Digital Library and designing a Traditional Knowledge Resource Classification (TKRC). The TKRC has information on 5000 subgroups and the structure of TKRC is compatible with the International Patent Classification. TKRC will help enhance the quality of patent examinations by facilitating the patent examiners to access pertinent information on traditional knowledge in an appropriately classified form (Pushpangadan & Nair, 2005). In order to screen thousands of plant species at one time for as many bioassays as possible, we need to have a collection of a large number of extracts. Internationally, there is a dire need to build natural products extract libraries. The extract libraries offer
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several advantages, e.g. reduction in cost and time saving for repeated collection of plants and availability of properly encoded and preserved extracts in enormous numbers for biological screening in terms of high-throughput screenings and obtaining results within a short period. Though some institutions have small plant extract libraries available in India, they do not happen to be in public domain. The only information is available from Nicholas Piramal India Ltd. (NPIL), a major pharma player in India. The company has built up a plant extract library having 6000 extracts prepared from around 2300 plant species sampled from all over India. Such libraries could act as a powerful tool and source of extracts reference to be screened for biological activities using high-throughput assays.
5. HERBAL TREATMENTS FOR V ARIOUS DISEASES The following provides a listing of various plant species and plant products which are used for treatment of different ailments. Let us consider herbs against individual diseases in some more detail
Against
~ancer
Camptothecin (CPT) from stem bark of Camptotheca acuminata (tree native to China) has efficacy against solid tumors, breast, lung and colorectal cancers which are unaffected by many other cancer chemotherapeutic agents. This tree has got abundant source of CPT. Three anti-tumor alkaloids CPT, 9-methoxy CPT and 20-0-acetyl CPT have isolated from Nothapodytes foetida. CPT is isolated from Ophiorhiza rugosa Wall. var. decumbens, O. erianth Wight, Tabernaemontana heyneana Wal., Merilliodendron megacarpum (Vineesh et al., 2007). 10-Hydroxy CPT is more active than CPT. CPT is shown to inhibit selectively the enzyme topoisomeraseI enzyme. Topotecan and CPT-ll are clinically used derivatives. Vinblastine and Vincristine from Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don]. Sulphorapane (acts as a strongly protective agent against cancerous growths) is isolated from most cruciferous vegetables such as Brussels sprouts, cabbage and cauliflowers and broccoli. This compound is not destroyed in cooking. Similar properties have been found in limorine from citrus fruits, Allium compounds in garlic and onions, Isoflavones in beans and allergic acid in grapes.
Taxus baccata and T. brevifolia which yield Taxol is an effective treatment against cancer. Isolation of 1 g of taxol requires bark from 3 mature yew trees. The interest in taxol drug discovery crystallized once it showed high activity .in case of ovarian cancer. Taxol stabilizes the microtubule assembly by inhibiting back polymerization of tubulin, an important protein present during mitotic phase of cell cycle. In 1994 successful clinical trials were done, though the amount of taxol from natural source (0.01 %) was a limiting factor since more quantity is required for clinical trials (Cragg & Boyd, 1996; Cragg et al., 1993). This difficulty was resolved through its semi synthesis, which involved isolation of biosynthetic precursors of paclitaxel from renewable source of T. baccata which contains about 1 % of Baccatin III and 10-DAB III. The precursors are converted into taxol by reacting with taxol side chain.
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Some other cancer curing plants are: Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. Allium sativum L., Bauhinia variegata L., Boerhaavia d~'fusa L.,Calotropis procera (_'-it.) R.Br., Curcuma longa L., Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall., Melia azedarach L., Ocimum gratissimum L., Plumbago zeylanica L., Tecoma undulata GDon, Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don, Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal.
Against Diabetes Merck Research Laboratories has described the identification of a non-pep~dyl fungal metabolite (L-783,28) which is an insulin mimetic in biochemical and cellular assays. Concentrations of 3-6 mM induce 50% of the maximal effect of insulin on insulinreceptor tyrosine kinase (IRTK) activir/. Further the company developed structurally similar analogues based on above lead molecule, e.g. 2, 5-dihydroxy-6-(1-methylindol3-yl)-3-phenyl-l,4-benzoquinone which is under preclinical development. In India, 5 common herbal drugs are used efficiently for the treatment of diabetes. These are derived from, Momordica charantia L., Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels, Gymnema sylvestris Br., Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. and Trigonella faenum-graecum L.. Several others tabulated in Table 3 are also used. TABLE 3 Some anti-diabetic plants Local Name
Part Used
Phyllanthus emblica L. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. Sida cordifolia L. Phyllanthus fraternus
Amalaki
Fruit
Blood & Urine
Annatmul
Root
To reduce sugar
Webster
Bhoomyamalki
Leaf
Andrographis paniculata Nees Aegle marmelos
Kalmegh
Root, Leaf
Hyperglycemia & gastric disorder
Bael
Leaf
Sr. No. Botanical Name 1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
Uses
Bala
7.
Plumbago indica L.
Chitrak
Root
Blood sugar reduction During excessive
8.
Punica granatum L.
Pomegranate
Fruit, Rind Root Bark
appetite in diabetes To check excess urination
9.
Gmelina arborea Roxb.
Gambhari
Leaf
To rectify eyeSight during diabetes
10.
Tribulus terrestris L.
Gokshurah
Fruit
To rectify urinary
(1.) Corr.
troubles and impotency
11.
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers.
Guduchi
Stem
For oral ulcers of diabetic patients Contd ...
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... Contd. Sr. No. Botanical Name
Local Name
Part Used
12.
Guggul
Gum
To reduce sugar
Haldi
Rhizome
Against glycosuria
Jamun
Leaf, Fruit, Seed
For sugar reduction
Kantakari
Root
To remove weakness due to sugar
Karela
Leaf, Fruit
To reduce sugar
Guar
Fruit
To remove weakness due to sugar
Torai
Root, Fruit
Reduces Blood sugar
Mohua
Bark
Reduces sugar
Modhunasini
Leaf
Reduces sugar
Mehandi
Flower, Reduces sugar in Seed urine
Commiphora mukul
Uses
Engl.
13. 14.
Curcuma longa L. Syzygium cumini L. Skeels
15. 16. 17. 18.
19.
Solanum virginianum L. Momordica charantia L. Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub. Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. Madhuca indica J.Gmelin
20. 21.
Gymnema sylvestris Br. Lawsonia inermis L.
Momordica charantia L. is described as beneficial in diabetic disorders and other disease conditions. Modem scientific analyses of its antidiabetic properties reveal that it has the capacity to regulate vitiated carbohydrate digestion, glucose metabolism and utilization processes insulin mimetic and secret gouge activities, and corrects the impaired antioxidant defense in diabetes (Tiwari, 2007). In a recent article the said author has discussed a fusion of ancient ayurvedic knowledge with modem scientific evidences on its multifaceted antidiabetic properties.
Against Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) Several plant extracts are being investigated for substances which have potent antiHIV activity (Table 4). In this quest for medicines against this deadly disease, attention is being focused on the active ingredients of 5000 different Chinese herbs, plants and roots. The biochemistry of tianhuafen or cucumber is being studied in t.'1e USA to decipher the identity of compound Q, an extract used in China and credited with remedial and relief properties in AIDS sufferers (Hoareau & DaSilva, 1999). Some other AIDS curing plants are : Allium sativum L., Aloe vera L., Asparagus racemosus L., Curcuma longa L.. Emblica officinalis Gaert., Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Ocimum sanctum L., Terminalia chebula Retz., Tinospora cordifolia Miers., Tribulus terrestris L., Withan:a somnifera (L.) Dunal, Zingiber officinale Rosc.
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF HERBAL MEDIQNES
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TABLE 4 Anti-HIV phytochemical yielding herbal plants Source
Phytochemicals
Castanospermum australe Hypericum perforatum Linn., H. triquetrifolium, H. erectum Thunb. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Calophyllum langierum, C. tetJsmanii Viola yeodensis, Prunella vulgaris, Alternanthera sp. Larrea tridentate, Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Polyalthia suberosa Benth. & Hk. f Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat Arnebia euchroma, Cariolos versicolour Rhus succedanea Linn., Garcinia multiflora Geum japonicum TriptenJgium wilfordii Morus alba L. Ancistrocladus korupensis Gelonium multiflorum AJuss. Erythrina glauca
Castanospermine Hypericin/Pseudohypericin Glycyrrhizin Pyranocoumarins Sulfated polysaccharides Lignans Termilignan & thannilignan Suberosol Flavonoids/ Chrysin Caffeic acid tetramers Biflavonoids Ursolic acid, maslinic acid Lactone Flavonoids Michellamines 31-kDA protein-GAP31 Pterocarpans
Tewtrakul and co-workers (2003), Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Japan, have described HIV-1 integrase inhibitory substances from the plant Coleus parvifolius Benth. from Thailand. Alcoholic extract of C. parvifolius Benth. showed potent activity against the HIV enzyme. From this extract, these researchers have isolated and identified 11 different chemical compounds. Interestingly, 4 have flhown inhibitory activity against the enzyme in the micromolar range.
Against Skin Diseases Eczema (dermatitis) is caused by predisposition of epidermal cells or may be blood borne. Contact eczema is caused by type IV immune response allergic reaction. Atrophic eczema is caused by antibody mediated aIlergic reaction by antibody "IgE". Scabies is caused by Sarcoptes scabiei. The lesions occur inside fingers, heels, palms, wrist elbow and around axils. Scabies also appears around the nipples in females or penis of males. Furuncles (boils) is caused by Staphylococcus pyogenus, S. aurius, S. albus occur on the face, neck, arms and buttocks. Several plants and plant parts are used to cure Eczema
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and other skin ailments (Tables 5-8). Tea tree oil, the distillate from Melaleuca alternifolia, has become increasingly popular as an antimicrobial agent for the treatment of conditions such as Tinea pedis and acne. Koh et al. (2002) investigated the anti-inflammatory properties of tea tree oil on histamine-induced weal and flare and found that it can satisfactorily reduce histamine-induced skin inflammation. TABLE 5 List of plant parts used in curing eczema Common Name
Botanical Name
Parts Used
Ghrita Kumari
Leaf juice
Burdrok
Aloe barbadensis Mill. (Liliacaeae) Arctoum lappa Linn.(Asteraceae)
Birthwart
Aristolochia bracteata Retz.
Powdered root internally Root macerated in till oil Leaves with castor oil
(Aristolochaceae) Neem
Gule abbas Vasanti tika Ec1i
Bakra
Azadirachta indica A.Juss. (Meliaceae) Calandula officinalis L.(Compositae) Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.(Compositae) Elaeodendron glaucum (Rottb.) Pers.
Liquorice
Glycyrrhiza glabra L.(Leguminosae)
Jangli irandi Alsi
Jatropha curcas L.(Euphorbiaceae) Linum usitatissimum L.(Linaceae) Lycopodium clava tum Linn.
Clubmass
Kernel oil locally Leaf and flower decoction Leaf juice, externally Paste of herb, externally Leaf decoction, orally Root & stolon decoction, orally Seed oil, externally Seed poultice Spores, externally
(Lycopodiaceae) High mallow
Malva sylvestris Boiss.(Malvaceae)
Bobuna
Matricaria chamomilla Linn. (Asteraceae)
Kalaunji
Mesua ferrea Linn. (Guttiferrae) Nigella sativa Linn. (Rananculaceae)
Pongam oil
Pongamia glabra Vent.
Nagkesar
Flower and leaf decoction Flower and leaf decoction Seed oil Seed decoction with sesame oil Seed Oil
(Leguminosae) Contd...
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DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF HERBAL MEDICINES
... Contd. Common Name
Botanical Name
Parts Used
Marking nut
Semacarpus anacardium L.f.
Pericarp juice with ghee, internally Herb decoction, internally
(~acardiaceae)
Pansy
Viola tricolor Linn.(Violaceae)
Kattha
Acacia catechu Willd.
Garlic
Allium sativum L. (Liliaceae) Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.
Bark extract
(Leguminosae) Arhar
Juice of clove Paste of leaves
(Leguminosae) Lemon Jangli Haldi
Citrus lemon Burm. f(Rutaceae) Curcuma aromatica Salisb.
Lemon oil Rhizome paste
(Zingiberaceae) Tesiu
Butea frondosa Koen. ex Roxb.
Flower paste
(Leguminosae) Kapas
Heydychium spicatum Buch.-Ham. (Zingiberaceae)
Lavander Gule-abbas Sandal Methi Khaskhas
Lavandula vera DC. (Laminaceae) Mirabilis jalapa L. (Nyctagenaceae) Santalum album L. (Santalaceae) Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Volatile oil of leaves
(Leguminosae)
Powdered seed with oil
Flower paste Volatile oil
Vetiveria zizanoides Stapf. Root oil
(Gramineae) TABLE 6 Plants used in curing Scabies Common Name
Botanical Name
Parts Used
Katha
Acacia catechu Willd. Acalypha indica L. Argemone mexicana L. Baliospermum montanum
Bark extract Leaf juice with common salt
Peelis Katili Danti
Latex with oil Latex or paste of seed
Muell. Flame of forest
Butea monosperma
Leaf and flower decoction
(Lamk.) Taub. Contd...
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... Contd. Common Name
Botanical Name
Parts Used
Madar Rudravanti Jute Hul Kusha Kamala
Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. Cressa cretica L. Hibiscus cannabinus L. Leucas aspera (Willd.) Lank Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Muell-Arg. Nerium oleander L. Pongamia glabra Vent. Thespesia lampus (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. Trichodesma indicum (L.)
Latex Paste of burnt plant Leaf paste Leaf juice Leaf powder with oil
Karavira Pongam Oil Bankapas Kulpha
Leaf decoction
Seed oil Bark decoction Paste of the burnt oil
Lehm. TABLE 7
Plants used in curing psoriasis Common Name
Botanical Name
Parts Used
Ghrit Kumari Chakunda
Aloe vera L. (Liliaceae) Cassia tora L.(Laguminosae)
Leaf juice, externally
Somraj Kanduri Hul Kusha Marking nut
Centratherum anthelmenticum O.Ktze. (Compositae) Coccinia indica Wt. & Am. (Cucurbitaceae) Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link (Laminaceae) Semecarpus anacardium LJ. (Anacardiaceae)
Leaf and seed powder with
milk or ghee, externally Seed+black pepper+black seasamum, 5 g daily Leaf paste, externally Leaf juice, externally
Pericarp juice with ghee, externally
TABLE 8
Plants used in curing f1,l1'U1lcles Common Name
Botanical Name
Parts Used
Neem Arhar Amal Bael
Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Cayratia carnosa (Lam.) Gagnepain
Kernel oil locally Paste of leaves Paste of bulb Contd...
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63
... Contd. Common Name
Botanical Name
Parts Used
Rudranti Haldi Bor leaves
Cessa cretica Linn. Curcuma longa L. Ficus benghalensis L.
Plant ash with coconut oil Rhizome paste Paste of stem bark and
Kapoor
Heydychium spicatum Ham. Mangifera indica L. Matricaria chamomilla Linn. Mirabilis jalapa L. Momordica charantia Linn. Nerium oleander L. Ocimum sanctum L. Solanum nigrum L. Trigonella faenum-graecum L.
Rhizome paste
Aam Bobuna Gule-Abbas Karela Karavira Tulsi Makoi Methi
Dried kernel, bark oil Flower extract Powdered seeds Juice of tender leaves Paste of root Paste of leaf Paste of fruit and leaves Oil fried with leaves
Against Malaria Artemisinin is a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from Artemisia annua and is used to treat malaria. It is effective against multi-drug resistant strains of malarial parasite. The compound destroys malarial parasite by getting activated itself in the presence of iron and convE!fting into a free radical, which binds with malarial parasite protein and stops the growth of the parasite. Arteether (ether derivatives), artesunate ester derivative and dihydroartemisinin are used in the form of oily injections for intramuscular use and oral tablets, for the treatment of malaria. Munrovia pumilla effective against high fever in malaria.
Against Inflammatory disorders Several natural products have been used since 1940s for treating various inflammatory diseases. The chronic use causes severe side effects of gastrointestinal bleeding. So, safe drugs for treatment of inflammatory diseases are needed. The discovery of COX-2 has given impetus to this research as the inhibitors of the enzyme do not cause side effect. Natural products being understood as safe drugs without many side effects are exploited for the source of new COX-2 inhibitors which are essentially required for the treatment. Studies on curcumin, a component of Curcuma longa, have shown it to be endowed with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antifungal properties (Chainani, 2003). Curcumin has been shown to be safe in six human trials. It may exert anti-inflammatory action by inhibiting a number of molecules involved in inflammatory processes. Laboratory studies have identified a
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number of molecules involved in inflammation that are inhibited by curcumin, amongst them phospholipases, lipoxygenase, cydo-oxygenase 2, leukotrienes, thromboxane, prostaglandins, nitric oxide, collagenase, elastase, hyaluronidase, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, interferon-inducible protein, tumour necrosis factor, and interleukin-12 are prominent. Koduru et al. (2007) carried out ethnobotanical survey of plants used for the treatment of cancer in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Information on the names of plants, parts used and methods of preparation was collected through a questionnaire which was administered to herbalists, traditional healers and rural dwellers. Information collected has revealed 17 plant species that are used for treatment of cancer in the Province. These plants belong to 13 families, of which hyacinthaceae and hypoxidaceae are the most prominent. Roots, corms and bulbs are the commonest parts of plants used, while decoctions and infusions are tile main methods of preparation. Solanum aculeastrum was the most commonly used plant species for treatment of cancer in the Province.
6. OTHER POPULAR HERBAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR USES
Essential oils Treatment of dental caries with Neem oil as an alternative medicine replaces antibiotics. The essential oils used as fumigants exhibit complete protection of stored wheat samples from fungal as well as insect invasions without showing phytotoxicity.
Marijuana hortensis or sweet Marforam or Murwa is useful in treating asthma, hysteria, and paralysis. Fresh and dried leaves are highly valued as a condiment for seasoning of food. Considered to be carminative, expectorant and tonic, leaves and seeds are used as astringent. Infusion of the plants is used as stimulant, sudofric, emmenagogue and galactogogue. Artemisia nilgirica is used as a substitute for cinchona in fever. It has antilithica and alexipharmic properties and assists parturition. Decoction is given to children suffering from measles. Infusion of leaves and flowering top is given in asthma. Artemisia maritime oil is very efficient in action on round worms. Essential oil from Matricaria chamomile is used in alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, ice cream, baked goods, and chewing gums and in high class perfumes. It acts as antispasmodic, expectorant, carminative, anthelmintic, deductive, diuretic, etc. Origanum vulgare oil has carminative, stomachic, diuretic, diaphoretic and emmenagogue functions. The leaves and seed essential oil from Lantana camara L. has antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Shigella boyedii and Salmonella typhimurium. The leaf essential oils of four aromatic plants, viz., Amyris elemifera (Rutaceae),
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Eugenia axillaries (Myrtaceae), Lantana involucrata (Verbenaceae) and Myrica cerifera (Myricaceae) used in traditional"bush" medicine on Abaco Island, Bahamas, have been analyzed by GC-MS (Schmidt et al., 2006). The antimicrobial activity against Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger, and the in vitro cytotoxicity of the oils on MDAMB-231, MCF7, Hs 578T, Hep G2, and PC-3 human tumor cells showed positive results. A. elemifera leaf oil is effective in reducing fever, treat symptoms of flu, treat sores, and wounds, and its use as a general tonic and bath. L. involucrata leaf oil has shown slight antibacterial activity against B. cereus and Staphylococcus aureus and is weakly cytotoxic against the cell lines used in the study. The major components in the leaf oil and slight antimicrobial activity are consistent with the ethnobotanical use of L. involucrata to treat itching skin. Neither E. axillaris nor M. cerifera leaf essential oils are appreciably antimicrobial or cytotoxic.
Herbal Drink Mulberry Herbal Tea has been produced in Thailand. Two types are: Green Tea and Chinese Tea. It has flavor, color and solubility in hot water according to the industrial standard for tea. It has 200 times less caffeine than ordinary tea, which is 0.01%. Mulberry tea has the property of reducing blood cholesterol due to presence of y-amino butyric acid and phytosterol in. Moreover, it also has deoxynojuimycin which is effective in reducing sugar level in the blood. The mulberry leaf extract has been found to contain chemicals which inhibit cancer. The Chinese traditional medicine describes the therapeutic use of mulberry tea in lowering blood pressure.
Sweetener -
-
Jubilee (Pentadiplandra brazzein) berries found in Gibbon in West Africa, contains a protein (brazzein) which is 2000 times sweeter than sugar. Being a protein (natural substance) it does not lose its sweet taste when heated. Today top biotechnology companies are engaged in Africa battling to tap and control the undiscovered plant based pharmaceutical wealth (valued more than US $ 147 billion) available in the tropical forests alone. Likewise the sales of drugs from Indian plant Periwinkel and Rauwolfia serpentina Bth. is more than US $ 260 million every year.
Against Insects In a study against tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura), the mean weight of larvae treated with extracts of seven different medicinal plants, Gymnema sylvestris RBr., Curcuma amada Roxb., Piper longum L., Andrographis paniculata Nees, Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, Clerodendron phlomidis L. f. and Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk. were statistically at par but G. sylvestre RBr. was found best among all even better than the established antifeedant Azadirachta indica A.Juss.
Neem (Azadirachta indica A.Juss.) controls more than 200 species of insects, mites, nematodes including major pests such as locust, rice and maize borers, pulse beetles and rice weevils, yet it does not harm birds, mammals and beneficial
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insects such as bees. Also it is used as a contraceptive agent. Neem is also reported to have fungicidal, antibacterial and even antiviral properties.
Against Several Diseases Turmeric (Curcuma Ianga L.) is extensively used as a spice, food preservative and colouring material in India, China and South East Asia. It has been used in traditional medicine as a household remedy for various diseases, including biliary disorders, anorexia, cough, diabetic wounds, hepatic disorders, rheumatism and sinusitis. For the last few decades, extensive work has been done to establish the biological activities and pharmacological actions of turmeric and its extracts. Curcumin (diferuloylmethane), the main yellow bioactive component of turmeric has been shown to have a wide spectrum of biological actions. These include its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antimutagenic, anticoagulant, antifertility, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antiviral, antifibrotic, antivenom, antiulcer, hypertensive and hypocholesteremic activities. Its anticancer effect is mainly mediated through induction of apoptosis. Its anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antioxidant roles may be clinically exploited to control rheumatism, carcinogenesis and oxidative stress-related pathogenesis. Clinically, curcumin has already been used to reduce post-operative inflammation. Safety evaluation studies indicate that both turmeric and curcumin are well tolerated at a very high dose without any toxic effects. Thus, both turmeric and curcumin have the potential for the development of modern medicine for the treatment of various diseases (Chattopadhya, Biswasl, Bandyopadhyay and Banerjeel, 2004). A recent study by Qureshi et al., (2007) has shown hepatoprotective and antioxidant activities of flowers of Calatrapis pracera (Ait.) RBr. This property has been attributed to the quercetin related flavonoids present in these flowers. Qureshi and coworkers have advocated the efficacy of these active principles against CCl. induced hepatic injury in albino rats and mice. The active component of liquorice root has been shown to inhibit immune-mediated liver cytotoxicity and may indicate some function in Hepatitis C treatment (Bean, 2002). McCulloch et al., (2002) have evaluated the efficacy of Chinese herbal medicine alone or in combination with interferon-a in treating chronic hepatitis B and suggested further studies.
7. HERBAL FORMULATIONS Herbal formulations are multi-ingredient crude extract(s) admixture, where the 'active' ingredient constitutes only a small portion and most comprise secondary materials. Formulations based on crude herbs consist of leaves, roots, stems, flowers, seeds, fruits or whole plants and also exudates formulated as tablets and capsules, or used as oral liquid preparations. These forms are not very successful due to poor absorption, therapeutic efficacy and poor compliance problems. In a tablet or capsule powdering of the crude herbs is essential and particle size affects the process of blending, compression and filling to achieve homogeneity. The latter is difficult to achieve due to several constraints e.g.
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large bulk to be handled, high moisture content, lack of proper equipment and inherent nature of the raw material. For granulation and compression, binders such as starch, gelatin, sugars and sugar alcohols are used. Most crude drugs have very poor compressibility. Hence, aluminum silicate and hydrotalcite are used to reduce the elasticity of crude drugs. Hard gelatin capsules are widely used for crude powdered herbs. Many herbs contain lipophilic ingredients which provide self-lubrication leading to poor filling performance due to stickiness, fill weight variation and the stability problems. Plant Extracts can be of variable consistency ranging from fluid, dry or intermediate consistency. They are classified into total extracts and purified extracts. The former constitute a major hindrance in preparation of formulations especially solid forms, since they are hygroscopic, sparingly soluble and sticky. On the contrary purified extracts imply dry preparations. General formulations of injectables containing extracts are not rec'ommended. Extracts are also prepared in the liquid dosage form e.g. syrups, drops, solutions or suspensions or as soft gelatin capsules. Chief problem with the liquid is the solubility of the extracts. Hygroscopicity, poor granulation, flow properties and compressibility pose many problems. Thus, use of silica gel, coating of granular extracts with water soluble polysaccharides (guar gum and locust bean gum) are used to overcome this problem. On the contrary the secondary components, sugars and saponins dissolve in water and form granules, are difficult to try. Compressed tablets are difficult to disintegrate. Therefore, best option is wet granulation using organic solvents or non-hygroscopic ready granulated extracts. Excipients used for the purpose are silica gel and small quantities of lubricants such as magnesium stearate. New epidemics, like HIV-virus and SARS, lead to fatalities, attributed to lack of body immunity. Further, we are exposed to toxic material viz. pesticides, herbicides, consumption of adulterated milk, pollutants and now infested chocolates. The modem system of drug treatment uses corticosteroids, antibiotics which cause toxicity and allergy. In USA nearly 9 million cases of adverse drug reactions are reported annually, of these about 30,000 die. Medicos are hence prescribing ayurvedic preparations, singly or with a combination of herbals, to tackle infections by boosting immune system, detoxification and also correct any malfunction in the body. However herbals suffer from prejudices, lack of proper formulations and standardizations, which yield inconsistent responses.
8. CHALLENGES IN DRUG DISCOVERY FROM MEDICINAL PLANTS Despite the success of drug discovery schedules from plants in the last 2-3 decades, future endeavors have many challenges. Phytochemists and pharmaceutical industries shall have to improve the quality and quantity of compounds that enter the drug development phase to keep pace with other drug discovery efforts. The process of drug discovery is estimated to take an average period of a decade and cost more than US $ 800 million (Dickson & Gagnon, 2004). Most of this time and money is spent on the numerous leads that are discarded during the drug discovery process. According to one
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estimate, only one in 5000 lead compounds will successfully advance through clinical trials and be approved for use. In the drug discovery process, lead identification is the first step (Fig. 1). Lead optimization which involves medicinal and combinatorial chemistry, development (including pharmacology, toxicology, pharmacokinetics, ADME and drug delivery), and clinical trials take considerable time. Different approaches to drug discovery from plants can be mentioned as: random selection with chemical screening, random selection followed by one or more biological assays, follow-up of biological activity reports, follow-up of ethnomedical (traditional medicine) use of plants, use of appropriate plant parts as such in powdered form or preparation of enriched/ standardized extracts (herbal product development), use of a plant product, biologically potent but beset with other issues, as a lead for further chemistry, and single new compounds as drugs. The objective of the latter approach is the targeted isolation of new bioactive plant products, i.e. lead substances with novel structures and novel mechanisms of action. This approach has provided a few classical examples, but the problem most often encountered here is not enough availability Gachak & Saklani, 2007). The problem can be overcome by semisynthesis/ synthesis or using tissue-culture techniques (by genetically modifying the biosynthetic pathway of the compound of interest). The approach of herbal drug development is associated with several problems. Crude herbs/plants are mostly formulated as tablet/ capsule, and/ or oral liquid preparations. These dosage forms are not successful due to problems encountered in absorption, therapeutic efficacy and poor compliance. Homogeneity is difficult to achieve due to the handling of large bulk quantities, high moisture content and inherent nature of the compound. Clinical Trials
Drug Candidate
Toxicology, Pharmacology, Drug delivery
Medicinal Chemistry
Bioassays-in vivo, cell based, target based qualitative
Plant Part used Fig. 1 : Drug discovery process from plants
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As drug discovery from plants has traditionally been time-consuming, faster and better methodologies for plant collection, bioassay screening, compound isolation and compound development must be employed (Koehn & Carter, 2005). Innovative strategies to improve the process of plant collection are needed, especially with the legal and political issues surrounding benefit-sharing agreements (Rosenthal, 2002; Soejarto et al., 2004). The design, determination and implementation of appropriate, clinically relevant, high-throughput bioassays are difficult processes for all drug discovery programmes (Knowles & Gromo, 2003; Kramer & Cohen, 2004). Although the design of high-throughput screening assays can be challenging (Walters & Namchuk, 2003), once a screening assay is in place, compound and extract libraries can be tested for biological activity. The common problem faced during screening of extracts is solubility and the screening of extract libraries is many times problematic, but new techniques including pre-fractionation of e~tra'Cts can alleviat-e some of these issues (Butler, 2004). Challenges in bioassay screening remain an important issue in the future of drug discovery from medicinal plants. The speed of active compound isolation can be increased using hyphenated techniques like LC-NMR and LC-MS. Development of drugs from lead compounds isolated from plants, face unique challenges. Natural products, in general, are typically isolated in small quantities that are insufficient for lead optimization, lead development and clinical trials. Thus, there is a need to develop collaborations with synthetic and medicinal chemists to explore the possibilities of its semi-synthesis or total synthesis. One can also improve the natural products compound development by creating natural products libraries that combine the features of natural products with combinatorial chemistry. With the dwindling population of taxonomists and rare introduction of youngsters in this field, it might take another 20 -30 years with the current pace to survey the complete flora of the country. Now the question before us is: could we assess the pharmaceutical potential of all the floristic components that we know? The answer is no. Realizing that we have approximately 17,500 species of higher plants, 64 gymnosperms, 1200 pteridophytes, 2850 bryophytes, 2021 lichens, 15,500 fungi and 6500 algae at our disposal, surprisingly, hardly a few institutions like CDRI, Lucknow with its concerted efforts could test a few plants and have published results on 3488 species of plants for limited indications in almost 28 years (Sanjappa, 2005) between 1968 and 1996. This resulted into some promising leads that were later developed as drugs, viz. bacoside, a memory enhancer from Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn.; picroliv, the hepatoprotective from Picrorhiza kurroa Benth.; curcumin, the anti-inflammatory from Curcuma domestica Valeton; the contraceptive cream from Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn., etc. Other CSIR laborai:ories and some private pharmaceutical companies have also made some efforts in this direction (Newman et al., 2000; Prakash, 1998). However, assessing the pharmaceutical potential of our whole flora even for the important disease indications may take several decades. The reason could be the availability of source plant material, expertise to authenticate the taxa, developing enough suitable in vitro screens for all indications, reproducibility of results and so on. Whatever the case may be, can we
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afford to wait any longer to evaluate our flora for its medicinal efficacy? The procedure for access to biological resources now is somewhat tedious.
9. STATISTICAL FIGURES AS MARKER FOR POPULARITY OF HERBAL DRUGS The phenomenal popularity of herbal medicines in the Western world and impressive annual growth figures have opened new vistas to countries rich in biodiversity to exploit their bio-resources. Resultantly, most of the large pharmaceutical companies have started the Herbal Research division and are now interested in marketing of herbal medicinal products and new drug development from medicinal plants. Ranbaxy, Cadila, Cipla, Dr. Morepen, Dr. Reddy's labs, Warner Lambert, American home products, Bayer and Glaxo-Smithkline Beecham are all introducing herbal products. It is estimated that there are over 7800 medicinal drug-manufacturing units in India, which consume about 2000 tonnes of herbs annually (Ramakrishnappa, 2002). Ranbaxy will shortly be marketing herbal drugs and is aiming to become a leading player in the segment, according to a top company official. "Ranbaxy is getting into herbal drugs, it will give competition to Dabur with 60 per cent market share and there is no guarantee its (Dabur's) share will not shrink," Chairman of Ranbaxy Laboratories Tajender Khanna said. A couple of herbal drugs would be marketed shortly and details would be available in the company's corporate affairs section. The sales in the USA alone have increased to $ 296 million in 2002 from $ 15 million in 1998 and targeted sales in the country are around $ 400 million for this year. The company's Indian operations alone have pegged their sales at around $ 190 million and worldwide sales this year can be around $ 930 million though exact figures cannot be given offhand, he said. Reliance ~ife Sciences is an emerging company focusing on selected species for research to enhance both the quality and quantities of products of secondary metabolites (like pharmaceuticals, antibodies, anticancer agents, immunomodulators, flavour and fragrances) using Metabolic Engineering. Phytomedicines or herbal medicinal preparations have gained a wider acceptability among European populations and Germany is considered a hub of medicinal and aromatic plants with 10% domestic cultivation and 90% import. Although the data to accurately calculate the global market for herbal medicines is sparse, it was conservatively estimated at around US $ 30 billion in 2000. The worldwide sale during last two decades has increased with an annual growth rate averaging between 5 to 15 per cent, depending on the region. Europe leads the market; followed by Asia, North America and Japan. The USA is the fastest growing market where annual retail sale of botanical products has increased from US $ 200 million in 1988, to an estimated US $ 5.1 billion in 1997 and much more in 1998 (Table 9). The consumer use of these I'Toducts in the USA has increased by staggering 380 per cent in the past ten years. The industrial demand for medicinal plants has increased exponentially in the world market since last few decades with the emergence of newer product categories like health foods, natural cosmetics and personal hygiene products. The overall international
71
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF HERBAL MEDICINES
trade in medicinal plants and their product has been estimated at over US $ 60 billion in 2000 (Govt. of India, 2000), with average annual growth rate (AAGR) of 7 per cent, and it is expected to reach US $ 5 trillion by 2050. The annual volume of global trade in medicinal plant material in the 1990s amounted to an average of 400,000 metric tones, valued at US $ 1.2 billion. China and India were the top exporting countries and Hong Kong, Japan, the USA and Germany, the leading importers. About 80 per cent of medicinal plant material supply in the world market is sourced from the wild collections. TABLE 9 Leading herbals in USA in 1998 Herbals
Botanical Name
Ginkgo St.ohn's Wort
Ginkgo biloba Hypericum perforatum Linn. Panax sps. Allium sativum L. Echinacea sps. Serenoa repens Vitis vinifera L. Piper methysticum Oenothera biennis Hydrastis canadensis Vaccinium macrocarpon Valeriana spp.
Ginseng Garlic Echinacea Saw palmetto Grape seed Kava kava Evening primrose Goldenseal Cranberry Valerian Others
Growth (%) Sale Value (1996-98) ~million US $) 138 140 2801 121 98
26
84
33
27 151
27
138
11
38 473 104
8 8 8 8 8 31
80 75 35
10. CONCLUDING REMARKS Medicinal herbs as potential source of therapeutics aids has attained a significant role in health system all over the world for both humans and animals not only in the diseased condition but also as potential material for maintaining proper health. A major factor impeding the development of the medicinal plant based industries in developing countries has been the lack of information on the social and economic benefits that could be derived from the industrial utilization of medicinal plants. It is now recognized that about half the population of industrialized countries regularly use complementary medicine. Higher education, higher income, and poor health are predictors of its use (Astin, 1998). Two basic policy models have been followed: an integrated approach, where modern and traditional medicines are integrated through medical education and practice (for example, China, Vietnam) and a parallel approach, where modern and traditional medicines are separate within the national health system (for example, India, South Korea).
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International market of medicinal plants is over $ 60 billion per year and is growing at a rate of per cent. Taking existing export of rupees 446 crore of crude drugs and Ayurvedic products in 1998-99 to an estimated rupees ten thousand crore plus by 2010 is not an unrealistic target, provided systematic and sustained efforts are made in the right direction. Medicinal plant sector in India at the moment operates in a policy vacuum. Immediate action is required to have clearly defined policies to regulate medicinal plant conservation, cultivation quality control standards, processing, marketing and trade including domestic & export, and coordinated information network effort. A need-based research including screening of plants for biological activity and focus on environmental and bio-diversity conservation aspects of forests which continue to be primary habitats of medicinal plants, is the need of the hour. About two million hectares of forest area on intensive management can produce medicinal plants for export and domestic use to provide health for our millions. Such effort will enhance greenery, generate employment and income to the people and conserve bio-diversity. In order to push India as a significant player in the global herbal product market, herbal products should be standardized as per WHO guidelines. The need of the hour is a systematic, collaborative and scientific approach. India has the potential to take up the challenge of leading the drug and herbal market at the same time conserving its rich heritage through proper planning and implementation of policies.
REFERENCES Astin, J.A. (1998) Why patients use alternative medicine: results of a national study. Journal of the American Medical Association 279: 1548-1553. Bannerman, R.H. (1983) Traditional medicine and healthcare coverage. Geneva: World Health Organization. Bean, P. (2002) The use of alternative medicine in the treatment of hepatitis C. American Clinical Laboratory 21 (4): 19-21. Butler, M.s. (2004) The role of natural product chemistry in drug discovery. Journal of Natural Products 67: 2141-2153. Cragg, G.M. & Boyd, M. (19%) Drug discovery and development at the National Cancer Institute: the role of natural products of plant origin. In Medicinal Plant Resources of the Tropical Forest (Eds. Balick, M.J., Elisabetsky, E. and Laird, S.A.), Columbia University Press, New York, pp 101-136. Cragg, G.M., Schepartz, S.A., Suffness, M. & Grever, M.R.(1993) The taxol supply crisis. New NCI policies for handling the large-scale production of novel natural product anticancer and anti-HIV agents. Journal of Natural Products 56: 1657-1668. Chainani, W.N. (2003) Safety and anti-inflammatory activity of curcumin: a component of tumeric (Curcuma longa). The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 9 (1): 161-168. Chattopadhyay, I., Biswas, K., Bandyopadhyay, U. & Banerjee, R.K. (2004) Turmeric and curcumin: BiolOgical actions and medicinal applications. Current Science 87: 44-53. Cho, H.J. (2000) Traditional medicine, professional monopoly and structural interests: A Korean case. Social Science and Medicine 50:123-135.
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Jachak, S.M. & Saklani, A. (2007) Challenges and opportunities in drug discovery from plants. Current Science 92:1251-1257. Kittur, 5., Wilasrusmee, 5., Pedersen, W.A, Mattson, M.P., Straube-West, K., Wilasrusmee, C, Lubelt, B. & Kittur, D.S. (2002) Neurotrophic and neuroprotective effects of milk thistle (Silybum marianum) on neurons in culture. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience 18 (3): 265-269. Knowles, J. & Gromo, G. (2003) Target selection in drug discovery. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 2: 63-69.
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Koh, K.J., Pearce, AL., Marshman, G., Finlay-Jones, J.J. & Hart, P.H. (2002) Tea tree oil reduces histamine-induced skin inflammation. The British Journal of Dermatology 147 (6): 1212-1217. Koehn, F.E. & Carter, G.T. (2005) The evolving role of natural products in drug discovery. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 4: 206-220. Kramer, R. & Cohen, D. (2004) Functional genomics to new drug targets. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 3: 965-972. Kumar, P. (2004) Valuation of medicinal plants for pharmaceutical uses. Current Science 86: 930937.
Malik, CP. (2006) Recent Approaches in the Development & Standardization of Formulations of Herbal Drugs & the Role of Biotechnology in their Upgradation In: Herbal Medicine Traditional Practices Ed. PC Trivedi. Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors Jaipur, pp 1-29. McCulloch, M., Broffman, M., Gao, J., Colford, J.M. Jr. (2002) Chinese herbal medicine and interferon in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Public Health 91 (10): 1619-1628.
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Sanjappa, M. Plant diversity in India-Status, conservation and challenges (P. Maheshwari Medal Award Lecture). In XXVIII Conference of Indian Botanical Society, BSI, Dehradun, 24-26 October 2005, pp 5-6. Samuelsson, G. (2004) Drugs of Natural Origin: A Textbook of Pharmacognosy, SUI Edition, Swedish Pharmaceutical Press, Stockholm. Schippmann, V., Leaman, D.J. & Cunningham, A.B. (2002) Impact of cultivation and gathering of medicinal plants on biodiversity: Global Trends and Issues. In: Biodiversity and the Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture,Forestry and Fisheries. FAa pp 1-21. Schmidt, J.M., Noletto, J.A., Vogler, B., Setzer & W.N. (2006) Abaco Bush Medicine: Chemical composition of the essential oils of four aromatic medicinal plants from Abaco Island, Bahamas Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants 12 (3): 43-66. Soejarto, D.D. et al., (2004) The VIC ICBG (University of Illinois at Chicago International Cooperative Biodiversity Group) Memorandum of Agreement: A model of benefit-sharing arrangetpent in natural product drug discovery and development. Journal of Natural Products 67: 2944299. Tiwari, A.K (2007) Karela: A promising antidiabetic vegetable therapy. Current Science 92: 16971701. Tewtrakul, 5., Miyashiro, H., Nakamura, N., Hattori, M., Kawahata, T., Otake, T., Yoshinaga, T., Fujiwara, T., Supavita, T., Yuenyongsawad, S., RattanasuW(on, P. & Dej, A.S. (2003) HIV1 integrase inhibitory substances from Coleus parvifolius. Phyt6.thera"y Research 17 (3): 232239.
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Tyler, V.E. (2004) Herbs of choice: The therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. Binghampton, NY, Pharmaceutical Products Press. UNESCO 1996 Culture and Health, Orientation Texts-World Decade for Cultural Development 1988-1997 Document CLT/DEC/PRO, Paris, France, p 129. UNESCO 1998 Promotion of ethnobotany and the sustainable use of plant resources in Africa, FIT/504-RAF-48 Terminal Report, Paris, p 60. Vineesh,V.R., Fijesh, P.V., Louis, c.J., Jaimsha, V.K. & Paddikkala, J. (2007) In vitro production of camptothecin (an anticancer drug) through albino plants of Opiorrhiza rugosa var. decumbens Current Science 92: 1216-1218. Walters, W. P. & Namchuk, M. (2003) Designing screens: How to make your hits a hit. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 2: 259-266. WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002-2005 Document WHO/EDM/TRM/2002.1, Geneva, p 7. Wilasrusmee, c., Kittur, 5., Shah, G., Siddiqui, J., Bruch, D., Wilasrusmee, S. & Kittur, D.S. (2002) lmmunostimulatory effect of Silybum Marianum (milk thistle) extract. Medical Science Monitor 8 (11): BR439-BR443. Winston, D. (1992) An Introduction to Herbal medicine In: Nvwoti Cherokee Medicine and Ethnobotany in American Herbalism Ed. M. Tierra, Crossings Press.
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PLANTS USED IN WOUND CARE RICHA DEO AND USHA MUKUNDAN
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction 1.1 History of wound healing 1.2 Natural healing 1.3 Wound and wound types 1.4 Process of wound healing
2.
1.5 Wound healing and nutrition Medicinal plants used in wound care
3.
Some therapeutic actions, mode of action and some plants that possess wound healing properties
4.
Some folklore remedies for wound healing
5.
Conclusion
6.
References
1. INTRODUCTION Man, due to his inherent nature, has been in one or the other form of conflict and as a result his body undergoes a number of sufferings. Early man got wounded while hunting and due to aggression within their groups. With development of civilizations, came conquests that lead to battles. As a result, those fighting suffered wounds of varying degree. The search for relief from pain and to heal his wounds prompted him to explore his surroundings for a remedy. As a result early man used various natural agents to treat himself, plants being in the forefront.
1.1
History of wound healing The earliest recording of a 'wound healing man' is in a cave drawing in Spain dating
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back some 20-30,000 years. From the earliest recorded history it is clear that the Assyrians knew about healing, not just from an observational point of view but also in terms of practical management. Plants with antibacterial and antiseptic properties such as Acarus calamus, Mentha sps, etc were known' to them. The Egyptians were good broken bone setters, they also practiced amputation successfully. Wounds and cuts were treated with bandages impregnated with antiseptic herbs and ointments. Medical materials were chiefly plant-based, and the Egyptians knew the uses of castor oil, dill, cumin, garlic, juniper, cedar, chamomile and coriander. The main treatise of the Egyptians that deals with surgery is the Edwin Papyrus. The Edwin Smith Papyrus is 5 meters long, and is chiefly concerned with surgery. It described 48 surgical cases of wounds of the head, neck, shoulders, breast and chest. The papyrus listed the manifestations, followed by prescriptions to every individual case. It included a vast experience in fractures that can only be acquired at a site where accidents were extremely numerous, as during the building of the pyramids. The Edwin Smith Papyrus shows the suturing of non-infected wounds with a needle and thread. Raw meat was applied on the first day, subsequently replaced by dressing of astringent herbs, honey and butter or bread. Raw meat is known to be an efficient way to prevent bleeding. Honey is a potent hygroscopic material (absorbs water) and stimulates the secretion of white blood cells, the natural first body defense mechanism. The Edwin Smith Papyrus contains a list of instruments, including lint, swabs, bandage, adhesive plaster (x-formed), support, surgical stitches and cauterization. It is clear that the Egyptians understood the concept of primary wound healing. The Egyptians also used antiseptics. They used the copper pigment malachite as both an eye adornment and an antiseptic. Soon after the Egyptians, came the Indian knowledge professed by Sushruta Samhita. This document contains methods of skin suture and the details of techniques to incise an abscess. For practice, a bag of warm butter was used to simulate the feel of the knife going in and the pus coming out. The Sushruta scripts also include a description of how insects have been applied in the healing of wounds. The earliest type of clip was based on the mandibles of certain ants. The mandibles from a certain 'soldier ant' were used to close these types of wounds. This technique is also found in Asia, Africa and South America. The mandibles from the Eciton burchell are particularly large. Its mandibles would close on the wound and the body would then be pinched off. Contemporary clips work according to the same principles. Plants such as Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. , Santalum album L., Azadirachta indica AJuss. were used for wound healing purposes. Plants with astringent properties were employed to stop bleeding. The art of wound healing reached its zenith in the Greek world between the fifth and second centuries BC but this was certainly not an instant product. The oldest written witnessing of medical information in the Greek and even European territories comes from the poems of Homer, dated nine hundred years before the Christian era. The Iliad and Odyssey contain realistic descriptions of 147 wounds and injuries of widely differing types. While the outcome of the battles depends entirely upon the will of the Gods, the
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characteristic of this period is that medicine is empirically documented with, however, influence from superstition. None of the 147 wounds was reported to be healed by a God alone. Therefore, a mixture of rational and irrational elements is evident in early surgery. The ritual was carried out in the temples of Aesculapius, the Greek god of medicine. The healer was an associate of priests -or the priest himself- and sometimes offered help. Usually, after a sacrifice was made, the patient slept in the colonnade of the temple. During the night the god either performed an operation with the aid of snakes or appeared to the patient in a dream and gave advice. In the morning the patient departed. It was not until the fifth century BC that complete separation of the art of wound healing from superstition and magic took place for the first time in history. Detailed knowledge of ancient Greek medicine comes from a compilation of medical writings called 'Hippocratic Collection'. These writings deal with many surgical disorders as well as other medical disciplines. The surgical books are among the most lucid and brilliant works of the collection that consists of more than seventy books. By dissociating medicine from speculation and philosophy, and rather focusing on careful clinical observation, ancient Greeks laid the basis for scientific medicine and indeed surgery. The father of medicine, Hippocrates, who lived nearly 2500 years ago, wrote several accounts on wound healing and was aware of the importance of infection in relation to wound healing. He understood the concepts of primary and secondary wound healing, using antiseptics such as wine. Hippocrates pointed to the significant role of compression in the treatment of patients with leg ulcers,
The Roman poet Vergil recounts how, when the hero Aeneas suffered a deadly wound in battle and all attempts to heal him were in vain, his goddess mother, Venus, arrived on the scene with a stalk of dittany with downy leaves and purple flowers, which she had plucked on Crete's Mount Ida. After steeping the flower in river water, she gave the water to the aged Iapix, who washed the wound with it. Suddenly all pain left the body of Aeneas; the arrow which no one had been able to remove fell out unforced, and the eager Aeneas, with strength renewed, was ready to return to battle. Perhaps this episode reflects Vergil's early interest in medicine. He says that Origanum dictamnus (dittany) was even used by wild goats, who cured themselves with it when struck by arrows. Romans used essential oils for pleasure, to perfume their hair, bodies and clothes, as well as for pain relief. For centuries only limited inforIr.ation existed on wound healing. During the 15th century the anatomy was described in greater detail by the surgeon Andreas Vesalius. As a result surgical expertise became more acknowledged, although it was still carried out by barber surgeons. From the early history of wound healing it is apparent that Celsus in De Medicina, recognized the cardinal signs of inflammation. John Hunter, considered one of the fathers of surgery, recognized that we would not be able to operate without inflammation. Actually it was thought that the pus had to be present in order for the wound to heal.
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One of the largest advances we owe to Ignaz Semmelweis, a Hungarian obstetrician who lived in Vienna. The obstetrician discovered that if you went from the post-mortem room to the delivery room, but washed yuur hands in between using chloride of lime, the maternal mortality was reduced. Lord Lister introduced antiseptics containing carbolic acid and realized that by using antiseptics compound fractures could heal and amputation be avoided. The idea of cleansing wounds was further developed by Alexander Fleming, who was one of a group of scientists who discovered that penicillin could treat infections. Since then, research has produced many results and significant improvements have been made. Several experimental methods can be used for wound healing research, some are crude and others relatively sophisticated.
1.2
Natural healing
The human body protects itself from the external environment by an outer layer of skin and sub-cutaneous tissue (fatty tissue). Skin consists of two layers; epidermis and dermis. The outer portion, epidermis, is composed of epithelium cells (20 to 30 cells deep) which protects the body from bacterial invasion. The inner portion, the dermis, gives skin its strength and vitality. Under the skin is subcutaneous tissue (fatty tissue) that functions as padding and absorbs pressure preventing injuries to body organs and structures. When an individual develops an open wound nature attempts to cover the wound to prevent infection by the growth and migration of epithelial cells. This natural method is slow and explains why infection of the wound by germs or parasites is common. Wound management by physicians assist nature by the cleansing and removal of dead tissue from the wound, and by the application of appropriate local dressings onto the wound to create a moist environment. Even though natural healing is often gratefully accepted, the skin cover is fragile and thin and liable to break down and form another ulcer. There is also a limit as to how far cells can migrate and that the reason why some wounds does not heal naturally! Natural process of wound healing takes a longer period to get healed and hence the wound gets exposed to bacterial microorganisms. To avoid infection it is necessary to provide such an environment that will accelerate the wound healing process. Nature has endowed a number of plants and nutrient with properties that help in wound healing. However before discussing these plants, it is imperative to understand wound and wound healing processes, as it will provide a better insight.
1.3
Wound and wound types
In medicine, a wound is a type of physical trauma wherein the skin is tom, cut or punctured (an open wound), or where blunt force trauma causes a contusion (a closed wound). In addition, pressure ulcers (also known as decubitus ulcers or bed sores), a type of skin ulcer, might also be considered wounds.ln pathology, it specifically refers to a sharp injury which damages the dermis of the skin. In the case of severe open wounds, there is a risk of blood loss (which could lead to shock), and an increased chance of infection due to bacteria entering a wound that
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is exposed to air. Depending on their severity, closed wounds can be just as dangerous as open wounds. (A)
Wounds are classified as: Acute wounds • Surgical wound: These wounds are caused by a clean, sharp-edged object such as a knife, a razor or a glass splinter. • Penetrating wound (Knief or bullet wound): caused by an object such as a knife entering the body. •
• • •
5
(B)
Avulsion injury (Finger tip amputation): An avulsion injury is a cut or scrape that removes all the layers of the skin, exposing the fat or muscle. A common avulsion injury is scraping off all the skin on the tip of a finger or toe. Crushing or shearing injury: caused by a great or extreme amount of force applied over a long period of time. Burn injury: A burn is a type of injury to the skin caused by heat, cold, electricity, chemicals, or radiation (e.g. a sunburn). Laceration: Irregular wounds caused by a blunt impact to soft tissue which lies over hard tissue (e.g. laceration of the skin covering the skull) or tearing of skin and other tissues such as caused by childbirth. Lacerations may show bridging, as connective tissue or blood vessels are flattened against the underlying hard surface. Bite wound (Dog bite, Cat bite, Human bite)
Chronic wounds •
• •
•
•
Arterial ulcer (peripheral vascular disease): Peripheral vascular diseaseis a narrowing of blood vessels that restricts blood flow. It mostly occurs in the ' legs, but is sometimes seen in the arms. Venous ulcer: Venous ulcers are wounds that occur due to improper functioning of valves in the veins usually of the legs. Lymphedema: Lymphedema or "lymphatic obstruction", is a condition of localized fluid retention caused by a compromised lymphatic system. The danger with lymphedema comes from the constant risk of developing an uncontrolled infection in the affected limb. Pressure ulcer: Bedsores, more properly known as pressure ulcers or decubitus, are lesions caused by unrelieved pressure to any part of the body, especially portions over bony or cartilaginous areas. Although completely treatable if found early, without medical attention, bedsores can become lifethreatening. Neuropathic ulcer: Neuropathic ulcer means damage of nerve fibers in the legs in people with diabetes. High blood glucose changes the metabolism ofnerve cells and causes reduced blood flow to the nerve. It affects mainly the sensory nerves although the motor and autonomic nerves can also be involved with important consequences.
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Process of wound healing
Wound healing is a natural process of regenerating dermal and epidermal tissue that follows injury to the skin and other soft tissues. It requires the collaborative work of many different tissues and cell lineages. Proper healing of wounds is essential for the restoration of disrupted anatomical continuity and disturbed functional status of the skin. The phases of normal wound healing include the inflammatory, proliferative, and maturation. Each phase of wound healing is distinct, although the wound healing process is continuous, with each phase overlapping the next. The Four Phases of Wound Healing Tissue injury initiates a response that first clears the wound of devitalized tissue and foreign material, setting the stage for subsequent tissue healing and regeneration. The initial vascular response involves a brief and transient period of vasoconstriction and hemostasis. A 5-10 minute period of intense vasoconstriction is followed by active vasodilation accompanied by an increase in capillary permeability. Platelets aggregated within a fibrin clot secrete a variety of growth factors and cytokines that set the stage for an ord~rly series of events leading to tissue repair. The second phase of wound healing, the inflammatory phase, presents itself as erythema, swelling, and warmth, and is often associated with pain. The inflammatory response increases vascular permeability, resulting in migration of neutrophils and monocytes into the surrounding tissue. The neutrophils engulf debris and microorganisms, providing the first line of defense against infection. Neutrophil migration ceases after the first few days post-injury if the wound is not contaminated. If this acute inflammatory phase persists, due to wound hypoxia, infection, nutritional deficiencies, medication use, or other factors related to the patient's immune response, it can interfere with the late inflammatory phase.ln the late inflammatory phase, monocytes converted in the tissue to macrophages, which digest and kill bacterial pathogens, scavenge tissue debris and destroy remaining neutrophils. Macrophages begin the transition from wound inflammation to wound repair by secreting a variety of chemotactic and growth factors that stimulate cell migration, proliferation, and formation of the tissue matrix. The subsequent proliferative phase is dominated by the formation of granulation tissue and epithelialization. Its duration is dependent on the size of the wound. Chemotactic and growth factors released from platelets and macrophages stimulate the migration and activation of wound fibroblasts that produce a variety of substances essential to wound repair, including glycosaminoglycans (mainly hyaluronic acid, chondroitin- 4-sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate) and collagen.2 These form an amorphous, gel-like connective tissue matrix necessary for cell migration. New capillary growth must accompany the advancing fibroblasts into the wound to provide metabolic needs. Collagen synthesis and cross-linkage is responsible for vascular integrity and strength of new capillary beds. Improper cross-linkage of collagen' fibers has been responsible for nonspecific post-operative bleeding in patients with normal coagulation parameters. Early in the proliferation phase fibroblast activity is limited to cellular replication and migration. Around the third day after wounding the growing mass of fibroblast cells begin to synthesize and secrete measurable amounts of collagen.
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Collagen levels rise continually for approximately three weeks. The amount of collagen secreted during this period determines the tensile strength of the wound. The final phase of wound healing is wound remodeling, including a reorganization of new collagen fibers, forming a more organized lattice structure that progressively continues to increase wound tensile strength. The remodeling process continues up to two years, achieving 40-70 percent of the strength of undamaged tissue at four weeks. In the maturation and remodeling phase, collagen is remodeled and realigned along tension lines and cells that are no longer needed are removed by apoptosis.The maturation phase can last for a year or longer, depending on the size of the wound and whether it was initially closed or left open. During Maturation, type III collagen, which is prevalent during proliferation, is gradually degraded and the stronger type I collagen is laid down in its place. Originally disorganized collagen fibers are rearranged, cross-linked, and aligned along tension lines. As the phase progresses, the tensile strength of the wound increases, with the strength approaching 50% that of normal tissue by three months after injury and ultimately becoming as much as 80% as strong as normal tissue. Since activity at the wound site is reduced, the scar loses its erythematous appearance as blood vessels that are no longer needed are removed by apoptosis. The phases of wound healing normally progress in a predictable, timely manner; if they do not, healing may progress inappropriately to either a chronic wound such as a venous ulcer or pathological scarring such as a keloid scar.
1.5 Wound healing and nutrition Healing of wounds results in increased cellular activity, ~ hich causes an intensified metabolic demand for nutrients. Nutritional deficiencies can impede wound healing, and several nutritional factors required for wound repair may improve healing time and wound outcome. The objective in wound management is to heal the wound in the shortest time possible, with minimal pain, discomfort, and scarring to the patient. At the site of wound closure a flexible and fine scar with high tensile strength is desired. Understanding the healing process and nutritional influences on wound outcome is critical to successful management of wound patients. Researchers who have explored the complex dynamics of tissue repair have identified several nutritional cofactors involved in tissue regeneration, including vitamins A, C, and E, zinc, arginine, glutamine, and glucosamine. Certain nutrients (arginine, dietary nucleotides, and omega-3 fatty acids), referred to as immune-enhancing nutrients, boost the immune system by promoting the function of certain types of immune cells. However, a complete balanced nutritional intake that includes all essential nutrients is required for optimal health and functional status. Protein Protein malnutrition has been found in up to 25% of all hospitalized patients while 50% of general surgery patients experience moderate to severe protein malnutrition. Inadequate nutrition slows wound healing, decreases immunocompetence, increases
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susceptibility to infection, and increases mortality and morbidity. Protein deficiency is considered mild when serum albumin measures 3.5-3.9 g/ dl, moderate at 2.5-3.5 g/ dl, severe at less than 2.5 g/ dl. Vitamin A Vitamin A deficiency usually occurs without symptoms and is difficult to detect. Individuals who are severely injured or burned can become vitamin A deficient, which impedes wound healing. Vitamin A plays an important role in each stage of wound healing. It enhances the early inflammatory phase. In vitamin A deficiency there is a reduction in fibronectin on the wound surface with a subsequent decrease in cell chemotaxis, adhesion and tissue repair. Postoperative vitamin A supplementations for 7 days can increase collagen synthesis, the bursting strength of the scar and lymphocyte activation. A large supplemental dose of vitamin A can reverse the postoperative suppression of immune response and improve healing retarded by stress, diabetes and radiation. Infrequent high doses of vitamin A are generally safe when given for vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A can exhibit an anti-steroid activity. Wounds retarded by anti-inflammatory steroids are stimulated by retinoids far more than normal wounds. To avoid anti-steroid activity, vitamin A can be applied topically to the wound or with sponge implants. Topical vitamin A increases the epithelialization of wounds and improves the cosmetic appearance of scars. Dietary sources include liver, dairy products, egg yolk, yellow and dark green leafy vegetables and deep yellow or orange fruit.
Zinc Zinc is one of the oldest agents that can help promote wound healing. Zinc was used topically as calamine lotion as far back as 1500 B.C. by the Egyptians. There are approximately 200 zinc-requiring enzymes in the body, such as DNA polymerase which is needed for cell proliferation during healing. Superoxide dismutase is required to remove superoxide radicals produced by leukocytes during debridement. Plasma zinc concentrations of less than 70 g/ dl is considered deficient. Vegetarians are at risk for zinc deficiency since cereal grains are low in zinc and more is removed during the milling process. In zinc deficiency there is delayed closure of wounds and ulcers. The collagen produced has reduced tensile strength. Zinc deficiency also affects the immune system by causing a reduction in lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and the size of the thymus. There is an increased susceptibility to re'.:urring infection and poor wound healing. Topical zinc oxide inhibits bacterial growth for extended periods, especially of gram-positive bacterla. Smell, taste and vision may also be affected by zinc deficiency. Only those with low plasma zinc levels respond positively to oral zinc administration. Postsurgical patients have a low tolerance for food intake and dietary zinc. Zinc can be given by intravenous drip to improve clinical wound healing. Intravenous nutritional therapy of surgical patients can improve healing if it contains trace elements. The benefit is even better if given before surgery. There is an apparent decrease in serum zinc during wound healing. Topical administration of zinc chloride as a spray or ointment
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reduces the size of the wound, shortens healing time and produces less dehiscence. Zinc oxide is effective in enhancing wound healing while zinc sulphate is not. Vitamin C Vitamin C is required for the hydroxylation of proline and, subsequently, for the synthesis of strong collagen. Poor wound healing is one of the symptoms of scurvy. A deficiency of vitamin C can lead to the breakdown of already healed wounds. Plasma vitamin C levels decrease during fracture, burns, or major surgeries. Stress associated with injury and wound healing results in an increased need for vitamin C. Wound healing is directly accompanied by the oxidation of ascorbic acid. Levels of vitamin C rise in healing tissue and return to normal after it is healed. Dietary supplements from 100-300 mg to 1 gm per day can return plasma levels to normal in postoperative patients. Vitamin C in combination with pantothenic acid has been shown to increase skin strength and fibroblastic content of scar tissue. A deficiency of both, causes prolonged wound healing. After treatment for 24 hours with vitamin C, human skin fibroblasts in culture showed a 2- to 3-fold increase in type I collagen synthesis. Megadoses of vitamin C, even when given to patients with normal vitamin C levels, can accelerate collagen formation above the degeneration rate of damaged collagen. Vitamin C is useful in leg ulcers. Vitamin C shortly after thermal injury can significantly reduce tissue necrosis. Vitamin E Vitamin E is a lipid-soluble antioxidant which accumulates in the cell membranes where it protects polyunsaturated fatty acids from oxidation by free radicals. Vitamin E has an anti-inflammatory action due to its ability to inhibit phospholipase-A2 activity and, therefore, the production of prostaglandins. Vitamin E also has a lysosomalstabilizing ability, which is probably related to its ability to stabilize membranes in general. Vitamin E can also inhibit collagen synthesis. Tendons allowed to heal in the presence of vitamin E had a significantly lower peak strength after an 8 weeks period than those healed in the absence of vitamin E. Back incisions showed a significant decrt;!ase in tensile strength from retarded collagen synthesis in rats treated for 7 days with vitamin E. When the incisions did heal, there was a marked decrease in scar formation and the apparent size of the zone of injury. Topical administration for cosmetic purposes may be beneficial, although some patients have developed rashes from this. Vitamin E enhances the immune response in a dose-dependent fashion. Vitamin E has normalized the breaking strength of wounds in patients receiving pre-operative irradiation, probably because of its antioxidant capabilities. Vitamin E in combination with other drugs is recommended for the treatment of burns. Improved wound healing was also observed in patients with a history of deep vein thrombosis. Iron The enzyme that produces deoxyribonucleotides for DNA synthesis, ribonucleotide reductase, requires iron as a cofactor. Cells cannot divide without prior DNA syntheSis, so a lack of iron would impair the proliferation of all cells involved in wound debridement and healing. Serum iron levels less than 30 mg/100 ml are deficient. Normal values are 70 to 130 mg/100 ml. Iron is also involved in the hydroxylation of proline. Proline
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hydroxylase requires iron. Without hydroxylation of proline, collagen triple helix formation is unstable and results in collagen weakness. Therefore, wound healing during iron deficiency is weaker. Some critically ill patients may require therapeutic doses of nutrients that are approximately 10 times the recommended daily allowance. Bromelain Bromelain is a general name given to a family of proteolytic enzymes derived from Ananas comosus, the pineapple plant. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s a series of studies found the effects of orally administered bromelain include the reduction of edema, bruising, pain, and healing time following trauma and surgical procedures. More recently, researchers found that patients with long bone fractures administered a proteolytic enzyme combination containing 90 mg bromelain per tablet had less postoperative swelling compared to patients given placebo. Aside from its documented anti-inflammatory activity, bromelain is of interest to surgeons because of its ability to increase resorption rate of hematomas. Bromelain's influence on hematoma resorption was demonstrated using artificially induced hematomas in humans. Hematomas in the treatment group resolved significantly faster than controls when oral bromelain was given at the time of hematoma induction and for seven days thereafter. Glucosamine Hyaluronic acid is an important part of the extracellular matrix and one of the main glycosaminoglycans secreted during tissue repair. Production of hyaluronic acid by fibroblasts during the proliferative stage of wound healing stimulates the migration and mitosis of fibroblasts and epithelial cells. Glucosamine appears to be the rate-limiting substrate for hyaluronic acid synthesis. In vitro studies suggest the mechanism of glucosamine on repair processes involves stimulation of the synthesis of glycosaminoglycans and collagen. Administration of oral glucosamine both before as well as the first few days after surgery or trauma might enhance hyaluronic acid production in the wound, promoting swifter healing and possibly fewer complications related to scarring. Amino acids in wound healing It is well accepted that sufficient protein is necessary for wound healing. This appears to be due to the increased overall protein need for tissue regeneration and repair. Researchers have investigated the effects of specific amino acids on the healing process and determined that arginine and glutamine appear to be necessary for proper wound healing. Arginine Arginine is a non-essential amino acid that plays a key role in protein and amino acid synthesis. It is acquired from the diet and derived endogenously from citrulline in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme arginine synthetase. Adequate tissue arginine appears to be essential for efficient wound repair and immune function. Glutamine Glutamine is used by inflammatory cells within the wound for proliferation and as a source of energy Fibroblasts use glutamine for these same purposes, as well as for
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protein and nucleic acid synthesis. Because optimal functioning of these cells is paramount to the healing process, glutamine is a necessary component of the process of tissue repair. Glutamine is a non-essential amino acid that can become a "conditionally essential" amino acid in certain circumstances, including tissue injury. Glutamine is released from skeletal muscle following injury or surgery, which can cause a relative deficiency of glutamine in skeletal muscle and the gut, as intestinal uptake is frequently diminished as well.
2. MEDICINAL PLANTS USED IN WOUND CARE The WHO estimates that 80% of people living in developing countries rely almost exclusively on traditional medicine for their primary health care needs. Medicinal plants form the back bone of traditional medicine and hence more than 3300 million people utilize medicinal plants on a regular basis. Demand for medicinal plants is increasing due to growing reorganization of natural products being non toxic, having no side effects. The beneficial medicinal effects of plant materials typically result from the combinations of secondary products present in the plant. Phytomedicines exert their beneficial effects through the additive or synergistic action of several chemical compounds acting at single or multiple target sites associated with a physiological process. India is tenth among plant rich countries of the world and fourth among the Asian countries. In India about 2,500 plant species belonging to more than 1000 genera are used in indigenous system of medicine. Wound healing properties of l'ome of the plants are briefly described below.
Achillea millefolium Linn. Achillea millefolium is an aromatic perennial creeping herb, indigenous to Europe, widespread in temperate areas. It has been associated with the healing of wounds and the stemming of blood-flow since ancient times. It is used to curb discharges of blood from the nose. Externally yarrow is styptic (stops bleeding), astringent (makes tissue contract), antiseptic (inhibits bacterial growth), anti-inflammatory, vulnerary (helps tissue heal).The plant is highly astringent, and hence dries and heals up wounds. It is useful in treatment of piles. It improves the flow of blood and acts as an antiseptic in urinary infections. Acorus calamus Linn. The oil of Acorus calamus has been found to possess an antibacterial activity against organism responsible for digestive and throat infections. Asarone derived from the plant was found to exhibit in vitro nematocidal activity against Toxocara canis. It aids digestion, helps in curing gastritis, peptic ulcer, hyperacidity, posseses analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties and is beneficial in rheumatic pain and neuralgia, sinusitis. Adathoda zeylanica Medic. Leaves collected during the flowering of the plant are medicinally important. It is expectorant, antispasmodic and bronchodilator. It is also used in the treatment of cough, wounds, bronchitis and menstrual disorders. It is a natural pain-killer, anti inflammatory, antihistaminic, and has uterine stimulant activity. It is also an antiallergic agent.
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Aloe vera Linn. Aloe is found in semi wild state in all parts of India and has been in use for over 7000 years. Aloe gel is anti-fugal, anti-inflammatory, and is extremely effective in treating several skin disorders. Aloe removes dead skin cells and stimulates formation of new cells, tightening of the skin and making skin to look young. Other medicinal uses include treating radiation ulcers, peptic ulcers, thermal burns, wounds, pimples, abrasions, skin injuries. Ageratum conyzoides Linn. Ageratum conyzoides, is an annual herbaceous plant with a long history of traditional medicinal uses in several countries of the world and also has bioactivity with insecticidal and nematocidal acitivity. There is high variability in the secondary metabolities of A. conzyoide which include flavonoids, alkaloids, cumarins, essential oils, and tannins. A. conyzoides has quick and effective action in burn wounds Angelica glauca Edgew. Angelica is used for asthma, bronchitis, anaemia, coughs, indigestion, arthritis and colds. It is also beneficial in psychogenic asthma, digestive disorders, loss of appetite, frontal headaches, neuralgia, sinusitis, and rhinitis.It possesses antispasmodic diuretic, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antic holesterolemic, and antitumor-promoting activity. It is a circulatory stimulant, useful in female ailments, painful and irregular menstruation, anemia, abdominal pain, angina pectoris, and gastric ulcer healing asthma. It is immuno-modulatory and has antioxidant properties. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. It is one of the oldest medicinal plants in the world and has been used in indigenous medicinal systems for thousand of years. It possesses properties of antiseptic, moisturizer and emollient and hence used in treatment of many skin disorders. Root bark and young fruits are astringent, tonic and antiperiodic. The oil of neem is local stimulant, antibacterial and an insecticide. It also has emmenagouge properties. Minor skin abrasions, sprains and bruises are easily treated by applying Neem oil locally. The anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial comp6unds of Neem are delightfully soothing and help to heal the injured areas quickly. It is an antiseptic, moisturizer, and emollient. It is used in treating many skin problems like pimples, itching, inflammation, and sunburn. Barleria prionitis Linn. The whole plant, leaves, and roots are used for a variety of purposes in traditional Indian medicine. A mouth wash made from root tissue is used to relieve toothache and treat bleeding gums. Leaves are used to promote healing of wounds and to relieve joint pains and toothache. The whole plant extract contains iridoid glycosides" barlerin, and verbascoside, which have shown potent activity against respiratory syncytial virus in vitro and may account for the plant's use in treating fever and several respiratory diseases in herbal medicine. Extract of the plant have also shown to effectively suppress the fungi Trichophyton mentagrophytes in vitro due to its antiseptic properties extracts of the plant are incorporated in herbal cosmetics and hair products to promote skin and scalp health.
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Berberis aristata DC. Pharmacological studies have shown its usefulness in many disorders including antitumor, wound healing, and kills bacteria on the skin. Externally, for sores, burns, ulcers, acne, itch, ringworm, cuts, bruises. Externally the decoction of the root-bark is used as a wash for unhealthy ulcers to improve their appearance and promote cicatrisation Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Coleb. In traditional and Ayurvedic medicine the Boswellia gum resin has been extensively used to treat a variety of conditions. Dried extracts of the resin of the Boswellia serrata tree have been used since antiquity in India to treat inflammatory conditions. The resin of Boswellia serrata is used as an anti-inflammatory agent when applied externally. Internally, besides being antiarthritic, it has expectorant effect and improves immunity and hence has immunomodulating properties. One of the principal constituents in the gum resin is boswellic acid which exhibits anti-inflammatory activity. The gum resin is used as an ointment for sores and has anti-inflammatory, antiatherosclerotic and antiarthritic activities. The nonphenolic fraction of the gum resin had marked sedative and analgesic action. Calendula officinalis Linn. Calendula has been used in folk medicine topically to treat wounds. It has been used traditionally for treatment of wounds, sores and other skin problems. Extracts have proved antibacterial, antiviral and immunostimulating in vitro. Recent research indicates that water and alcoholic extracts exhibited significant healing and tissue regeneration in wounds. Calendula extracts have been used topically to promote wound healing, rod experiments in rats have shown that this effect is measurable. An ointment containing 5% flower extract in combination with allantoin was found to "markedly stimulate" epithelialization in surgically-induced wounds. On the basis of histological examination of the wound tissue, the authors concluded that the ointment increased glycoprotein, nucleoprotein and collagen metabolism at the site. Essential oil of Calendula officinalis has a strong bacteriostatic activity inhibiting the growth of various strains including Staphylococcus aureus, Sarcina citre, S. rosa, S. beige, Bacillus subtilis, B. anthracis and Salmonella enteritdiis. Carica papaya L. It is regarded medicinally as a remedy for haemoptysis, bleeding piles and ulcers of the urinary organs. It is the milk of the tree or the latex that is used for medical purposes. Latex is used locally as an antiseptic. Fruit and seed extracts have pronounced bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus cereus, Escherischia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Shigella flexneri. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urb. This plant grows in a widespread distribution in tropical, swampy areas, including parts of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and South Africa. It also grows in Eastern Europe. The roots and leaves are used medicinally. The primary active constituents of gotu kola are saponins (also called triterpenoids), which include asiaticoside,
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madecassoside and madasiatic acid. These saponins may prevent excessive scar formation by inhibiting the production of collagen (the material that makes up connective tissue) at the wound site. These constituents are also associated with promoting wound healing. One preliminary trial in humans found that a gotu kola extract improved healing of infected wounds (unless the infection had reached bone). Additionally, a review of French studies suggests that topical gotu kola can improve healing of burns and wounds. Clinical trials have also shown it can help those with chronic venous insufficiency. Another trial found gotu kola extract helpful for preventing and treating enlarged scars (keloids). Oral administration of Centella asiatica significantly inhibited gastric lesions formation (58% to 82% reduction) and decreased mucosal myeloperoxidase activity in a dose dependent manner. These results suggest that Centella asiatica prevents ethanol induced gastric mucosal lesions by strengthening the mucosal barrier and reducing the damaging effects of free radicals. It was shown in a study that the Centella extract treated wounds were found to epithelialise faster and the rate of wound contraction was higher, as compared to control wounds. The results showed that C. asiatica produced different actions on the various phases of wound repair.
Celastrus paniculata Willd. Celastrus paniculata is widely used as emetic, diaphoretic, febrifuge and nervine tonic. The seeds are antirheumatic and are popular for sharpening effect on the memory. It has shown good results in treating mental depression, hastening the process of learning and memory enhancement in experimental animals. The drug is used in the traditional system of medicine as a sedative. The reported constituents are Mal III A, Mal III B, triterpenoids zeylasterone, and seylastcral. Its therapeutic uses include treating anxiety and beri-beri. Alcoholic extract has anti-inflammatory and sedative properties. An herbal extract of the crude drug was tested for its adaptogenic properties, on mice. It showed significant CNS depressant effect and a clear synergism with pentobarbital. It also gave excellent results in hysteria without any side effect. Leaves are emmenogouge and the bark is abortifacient. It is also used in treatment of sores, ulcers and gout. Curcuma longa Linn. Curcuma longa , common Indian dietary pigment and spice has been shown to possess a wide range of therapeutic utilities in the traditional Indian medicine. It's role in wound healing, urinary tract infections, liver ailments are well-documented. Turmeric is useful as an external antibiotic in preventing bacterial infection in wounds. The active component of turmeric identified as curcumin exhibits a variety of pharmacological effects including antioxidant, adaptogenic, anti-inflammatory and anti-infectious activities. Local application of turmeric is Anti-inflammatory, analgesic and complexion enhancer. It cures skin diseases, has wound cleaning and healing properties Echinacea purpurea Also called Purple Coneflower and native to the U.S., this plant was the most widely used medicinal plant of the Central Plains Indians, being used for a variety of
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conditions. The leaf and root are mildly antibacterial, antiviral, and used for wound healing. Elephantopus scaber Linn. The effect of aqueous ethanol extracts and the isolated compound deoxyelephantopin from E. scaber Linn. was evaluated on excision, incision, and dead space wound models in rats. The wound-healing activity was assessed by the rate of wound contraction, period of epithelialization, skin-breaking strength, weight of the granulation tissue, and collagen content. Histological study of the granulation tissue was carried out to know the extent of collagen formation in the wound tissue.
Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. Glycyrrhiza glabra is part of both Western and Eastern herbal traditions. Traditional uses include treatment of peptic ulcers, asthma, pharyngitis, malaria, abdominal pain and infections. It modulates the immune system and has shown remarkable immuno-stimulant properties. It has an antioxidant activity. It is a mild anti-inflammatory for arthritis and rheumatism and is used to treat gastric, duodenal and esophageal ulceration or inflammation, heartburn and mouth ulcers. The plant contains phytoestrogens in the form of isoflavones such as formononetin; glabrone, neoliquiritin and hispaglabridin A & B. It alleviates irritable conditions of the mucus membrane, and strengthens the immune system and provides resistance in recurring infections. In studies, a gel containing 2% of glycyrrhizin reduced itching, redness, and swelling from dermatitis. Licorice may also be included as a fragrance in products applied to the skin. Hamamelis virginiana L. The astringency of the leaves and bark makes witch hazel a popular ingredient for various skin conditions as well as for bruises and varicose veins. It is approved f o r use in hemorrhoid products. The bark is astringent, haemostatic, sedative and tonic. Tannins in the bark are believed to be responsible for its astringent and haemostatic properties. An infusion of leaves is used to reduce inflammations and internal hemorrhage. Heliotropium indicum L. Wound healing activity has been reported by Reddy et al. They showed that topical application of 10% w Iv of H. indicum increased the percentage of wound contraction and completed wound healing by 14th day indicating rapid epithelization and collagenization. The control used healed a similar wound in 23 days. An increase of the tensile strength indicated the increase in collagen facilitating wound healing. Hemigraphis colorata (Blume) H.G. Hallier It is an excellent garden plant. This is a tropical showy species grown in front of houses and garden. This is a prostrate herb with rooting branches, opposite broad cordate and toothed leaves and terminal heads of small white flowers. The leaves are 6 to 10 cm long and shimmering silvery violet underneath red purple. It is claimed in folk
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medicine that the plant has very good wound healing activity. The wound contraction and epithelialisation were faster in H. colorata leaf paste applied mice when compared to control. However, in contrast to topical application, oral administration of the leaf suspension, daily at a dose of 1 g/kg (wet weight) did not influence excision wound healing.
Hippophae rhamnoides Linn. Hippophae rhamnoides L., commonly known as seabuckthorn, is a wild shrub growing at high altitude (1200-4500 meters) in adverse climatic conditions. Topical application of 1.0% seabuckthorn leaf extract statistically significantly augmented the healing process, as evidenced by increases in the content of hydroxyproline and protein as well as the reduction in wound area when compared with similar effects in response to treabnent using povidone-iodine ointment (standard care). The reduced glutathione, vitamin C, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activities showed significant increases in seabuckthorn leaf extract-treated wounds as compared to controls. The lipid peroxide levels were significantly decreased in leaf extract-treated wounds. The results suggest that aqueous leaf extract of sea buckthorn promotes wound healing, which may be due to increased antioxidant levels in the granulation tissue.
Hydrastis canadensis L. Goldenseal root has a long history as a native American herb used by Indians and early settlers for its antiseptic wound-healing properties. It is also used for its soothing action on inflamed mucous membranes. It is extremely useful in gastric ulceration. Hypericum perforatum Linn. St. John's wort has long been used successfully orally and topically as an antiinflammatory, sedative, analgesic, diuretic, antimalarial, and as a vulnerary (a substance which enhances wound healing). Kalanchoe pinnata Linn. It is regarded as an excellent application for wounds and contusions. It prevents swelling and discolouration and heals the wound rapidly. The leaves have great medicinal value and are used both externally as well as internally. The leaves possess various properties !ike haemostatic, refrigerant, emollient, vulnerary, depurative, anti-inflammatory, disinfectant. They are useful in cuts and wounds, hemorrhoids, boils, ulcers, burns and acute inflammation. Ocimum sanctum Linn. It is found throughout the semitropical and tropical parts of India. It is widely used in Ayurveda as it possesses anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Because of antioxidant properties it may be responsible and favorable for faster wound healing and plant extract may be useful in the management of abnormal healing and hypertropic scars. The tree radical scavenging activity of plant flavonoids help in the healing of wound. Pterocarpus santa linus Linn. f. Pterocarpus santalinus is commnly known as red sandal, ractachandan. The wood
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is used as an astringent and a cooling agent and tonic for external application in inflammation, boils. It is used in the treatment of pimples, acne, wrinkles etc. It is also used internally in chronic bronchitis, gonorrhoea and gleet, chronic cystitis with benzoic and boric acids. It has been used in Ayurvedic medicine as an anti-septic, wound healing agent and anti-acne treatment. The broad spectrum antibacterial activity exhibited by Pterocarpus santalinus may be attributed to various active constituents present in it. Symphytum officinale Linn.
Comfrey is an excellent wound-healer. This is partially due to the presence of allantoin. This chemical stimulates cell proliferation and so augments wound-healing both inside and out. The addition of much demulcent mucilage makes Comfrey a powerful healing agent in gastric and duodenal ulcers, hiatus hernia and ulcerative colitis. Its astringency will help hemorrhages wherever they occur. Comfrey may be used externally to speed wound-healing and guard against scar tissue developing incorrectly. Care should be taken with very deep wounds, however, as the external application of Comfrey can lead to tissue forming over the wound before it is healed deeper down, possibly leading to abscesses.It may be used for any external ulcers, for wounds and fractures as a compress or poultice. It is excellent in chronic varicose ulcers.
Rubia cordifolia Linn. The roots of Rubia cordifolia is widely used in treating pimples, reducing wrinkles, improving complexion, treating burns, healing injuries, lessening inflammation. The fruits are used to treat liver disorders. Rubidianin, an anthraquinone isolated from alcoholic extract of Rubia cordifolia has demonstrated significant antioxidant activity as it prevented lipid peroxidation induced by ferrous sulphate and t-butylhydroperoxide. The drug depicted activity in dose-dependent manner. The anti-oxidant activity of rubidianin was found to be better than mannitol, vitamin e and p-benzoquinone. Tagetes erecta Linn. Petals are mostly used in wound healing. Externally ie is used to treat sores, ulcers, eczema and rheumatism. The flowers are applied externally to treat skin diseases and sore eyes. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Am. & Wight. Tht! drug, commonly called Arjuna, comprises of bark of the tree. It treats fractures, pimples, acne, freckles, and non healing wounds.Topical treatment with mainly of tannins, was found to demonstrate a maximum increase in the tensile strength of incision wounds. Even with respect to excision wounds, the fastest rate of epithelialization was seen. Hydroalcohol extract of Arjuna bark possessed antimicrobial activity against tested microorganisms such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus au reus, and Streptococcus pyogenes. These results strongly document the beneficial effects of tannins, of Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Am. in the acceleration of the healing process.
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Tenninalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Terminalia bellirica is a stimulating astringent. The mature dried fruits are effective in the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and parasites. A decoction of fruits may be taken internally and can be used externally as eyewash in the treatment of ophthalmological disorders. It also promotes eyesight and hair growth. Fresh fruit is diuretic, digestive, expectorant, antipyretic and antiemetic. Pulp of fresh fruit is astringent, lithotriptic and anthelmintic. Tenninalia chebula Retz. Terminalia chebula improves digestion, promotes the absorption of nutrients and regulates colon function. It is most useful in prolapsed organs as it improves the strength and tone of the supporting musevlature. It has a tonic effect on the central nervous system. In treatment of piles and vaginal discharge a decoction of Terminalia chebula is used as antiseptic and astringent wash. A fine paste of powder may be applied on burns and scalds. Terminalia chebula is reported to have potent and broad spectrum activity against human pathogenic Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. Gallic acid and its ethyl ester, isolated from the plant displayed potent antimicrobial activity against several bacteria including methicillin resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus. A water extract of this plant was found to possess antifungal activity. Terminalia chebula is reported to significantly reduce serum cholesterol, aortic sudanophilia and the cholesterol contents of the liver and aorta in cholesterol fed rabbits. Vaccinium myrtillus L. A European version of blueberry. Bilberry extract is rich in purple/blue pigments claiming to have benefits for the eyes and cardiovascular system. In Europe, bilberry extract is used as an antioxidant. Claimed to help increase microcirculation by stimulating new capillary formation, strengthening capillary walls and increasing overall health of the circulatory system.
3. SOME THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS, MODE OF ACTION AND SOME PLANTS POSSESS THAT WOUND HEALING PROPERTIES Immunomodulator The immune system, resulting from millions of years of evolution, provides protection against microbial infections and the body's own damaged or cancerous cells. It is composed of the innate and ti9he adaptive immune responses. The innate immune response involves processes that occur almost immediately after exposure to a foreign microorganism, and is now known to exhibit a degree of specificity. The adaptive immune response is triggered within a few hours to a few days, and provides exquisite specificity and a long-lasting protection through specialist memory cells. An immunomodulator is any substance that helps to regulate the immune system. This "regulation" is a normalisation process, so that an immunomodulator helps to optimise immune response. Immunomodulators do not tend to boost immunity, but to normalize it. Part of their benefit appears to be their ability to naturally increase the body's production of messenger molecules, such as cytokines, which mediate and regulate the immune system making the immune system more efficient.
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Some plants with Immunomodulator properties
Aconitum heterophyllum Wall., Acorns calamus L., Ailanthus exelsa Roxb., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Azadirachta indica AJuss., Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Berberis aristata DC. , Chonemorpha macrophylla G.Don, Citrnllus coclcynthis L.Schrad/, Clerodendrnm serratum (L.) Moon, Crataeva nurvala Ham., Curcuma longa L., Cyclea peltata Hkf T., Cyperns rotundus L., Eclipta prostrata L., Embelia ribes Burm., Emblica officinalis Gaertn., Hemidesmus indicus, (L.) RBr., Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall.ex G. Don. , Ichnocarpus frutescens Br., Picrorhiza kurrooa Benth., Piper longum Bl., Plumbago indica Linn., Psoralia corylifolia L., Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., Rubia cordifolia Linn., Santalum album L., Saussurea lappa Clarke, Solanum virginianum L., Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Terminalia chebula Retz., Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers., Tragia pluknetti ARSm., Vetiveria zizanioides Nash, Zingiber officinale Rosc. Antioxidant Antioxidants are substances that may protect cells from damage caused by unstable molecules known as free radicals. Exposure to various environmental factors lead to formation of free radicals, which are actually electrically charged oxygen molecules. These electrically charged oxygen molecules take up electrons from other molecules causing an array of disorders. Antioxidant interacts with these free radicals and stabilizes them and thereby prevents them from damaging the cells. Some antioxidants stimulate the immune system and increase the activity of detoxifying enzymes in the liver. Some plants with antioxidant properties Allium sativa L., Beta vulgaris L., Bixa orellana L., Brassica oleracea L., Celastrns paniculata Willd., Citrns aurantifolia (Christm.) Sw., Crocus sativus Linn., Curcuma longa L., Emblica officinalis Gaertn., Hemidesmus indicus (L.) RBr., Hippophae rhamnoides Linn., Lycopersicon escuIentum Mill., Momordica charantia L., Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng., Picrorhiza kurrooa Benth., Plumbago zeylanica L., Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels., Trigonellafoenum-graceum L., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Astringent Astringents are any of a group of medicines that shrink mucous membranes and stop or slow secretion of blood, mucous, or other fluids from human body. Astringents decrease fluids by narrowing small blood vessels, drawing water away from organ, or coagulating the superficial layers of organ into a crust. They usually contain tannins that precipitate the proteins when they come into contact with it. Thus, in a remedy, they will tend tone up the mucous membranes and reduce secretions and discharge, and have an anti-catarrhal effect. Astringents are also anti-haemorrhagic and will form an eschar (scab) over a wound so preventing the entry of bacteria. Sometimes they will act on tissues with which there is no direct contact. Some plants with astringent properties Abrns precatorius L., Acacia catechu Willd., Aerva lantana (L.) Juss. ex Schult., Allophyllus serratus (Roxb.) Kurz., Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill., Blumea lacera DC., Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Coleb., Bauhinia variegata L., Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl,
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Calycopteris jloribunda Lam., Canthium parviflorum Lam., Catuneregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvengadum, Costus speciosus (Koenig) J.E.Sm., Crateva magna, Crotolaria retusa L., Dalbergia sisso Roxb. ex DC , Ficus hispida L. f., Ficus microcarpa BI., Flacourtia jangomas Miq., Garcinia Morella Desr., Gossypium arboretum L., Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq., Jasminum arborescens Roxb., Jasminum auriculatum Vahl, Kyllinga nemoralis (Forster & Forster f.) Dandy ex Hutch & Dalziel, Limonia· acidissima L., Premna con;mbosa RottI. & Willd., Pseudarthria viscida W.& A., Sapindus laurijlorus Vahl, Symplocos chinensis, Symplocos racemosa Grah., Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels, Toddalia asiatica Lamk., Verbena offtcinalis Linn., Vitex trifolia L., Zanthoxylum rhetsa DC Depurative A depurative is effective in blood purification and detoxification. They assist the body in ridding itself of viral and bacterial toxins that the body has stored over the years. The blood performs many vital functions which sometimes become over-taxed during acute & chronic cellular disease. Likewise, many ailments and diseases are the direct result of impurities & toxins within the blood. The blood is, therefore, a target for effective medicinal intervention. Depurative changes the properties of the blood from an "unhealthy state" to a "healthy" one. It filters out the toxins and wastes, kills microbial organisms present in the blood, adjusts and balances vital salts, furnishes nutrients, and strengthened and enhances important plasma substances. Some plants with depurative properties Albizzia lebbeck (L.) Willd., Andrographis paniculata Nees, Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex. DC) Wall. ex Guill., Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker, Aristolochia indica L., Artemesia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp., Asclepias curassavica L., Buchanania lanzan Spreng., Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br., Cassia auriculata L., Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alson, Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels., Coscimum fcnestratum Colebr., Gloriosa superba L., Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br., Homonoia riparia Lour., Hydnocarpus laurifolia (Dennst.) Sleumer, Kirganelia reticulata (poir) Baill., Melia azedarach L., Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng., Pterocarpus santalinus Lf, Pterospermum canascens, Rhinacanthus nasuta (L.) Kurz., Ricinus communis L., Samadera indica Gaert., Schrebera swietenioides Roxb., Swertia angustifolia Ham., Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland ex Corr. , Vetiveria zizanioides Nash, Woodfordia fruiticosa (L.) Kurz. Anti-inflammatory Inflammation is a process that is accompanied by local liberation of chemical mediators like histamines, 5 - hydroxytryptamine, bradykinin and eicosanoids. They are formed in almost every tissue in the body. Inhibition of their biosynthesis is the main stay of anti-inflammatory therapy. Antiinflammatory drugs are used in a variety of conditions including arthritis, muscle and ligament pains, pains after operations, headaches, migraines, and some other types of pains. Antiinflammatory agents do not alter the course of painful conditions however they ease symptoms of pain and stiffness. Some plants with properties of Anti-inflammatory
Acacia catechu Willd., Aglaia roxburghiana Miq., Allophyllus serratus (Roxb.) Kurz., Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC) Wall. ex Guill., Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk., Artemesia nilagirica (Clarke) Pama, Baliospermum montanum Muell., Bauhinia variegata L., Berberis
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asiatica Roxb., Blumea lacera DC, Buchanania lanzan Spreng., Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb., Cassia fistula L., Cassia occidentalis L., Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvengadum, Celastrus paniculata Willd., Cinnamomum camphora F.Nees., Commiphora mukul Engl., Crinum asiaticum L., Cyclea peltata H:f.&T., Cyperus rotundus L., Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC, Delphinium denudatum Wall., Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC, Enicostemma axillare (Lam.) Raynal, Enjthrina indica Lamk., Ficus hispida L:f., Flacourtia jangomas Miq., Gentiana kurroo Royle, Gossypium arboretum L., Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch., Hydnocarpus laurifolia (Dennst) Sleumer, Hygrophilla auriculata Lamk., Hyoscyamus niger Linn., Inula racemosa L., Lagenaria siceraria L., Moringa oleifera L., Nigella sativa L., Nyctanthes arbotristis L., Oxalis corniculata L., Pedalium murex L., Picrorhiza scrophularijlora Pennel, Plumbago indica Linn., Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., Pterocarpus santalinus L:f., Rubia cordifolia L., Salacia reticulata Wight.
Antibacterial Antibacterial drugs either kill the bacteria directly or prevent them from multiplying so that the body's immune system can destroy the invading bacteria. Antibacterial drugs act by interfering with some specific characteristics of bacteria. Bacterial cells possess rigid cell wall which maintains its shape. Certain antibacterial injury the wall or inhibits its formation leading to lysis of the bacterial cell thereby causing the death of the organism. One group of antibacterial inhibit cell membrane function by altering the permeability that results in leakage of intracellular macromolecules and ions leading to cell damage and cell death. A number of antibacterial inhibit protein synthesis through an action on ribosomes in the bacterial cells. Some antibacterial bind strongly to DNA dependant RNA polymerase of bacteria inhibiting RNA synthesis thus inhibiting bacterial growth. Some plants with Antibacterial properties
Ageratum conyzoides L., Artemisia pallens Wall., Azadirachta indica A.Juss., Betula utilis D.Don, Caesalpinnia bonduc (L.) Roxb., Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew., Cassia· siamea Lamk., Chukrasia tabularis, Cryptostegia grandifIora R.Br., Embelia tsjeriam-cottam A.DC, Euphorbia thymifolia L., Ficus religiosa L., Garcinia Morella Desr., Lantana camara L., Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link, Momordica charantia L., Morus alba L., Nigella sativa L., Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L., Ocimum americanum L., Oxalis corniculata L., Portulaca oleracea L., Premna corymbosa (RottI.) Willd., Solanum anguivi Lamk., Solanum nigrum L., Toddalia asiatica Lamk., Urtica dioica Linn., Vateria indica Linn, Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less, Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz ..
Antiseptic Since time immemorial chemical substances were used to control the infection in wounds and spread of contagious diseases. Antiseptic agents kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms on the external surfaces of the body. They are toxic both to the microorganism and the host and hence are used topically. There is a great variation in the ability of antiseptics to destroy microorganisms and in their effect on living tissue Antiseptics are potent germicidal usually with broad spectrum activity. There is also a great difference in the time required for different antiseptics to work.
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Some plants with Antiseptic properties Acacia catechu Willd., Anthemis nobilis Linn., Bixa orellana L., Cassia occidentalis L., Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirrengadum, Cinnamomum camphora F.Nees, Commiphora wightii (Am.) Bhandari, Garcinia cambogia Desr., Homonoia riparia Lour., Indigofera tinctoria Linn., Inula racemosa Hkf, Jasminum grandiflorum Linn., Limnophila aromatica, Mangifera indica L., Melia azadarach L., Mentha arvensis Linn., Nardostachys grandiflora DC, Pandanus odoratissimus Roxb., Phyllanthus amaras Schumach. & Thorn., Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. f, Oxalis corniculata L., Rhinacanthus nasuta (L.) Kurz., Rubia cordifolia Linn., Sassurea lappa Clarke, Scoparia dulcis Linn., Semecarpus anacardium Lf, Solanum nigrum L., Streblus asper Lour., Vitex negundo L., Zanonia indica Linn., Zanthoxylum armatum Roxb., Ziziphus oenoplia Mill.
Antiulcer Ulcer is caused by peptic ulceration that involves the stomach, duodenum, and lower oseophagus. Ulcers are caused by Helicobacter pylori infections and are treated with a combination treatment that incorporates antibiotic therapy with gastric acid suppression. Antiulcer drugs are a class of drugs used to treat ulcers in the stomach and the upper part of the small intestine. The objectives of antiulcers are relief of pain, promotion of ulcer healing and prevention of recurrence and complication. The agents used for treatment of ulcers are: (i) acid neutralizing agents that are basic in nature and neutralize acid in the lumen. (ii) proton pump inhibitor that block the secretion of gastric acid by the gastric parietal cells inhibiting the secretion of gastric acid. (iii) ulcer insulators does not inhibit gastric acid but rather react with the existing stomach acid to form a thick coating that covers the surface of an ulcer protecting the open area from further damage. Some plants with Antiulcer properties
Achyranthes aspera L., Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr., Amaranthus hybridus L., Azadirachta indica AJuss., Baliospermum montanum Muell., Berberis aristata DC, Boswellia serrata (Roxb.) ex Coleb., Calophyllum inophyllum Linn., Cassia occidentalis L., Coscinium fenes tra tum Colebr., Datura metel L., Datura stramonium Linn., Emblica officinalis Gaertn., Ficus hispida Lf, Ficus microcarpa Linnf, Garcinia indica Chois., Gentiana kurroo Royle, Golriosa superba L., GlyC1;rrhiza glabra, Gymnema sylvestre, Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br., Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don, Hypericum perforatum Linn., May tenus aquifolium, Mesua ferrea, Morinda pubescence J.E.Sm., Phyla nodiflora (L.) Green, Plumbago zeylanica L., Polygonatum cirrhifolium, Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC, Rubia cordifolia Linn., Santalum album L., Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde, Sarcostigma kleinii W. & A, Schliechera oleosa (Lour.) Oken, Semecarpus anacardium Lf, Shorea robusta Gaertn., Solanum nigrum L., Streblus asper Lour., Strychnos potatorum Linnf, Symplocos racemosus ADC, Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels, Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Am., Terminalia chebula Retz., Terminalia crenulata Roth, Terminalia paniculata Roth., Tribulus terrestris L., Tylophora indica (Burm. f) Merr., Valeriana jatamansi Wall., Verbena officinalis Linn.
4. SOME FOLKLORE REMEDIES FOR WOUND HEALING Abutilon indicum Sw. Family: Malvaceae
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Vernacular name: Petari Parts Used: Leaves and flowers Recipe: Paste of the leaves and flowers is applied externally to ulcers. Acalypha indica Linn. Family: Euphorbiaceae Vernacular name: Indian acalypha, KhokaH. Parts Used: Leaves Recipe: Powder of dry leaves is used in bed sores. Achillea millefolium Linn. Vernacular Names: Yarrow Family: Asteraceae/ Compositae Parts used: Whole plant Recipe: Fresh plant is crushed and used as a poultice for healing wounds, chapped skin and rashes and tea made from the plant is used as mouth wash. Achyranthes aspera Linn. Vernacular Names: Aghada, Prickly-chaff flower Family: Amaranthaceae Parts used: Whole plant. Recipe: Paste is prepared from the fresh leaves of the plant, gur and soap. Then is applied to the blister twice a day. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. Vernacular Name: Adulasa Family: Acanthaceae Parts used: Dried leaves Recipes: Leaves are crushed and used as poultice on the wounds as antiseptic. Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. Vernacular Name: Haldu Family: Rubiaceae Parts used: Bark Recipes: The juice of the bark of the tree is used to treat sores. It prevents the generation of worms in sores. Ageratum conyzoides Linn. Family: Asteraceae Vernacular name: Parts Used: Leaves and stem portion Recipe: Warm poultice of the leaves and stem is topically applied in wounds.
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Aloe barbadensis Mill. Vernacular Names: Ghrita-Kanvar (Hindi), Family: Liliaceae Parts used: Leaves and the dried juice obtained from leaves Recipe: The roasted leaves of Aloe are applied over blisters. Latex from the leaves with salt is used to cure stomach ulcer. Aloe leaf is washed with water. The pulp is exposed by longitudinal section and then placed on pussy wounds, which drain out it efficiently Crushed leaves are mixed with turmeric and the paste thus obtained is applied on the eruptions on any part of the body. Amaranthus viridis Linn. Vernacular Names:Green Amaranth Family: Amaranthaceae Parts used: Whole plant. Recipe: The upper surface of the leaves are smeared with ghee and then warmed gently. ThE' slightly warmed leaves are applied to the abscesses and boils for ripeness. Argemone mexicana Linn. Family: Papaveraceae Vernacular name: Poppy Parts Used: Latex Recipe: Latex obtained from stem and leaves is mixed with powdered seeds of Cuminum cyminum Linn. Geera) along with vegetable oil (preferably mustard oil). The paste prepared is applied on wounds. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Family: Meliaceae Vernacular name: Kadu neem Parts Used: Leaves Recipe: Decoction of leaves is used for washing boils and wounds as an antiseptic. Berberis lycium Royle Vernacular Names: Berberry Family: Berberidaceae Parts used: Dried roots Recipe: Root bark is astringent, used for the improvement of internal wounds. The dried powder of root is used for this purpose. Root bark is mixed with Ghee and heated. This is used as bandage on the broken organs. The root bark is dried and grinded; the powder is put in water along with small amount of sugar and is taken before sleeping which is effective for stomach ulcer. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Vernacular Names:
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Family: Saxifragaceae Parts used: Rhizomes. Recipe: Powder is used for healing of wounds. Powdered rhizome is applied over wounds. Bombax ceiba Linn. Family: Bombacaceae Vernacular name: silk-cotton tree Parts Used: Bark Recipe: Paste of the bark is applied over skin wounds. Kalanchoe pinnata Linn. Family: Crassulaceae Vernacular name: Parnabija Parts Used: Leaves Recipe: An ointment prepared from the expressed juice of the leaves mixed with 'oil is used externally for treatment of ulcers, burns, poorly healing wounds. The ointment has hemostatic, anti-inflammatory and wound healing action. Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Family: Apiaceae Vernacular name: Brahmi, gotu kola Parts Used: Whole plant Recipe: Mix equal parts gotu powder with aloe gel and apply to burned area as needed
Curcuma longa Linn. Family: Zingiberaceae Vernacular name: Haldi Parts Used: Rhizome Recipe: Juice of curcuma is applied to recent wounds and bruises. Its powder is sprinkled on ulcers to stimulate them to healthy action. Externally it is very useful in ulcers and inflammation.
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Family: Cuscutaceae Vernacular name: Amarvel Parts Used: Whole plant Recipe: Paste of the whole plant is applied on boils.
Cyperus rotundus Linn. Vernacular Names: Family: Cyperaceae
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Parts used: The rhizomes are used Recipe: The rhizomes paste is applied in the healing of wounds. Eclipta prostrata Linn. Family: Asteraceae Vernacular name: Maka, Bringraj Parts Used: Leaves Recipe: Juice of the fresh leaves is applied topically to wounds.
Hemigraphis colorata (Blume) H.G. Hallier Vernacular Names: Family: Acanthaceae Parts used: Leaves. Recipe: The leaves are ground into a paste and applied on fresh cut wounds. Hydrastis canadensis L. Vernacular Names: Golden seal Family: Parts used: Rhizome Recipe: Dried rhizome has been used as a haemostatic because of astringent properties. Oxalis comiculata Linn. Vernacular Names: Indian sorrel Family: Oxalidaceae Parts used: Whole plant. Recipe: Leaves are crushed and applied as poultice to skin during inflammation and warts. Fresh leaves are applied as antiscorbutic. Otostegia limbata (Bth.) Boiss. Vernacular Names: Family: Lamiaceae/Labiateae Parts used: Leaves. Recipe: Some time powder of the plant is mixed butter and used for wounds. Rumex hastatus D.Don Vernacular Names: Family: Polygonaceae Parts used: Leaves, roots and stem Recipe: The sap of the leaves and stem is applied on cuts for its astringent properties.
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Sphaeranthus senegalensis DC. Family: Asteraceae Vernacular name:. Parts Used: Leaves Recipe: Leaves are dried under shade and smashed into powder. About 1-2 g is given twice a day. Tagetes erecta L. Family: Asteraceae Vernacular name: Marigold Parts Used: Leaves Recipe: A fine paste of leaves is applied to boils. Termminalia chebula Retz. Family: Combretaceae Vernacular name: Haritaki, Harda Parts Used: Fruits Recipe: A fine paste of fruits is applied to burns and scalds effects more rapid cure. It is also useful in chronic ulcerations, ulcerated wounds with profuse discharge Typha angustifolia Linn. Family: Araceae Vernacular name: Ramban Parts Used: Flowers and inflorescence RecIpe: Flowers are valued in the treatment of burns. Male inflorescence is applied to wounds and ulcers. Decoction of leaves has been employed to wash ulcers and tumors. The rootstock, mashed to a jelly like paste has been applied externally on burns and inflammations. Verbascum thapsus L. Vernacular Names: Common Mullein Family: Scrophulariaceae Parts used: Leaves and flowers.
5. CONCLUSION Plants have been a source of medicine since ancient times. Even today nearly 80% of the world's population relies on plants for medicinal purposes. Each plant synthesizes a number of secondary metabolites and hence exerts a synergetic effect. Plant like Aloe vera has anthraquinones that in large amounts exert a powerful purgative effect and are potent antimicrobial agents. Curcuma longa is a source of curcumin that is not only an antioxidant but is also antimicrobial and hence is effective in wound healing. Grapes contain proanthocyanidin and resveratrol that facilitate inducible VEGF expression, a key element supporting wound angiogenesis.
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Most of the plants contain flavonoid that reduces lipid peroxidation by preventing or slowing the onset of cell necrosis and by improving vascularity. Tannins and triterpenoids that too are common metabolites in plants are known to promote the wound healing process, mainly due to their astringent and antimicrobial property. These active constituents promote the process of wound healing by increasing the viability of collagen fibrils, by increasing the strength of collagen fibres either by increasing the circulation or by preventing the cell damage or by promoting the DNA synthesis. Thus it can be concluded that plants can be employed for wound healing.
REFERENCES Bailey, H. & Love, M. (1988) Wound healing. Short Textbook of Surgery, 20th edition, Chapman & Hall Inc., New York, U.S.A. Chithra, R., Sajithlal, G.B. & Chandrakasan G. (1998) Influence of Aloe vera on collagen characteristics in healing dermal wounds in rats. Mol Cell Biochem; 181:71-76. Dash, G.K., Suresh, P. & Ganapaty, S. (2001). Studies on hypoglycaemic and wound healing activities of Lantana camara Linn., Jour. of Nat. Remedies 1:105. Durodola, J.J. (1977) Antibacterial property of crude extracts from herbal wound healing remedyAgeratum conyzoides. Planta Med; 32:388-390.
Farooqui, A.A. & Sreeramu, B.s. (2001) Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops. Universities Press (India) Ltd, Hyderguda, Hyderabad, India. Fielding, G.H. (1929) An Introduction To The History of Medicine. 4th edition, W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, U.S.A. Grieve, M. (1976) A Modem Herbal. Penguin Publication, Middlesex, England. Gupta, A.K. & Tandon, N. (2004) Reviews on Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol 2, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India. Jain, S. K. (1987) Endangered Species of Medicinal Herbs in India. Medicinal herbs in Indian Life; 16 (1), 44-53. Joshi, S.P. (2000) Medicinal Plants. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India. Kirtikar, K.R. & Basu, B.D. (1981) Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol 1-4, Periodical Experts Book Agency, New Delhi, India. Kurian, J.e. (1995) Plants That Heal. Oriental Watchman Publishing House, Pune, India. Magner, L. N. (1992) A History of Medicine. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, U.s.A. Majno, G. (1991) The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the ancient world. Harvard University Press Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.s.A. Major, R. H. (1954) A History of Medicine. Volume I, Blackwell Scientific Publications, U.S.A. McCarty, M.F. (1996) Glucosamine for wound healing. Med Hypotheses 47(4):273-275. MandaI, S., Das, D.N., De Kamala, Ray K., Roy G. & Chaudhari S B (1993) Ocimum sanctum Linn - A study on gastric ulceration and gastric secretion in rats. Indian J Physiol Phrmacol; 37:9192. Nadkarni, A. N. (1989) Indian Materia Medica. Vol. 1-2, Popular Book Depot, Bombay, India. Parrotta, J.A. (2001) Healing Plants of Peninsular India. CABI Publishing, Wellington, UK & New York, U.S.A.
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Perumal, Samy R., Ignacimuthu, S. & Sen, A (1998) Screening of 34 Indian medicinal plants for antibacterial properties. Jour. of Ethnopharmacol, 62 (2): 173-82. Porter, Roy (1997) The greatest benefit to mankind, Harper Collins Publishers, UK. Prasad, AS. (1995) Zinc: An overview. Nutrition; 11:93-99. Rastogi, R.P. & Mehrotra, B.N. (1990) Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol 1, Publication and Information Directorate, New Delhi, India. Rastogi, R.P. & Mehrotra, B.N. (1993) Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol 3, Publication and Information Directorate, New Delhi, India. Rastogi, R.P. & Mehrotra, B.N. (1995) Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol 4, Publication and Information Directorate, New Delhi, India. Satyavati, G.V., Raina, M.K. & Sharma, M. (1976) Medicinal Plants of India. Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India. Selvan, R., Subramanian, L., Gayathri, R. & Angayarkanni, N. (1995) The antioxidant activity of turmeric (Curcuma longa). Jour. of Ethanopharmacol, 7:47(2):59-65. Shultz, Jr. E.B. (1992) Neem: A Tree For Solving Global Problems, National Academy Press, Washington DC, U.s.A Sidhu, G.S., Mani, H., Gaddipati, J.P., Singh, AK., Seth, P., Banaudha, K.K., Patnaik, G.K. & Maheshwari, R.K. (1999) Curcumin enhances wound healing in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats and genetically diabetic mice. Wound Repair Regen, 7(5):362-374. Singerist, H. (1961) A History of Medicine, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, UK. Suguna, L. Sivakumar, P. & Chandrakasan, G. (1996) Effects of Centella asiatica extract on dermal wound healing in rats. Ind. J.Exp.Biol. 34: 1208-1211. Steward, J. (1907) Surgical instruments in Greek and Roman times. Oxford publication, Clarendon Press, UK. Vijayan, P. Vinod Kumar, S. Dhanaraj, S.A Mukherjee, P.K. & Suresh, B. (2003) In vitro cytotoxicity and antitumor properties of Hypericum mysorense and Hypericum patulum, Phytother Res 17(8): 952-956. Warrier, P.K., Nambiar, V.P.K. & Raman, Kutty (1996) Indian Medicinal Plants, 1st Edition, Orient Longman Publication, Hyderabad, India.
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Chapter Outline 1. Introduction 2.
Documentation
3. 4.
Traditional knowledge and Intellectual property rights Recent views
5. 6.
Medicine: Ancient history and traditions Ethnomedicine to modern medicine
7.
Ancient medicine to modern medicine
8. Traditional systems of medicine 9.
Collaborative efforts
10. Epilogue 11. Summary 12. References
1. INTRODUCTION The syllables such as Ethnobotany, Ethnobiology, Ethnomedicine, Ethnomedicobotany, Aboriginal botany, Folk medicines, Folklore, Indigenous knowledge, Plantlore and even the systems of medicine like Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Tibetan, Chinese etc. although not synonymous, all signify traditional knowledge. The word 'tradition' mean oral transmission or practice from generation to generation. Although so, man has always attempted at keeping written records even in ancient past. Some traditions also passed over generations by word of mouth. The importance and significance of traditional knowledge in recent times, whether written or oral, are being recognized worldwide.
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Human-being have inherent capacity to discriminate and exploit the natural resources in their ambience to their advantage. Nay, even it is his natural occupation. They have also ability to innovate for developing material civilization. Economic thoughts and systems are intertwined intricately with natural wealth. Even today many human societies the world over still continue to inhabit in and around jungles. Their traditions did not change much materially over centuries. Such human societies are the real treasure-house, nay archeological museums of ancient traditions and cultural heritage. These societies have selected useful elements of floral or faunal wealth in their vicinity. Their experience and knowledge were subjected to modifications and refinements by the successive generation which have been also integrated with their traditions. Their knowledge-base or knowledge systems have been thus widened during the course of time. Contrary to this, during the process of organized habitation like hamlets, villages and cities, the forces of acculturation coupled with the forces of vegetational deterioration, modernization and developmental activities accelerated the rate of extinction of traditional knowledge. It, therefore, became imperative to tap their knowledge on war-footing. All these circumstances and increasing commercial pressure generated more interest in gathering ethnic information and utilization of ambient resources. This, in turn, gave birth to the sciences like Ethnobotany, Ethnomedicinal studies, Folklore etc. Dr. R.A. Mashelkar, D.G. CSIR, (2002) appropriately stated that "In real life, particularly in the developing world, there is a whole parallel knowledge based system, which is generated by people who live in the laboratory of life, based on their empirical wisdom and experience. There is an urgent need to preserve, protect and add value to it."
2. DOCUMENTATION Traditional knowledge (TK) of the various primitive societies is a treasure of their experience and practical know-hows. These societies have wisdom about the management and utilization of their natural resources. The fast rate of erosion and corrosion of indigenous knowledge systems has became a serious matter of concern. To save the natural wealth and traditional knowledge from future degradation/ depletion, the urgent necessity is to rescue and record TK at the earliest. It is why research workers worldwide are inspired to undertake investigations on TK, particularly plantlore. Their knowledge is of immense value to planners and scientists while developing strategies for conservation and utilization of biodiversity. The indigenous people have a symbiotic relationship with biodiversity. They protect and conserve the biodiversity, the latter in turn acts as bioresources (Sinha, 1996). WHO (1978) compiled an inventory of 20,000 medicinal plant species covering 90 member countries. The AICRPE (All India Co-ordinated Project on Ethnobiology, 1987) documented the indigenous uses of bioresources, whereas FRLHT (Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions, Bangalore). Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore, and (SRISTI) Society for Research and Initiative for Sustainable Technologies and Institutions are the efforts by NGO's in our country to bring traditional knowledge on record. Countries like Malaysia and Sri Lanka also developed similar network. Recently, DBT (Department of Biotechnology), Ministry of Science and Technology, GOI screened about 700 species on ethnobotanicaL chemical, pharmacological and toxicological lines.
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Documentation in digital form is useful to protect the rights of IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) and to avoid its misuse. This further aids while filing of patents of our traditional uses. Databases are prepared in the countries like America, Korea, China, Venezuela. GOI developed database with plant-based approach and TKDL (Traditional Knowledge Digital Library) on Ayurveda. TKDL is a collaborative effort of NISCAIR (National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources, and Department of ISM and H (Indian System of Medicine and Homoeopathy), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, GOL It is aimed at collating the information on traditional knowledge from literature, inclusive of Ayurveda in digital form. It is to be disseminated in international languages like English, German, French, Japanese and Spanish. The TKDL will include information on 35,000 drug formulations employed in the Ayurvedic system (Cf Pushpangandn and Kumar, 2005).
3. Traditional Knowledge AND Intellectual Property Rights The indigenous knowledge of traditional societies has been open to misappropriation as it has remained easily accessible. The TK about treatment of various ailments has provided leads to develop active molecules by the technology-rich nations. The overall circumstances have also led to biopiracy of knowledge, and technologies in past have been exchanged freely. There were no legal barriers. The Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights administered by WTO has been universalized. IPRs (Intellectual Property Rights) are legally enforceable particularly regarding new inventions, innovations and process. However, IPR regime has not recognized from its inception, the informal system of innovation. The informal knowledge, of traditional societies, which contribute directly or indirectly, to many inventions or production of patentable products, were unrecognized. TK is misappropriated as it is presumed that since it has been publicly disclosed and is available in open domain, such societies have given up all claims over it. The CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) now came into force. It protects the sovereign rights of the state and people over bioresources. Prior to CBD, there was no legal instrument to claim right; share of financial benefits from TK or bioresources. It is to be further noted that the Biodiversity Act came into force from 15th April 2003. This act stipulates norms for access to TK or bioresources. NBA (National Biodiver9'ity Authority) is the national competent authority to discharge all decisions. The Act insists upon appropriate benefit-sharing provisions.
4. RECENT VIEWS Cox (2005) suggested seven pillars of ethnomedicinal wisdom. These are: (i) indigenous wisdom, (ii) rapport with indigenous people, (iii) documentation, (iv) bioassayguided fractionation, (v) molecular structure, (vi) indigenous intellectual property and (vii) equitable benefit-sharing. He hoped that these seven pillars of ethnomedicinal wisdom can bridge a very distinguished past of ethnomedicinal research with what he believed will be the most promising future towards the development of better/new drugs world over for mankind. Jain (2005) opined that due to indigenous intuition, creativity and innovations, both ethnobotanical knowledge and practices are dynamic. He explained factors causing loss
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or addition to knowledge. He expected that Indian research workers from different parts of India for trying to compare the present status of knowledge He expected that Indian for trying to compare the present status of knowledge about indigenous herbal resources with any earlier published work or even earlier notes on herbarium and museum specimens collected several decades ago. He tried to draw attention to loss of indigenous traditional knowledge. Shah (2005) brought out and discussed critically the emergence, purpose and history of Indian ethnobotany and indigenous knowledge citing exemplary works. He stressed importance of ethnographical works e.g. etymology and philology of vernacular plant names, linguistics, phonetics, cultural and social aspects of plants, proverbs, riddles, songs etc., apart from indigenous knowledge-based innovations. He opined that ethnographical part makes the information more useful, meaningful and interesting. Indigenous knowledge, in his opinion, encompasses a wide spectrum of areas. This knowledge is not only 'technical' in nature, but also incorporates integrative insights, wisdom, ideas, perceptions and innovative capabilities for pertaining to ecological, biological, geographical and other physical phenomena. Khan (2005) attempted to systematize ethnobotanical researches in 2151 century especially in Indian context. He attracted attention of Indian Ethnobotanists and GOI with respect to biopiracy, traditional knowledge, electronic database and ethnobotanical hotspots. He stated that India, being rich in biodiversity as well as traditional knowledge, will have to find ways and means to protect traditional knowledge from biopiracy. He cited the Indian cases on neem, turmeric, basmati rice etc. He made aware about the foreign researchers and suggested for their participation in collaborative works only. He also commented on curricula in Indian universities at graduate and post-graduate levels. The subject of traditional knowledge or ethnobotany generally does not figure in syllabi of various universities colleges and organizations. He also suggested to pay attention to electronic database. In his opinion, in this age of information technology, electronic databases will not only provide fast and easy access to information on TK to ethnobotanists but will also be a proof of documentation of claims contained therein. He further expected to recognize 'Ethnobotanical Hotspots or Traditional Knowledge Hotspots" in India. This, according to him, will be helpful to emphasize the need for exploring such areas on priority basis since they will provide relatively larger bulk of data on Traditional knowledge. Jain (2006) felt that once we realize the significant role of ethnobotany or TK (Indigenous Knowledge) in various developments, we have to think seriously of proper training for producing suitably oriented field and laboratory researchers and dev210pment managers, especially in India. Special workshops and training courses are necessary. The subject-matters should become a component of education system. The studies or researchers should be particularly objective oriented. He expected to chart out at least a fairly clear road map for the next 25-30 years. According to Steven et al. (2006) critically discussed mechanism of ethnobiological classifications. In their opinion, traditional people work on either linguistic or functional characters for identifying organisms. They use the utilitarian characters for identifying organisms and also include other domain associate characters and experience. Rao (1996) focused on anthropogenic disturbances. He remarked that the traditional
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cultures and associated knowledge systems/ bases, which have persisted through several countries, are in peril because of urbanization. The factors like population increase even among tribaIs, scarcity of natural resources, habitat destruction, migration of tribaIs in search of food and dwelling places and even the GOl's schemes collectively changed the lifestyle and age-long culture of the tribaIs in India. The acculturation of tribal cultures followed by continuous exploitation of the tribaIs in some parts of India has forced a vast majority of tribal youths to migrate towards urban centres as herbal vendors, snake charmers, daily wage labourers etc. In his opinion, there is an urgent need to inventorise and record all ethnobiological information among diverse ethnic communities before the traditional cultures are completely lost. Jain (2004) introduced a new term 'objective ethnobotany'. In his opinion, researchers now need to clearly decide objectives of the work e.g., search for any pharmaceutical product. This will increase credibility of TK. He pointed out shortcomings in ethnobotanical papers e.g., vague description of ailment and medicinal use. Limitation of a botanist according to him, are obvious. He brought out a fact that ethnobotanical work needs contributions from sociologists, anthropologists, ecologists, medicinemen and agricultural scientists. He further stated that more accuracy and specificity could be brought by the collaboration of a statistician.
5. MEDICINE : ANCIENT HISTORY AND TRADITIONS Records of early civilization in all parts of the world divulge a large number of drugs which are still in vogue today. Even the use of plants as medicine is older than recorded history. For example, mashmallow root, hyacinth and yarrow have been found carefully ducked around the bones of a 'Stone Age' man in Iraq. These three medicinal herbs are used also in modern times. The use of plants for treating different diseases and sufferings have appeared in ancient manuscripts throughout the world. It is evident from the contributions of Hippocrates (460-370 B.C.), the 'Father
of Medicine', that the Greeks and Romans were well versed with many of the modern drugs. The works of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), Theophrastas (370-287 B.C.), Pliny the Elder (AD. 29-79), Dioscorides (AD. 50-100), and Galan (AD. 131-201) are illustrative and described healing properties of medicinal plants. During the 'Dark Ages' (AD. 400-1000) and 'Middle Ages' (AD. 1000-1500), the contributions in the field of medicine were very insignificant. In India, Ayurvedic medicine is the dominant tradition. It is aimed at bringing about an union of physical, emotional and spiritual health and evolved over 5000 years. The sacred Rigveda and Atharveda (B.C. 2000-1000) enlightened much about plant medicine. The Ayurvedic system has been in use over 3000 years. The medical works viz., the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita are authored by the earliest Indians-Charaka and Susruta respectively. These are esteemed treasures of literature on indigenous medicine. Over 6000 years ago, the ancient Chinese were using plants as drugs. The oldest Chinese source seems to be Erh-Ya, (B.C. 3000). The Chinese emperor Shen Nung wrote an authoritative treatise on herbs in 2735 B.C. which is still used. Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine (Huang Di Nei Jing, B.C. 200 to AD. 100) is based on observations of nature and way of life. The Sumerians ideograms (B.C. 4000) refer to plants uses. Ebers Papyrus
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in Egypt written about B.C. 2838 is a rich manuscript on ethnomedicine. The records of King Hammurabi (B.C. 1800) include instructions for using medicinal plants (cf Patil, 2004, 2005; Dagar and Dagar, 2005; Aiyavu et al., 2005) Developments in medicine in later centuries were also significant. Several herbals of considerable merit were published in the beginning of 16th Century like those of Brunfels (1530), Bock (1539), Fuchs (1542), Cordus (1561), L'Obel (1576) and few others. 'Doctrine of Signatures' was advocated by Paracelsus (1439-1541). The historical roots of ethnomedicine were in North America and got fillip after coining of the term 'Ethnobotany' by Harshberger in 1896. Since then enough useful information has been collected on medicinal uses of plants. Important contributions in ethnomedicine by Schultes and many others are on record. The science of ethnomedicine has received a very little attention in developed countries particularly in Europe. As far as India is concerned, ethnobotanical and so ethnomedicinal studies were initiated after independence by Dr.E.K.Janak Ammal and then nurtured by Dr.5.K.Jain and others. There were also important contributions before independence (cf Roxburgh, 1820-1824; Dagar and Dagar, 2005).
6. ETHNOMEDICINE TO MODERN MEDICINE Modern societies have lost their own cultures and are seeking to understand some aspects of healthcare with the help of tribals and forest dwellers who have maintained their centuries-old cultures. The history of ethnomedicine is nearly as old as human civilization, the scientific assessment of the subject, of course, is very recent. Ethnomedicinal study has offered immense scope and opportunities for the development of new drugs. Some well-known modern drugs have been developed through ethnomedicine or folklore. For example,
1.
2. 3. 4.
5. 6.
7. 8.
Plant species
Indication
Drug Commercialized
Ficus benghalensis Boerhavia diffusa Adhatoda zeylanica Rubia cordifolia Azadirachta indica Andrographis paniculata Centella asiatica Terminalia chebula
Antifertility Digestive disorders Cough syrup Blood purifier Bleeding piles Hepatoprotective Brain tonic Digestive disorder
La-Vivil Carimnozyme Kasni Medipurine Nimbolin Livomyn Medimentoram Medigasone
* Source : Dixit Gopal (2005) Reports of ethnomedicine/ folklore are being screened in recent times. For example, 1. Urena lobata Linn. : Folklore: Whole plant boiled in sesamum oil is applied externally on rheumatic pains by the tribals in Western Maharashtra. Modern Use : Roots are externally used as embrocation in rheumatism.
2. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. : Folklore: The tribals of Indo-Nepal border region
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use flowers in impotency. Decoction of flowers is administered to the patient for a few months. Modem Use: The flower buds are used in seminal weakness. 3.
4. 5.
Caruga pinnata Roxb. : Folklore : Tribals of Khasi hills in Meghalaya use leafjuice with honey in asthma.
Modem Use: The leaf-juice is mixed with honey and given in asthma. Mimosa pudica Linn. : Folklore : In Konkan, Leaf paste is applied in hydrocele. Modem Use: Leaf paste is applied to hydrocele. Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. : Folklore: Yanandi people in Andhra Pradesh chew leaves daily in the morning in severe bronchitis. Modem Use : Leaf powder is used in bronchitis.
* Source : Patil (2006)
Several drugs viz., reserpine, quinine, digoxin, ephedrine, cocaine, khellin, colchicine, artemisine, gugulipid etc. have been discovered from the plants which played important role in tribal communities. These have positive correlation between their modem therapeutic use and traditional use of the plant from which they were derived.
7. ANCIENT MEDICINE TO MODERN MEDICINE The ancient civilization records reveal that number of drugs used today were already in use in ancient times, e.g., the Indians, Chinese, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and Babylonians developed their characteristic materia medica. The ultimate aim of research workers in medicine of present time is to validate these traditional documented preparations, either through isolation of active substances or through pharmacological findings. The following form some examples of this kind (cf. Patil, 2006) : 1. Atropa belladona L. : Its name 'belladona' (beautiful woman) is thought to refer to its use by Italian woman to dilate the pupils of their eyes, making them more attractive. Presently, it is used to dilate the pupils for eye examined and as an anesthetic in conventional medicine. Trepane alkaloids dilate the pupils. 2.
Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Karst: It is traditional Ayurvedic herb, It is one of the ingredient in 'Mahasudarshana Chuma' which is prescribed for fevers, including malaria, liver problems, indigestion, nausea etc.
Like most bitters it reduces fevers. The constituent amarogentin, an iridoid, has proved protective in action on the liver. It is a useful remedy for malaria as it contains anti-malarial xanthons. It stimulates the whole digestive tract, being a strong bitter. 3.
Cuminum cyminum L. : Cumin was used for illness of the digestive system in Ancient Egypt. It relieves flatulence and bloating. It stimulates the entire digestive process and reduces abdominal gases.
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Psoralea corylifolia L. : In China, it is used externally to treat vitiligo (loss of skin pigmentation). Recent studies in China indicated it valuable for treating vitiligo.
5.
Portulaca oleracea L. : In ancient Rome, it was used to treat stomach ache and dysentery. Recent researches confirmed it valuable against bacillary dysentery.
In a nutshell, ancient wisdom and folklore can be validated on modem scientific lines such as bioassay and improved methods of fractionation, isolation and characterization of compounds. A new paradigm shift for the development of world class medical remedies can be achieved. In some cases, individual compound responsible for therapeutic activity may be isolated and used as lead molecules. The traditional medicines not only continue to provide new molecules for drug discovery but may also form the basis for wider acceptance of crude extracts in standard form as another type of medicine. The modem methods, moreover, provided scientific explanation for the traditional medicines.
8. TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE Plants, their parts or products, have been in vogue from ancient times to combat and cure human sufferings. The experiences over centuries eventually crystallized in the form of systems of medicine in different human cultures. Thus the traditional systems like Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Homoepathy, Tibetan, etc. have their roots directly or indirectly in the remedies used by rural/tribal folks or in ancient medicinal know-hows all over the world. These systems have now their own therapeutic principles. For example, (i) in Ayurveda, the core philosophy is that the mind and body are one and the same, and that physical health can't be achieved without emotional, mental and spiritual health. It emphasizes imbalance of 'tridoshas' viz., vata, pitta and kapha (ii) Homoeopathy is used on a principle that substances which produce symptoms in a healthy individual can be used to treat similar symptoms in a sick person. Thus, other systems have their own footing. Although, the various systems of medicine are based on different principles, they all are aimed at elimination of human sufferings. Many of these systems employ drugs of plant origin. Earlier, the practitioners of these systems mostly remained silent regarding scientific explanation of drug application. Of late, researches are being carried out to find out the best possible scientific explanation. For instance, 'Chyavanprash' is a Ayurvedic formulation recommended especially for all ketabolic diseases like pulmonary tuberculosis, asthma and cough. Mehrotra et al. (1995) analysed its ingredients. They correlated their medicinal properties also with ethnomedicinal uses. They also decided their physiochemical values and performed experiments for their biological activities. They thus supported the claims of Ayurvedic practitioners of this important formulation by giving scientific explanation. Traditional systems of medicine had their roots in one way or the other, in folk medicines and household remedies.
9. COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS To develop value-added drugs based on traditional knowledge/folklore, collaborative attempts have become necessary in recent times. Such attempts will be more interactive and meaningful. The researches concerning 'reserpine' will certainly
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convince such a need of the day. The plant Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz (Aponycaceae) was mentioned in folk medicine. Attempt to characterize active compound from 1932-1935 by the Indian scientists remained unsuccessful. Dr.Rustam Lal Vakil (1940) found the plant species to be the most consistently successful drug for hypotensive remedies. He published his results in 'British Heart Journal' in 1949. Schlittler, Director, CIBA, Switzerland, collaborated with Muller (a chemist) and Bein (a pharmacologist). They isolated 'reserpine'. Its chemical efficacy was confirmed by Dr.Wilkins in 1953. This product was, in fact, based on Indian folk knowledge. The Indian scientists were unsuccessful merely due to lack of collaborative effort (cf Jain and Mudgal, 1999). Many such instances can be cited out from Indian folk culture.
10. EPILOGUE It is now high time to realize that the period of 'hit and run' study of traditional/ folk medicinal plants are over. The expectations from such studies are rising high and high. The process of modern drug discovery is composed of several stages like sources of information, scientific investigations, bioprospecting, IPR issues and benefit-sharing etc. The theories and concepts of traditional and modern medical sciences should be. critically studied. Technological know-hows should be updated. The claims of traditional, ancient, and folklore medicines must be validated on modern scientific lines. They may be useful for developing new drugs. It is to be further hoped that a synergetic efforts be generated amongst the anthropologists, botanists, chemists, technologists and masses. This will equip us to get transformed into a brighter future. It appears pertinent to remind a Indian proverb : There is not single letter of alphabet which is not a mantra; there is not single person who is not useful; there is not single root which is not medicine. Only there is always a need of a co-ordinator.
11. SUMMARY The traditional knowledge of herbal cures, in the beginning, passed over generations by word of mouth. It is only after the introduction of printing in the 15th century, the herbal traditions appeared profusely in written records. Although so, the oral herbal traditions still continued in the primitive societies worldwide. Herbal medicines undoubtedly was/is a vital part of natural and traditional medical heritage. In some societies, even the herbal cures were critically studied, evaluated and set in organized systems of medicine. The emergence of science of 'Ethnobotany' in the last century filliped the studies in traditional medicines, whether written or oral. In recent times, the veracity of the traditions is being assessed on scientific ground to suffice scientific explanation to the needy modern elites. The necessity of patenting and recognition of IPR still pushed the traditional medicines on ascending spirals. This article reviews the state of art of traditional herbal cures in the perspective of their necessity and prospects, besides the viewpoints of experts in the science.
REFERENCES Aiyavu, c., S.John Britto & Senthikumar, S. (2005) Plants: A potential resource for therapeutics. In : Ethnomedicine And Human Welfare. Vol. II (Ed. Irfan Ali Khan & Atiya Khanum), Ukaaz Publications, Hyderabd (A.P.), India pp.181-200.
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Cox, P.A. (2005) Ethnobotany and indigenous knowledge in Indian context. Ethnobotany 17(12):64-70 Dagar, J.e. & Dagar, H.5. (2005) Ethnobmedicinal wealth, historical perspective, resources and strategies. In : Ethnomedicine And Human Welfare, Vol.II (Ed. Irfan Ali Khan & Atiya Knanum), Ukaaz publications, Hyderabad (A.P.), India, pp.105-171. Dixit, Gopal (2005) Ethnomedicobotany and human welfare : A graphic review and future directions. In: Ethnomedicine And Human Welfare, VoUI (Ed. Irfan Ali Khan & Atiya Khanum), Ukaaz Publications, Hyderabad (A.P.), India, pp.172-207. Jain, S.K. & Mudgal, V. (1999) A Hand Book of Ethnobotany. Bishen Singh Maharashtra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India. Jain, S.K. (2004) Objective ethnobotany - Knowledge traditional, approaches modern. Ethnobotany 16(1-2):1-9. Jain, S.K. (2005) Dynamism in Ethnobotany. Ethnobotany 17(1-2):20-23. Jain, S.K. (2006) Ethnobotany in the new millenium-some thoughts on future direction in Indian Ethnobotany. Ethnobotany 18(1-2):1-3. Khan, Athar Ali (2005) Ethnobotany in twenty first century in India. Ethnobotany 17(1-2):7178. Mashelkar, RA. (2002) In : Forward. Indian J. Tradit. Knawl. 1(1):1. Mehrotra, Shanta, Rawat, A.K.S., Singh, H.K. & Shome Usha (1995) Standardization of popular Ayurvedic adaptogenic preparation 'Chyavanprash' and ethnobotany of its ingredients. Ethnobotany 7(1-2):1-16.
Patil, D.A. (2004) Origin of medicine vis-a.-vis Doctrine of signatures. Ethnobotany 16(1-2):5258. Patil, D.A. (2005) Development and history of herbalism. In : Ethnomedicine And Human Welfare Vol. IV (Ed. Irfan Ali Khan and Atiya Khanum), Ukaz Publications, Hyderabad (A.P.), India pp.1-14. Patil, D.A. (2006) Role of traditional and folklore medicines in development of government medicine. In: Herbal Medicine : Traditional Practices (Ed. P.e. Trivedi), Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors, Jaipur, India, pp.133-143. Pushpangadan, P. & Kumar, B. (2005) Ethnobotany, CBD, WIO and the Biodiversity Act of India. Ethnobotany 17(1-2):2-12. Rao, RR (1996) Traditional knowledge and sustainable development: Key role of ethnobiologists. Ethnobotany 8(1-2):14-24.
*Roxburgh, W (1820-1824) Flora Indica. Serampore 1-2 (Oriole Edition, Reprint New Delhi, 1975). Shah, N.e. (2005) Ethnobotany and indigenous knowledge in Indian context. Ethnobotany 17:6470. Sinha, RK. (1996) Conservation of cultural diversity of indigenous people for protection of biology In Human Welfare (Ed. S.K. Jain), Deep Publications, New Delhi, pp.280-283. Steven, G. New Master, Rathupathy Subramanyam, Rebecca F. Ivanoff & Nirmala e. Ba1cubramaniam (2006) Mechanisms of ethnobiological classifications. Ethnobotany 18(12):4-26. Shah, N.C. (2005) Ethnobotany and indigenous knowledge in Indian context. Ethnobotany 17:6470.
000 * Original not consulted.
ETHNOMEDICAL LEADS AND GOOD RAW DRUG HANDLING PRACTICES FOR MODERN DRUG DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME M.
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Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Modern R&D for drug development
3.
Cultivation and development of agro-technology
4.
Collection, drying and storage
5.
Conservation strategies
6. Ex-situ conservation 7. In-situ conservation 8. Summary and conclusion 9.
Acknowledgements
10. Further reading
1. INTRODUCTION Plants and Plant based medicaments have been employed since dawn of civilization for prolonging life of man by combating various ailments. Ancient tribal societies around the world have learnt to utilize their neighbourhood herbal wealth for curative as well as offensive purposes. Due to lack of literacy, their knowledge of pl~ts developed often at the cost of their dear life in their 'Human Laboratories' through centuries old experience could not be perfectly documented and it had rather descended from one generation to another as a domestic practice. As the ethnic groups migrated from place to place in search of their livelihood, their folklore knowledge also became fragmented and travelled with them often with 'additions' and 'deletions'. Their claims, in course of time, have become basic leads or clues for chemical, pharmacological, clinical and bio-chemical trials that ultimately gave birth to modern drug development. With rapid intrusion of modern civilization into their remote areas, their ancient
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traditions, cultures, gay life etc. seem to be on the verge of extinction. Indiscriminate cutting of forest cover for the construction of roads and buildings, conversion of forest land into agricultural land to meet the growing needs of ever increasing human and cattle population, ill-planned mining activities etc. have compelled the tribals to flee their natural abodes in search of their livelihood and with them has vanished their precious knowledge. Before such a catastrophe takes the toll, studies need to be taken up on 'war footing' and their knowledge be disseminated so that a few drugs for human welfare take birth. Harshberger (1896), one of the earliest American Economic Botanists was the first to recognise the importance of this type of R. & D. which he termed 'as an anthropological approach of plants and plant products for human welfare'. Richard Evans Shultes (1962) gave a new direction to this type of ethnic research by spending 12 long uninterrupted years in the North West Amazon and defines it as the 'study of the relationship between people of primitive societies and their plant environment'. Virtually it is a new field of research with unlimited potentiality and if investigated thoroughly is going to yield results of immense value for human and animal welfare. All traditional medical practices prevalent in various parts of the world had their roots in one way or other in tribal societies. Though several approaches to unravel the intricacies of ethno-medical practices are envisaged, the following four however have been found to be most effective and followed throughout the world. 1. Field Survey: Various forest areas rich in tribal population are to be identified, survey trips conducted at regular intervals in different seasons and the tribal uses of plants be studied in situ by establishing close intimacy with the tribal healers. Care is taken to prioritize vulnerable areas for immediate attention. Though attempts have been made all over the world since beginning of this century to conduct the ethnobotanical studies (Bodding 1925, 1927; Elwin 1943; Gupta 1963; Shah & Joshi 1971; Jain 1963a,b,c, 1964, 1965a,b, 1967a,b; Saxena & Brahmam and Dutta1981; Rao1977, 1981; Manila11981; Abraham 1981; Bhargava 1981 etc. from India; Schultes 1956, 1962, 1963a,b etc. from Amazon Basin; Gunther 1945 from USA; Tumor & Bel11971 from Vancouver Island; Vidal 1959, 1960, 1961a,b, 1962 from Laos etc. ), the output is very meagre and this is largely due to lack of sufficient funds and dedicated workers. 2. Herbarium and Museum: The information recorded on the herbarium sheets and Museum samples by the botanists are believed to be most reliable, as these are first hand and attached to the specimen/ sample itself. If the earlier identification proves to be wrong, it can be rectified and the authenticity of the information noted on the sheet need not be doubted. The contributions of a few dedicated workers like Aitschul (1968, 1970a, & 1970b), who brought out nearly 5178 notings of drug and food value by scanning more than 2.5 million specimens at the Herbarium of the Harvard University, USA have opened new vistas in this direction. Similar works were also attempted in India by Agarwal & Saha (1968) in the Industrial Section of the Indian Museum, Calcutta (BSIS) and Jain & Dam in the Kanjilal Herbarium at Shillong (ASSAM). 3. Literature: Every country harbours ancient literature which might contain valuable information on medicinal plants. In India, RigVeda and Atharvaveda which were supposed to have been written somewhere during 2000-1000 B.C. are known to
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contain valuable information on medicinal uses of plants and recently a list of 248 botanical drugs mentioned in these Vedas were published by Sharma (1968-69). From the works of Charaka Sarnhita (100 A.D.), Sushruta Sarnhita (800-900 A.D.), and Vagbhatta's Ashtanga Hridiya Sarnhita, Singh & Chuenkar (1972) brought out a glossary of medicinal plants. As the linguistic knowledge of erstwhile classical literature is fast dwindling, the R&D in this direction is urgently needed. 4. Archaeological: Archaeological sculptures of antiquity also play a vital role in giving away the clues of medicinal plants. From the base relief's of the Great Stupa at Sanchi and from the railings of Bharhut Stupa belonging to first and second century B.c. respectively, Sithole (1976) described 40 plants. In the book 'Buddhist Art of Gandhara' by Sir J. Marshall, a picture was reproduced from archaeological sculptures wherein Lord Buddha was presented with a bundle of herbs and it was identified as 'Soma' (Ephedra) of antiquity by Mahdihassan (1963). The quantum of work carried out in this direction is very scanty and needs intensive attention.
2. MODERN R&D FOR DRUG DEVELOPMENT Some of the claims clinically pursued for the drug development programme in _:the recent past by obtaining clues from tribal uses are; Forskolin is a labdane diterpenoid isolated from Coleus forskohlii (Poir) Briq.which has cardiovascular activity. Forskolin has sky-rocketed into international prominence due to its adenylate cyclase activity and this species is now immortalized through its inclusion among such celebrated medicinal plants as Atropa belladonna L., Cinchona ledgeriana Moans. ex Trippen, Rauvolfia serpentina Benth., Digitalis lanata Ehrh., Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. etc.; Acanthus illicifolius L. seeds for analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities; Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. for rheumatism, conjunctivitis, dysuria etc.; Garcinia morella Desr. and G. xanthochymus Hook. f for antiprotozoal and antibacterial activities (morellin and neomorellin); Rhus semialata Murr. and related species for cardiotonic activity; Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. seeds for antifertility and antihelmintic activities (15-hydroxy pentacosanoic acid, C2S Hso 03' 1-carbomethoxy-2-carbonyl hydrazine (C2 H7 N3 03)' N-hydroxy-W-methyl allophanic acid (C4 Hs N2 04) etc.; Zornia diphulla (L.) Pers. for diuretic; Plantago ovata Forsk. (Isabgol) seeds and seed husks as emollient, demulcent and laxative; Nardostachys jatamansi DC. (Spikenard) for ventricular tachycardia; Chlorophytum arundinaceum Baker (roots for nervine and general tonic; Cephaelis ipecacuanha Rich. (Ipecac) rhizome for amoebic dysentery; Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. (Vasaka) leaves and roots as expectorant; Rheum emodi Wall. (Rhubarb) dried rhizomes for mild purgatives; Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jess. P. (Indian squill roots for cardiac glycosides; Viola odarata L. and V. pilosa (Banabsha) whole herb as diaphoretic and demulcent; Solanum species (Solasodine) Dioscorea species (Diosgenins), Agave species (Hecogenins) for corticosteroids; Heliotropillm indicum L. for antileukemic activities; Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Aswagandha) leaves for antitumor activity against sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich ascites carcinoma; Operculina turpethum (L.) S.Manso for anticancerous; Acacia r..ilotica (L.) Del. leaves for curing carcinoma of cheek is on trial at Tata Memorial Hospital, Bombay while Jatropha curcas L. latex was found as potent promoters of carcinogenesis. One of the recent discoveries and much talked about drug is the Memory + developed by the Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India from Bacopa monniera (L.) Wettst. (Brahmi)
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and its origin is again from ancient practice and literature. Taxol from epiphytic plants of Taxus baccata L. has revolutionized the natural product chemistry of the world for anticancerous properties. Other important sp~cies which owe a lot for tribal uses areEphedra vulgaris for Ephedrine (hayfever, asthma, etc.), Claviceps purpurea for Ergot alkaloids, Punica granatum L. for pelletierne (anthelmintic), Gloriosa superba L. for colchicine (leukemia), Bixa orellana L. for Bixin, Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. for phyllanthin, hyperphyllanthin etc., Cassia angustiolia Vahl for sennasides, Enjthroxylon for coccaine, Commiphora for gugulipid, Artemisia for artemisine etc. Diabetes mellitus is a chronic hereditary disease from which millions of people are suffering all over the globe. A number of plants and plant products are mentioned as antidiabetic agents in literature. Plants like Momordica charantia L. (Karela), Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult. (Gudumar), Syzygium cumini L. Gamun), Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. (Gulu), Clerodendron phlomidis Lf (Donkari), Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Bija) etc. were not only described in Ayurveda at length for hypoglycaemic effect of the extract of the plants but were also discussed in Unani system of medicine. These are now pursued seriously with active clinical trials and biological screenings. The plant kingdom undoubtedly still holds many species with various virtues which deserve serious attention and constant screening for their possible better utilization. The primitive tribal practice is a fascinating area of research with more promise for modern drug development programme. As a result of sophisticated isolation and pharmacological testing procedures, many new drugs of plant origin have found their way into the modern medical world as purified substances rather than crude Galen cal preparations of yester years.
3. CULTIVATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF AGRO-TECHNOLOGY Most of the drugs, to begin with, were collected from wild and as the demand grew Jue to population outgrowths, their availability from wild started dwindling and at places reached aJarming levels. To cope up with ever increasing population, cultivation of important species for sustainable harvesting started getting momentum. Certain drugs like Opium, Cinchona, Cocoa, Poppy, Cardamoms, Ginger, Cinnamon, Fennel etc. were cultivated from time immemorial as the wild sources were scarce and the demand was high. For successful cultivation, it is essential to study the conditions prevailing in the wild and create the same under domestication. The climatic (temperature, rain fall, altitude, length of day etc.) and edaphic factors play a vital role in the manifestation of active ingredients like alkaloids, tannins, saponins, flavonoids etc. and hence care is needed while selecting the site for raising the crop. Other factors like propagation techniques (seed or vegetative means), use of plant growth regulators (auxins, gibberlins kinetins etc.), nutritional requirements (manure, fertilizers, macro and micro-nutrients), harvesting schedules, post-harvest technologies etc. influence to a greater extent on the quality and yield of the drug.
4. COLLECTION, DRYING AND STORAGE Care should be taken at every stage before the crude drug is finally sent to the market and its acceptability depends on its morphological nature, its constituents, the geographical source etc.
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Collection: Collection of drug either from wild origin or from cultivated source is a special subject by itself. Some like Ipecacuanha (Cephaelis ipacacuanha) roots can be collected even by unskilled workers whereas skilled personnel are needed for collecting Belladonna, Digitalis, Cinchona etc. The season at which the drug is collected is usually a matter of considerable importance since the amount and the nature of constituents is not constant throughout the year. Collection of Ephedra, Podophyllum, Rhubarb, Aconite etc. are the best examples. Anthraquinone derivatives will be completely absent in the drug if Rhubarb is collected in winter but they will be rich if collected during warmer weather and this is due to conversion of anthranols present in the plant into anthraquinones by oxidation. Age of the plant also plays a vital role as it governs not only the total quantity of active constituents produced but also the relative proportions of its components of the active mixture. There is an increasing evidence that the composition of secondary metabolites vary appreciably even in a 24 hour cycle. Collection is prohibited if the drug is covered by dew or rain. Discoloured samples and those attacked by insects or slugs should be rejected. Leaf .samples are advised to be collected just before the flower primordia begin to appear and flow.er samples before they are fully expanded. Underground organs are to be picked up immediately after the disappearance of aerial parts. Drying: Shade drying or slow drying at moderate temperatures are recommended for a majority of samples where enzymatic activity needs to be preserved and the duration of drying varies from few hours to many weeks and also differs from plant to plant. Where enzymatic activity is not desired, other types of drying like open-air spreading or artificial heating can be followed which are comparatively quick and rapid. Enzymatic activity needs to be retained in the case of Vanilla pods, cocoa seeds, Gentian roots etc. Drugs holding volatile oils are either required to be dried immediately or distilled immediately for oil after collection. By and large, slow and shade drying is recommended for the medicinal plants. Open-air drying is adopted for doves, cardamoms, cinnamons, colocynths etc. For shade-drying, it is advisable to bundle the drug samples and suspend them from the roof or thread and hung from the top. For leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds, tray drying is recommended. As a general rule, leaves, flowers and whole herbs may be dried between 20°-35°C and roots and barks between 30°-60 0c. How far the drying is to be carried out is a matter of practical experience and if overdried, the samples not only lose their activity but also become brittle and break in the transit. Garbling: Garbling is the final step in the preparation of a drug. It involves removal of extraneous matter (Le. other parts of the plant body inadvertently entered in the collection during sampling.), dirt, adulterants etc. In senna, for example, the leaves should be freed from extra stem pieces, and in aconite, the above ground stems and stem bases should be removed from tubers. The underground parts like rhizomes, tubers, bulbs, roots etc. should be washed thoroughly and made free from sand particles. Storage and Preservation: Long storage although often unavoidable is not to be recommended as most of the drugs deteriorate even though carefully stored. The conventional storage containers-sacks, bales, wooden cases, card board boxes, paper bags etc. reabsorb about 10-12 % of moisture which in turn might spoil the drug and
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hence these are to be periodically checked and dried. Permissible limits of moisture values are different for different drugs and these are to be maintained as per the pharmacopoeia prescriptions. Drugs such as Digitalis should never be allowed to become air-dry as they lose their activity to a greater extent. They are to be preserved in sealed containers with a dehydrating agent. For larger quantities, the bottom case may be filled with quick-lime separated from the drug by a perforated grid. Volatile oils should be stored in cool and dark places in sealed containers. Insect and Pest Treatment: Drugs are liable to be attacked by insects (beetles and moths), arachnids (mites), fungi and bacteria. Prevention is always better than cure and it is advisable to throwaway wormy infected drugs as soon as they are detected. Periodic cleaning of drug storing warehouses, good ventilation, maintaining adequate space between different consignments and temperature regulation invariably yield good results. When infestation is noticed fumigation with ethylene oxide or spraying and dusting with insecticides should be undertaken so as to make the drugs free from insects and pests. Continuous low temperature storage at 15°C not only checks insect attacks but also gradually kills eggs, larvae and insects. Ionising radiations from 6OCO in small doses inhibit the reproductive ability of mites but in larger doses destroy both mites and their eggs.
5. CONSERVATION STRATEGIES As forest resources are depleting at a faster rate, there is a great concern for the preservation of genetic resources either through in-situ management or ex-situ preservations. Since 'habitat loss' is the biggest threat to the biodiversity, its conservation assumes highest priority. With ever increasing population, much of this habitat loss is due to expanding urban areas, unsustainable agriculture, invasion by exotics, and other serious threats to both public and private lands. The Endangered Species Act (1973) mandates protection of threatened and endangered species and their habitat on government or private lands. Habitat conservation plans are becoming increasingly popular to manage endangered species with a strong shift on conservation focus from single-species management to multi-species and habitat management. While the importance of in-situ conservation cannot be overemphasized, ex situ preservation of seeds, pollens, tissues, eggs, semen etc. in Zoos, Aquaria, Botanical Gardens and Gene Banks compliments in situ techniques and serves to maintain viable populations of species threatened in the wild. Besides offering educational services, the ex situ preservations provide raw materials for basic and applied research. The ex-situ methods often invite criticism from general public when the comparisons are drawn between the expenditure incurred and the quantity of the material stored. The criticism goes to oblivion when the real values of the genetic stocks are evaluated and more over in some cases the threats are so severe that no hope exists for species survival in in-situ maintenance. The rapidly changing conditions due to over population and continuous grazing of UN (der) productive cattle population coupled with the associated maladies have resulted in gradual but steady degradation of the forest wealth. This has made many valuable species either reduced to an alarming number or sometimes disappear from the scene. Out of 11 endemic species recorded from Orissa, hardly a few can be collected with ease and what happened to rest is anybody's guess.
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6. EX-SITU CONSERVATION Botanical Gardens It is much easier to maintain captive populations of plants than of animals. Plants require less care than animals. Their habitat requirements can generally be provided more easily and individuals can be crossed more readily. Many can be self-pollinated or vegetative propagated; and most are bisexual, which means tha..t only half as many members of a species are needed to maintain genetic diversity. Moreov~r, as mentioned already, many plants can be readily preserved during their dormant (seed) change. For all these reasons botanic gardens are extremely important tools for maintalning species and genetic diversity. The world's roughly 1,500 botanic gardens today contain at least 35,000 plant species or more than 15 percent of the world's flora, with estiIl\ftted ranging as high as 70,000 to 80,000 species. The Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew, EJngland alone contains an estimated 25,000 species of plants (10 percent of the world's flora) and IUCN considers 2,700 of ~se species as rare, threatened, or endangered. The tontribution of botanic gardens to the conservation of species extends beyond the preservation of species threatened in the wild. Botanic gardens supply plants for research and horticulture, thereby taking pressure off wild populations, and they are important educational resources. Each year, an estimated 150 million people visit botanic gardens. The already important role of botanic gardens could easily be expanded. To begin, the current geographical imbalance in the locations of botanic gardens could be remedied if more gardens were established in tropical countries. Today, tropical countries possess only 230 of the world's 1,500 botanic gardens. While over 100 new gardens have been opened or planned in the last decade and many of these are in tropical regions, the geographic imbalance persists, particularly considering the greater species richness of tropical regions. Second, with further research into storage techniques and with better data on where specimens were collected ('passport information') and their breeding history, botanic gardens could become even more important genetic repositories. The IUCN Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat is now developing a computer data base of species occurrences in botanic gardens to help gardens collect species that are absent or underrepresented in captivity. The efforts of botanic gardens in germplasm conservation are being coordinated by the IUCN Botanic Garden Conservation Strategy; in association with the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR), IUCN is also putting together guidelines for collecting germplasm of wild species.
Zoological Parks Zoos contribute in many ways to the conservation of biodiversity. There are roughly 5,00,000 mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians in captivity in zoos throughout the world. They propagate and reintroduce endangered species, they serve as centres for research to improve management of captive and wild populations, and they raise public awareness of biotic impoverishment. Zoo populations are now the only representatives of several species and a few species have been reintroduced into the wild after captive propagation. The potential role of zoos as a site for preserving species over the long' term is limited by both space and expense, particularly in the case of vertebrates. Most captive propagation programmes in zoos focus on vertebrates because the
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extinction threats to vertebrates are well known. The potential contribution of zoos to conserving species and genetic diversity could be enhanced considerably if more research on captive propagation and reintroduction techniques were carried out. Right now, zoos' success in maintaining populations of endangered species is limited. Ongoing research has already led to significant advances in technologies for captive propagation, including artificial insemination, embryo transfer, and the genetic management of small captive populations. Germplasm storage techniques including long-term storage of embryos have also improved considerably. Embryo transfer, in particular, has a tremendous potential for use in captive propagation since it allows the introduction of new bloodlines into captive populations without transporting adults and any diseases they might carry between zoos or between wild populations and zoos. Long-term cryogenic storage of embryos has become almost a routine for some species (mouse, rabbit, cow etc.) but the technology is only beginning to be experimentally applied to captive species in zoos. Aquaria Until recently, the role of aquaria in the captive propagation of threatened species has been less important than that of zoos. However, given the growing threats to fresh water species, the need to enhance the role of aquaria as ex-situ conservation tools is clear. Accordingly, the Captive Breeding Specialist Group of The World Conservation Union (IUCN) is mounting a major effort to develop captive breeding programs for endangered species. In this programme, natural habitat will be restored and educate the public on threats to species in addition to propagation in aquaria. Germplasm and Seed Banks Genetic diversity can be preserved ex situ through various techniques. In plants, the seeds of many species with so-called "orthodox seeds" can be stored in dry, lowtemperature, vacuum containers (cryogenic storage). For some of these species, storage at extremely low temperatures, below -130°C, may extend the storage life to more than a century. In contrast, species with recalcitrant seeds can be maintained only in-situ or in field collections, botanic gardens and arboretums. Many species with recalcitrant seeds, particularly species that can be grown from cuttings, such as banana or taro, can be maintained by growing plant tissue or plantlets under specific conditions in glass or plastic vessels (in vitro culture). While some ex situ technologies such as seed storage are now extensively utilized, many problems with their use persist. Even in standard seed banks, the long-term integrity of the germplasm remains in question. Inadvertent selection or unintentional crossing with other varieties may occur, and plants stored in vitro mutate at relatively high rates. Perhaps most significantly, under any ex-situ storage conditions, the evolution of the species is "frozen" so no further adaptation to pests or environmental change can take place. For this reason, ex-situ storage should be considered preservation rather than conservation. Many obstacles remain in the quest to provide a secure source of germplasm. One draw back most commonly encountered is lack of information. For example, for nearly half of the two million "accessions" (collections of seed from a specific locality) to gene banks worldwide, the plant's characteristics and the location where it was collected
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are not recorded. The high cost of ex-situ collections, may force some seed banks to cut back or shut down. But the most serious problem associated with ex situ collections involves gaps in coverage of important species, particularly those of significant value in tropical countries. The most worrisome gaps are in the coverage of species of regional importance, species with recalcitrant seeds, wild species, and livestock. Crops of Regional Importance Germplasm collections initially focused on food crops of greatest value in world commerce. Because many of the most important subsistence crops in developing countries are not widely traded in world markets and because many tropical species possess recalcitrant seeds, many regionally important crops are poorly represented in germplasm banks. Species with Recalcitrant Seeds Many important crops are poorly represented in ex situ collections because their seeds are hard to store or because the species normally propagate vegetatively. Crops such as rubber, cacao, palms, some tuber crops, and many tropical fruits and other tree species can be conserved only in situ or in ex situ field gene banks. Wild Species The principal role of wild crop relatives has been as a source of genes conferring resistance to parasites and pests. With only two exceptions i.e. wheat and tomatoes, the wild relatives of crops are poorly represented in ex-situ collections and in very few instances in-situ conservation has been attempted. Thus, many wild relatives of crops of economic importance face the same threat of extinction as other wild species do. Livestock. Controlled breeding and development of livestock varieties suitable for modern commercial production has eroded the genetic diversity in livestock. There is no coordinated international effort for conserving the genetic resources of livestock. This is largely due to a) involvement of fewer species and varieties b) less effort is demanded than what is needed to conserve crop genetic resources, and c) higher cost per species than in plants. The chief benefit of ex-situ preservation is that the breeders will have ready access to a wide range of genetic materials already screened for useful traits. Ex-situ preservation may also represent a last resort for many species and varieties that would otherwise die out as their habitat is destroyed or modern varieties of plants or animals take their place. In-situ conservation is often less expensive than ex-situ techniques. It insures against loss of ex situ collections and it allows the continuing evolution of the crop varieties. In situ conservation also preserves knowledge of the farming systems with which local varieties evolved. Thus, the ex situ and in situ techniques complement each other and must be used together.
7. IN-SITU CONSERVATION Ill-sihl conservation is the most effective means of conserving the biodiversity. It means protecting valuable natural ecosystems and habitats that can protect the
reproduction and evolution of life in ecosystems and keep the energy flow, material
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cycling and ecological process in the system. Nature reserves and national parks of different types are one key way to accomplish this objective but efforts must also be made to provide protection outside formal protected areas as well. In-situ conservation of species and ecosystems is vastly preferable to ex-situ conservation. In in-situ situations, the whole spectrum of plants, animals and micro-organisms can be preserved whereas in ex-situ situations only the single target species generally is maintained. Exsitu measures are primarily suited to emergency rescue of highly endangered species that will otherwise become extinct, and captive collections could have some value for public education. Any ecosystem, if it is effective, must conserve the whole spectrum of living species within it. A few wild life reserves have been established but their activities need to be accelerated. In order to set up a rational system of nature reserves, a biogeographical zoning plan is required to determine critical areas of biodiversity conservation. Then the reserve construction can be based on this zoning plan. However, there is no such bio-geographical zoning plan in Orissa nor in India. The size and placement of some established nature reserves were not chosen according to a scientific appraisal, and the distribution of reserves nationwide is largely not rational. At present the geographical distribution of most of the reserves are in the areas where human pressure and the endangerment of both ecosystems and species is greatest. Eco-Reserves When ecosystems and species are endangered, then establishment of reserves will solve the problems to a larger extent. The vast arid and semi-arid regions of the north-western part of the country, and the species and ecosystems needing protection within it, are mostly unprotected. Therefore, what is needed to complete the national network is to identify the ecosystems (and if appropriate, particular species) that are not protected adequately under the present system, and to expand the system to include those. Priority in establishing the needed new reserves should be given to those areas which are most immediately threatened. Nature reserves have been established according to the priorities of the different regulations and governmental institutions involved, so there is not a balanced coverage of all the different types of natural ecosystems in the country. Freshwater and marine reserves appear to be particularly poorly represented. Some reserves are small and some very large. What is important is to determine how well the existing ecosystem types are covered by existing reserves, and to determine which ecosystem types are not adequately protected and to expand the system to cover them. Although forest reserves are some of the most abundant areas in biodiversity, relevant ministries and agencies should also give more consideration to establishing other types of reserves. Poor legislation for nature reserves and lax enforcement of existing laws More than one-third of the total nature reserves do not have regulations for their management. Many stipulations in relevant laws and r~gulations are often not enforced, or not s_trictly enforced, as there are no implementing rules or measures. As a result, illegal hunting and poaching of endangered animal and plant species occurs frequently.
ETHNOMEDICAL LEADS AND GOOD RAW DRUG HANDLING PRACTICES
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Poorly organized lines of authority for management of nature reserves There are overlapping and unclear lines of authority for the reserves. Lack of coordination between different departments makes the issues difficult to resolve in many regions. Conflict between economic development and protection of nature reserves At present, economic development is progressing very rapidly in India and capital construction is going on throughout the country. Some engineering projects go on even in the core areas of nature reserves. In other reserves or scenic spots, tourism is promoted to help develop the local economy, and while tourism can assist conservation when it is carried out properly, the prospects for quick profits may lead to abuses of the natural systems and species which the reserves protect. In addition, there are strong economic pressures to use the land, wildlife or other resources within the reserves for short term profit, rather than maintaining them for the long term good of the country. In each of these cases, the biological resources in the reserves are likely to come under serious threat. Lack of operational budgets and low skill level of management There is no fixed source of funding for nature reserves and financial support from the Government is not adequate. The institutional framework for the reserves is incomplete due to this shortage of funding. Of the existing reserves, more than one-third lacks management structures. The professional staff in the reserves is largely unqualified or untrained: A survey shows that only 18 % of professional staff in the nature reserves have required academic qualifications. Some nature reserves do not have any professional personnel. There is little ecological monitoring or scientific research going on in many nature reserves, and most nature reserves do not operate at their full effectiveness level. Lack of incentive system for biodiversity conservation staff: No effective and complete procedures have been formulated for rewarding outstanding performance of biodiversity conservation duties. There is a strong need to develop a system of rewards and incentives for improving performance and for superior achievement. Ways must be found to make biodiversity careers inviting and rewarding, so that the best available personnel will aspire to the profession. At the same time there is a need for administrative or criminal punishments when law violations are perpetrated by staff.
S. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Primitive tribes who still eke out their living as food gatherers by dwelling in remote inaccessible forest areas far away from modern civilization possess quite good amount of knowledge of plants for curative purposes. Their knowledge gives excellent clues for modern drug development programme. Leads can be obtained through intensive field surveys, herbarium studies, literature queries and studies of archaeological remains. Collection, drying, storing, garbling, insect and pest treatments etc. of drugs are discussed besides enumerating some of the important drugs developed recently by taking leads from indigenous phytotherapy and folklore claims. To protect the rich genetic resources, the author prefers 'Habitat Conservation' over in-situ and ex-situ preservations.
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Interest in 'Ethno-Medicine' continues to be deep rooted with modern researchers. Discussions at various forums during the last few years have clearly brought about a consensus on the need for developing ethnobotany as a rewarding R. &. D. field. Even the 'Rigveda', 'atharvaveda' and eight divisions of 'Ayurveda' the pioneer documents which harbour a wealth of information on the curative aspects of plants have not been thoroughly worked out in the light of modern instrumental facilities. Now the time has come for scientific study of drugs taking leads from the experiences and experiments of our ancesters for tropical diseases (Malaria, Tuberculosis, Filariasis, Hepatitis, Kala Azar, etc.), Communicable diseases (Viral, Fungal, Bacterial etc.) and metabolic and degenerative (Arthritis, Diabetes, Hypertension, Depression, Atherosclerosis, Memory degeneration, Cancer, Allergins, Respiratory disorders, immuno-modulators, Gastric ulcers etc.). Ecological degradation and biodiversity loss pose a serious threat to development. In order to bring about sustainable resource conservation and management, it is essential to adopt several different approaches for managing our forests and biodiversity. Apart from this, halting the process of degradation and species loss requires specialized solutions and an understanding of ecological processes. Protecting biodiversity does not merely involve setting aside chunks of area as reserves. Instead, all the ecological processes that have maintained the area's biodiversity- such as predation, pollination, parasitism, seed dispersal, and herbivores, involving complex interactions between several species of plants and animal needs to be ensured Maintaining viable populations of species whether plant or animal, is a crucial factor in biodiversity conservation and this requires the :.ppropriate conservation of important ecosystems and habitats. Currently, the state's national parks and sanctuaries are inadequate. A comprehensive survey conducted by the senior author recently showed that the protected area network to cover the range of biological diversity is insufficient and the percentage of the state's area under the protected area network, be enhanced. This will provide a 'better distribution of protected areas with fewer gaps in protecting the bio-geographic zones, biomes and species. Currently, the protected area network does not adequately cover some important biomes and animal species of conservation significance. Conservation strategies are urgently needed for the protection of species and ecosystems, involving a mix of in-situ and ex-situ strategies.
9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I express my deep sense of gratitude to Prof. B. K. Mishra, Director, Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India for his constant encouragement.
FURTHER READING Abraham, Z. (1981) Ethnobotanical of the Todas, the Kotas and the Irulas of the Nilgiris, In : Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, India, (Ed. S.K. Jain) 308-320. Agarwal, V.s. & Saha, S. (1968) Unreported medicinal plants of India, Sci. 2: 21-33.
J.
Andhra Pradesh Acad.
Altschul Siri Von Reis (1973) Drugs and Foods from Little Known Plants, Harvard Univ. Press, Massachusetts.
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Bhargava, N. (1981), Plants in folk life and folklore in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, India, (Ed. S.K Jain) 329-344. Bodding, P.O. (1925) Studies in Santal medicine and connected folklore-I. Santals and diseases. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 10(1): 1-132. Bodding, P.O. (1927) Studies in Santal medicine and connected folklore-II, Santal medicine. Ibid. 9(2):33-426. Elwin, V. (1943) Maria Murder and Suicide, Bombay (2nd ed.) 1950. Gunther, Erna (1945) Ethnobotany of Western Washington, Seattle. Gupta, S.P. (1963) An appraisal of Chotanagpur tribal Pharmacopoea, Bull. Bihar Trib. Res. [nst., 5(2):1-18. Harshberger, J.W. (1896) The purpose of Ethnobotany. Bot. Gazette 31:146-154. Jain, S.K. (1963a) Observations on the Ethnobotany of the tribals of Madhya Pradesh. Vanyajati 11: 177-183. Jain, S.K. (1963b) The origin and utility of vernacular plant names. Proc. Nation. Acad. SCI. 33B: 525-530. Jain, S.K. (1963c) Plants used in medicine by tribals of Madhya Pradesh. Bull. Reg. Res. Lab. Jammu 1: 126-128. Jain, S.K. (1964) Wild plant foods of the tribals of Bastar (Madhya Pradesh). Proc. nation. Inst. Sci. 308: 56-80. Jain, S.K (1965a) On the prospects of some new or less common medicinal plant resources. Ind. Med. J. 59: 270-272. Jain, S.K. (1965b) Medicinal plantlore of the tribals of Bastar. Econ. Bot. 19: 236-250. Jain, S.K (1967a) Plants in Indian medicine and folklore associated with healing of bones. Ind. J. Orth. 1: 95-104. Jain, S.K (1967b) Ethnobotany, its scope and study. Ind. mus. Bull. 2: 39-43. Jain, S.K. & Dam, N. (1979) Some ethnobotanical notes from Northeastern India. Econ. Bot. 33(4): Mahdihasan, S. (1963). Identifying Soma as Ephedra. Pak.
J. For.
13(4): 370-371
Manilal, KS. (1981) Ethnobtany of the Rices of Malabar. In : Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, India.(Ed. S.K.Jain) pp.297-307. Saxena, H.O., Brahmam, M. & Dutta, P.K. (1980) Ethnobotanical Studies in Orissa, Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, India. (Ed. S.KJain) pp.232244. Schultes, RE. (1956) The strange narcotic snuffs of eastern Colombia: their source preparation and effect on an American botanist. London News. 229: 520-521. Schultes, RE. (1962) The role of ethnobotanist in the search for new medicinal plants, Lloydla. 25: 257-266. Schultes, RE. (1963a) The widening panorama in medical botany. Rhodora65(762):97-120 Schultes, RE. (1963b) Plantae Colombianae XVI, Plants as oral contraceptives in N.W. Amazon. Lloydia 26(2): 67-74. Shah, N.e. & Joshi, M.e. (1971) An ethnobotanical study of the Kumaon region of India. Econ. Bot. 25: 414-422.
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Sharma, D.C. (1968-69) Vedomay Dravyagun Shastra, Guj. Ayurved Univ., Jamnagar, India. Singh, Balwant & Chunekar, Press, Varanasi.
K.c.
(1972) Glossary of Vegetable Drugs in Brahttayii, Chowkhamba
Sithole, R.V (1976) Plants represented in ancient Indian sculpture, Geophy. 6(1): 15-20. Tumor, N.C. & Bell, M.A.M. (1971), The ethnobotany of the Coast Salish Indians of Vancouver Island. Ibid. 25: 63-104. Vidal, J.E. (1959-62) Plantes utiles du Laos (Cryptogames)-I, J. Agric. Trap. Bot. Appl., (Paris) 6: 392-404; (Gymnosperms)-II, Ibid., 6:589-594; (Monocotyledones)- III, Ibid., 7: 417-440; (Monocotyledones) IV, Ibid., 7:560-587; (Monocotyledones)-V, Ibid. 8: 356-385.
000
ETHNOTHERAPEUTIC LEADS FROM THE TRIBALS OF ORISSA
(INDIA)
TO CONTROL
DIABETES MELLITUS M.
BRAHMAM
Chapter Outline 1. Introduction
2. Indigenous knowledge 3. Diabetes mellitus 4.
Types of diabetes
5. Pancreas 6. Insulin 7.
Oral antidiabetic drugs
8.
Constraints in western medications
9.
Ethnic leads
10. Tribal treatment using herbs 11. Tribal medications of Orissa State, India
12. In vitro and in vivo studies 13. Summary and Conclusions 14. Acknowledgements 15. Referellces
1. INTRODUCTION The pre-historic men and women as they advanced towards civilisation in the lap of time depended on plants and plant-based medicaments to combat various diseases. The earliest reference to the use of plants for medication is found in the manuscript of 'Eber Papyrus' written around 16th century B.C. (Biswas, 1956). Rig Veda and Atharva Veda, the oldest Indian classical literature written around 2000 BC mentions the use
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of plants like Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum Presl.), Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.), Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) etc. not only in religious ceremonies but also in medical preparations (Bentley and Trimen, 1980). Why some plants produce secondary metabolites for curative as well as offensive purposes has remained as an unsolved mystery although certain roles like prevention of browsing of animals, as an insect repellent, enhancement of disease resistance, aiding reproduction through increased pollination etc. have been attributed for their manifestation. In recent years, the herbal market all over the world is experiencing unprecedented growth and the pharmaceutical industry is under constant pressure to discover, develop and deliver chemicals and biological entities for the treatment of various diseases. People's dependence on plants for various remedies in India is well apparent from the fact that all the major systems of indigenous medications-Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy, Tibbi etc. are largely based on plants (Mehta, 1949; Swain, 1972). Tropical forest species have been fulfilling the medical needs of the indigenous people for millennia and in fact over 120 pharmaceutical products currently in use are plant derived and more than 75 % of them were discovered by obtaining clues from the tribal remedies. The best example is Salix alba L. which finds a prominent place in the medical history as it forms the botanical 'parent' of aspirin. The natives were using the bark of this plant to treat inflammation, pain and fever for centuries. In the 18th century, the information was formally documented with the Royal Chemical Society, and Clinical administration of extracts on people having fever soon followed. Towards the end of 19th century, developments in the German Chemical industry led to the chemical and synthetic strategies for making today's aspirin based on the chemical found in the bark. Bayer Chemical Company was first to commercialise a synthetic drug based on a herbal remedy and this has become the largest selling drug of all time (Barton and Ollis, 1986).
2. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE Ancient ethnic communities around the world had learnt to utilise their neighbourhood herbal wealth for curative as well as offensive purposes. Due to lack of literacy, their knowledge of plants developed often at the cost of their dear life through centuries old experience could not be perfectly documented and it had rather descended from one generation to another as a domestic cultural heritage. As the ethnic groups migrated from place to place in search of their livelihood, their folklore knowledge also got fragmented and travelled with them of course with 'additions and deletions'. Their findings in course of time have become basic leads for chemical, pharmacological, clinical and biochemical investigations that ultimately gave birth to drug discovery. The approach to new drug discovery involves a collection of data with primary emphasis on the use of plants by the aboriginals for medicinal purposes. This approach integrates a philosophy of looking plant leads that had already been proved effective in tribal societies where experiments were done on human beings directly (Farnsworth, 1990). This in short goes under 'Ethnotherapy'. Virtually it is a new field of research with unlimited potentiality and if investigated thoroughly is going to yield results of immense value for human and animal welfare. All traditional medical practices prevalent in various parts of the world had their roots in
ETHNOTHERAPEUTIC LEADS FROM THE TRIBALS OF ORISSA
131
one way or other in tribal societies. Though several approaches to unravel the intricacies of ethnobotanical practices are envisaged, field recording of plant uses directly from the ethnic people and tribal healers has priority and most reliable. Scanning of field notes on the old Herbarium sheets and Museum specimens, critical observations and interpretation of the Archaeological sculptures of antiquity, data retrieval from ancient literatures etc. are the other roots which have been found to be very effective and followed throughout the world with reasonable success.
3. DIABETES MELLITUS Of the various ailments, diabetes (Diabetes mellitus) is attracting the global attention as more than 120 million people suffer from this malady worldwide. It is a chronic endocrinologic disorder characterized by high blood levels of glucose due to insufficient secretion of insulin by the pancreas or improper utilization of insulin by target cells. Glucose comes from the food that we eat and also made in liver and muscles. Blood carries glucose to all the cells of the body with the help of a hormone 'Insulin' produced in the pancreas. If the body doesn't make enough insulin or insulin becomes non-functional, glucose can't get into body cells with the result it stays in the blood and blood glucose level thus goes high causing diabetes. On the surface of the cells in our body are insulin receptors, which act like little doors that open and close to regulate the inflow of blood sugar. After many years of consuming a high-carbohydrate diet, the cells become bombarded with so much insulin that these doors begin to malfunction and shut down. With less doors opening, the body produces more insulin to push the glucose into the cells. More insulin causes even more doors to close and as this vicious cycle continues, a condition called 'insulin resistance' sets in. When the body can no longer produce enough insulin to push the blood sugar into the cells, type 2 diabetes results. Our energy, wellness and longevity are primarily dependent on improving the sensitivity of our cells to insulin i.e. how well the cells open and close the doors and clear sugar from the blood. Common signs of diabetes are: a). Frequent urination, b). Increased thirst, c). Extreme hunger, d). Unusual weight loss, e). Extreme fatigue, h). Cuts and bruises healing slowly, f). Irritability, g). Blurred vision, i).Tingling or numbness in the feet, j). Dry and itchy skin etc.
4.
TYPES OF DIABETES
Though three major forms of diabetes (Diabetes innocens, D. insipidus and D. mellitus) are recognised, D. mellitus is the most common form caused due to deficiency or diminished effectiveness of insulin. It can be handled by exogenous supply of insulin freely available in semi-synthetic form. Modern research recognises 2 types of diabetes - Type I insulindependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM) and Type II non-insulin-dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM). Another form commonly known as 'gestational diabetes' is also frequently noticed in pregnant women. Failure to control diabetes leads to a). Renal complications involving kidney failure, b).Ocular disorders of diabetic retinopathy, c). Atherosclerosis d). Mucomycosis etc. Type I diabetes (IDDM) This is formerly called juvenile diabetes or onset diabetes. In this case, the beta cells
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of the Pancreas do not produce insulin because they are being attacked and destroyed by the body's immune system. Treatment in this case includes taking insulin shots, aspirin daily, controlling B.P. and cholesterol and exercise daily. Only 10 % of the total diabetics come under this category. Type II diabetes (NIDDM) This is the most common form of diabetes that enters the later part of the life and 90 % of diabetics suffer from this. This is formerly called adult-onset diabetes or non-insulin dependent diabetes. Here, the pancreas does not produce enough insulin to meet the body's needs and the fat, muscle or liver cells do not use it properly. Overweight increases the chances of developing this type. Treatment includes using diabetes medicines, exercise daily, taking aspirin, controlling B.P. and cholesterol. Gestational diabetes: This is seen in some women during pregnancy caused due to the hormones of pregnancy or shortage of insulin. It usually disappears after the delivery. Statistics reveal that the women who have had this during pregnancy are at a high risk of developing Type II diabetes later in life.
S. PANCREAS Among the different organs of human body, pancreas occupies a premier position because it regulates blood sugar levels by means of two hormones - insulin and glucagon. The pancreas is an elongated organ nestled next to the first part of the small intestine. It makes enzymes necessary to digest food in the intestines and produces insulin to enable every part of the body to use glucose. Pancreas has 2 different tissues - an exocrine and an endocrine. The bulk of the pancreas is composed of exocrine tissue and their secretions are delivered into duodenum. The secretions include different types of digestive enzymes that facilitate digestion of foodstuffs consisting of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Groups of glands in the pancreas, called acini make about 30 different enzymes each of which is responsible for breaking down clumps of different types of food into smaller particles for absorption. These enzymes from the small glands of the pancreas are collected into small ducts and finally into the main pancreatic duct to be released into the duodenum. The enzymes when they are first made in the acini are not active otherwise they would digest the pancreas as well. When they pass into the duodenum, they are made active by the juice of the duodenum. The main enzymes are called amylase for digesting carbohydrates, trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for digesting fats. All the cells of the body use glucose as a source of energy in order to maintain their different functions. Sugar comes directly from digestion or is made in the liver from concentrated forms of sugar (glycogen). The level of sugar in the blood is kept constant by spt:!cial control mechanisms involving hormones. Embedded within the pancreatic exocrine tissue are the Islets of Langerhans that are known under the name of endocrine component of the pancreas. Islets containing several cell types produce the hormones insulin and glucagon. Insulin is a hormone that unlocks a special door' in the cells of the body to allow glucose to pass in to the cells. If insulin is lacking, then diabetes sets in. Instead of entering the cells of the body, the sugar stays in the blood, which is very harmful at high concentrations. Enzyme I
ETHNOTHERAPEUTIC LEADS FROM THE TRIBALS OF ORISSA
133
production and insulin production are independent. Because digestive enzymes and insulin are made by different parts of the pancreas, a problem with enzyme production does not mean necessarily that there will be a problem with insulin production. Similarly, if there is a problem with insulin production, this does not mean necessarily that there will be a problem with enzyme production.
6. INSULIN Insulin is the master hormone of our metabolism. It is rather a small natural protein with a molecular weight of about 6000 Daltons made by the pancreas to help the body metabolise sugar. It is composed of 2 chains A and B, held together by 2 disulfide bonds. In most species, the A chain consists of 21 and B chain 30 amino acids. Insulin is synthesized in significant quantities only in Beta cells of Pancreas. Insulin facilitates entry of glucose into muscle, adipose and several other tissues. It also stimulates liver to store glucose in the form of glycogen. Insulin promotes synthesis of fatty acids in the liver. When it is out of balance, deadly complications like i).Heart diseases, ii).Hardening of the arteries, iii).Damage to artery walls, iv).lncreased cholesterol levels, v).Vitamin and mineral deficiencies, vi).Kidney disease, vii).Fat burning mechanism turned off, viii). Accumulation and storage of fat, ix). Weight gain, etc. are created. Synthetic or animal insulin is injected to treat diabetic patients whose pancreases do not make enough insulin. Glucagon Glucagon is a linear peptide of 29 amino acids playing a major role in maintaining normal concentrations of glucose in blood. This is often described as having the opposite effect of insulin because it increases blood glucose levels. Laboratory Values The ideal blood glucose level is 70-100 mg/dL fasting, 70-100 mg/dL preprandial, <160 mg/ dL postprandial (1 hour) and >65 mg/ dL at 3.00 am. An acceptable blood glucose level is 60-130 mg/ dL fasting, 60-130 mg/ dL preprandial, <200 mg/ dL postprandial (1 hour) and >65 mg/ dL at 3.00 am. Levels above the acceptable range are considered high, and require treatment.
7. ORAL ANTIDIABETIC DRUGS Oral antidiabetic drugs are commonly used to treat Type II, NIDDM patients. There are three types of oral antidiabetic drugs: sulfonylureas, biguanides, and glucosidase inhibitors, each with its unique functions and side effects. (a) Sulfonylureas (tolbutamide, chlorpropamide, glyburide and glipizide) are the most common oral antidiabetic drugs. These drugs lower blood glucose levels by still1ulating the pancreas to release insulin. Patients with Type I, IDDM, do not respond to sulfonylureas because their pancreas is not capable of producing insulin regardless of drug stimulation. Despite their effectiveness, sulfonylureas have unwanted side-effects and toxicity, including nausea, vomiting, hematological and dermatological reactions, obstructive jaundice, hyponatremia, and intolerance of alcohol. (b) Biguanides (Metformin) lower blood glucose levels by increasing the uptake and utilization of glucose by muscle cells. They also reduce glucose production by the liver.
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Biguanides are only effective in patients with Type II, NIDDM, because their ability to function requires the presence of insulin. Common side effects of biguanides include nausea, vomiting, epigastric distress and diarrhea. There are also risks of developing lactic acidosis and hepatic disease. (c) Glucosidase (Acarbose) inhibitors reduce the peak of blood glucose levels following a meal by delaying and inhibiting the absorption of carbohydrates. Glucosidase inhibitors work on both Type I, IDDM, and Type II, NIDDM, as the inhibitors' effectiveness is not dependent on the function of the pancreas. The major side effects are gastrointestinal, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and cramps.
8. CONSTRAINTS IN WESTERN MEDICATIONS Though several attempts are made in allopathic system, not much seems to have been successful with respect to diabetes. But plant derived drugs and formulations have been claimed to control diabetes in many countries since times immemoriaL The NAPRALERT (Natural Products ALERT) database generated by scanning nearly 1,50,000 scientific research articles include more than 1200 species belonging to 725 genera distributed over 183 families from marine algae to higher plants as having antidiabetic activity. Over half of them have been used ethnopharmacologically in traditional medicines and nearly 50 % of these traditional remedies have been studied experimentally. Assay methods used to screen plants for hypoglycemic activity are varied and not directly comparable. In vivo techniques include animals with normoglycemia or induced hyperglycemia (alloxan, streptozotocin) as well as diabetic human subjects. Nearly 400 herbal-based medicaments are in vogue in classified and unclassified systems throughout the globe for diabetes mellitus, but only a few of them have been pursued to assess their efficacy scientifically using the modern techniques.
9. ETHNIC LEADS The primitive tribal practice is a fascinating area of research with more promise for modern drug development programme. The plant kingdom undoubtedly still holds many species with various virtues, which deserve serious attention and constant screening for their possible better utilisation. As a result of sophisticated isolation and pharmacological testing procedures, many new drugs of plant origin have found their way into the modern medical world as purified substances rather than crude galenical preparations of ester years. Some of the species clinically pursued for the drug development programme in the recent past by obtaining clues from tribal claims for antidiabetic activity are: Allium cepa L. (Onion), Allium sativum (Garlic), Anacardium occidentale L. (Cashew leaves), Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don (Periwinkle leaves), Clerodendron phlomidis Lf, Cuminum cyminu1ll L. (Cumin seed), Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult. (Gymnema leaves), Momordica c11aran~ia L. (Bitter guard fruit), Opuntia spp. (Prickly Pear), Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Kidney bean, immature pods), Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Piasal, heart wood), Taraxacum officinale Wigg. (Dandelion plant), Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers (Guduchi), Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (Fenugreek), Apium graveolens L. (Celery seed), CenteUa asiatica (L.) Urb. (Brahmi, Talkudi), Cucumis sativus L. (Cucumber fruit), Spinacea oleracea L. (Spinach leaves), Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Gamun seeds), Triticum sativum Lam. (Wheat leaves), Turnera diffusa (Damiana
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ETHNOTHERAPEUTIC LEADS FROM THE TRIBALS OF ORISSA
leaves), Urtica dioica L. (Stinging nettle plant), Zea mays L. (Corn silk) and, to a lesser degree, assorted foods such as Brassica oleracea L. (Cabbage), Cyamopsis tetragonolobus (L.) Taub. (Guar) etc.
10. TRIBAL TREATMENT USING HERBS Tribal prescriptions are very effective in treating patients with Type II, NIDDM. When administered correctly they lower blood glucose levels, manage common signs and symptoms, and treat the complications. Patients generally respond to herbal treatment within 3-4 weeks, with significant reduction in blood glucose levels and little fluctuation throughout the day. However, some patients may require 6-8 weeks. Their treatments can also reduce the frequency and dosage of insulin injections.
11. TRIBAL MEDICATIONS OF ORISSA STATE, INDIA Orissa is one of the heavily forested states of India with nearly 1/4 of its total population belonging to 62 different Tribes. Out of these, 18 can be classified as most primitive by all standards as they still eke out living as 'food gatherers'. In the absence of any modern medical facility in their remote areas, they depend on plants for their various ailments including diabetes. Their preparations and prescriptions were either single herbs or mixtures of 3 to 4 herbs. In the present study, several tribal hamlets were surveyed and interacted with herbal healers. Data is generated by interviewing the diabetic patients, who underwent treatment and also from the therapeutic records maintained by the herbal Healers. From the results (Table-I.) it has been found that the individual plants are less effective when compared to compound formulations which may be due to synergic effect. Appreciable results were obtained with Gymnema sylvestre + Momordica charantia + Trigonella foenum-graecum + Tinospora cordifolia combination. Nearly 80 % of the patients were cured. 60 % of diabetics regained their health when they were administered with Pterocarpus marsupium + Andrographis paniculata + Rauvolffia serpentina. A combination of Syzygium cumini+ Musa paradisiaca + Anacardium occidentale gave 50 % of results and the rest showed less than 50 % of results. In all cases, mixtures were preparecl by combining the plants and plant products in equal quantities. Sexual urge (G) could not be ascertained as the patients refused to divulge. TABLE 1
Plants showing symptoms S. No.
Symptoms
1.
Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult. Momordica charantia L. Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers G.sylvestre + M.charantia + T. foenum-graecum + T. cordifolia
2. 3. 4. 5.
A
C
B
50 40 30 20 80
50 40 30 20 80
D
50 40 30 20 80
E
50 40 30 20 80
F
50 40
30 20 80
G
50 40 30 20 80
H
Average
I
50
50
40
40
30 20 80
30 20 80
50 40 30 20 80 Contd ...
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BRAHMAM
Contd ...
S.
Symptoms
A
B
c
D
E
F
G
H
I
Average
No. 6. 7.
B. 9.
10.
11. 12.
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Andrographis paniculata Nees. Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. P. marsupium + A. paniculata + R. serpentina Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. Musa ornata Roxb. Anacardium occidentale L.
22. 23. 24.
S. cumini+ M. ornata + A. occidentale Coccinia grandis (L.) Voight. Lagerstroemia flos-reginae Retz. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. C. grandis+ 1. reginae+ A. indica Aloe vera L. Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. A. capillus-veneris+ A. vera + A. marmelos Tribulus terrestris L. Strychnos nuxvomica L. Plumbago zeylanica L.
25.
T. terrestris+ S. nuxvomica +
13. 14. 15. 16. 17. lB.
19.
20. 21.
40
40
40
40
20 20 20 20 20
20
20
20
20
10 10 10 10 10
10
10
10
10
60 60 60 60
60
60
60
60
60
40 40 40 40 40
40
40
40
40
30 30 30 30 30
30
30
30
30
30 30 30 30 30
30
30
30
30
40 40 40 40 40
50 50 50 50 50
50
50
50
50
40 40 40 40 40
40
40
40
40
35 35 35 35 35
35
35
35
35
20 20 20 20 20
20
20
20
20
45 45 45 45 45
45
45
45
45
10 10 10 10 10
10
10
10
10
10 10 10 10 10
10
10
10
10
15 15 15 15 15
15
15
15
15
20 20 20 20 20
20
20
20
20
10 10 10 10 10
10
10
10
10
10 10 10 10 10
10
10
10
10
10 10 10 10 10
10
10
10
10
20 20 20 20 20
20
20
20
20
P. ~eylanica
A - Excessive urine with pressing urge, B - Excessive thirst, C - Excessive hunger, D - Weight loss, E - Itching on skin, F-Physical and mental fatigue, G - Decrease in sexual urge, H - Spasmodic pain in calf muscles, I - Slow or no healing of wounds.
The search for a cure for diabetes mellitus continues along traditional and alternative medicine fronts. Though many herbs are used for the treatment of diabetes, a few showed positive results supporting their effectiveness. In order to capture the active principles, modern scientists identify, isolate, extract and synthesize individual compounds rather than using the whole herb. Often this has yielded fruitless results because apart from active ingredients, plants contain minerals, vitamins, volatile oils, glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids and a host of other substances that play a vital role in supporting their medicinal properties. At times, these elements provide an important natural safeguard whereas isolated or synthesized active compounds lose this character. The curative power, as per the leading native practitioners lies in the interaction of all its ingredients - synergistic interaction between the known and the
137
ETHNOTHERAPEUTIC LEADS FROM THE TRIBALS OF ORISSA
unknown. A summary of natural products used in the treatment of diabetes is given in Table 2. TABLE 2 Species used by the tribals of Orissa for Diabetes mellitus S. Species No.
Family
Local name
Part used
Tribes practicing Bhumij, Khadia, Ho
1.
Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Adiantaceae
Dodhari
Rhizome
2.
Aegle mannelos (L.) Corr. Allium sativum L.
Rutaceae
Baelo
Root
Kondha
3.
Bulblets
Juang, Kondha, Bathudi,
4.
Aloe vera L.
Liliaceae
Gheekum-hari
Leaf juice
Saora, Porja, Santhal
5.
Anacardium occidentale L.
Sapindaceae
Kaju
Leaf
Santhal, Saora, POrja,
6.
AcanthCfceae
Bhuinim
Root
Shabar,Koya, Pradhan
7.
Andrographis paniculata Nees. Azadirachta indica A.Juss.
Meliaceae
Nimbo
Root Bark
Bathudi, Kondha, Juang
8.
Bidens pilosa L.
Asteraceae
Magha latenga Root
Bhumij, Ho, Khadia
9.
Catha ran thus roseus (L.) G.Don
Apocynaceae
Sadabihari
Root
Santhal, Saora, .Porja
10.
Citrullus colocynthis L. Schrad
Cucurbitaceae
Kharbuza
Seeds
Saora, Kondha, Mankidias
Amaryllidaceae Lasuno
Clerodendrum phlomidis Lf Verbenaceae 12. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voight. Cucurbitaceae
Donkari
Root
Kondha, Bhuyan
Kunduri
Root tubers
Santhal, Porja, Saora
13. Curcuma longa L.
Zingiberaceae
Holadi
Rhizome
Ho, Kondha
Seed
Kondha, Saora, Santhal, Gond
11
14.
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus (L.) Taub.
Fabaceae
Guar
15.
Ficus racemosa L.
Moraceae
Dimiri
Bark
Khadia, Saora
Leaf
Bathudi, Kondha, uang
Koilekha
Root
Kondha, Juang, Bathudi,
Lythraceae
Patoli
Bark
Gond, Gadaba
Cucurbitaceae
Kolera
Fruits
Bhuyan,Bonda, Mankdias
16. Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult.
Asclepiadaceae Gudumari
17. Hygrophila auriculata (Schum.) Heine
Acanthaceae
18. Lagerstroemia flos-reginae 19. Momordica charantia L.
Contd ...
138
M.
BRAHMAM
... Contd.
s.
Species
Family
Local name
Part used
Tribes practicing
20.
Musa ornata Roxb.
Musaceae
Bano Kodali
Flower buds
Kondha, Juang, Bathudi
21.
Ocimum sanctum L.
Lamiaceae
Tulasi
Leaf
Bhuyan,Shabar
22.
Opuntia stricta var. dillenii Cactaceae (Ker.-Gawl.) Benson Haworth
Nagpheni
Phyllode
Mankdias, Bhuyan, Bonda
Amla Bhuiamla
fruit
No.
Phyllanthus emblica L. 24. P. fraternus Webster 23.
25.
Plumbago zeylanica L.
26.
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.
27.
Rauvolfia serpentina Benth.
28. Scoparia dulcis L.
Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae
Whole herb
Gadaba, Gond
Root
Saora, Porja
Heart wood
Koya, Shabar Pradhan,
Root
Kondha
Scrophulariaceae Chirarita
Root
Shabar, Koya Pradhan
Fruit
Saora, Porja, Santhal
Plumbaginaceae Dholachithaparu Fabaceae Piasal, Bija Apocynaceae
Patalagaruda
29.
Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Baill.
Euphorbiaceae
30.
Strychnos potatorum L.
Strychnaceae
Nirmali
Bark
Kondha
31.
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels.
Myrtaceae
Jamun
Seed
Saora, Porja, Santhal
32.
Tecoma stans (L.) H.B. & K. Bignoniaceae
Holadigotla
Leaf
Bhuyan,Bonda Mankdias
33.
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Menispermaceae Guduchi Miers.
Root
Juang, Bathudi,
34. 35.
Janjingi
Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae Gokhuro Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Fabaceae Methi
Kondha root
Gadaba,Gond,
Seed
Khadia, Bhumij, Ho,
12. IN VITRO AND IN VIVO STUDIES Due to lack of simple and quick in vivo test models to determine antidiabetic activity, several traditional plants remained unscreened for diabetes. However, a few promising species like Gymnema sylvestre, Momordica charantia, Aloe vera, Trigonella foenumgraecum, Cyamopsis tetragonolobus, Andographis paniculata. Tinospora cordifolia Pterocarpus marsupium, Rauvolffia serpentina, Syzygium cumini, Musa paradisiaca Anacardium occidentale etc. were tested using rabbit, rodent, duck and monkey models and found positive
ETHNOTHERAPEUTIC LEADS FROM THE TRIBALS OF ORISSA
139
against diabetes (Abdel-Barry et al. 1997,2000; Abdo 1969; Gupta et al. 1999; Han et al. 2001; Madar et al.1988; Okabayashi et al.1990; Raju et al.2001; Ribes et al. 1986; Vats et al. 2002; Zia et al.2001). CHOICE-I: Gymnema sylvestre + Momordica charantia + Trigonelle foenumgraecum + Tinospora cordifolia combination Gymnema sylvestre
Much repeated studies have indicated that Gymnema sylvestre can enhance blood sugar stability, increase the activity of glucose-regulating enzymes and possibly reverse the degenerative changes due to diabetes. Experimental results with rabbits have shown that Gymnema can stimulate the regeneration of the insulin-producing Islets of Langerhans as well as correct the metabolic derangements in liver, kidney and muscle tissues (Shanmugasundaram et al.1990, 1990). The reputation of Gymnema sylvestre has grown steadily over the lat two decades based on traditional usage and modern research. Its ability to enhance endogenous regulation of blood glucose levels, together with its effects on the action of pharmaceutical insulin, make it a valuable tool in stabilizing diabetic degeneration and eventually reducing dependence on insulin. The native practitioners prescribe 3-4 fresh leaves daily for 90 days if administered alone or add 2 leaves in the mixtures per dose lasting 90 days. Momordica charantia Several studies have proved that Momordica charantia exerts a hypoglycaemic effect. The fruit juice significantly improved the glucose tolerance in 73 % of patients but failed to respond in 27 % of patients (Welihinda et al.1982, 1986). Since improvement in glucose tolerance was not associated with increase in serum insulin, Bitter guard can be believed to improve glucose tolerance in diabetes. Its extract when orally administered lowered glucose concentrations independently of intestinal glucose absorption thereby indicating an extra-pancreatic effect. Experiments indicate that molecules having insulin-like bioactivity are present in Momordica (Leatherdale et al.1981, Day et al.1990). Trigonella foenum-graecum
Numerous studies were conducted to examine the role of fenugreek seeds for insulindependent diabetes (Type-I). In one of the studies, blood glucose levels improved significantly when the regular insulin therapy was supplemented with 50 grams, twice daily, of defatted fenugreek seeds for ten days (Sharma et al. 1990). The fenugreek diet significantly reduced fasting blood sugar and improved the glucose tolerance test. Further, this integrative therapy resulted in an improved serum lipid profile with serum total cholesterol, LDL and VLDL cholesterol and triglycerides got significantly reduced (Khosla et al. 1995). No indications of adverse interactions were noticed. Tinospora cordifoUa
Tinospora cordifolia, an Indian plant used in Ayurvedic medicine was studied for its antioxidant properties in alloxan diabetic rats (Gupta et al. 1967; Noreen et al.1992). Oral administration of aqueous T. cordifolia root extract (TCREt) for 6 weeks (2.5 and 5.0 gjkg) resulted in a decrease in the levels of plasma thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, ceruloplasmin and alpha-tocopherol in alloxan diabetic rats. The root extract was also found to cause an increase in the levels of glutathione and vitamin C in alloxan
140
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diabetes. The root extract at a dose of 5.0 g/kg showed the highest effect. The effect of TCREt was more effective than glibenclamide. Insulin restored all the parameters to near normal levels (Prince and Menon, 1999) CHOICE-2: Pterocarpus marsupium + Andrographis paniculata + Rauvolffia serpentina
Pterocarpus marsupium Pterocarpus marsupium demonstrates some very unique features, which include beta cell protective and regenerative properties as well as blood glucose lowering activity. These effects have been reproduced in numerous animal and human trials for over half a century. Animals were made diabetic by the use of selected toxins and then given various extracts of Pterocarpus marsupium. In all of these studies Pterocarpus marsupium was able to reverse the damage to the beta cells and actually repopulate the islets. This also caused the almost complete restoration of normal insulin secretion. Almost all of those that did not receive any type of treatment remained severely hyperglycemic or did not survive during the testing period. One study even demonstrated that Pterocarpus marsupium may also lower blood lipid levels. The uses of an extract produced a reduction in serum triglycerides, total cholesterol and, low density lipoproteins (LDL) and very low density lipoproteins (VLDL). Andrographis paniculata Ethanolic extract of the aerial parts of Andrographis paniculata was studied for antihyperglycaemic effects in normal and streptozotocin-induced type I diabetic rats. Normal and diabetic rats were randomly divided into groups and treated orally by gavage with vehicle (distilled water), metformin (500 mg/kg bodyweight) or the extract (400 mg/kg bodyweight), twice a day for 14 days. At the end of the 14 day period, the extract, like metformin, significantly increased bodyweight and reduced fasting serum glucose in diabetic rats when compared with vehicle, but had no effect on bodyweight and serum glucose in normal rats. Levels of liver and kidney thiobarbituric acid- reactive substances (TBARS) were significantly increased while liver glutathione (GSH) concentrations were significantly decreased in vehicle-treated diabetic rats. Liver and kidney TBARS levels were significantly lower whereas liver GSH concentrations were significantly in extract- and metformin-treated diabetic rats compared with vehicletreated diabetic rats. A. paniculata not only possesses an antihyperglycaemic property, but may also reduce oxidative stress in diabetic rats.
Rauvolffia serpentina Reserpine, an alkaloid from Rauwolfia serpentina, was widely used for its antihypertensive action. However, its use has been reduced because of its sedative and extra pyramidal symptoms. In the present investigation, reserpine methiodide (RMI), a quaternary analogue of reserpine, was synthesized and pharmacologically evaluated in rats and mice for its central (barbiturate hypnosis, spontaneous motor activity, body temperature, and avoidance of conditioned response) and peripheral actions (blood pressure) in comparison with reserpine. The results indicate that reserpine produced a dose-dependent depression of the central nervous system. RMI at doses equal to and double the equimolar doses of reserpine did not produce any behavioural changes
ETHNOTHERAPEUTIC LEADS FROM THE TRIBALS OF ORISSA
141
compared with control animals. Nevertheless, both reserpine and RMI were found to produce dose-dependent reduction in the blood pressure of anaesthetized rats, although only at higher doses of RMI, indicating that quaternization of reserpine not only attenuated the entry of RMI into the central nervous system, but also reduced its access to the target tissue in the periphery. It is speculated that the hypotensive actions of RMI may also be due to peripheral depletion of catecholamines. CHOICE-3: Syzygium cumini+ Musa ornata + Anacardium occidentale
Syzygium cumitti The seeds and the bark are used in tropical medicine. Extracts of both, but especially the seeds, in liquid or powdered form, are freely given orally, 2 to 3 times a day, to patients with diabetes mellitus or glycosuiria. In many cases, the blood sugar level reportedly is quickly reduced and there are no ill effects. However, in some quarters, the hypoglycemic value of Jambolana extracts is disclaimed. Mercier, in 1940, found that the aqueous extract of the seeds, injected into dogs, lowered the blood sugar for long periods, but did not do so when given orally. Reduction of blood sugar was obtained in alloxan diabetes in rabbits. In experiments at Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India, the dried alcoholic extracts of seeds, were found to reduce blood sugar and glycosuria in patients if given orally. The seed extract was found to lower blood pressure by 34.6% and this action is attributed to the presence of ellagic acid.
Musa ornata Cespitose, rhizomatous, tree-like herb with 3 m high, 1 m dia. pseudostems, pale green and waxy, developing black blotches; leaves to 2 m long, 35 cm wide, medium green and slightly glaucous, often red-flushed on midrib beneath. Inflorescence erect, glabrous. Bracts more or less grooved, somewhat glaucous, pale pink, tipped with yellow, darker within, usually only one lifted at a time. Fruit 6-8 cm long, 2 cm diameter, pale greenish-yellow with white pulp. Seeds warty, black, angular-depressed, 6 mm wide and 3 mm thick. The umipe fruit is rich in starch, which on ripening turns into sugar. The corm and its roots are anthelmintic and used to reduce bronchocele.
Attacardium occidetttale Stem-bark extract was studied for hypoglycaemic effect. Diabetes mellitus was induced in the test rats by intraperitoneal injections of streptozotocin (STZ, 90 mg/kg). In one set of experiments, graded doses of the aqueous and methanolic stem-bark extracts (100-800 mg/kg) were separately administered to groups of fasted normal and fasted diabetic rats. The hypoglycemic effects of single doses (800 mg/kg) of stem-bark aqueous and methanolic extracts were compared with those of insulin (5 microU /kg) and glibenclamide (0.2 mg/kg) in both fasted normal and fasted diabetic rats. Following acute treatment, relatively moderate-to-high doses of A. occidentale stem-bark extracts (100-800 mg/kg) produced dose-dependent, significant reductions in the blood glucose concentrations of both fasted normal and fasted diabetic rats. On their own, both insulin (5 microU/kg) and glibenclamide (0.2 mg/kg) produced significant reductions in the blood glucose concentrations of the fasted normal and fasted diabetic rats.
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13. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIOl'lS Many plants and their constituents have become chief ingredients of a number of pharmaceutical preparations used against diabetes mellitus and more than 75 % of the leads are obtained from ethno-phytot h e rapy. A survey was undertaken in the hilly tracts of Orissa, India to identify the common plants used in folk medicine. Out of 313 patients (185 males and 128 females) interviewed, 211 (67.5%) use plants regularly. Among the 35 species employed for diabetes, seven (Gymnema sylvestre, Momordica c1U1rantia, Trigonelle foenum-graecum, Tinospora cordifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Andrographis paniculata and Rauvolffia serpentina) are most frequently used. Multi-plant preparations gave 80 % results, whereas single plant administration gave less than 50 % results. Plants and their constituents have become chief ingredients of a number of pharmaceutical preparations used for a variety of diseases and more than 75 % of the leads have come from ethnophytotherapy. The available data suggest that the multi-plant therapy is more effective than single herb treatment. There is still insufficient evidence to draw definitive conclusions about the efficacy of these combinations and they appear to be generally safe for diabetes. Though, a few plants have shown hypoglycaemic activity in animal models and positive signs in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients, a botanical substitute for insulin is yet to be evolved. Many herbal supplements have been used for the treatment of diabetes but not all of them have scientific evidence to support their effectiveness (Marles and Farnsworth 1996; WHO 1985).
14. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author expresses his gratitude to the tribal communities of Orissa for freely divulging their medicinal knowledge acquired through centuries old experience and Prof. B. K. Mishra, Director, Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar for his constant encouragement. Thanks are also due to the Forest Department, Govt. of Orissa for their field assistance.
REFERENCES Abdel-Barry, J.A., Abdel-Hassan, I.A. and AI-Hakiem, M.H. (1997) Hypoglycaemic and antihyperglycaemic effects of Trigonella foenum-graecum leaf in normal and alloxan induced diabetic rats. J. Ethnopharmacology 58(3):149-155 Abdel-Barry, J.A., Abdel-Hassan, I.A., Jawad, A.M., AI-Hakiem, M.H. (2000) Hypoglycaemic effect of aqueous extract of the leaves of Trigonella foenum-graecum in healthy volunteers. East Mediterr. Health J. 6(1): 83-88 Abdo, J. (1969) Biological activities of Allium sativum. Japanese
J.
Pharmacology 19:1-4.
Barton, D.H.R. & Ollis, W.D. (1986). Advances in Medicinal Phytochemistry 1, John Libbey Euretex Ltd., London, UK. Bentley, R. & Trimen, H. (1980) Medicinal Plants Vol. I-IV., J. & A. Churchill, London, UK. Biswas, K. (1956) Common Medicinal Plants ofDarjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas, Govt. of West Bengal, Calcutta, India. Day, c., Cartwright, T., Provost, J. & Bailey, c.J. (1990) Hypoglycaemic effect of Mormordica charantia extracts. Planta Med. 56(5): 426-429.
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Farnsworth, N.R (1990) The role of ethnopharmacology in drug development. In: Bioactive compounds from plants. Ciba Foundation, Chi Chester, John Wiley & Sons, 154: 2-21. Gupta, D., Raju, J. Baquer, N.Z. (1999) Modulation of some gluconeogenic enzyme activities in diabetic rat liver and kidney: effect of antidiabetic compounds. Indian J. Exp. BioI. 37 (2): 196-199. Gupta, 5.5., Verma, S.c.L., Garg, V.P. & Mahesh, R (1967) Antidiabetic effects of Tinospora cordifolia. Part 1. Effect on fasting blood sugar level, glucose tolerance and adrenaline induced hyperglycaemia. Indian Journal of Medical Research 55 (7): 733-745. Han, Y., Nishibe, 5., Noguchi, Y. & Jin, Z. (2001) Flavonol glycosides from the stems of Trigonella foenum-graecum. Phytochemistry 58 (4): 577-580 Khosla, P., Gupta, D.O. & Nagpal, RK.(1995) Effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum (Fenugreek) on blood glucose in normal and diabetic rats. Int;ian J Physiol Pharmacol 39(2):173-174. Leatherdale, B.A., Panesar, RK. & Singh, G. (1981) Improvement in glucose tolerance due to Momordica charantia (karela). Br Med J (c/in Res Ed). 282:1823-1824. Madar, Z., Abel, R, Samish, S. & Arad, J. (1988) Glucose-lowering effect of fenugreek in noninsulin dependent diabetes. Eur. J. c/in. Nutr. 42: 51-54. MarIes, RJ., & Farnsworth, N. (1996) Antidiabetic Plants and their Active Constituents: An update Prot. J. Bot. Med. 1(3): 85-135 Mehta (1949) Caraka samhita,Shree Gulabkunerba Ayurvedic SOciety, Jamnagar, India. Noreen, W., Abdul, W. & Syed-Abdul-Wahid, S. (1992) Effect of Tinospora cordifolia on blood glucose and total lipid levels of normal and alloxan diabetic rabbits. Planta Medica 58 (2): 131-136. Okabayashi Y., Tani, S. & Fujisawa, T. (1990) Effect of Gymnema sylvestre, RBr. on glucose homeostasis in rats. Diabetes Res. C/in. Pract. 9:143-148. Prince, P.S.M. & Menon, V.P. (1999) Antioxidant activity of Tinospora cordifolia roots in experimental diabetes. J. Ethnopharmacology 65 (3):277-281. Raju, J., Gupta, D., Rao, A.R, Yadava, P.K. & Baquer, N.Z. (2001) Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek) seed powder improves glucose homeostasis in alloxan diabetic rat tissues by reversing the altered glycolytic, gluconeogenic and lipogenic enzymes. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 224(1-2): 45-51. Ribes, G, Sauvaire, Y., & Da Costa C. (1986) Anti-diabetic effects of sub-fractions from fenugreek seeds in diabetic dogs. Proc. Soc. Exp. BioI. Med. 182:159-166. Shanmugasundaram, E.R, Leela, Gopinath K., Radha, Shanmugasundaram K. & Rajendran, V.M. (1990) Possible regeneration of the islets of langerhans in streptozotocin-diabetic rats given Gymnema sylvestre leaf extracts. J. Ethnopharmacology, 30: 265-279. Shanmugasundaram, E.R, Rajeswari, G., & Baskaran, K. (1990) Use of Gymnema sylvestre leaf in the control of blood glucose in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J. Ethnopharmacology 30:281-294 .• Sharma, R.D., Raghuram, T.C, & Rao, N.5. (1990) Effect of fenugreek seeds on blood glucose and serum lipids in type I diabetes. Eur J Clin. Nutr. 44:301-306. Swain, T. (1972). Plants in the Development of Modern Medicine, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. Vats, V., Grover J.K. & Rathi, S.S. (2002) Evaluation of anti-hyperglycemic and hypoglycemic effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn., Ocimum sanctum Linn. and Pterocarpus marsupium Linn. in normal and alloxanized diabetic rats. J. Ethnophamlacology. 79 (1): 95-100.
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Welihinda, J., Karunanayake, E.H., Sheriff, M. H. & Jayasinghe, K.S. (1986) Effect of Momordica charantia on the glucose tolerance in maturity onset diabetes. J Ethnopharmacology 17:277282. Welihinda, J., Arvidson, G., Gylfe, E., Hellman, B. & Karlsson, E. (1982) The insulin-releasing activity of the tropical plant momordica charantia. Acta Bioi Med Ger 41(12):1229-1240. WHO. (1985) World Health Organization: Diabetes mellitus:Report of a WHO Study Group. WHO Technical Report Series .727. Geneva. Zia, T., Hasnain, S.N., & Hasan, S.K. (2001) Evaluation of the oral hypoglycaemic effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (methi) in normal mice. J Ethnopharmacology 75(2-3) : 191-195.
000
IN VITRO
REGENERATION, PHYTOCHEMICAL
SCREENING, ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY AND HYPOGLYCEMIC EFFECT .OF OCIMUM SANCTUM N.
CHANDRAKALA,
E.
AND
JENNIFER RANI,
M.
M.
L.
PRABAKARAN
AYYAVOO
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Materials and methods
3. 4. 5. 6.
Results Discussion Summary References
1. INTRODUCTION The beginning of scientific literature on herbs, spices and medicinal plants can be linked to the very earliest of writings. Modern research on herbs, spices and medicinal plants has expanded to study a wide variety of topical areas connected to the botany horticulture and pharmacology of these plants. Studies on herbs, spices and medicinal plants are being conducted on a global basis in many countries contributing to the scientific literature on these plants. Yet, a close examination of the literature indicates the amount of research on most herbs, spices and medicinal plants remains quite limited. The number of reported research articles from 1971 through 1980 averaged approximately 750/yr for 64 plant categories or only about 12 articles for each plant each year, influencing the demand and need for scientific studies. Unfortunately, the large number of countries doing research on herbs, spices and medicinal plants has resulted in a wide variety of research reports scattered in numerous journals and reports making a comprehensive bibliographic review and an accurate count of scientific publications on specific herbs difficult. India, where more than 1500 different plants have been reported to possess medicinal properties, the majority of the plants used for commercial or traditional medicinal purposes are still gathered from the wild and have not yet even been chemically analyzed for biologically active substances. However, the introduction of
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JENNIFER RANI,
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M.
AYYAVOO
aromatic and medicinal plants into cultivation appears to be the increasing importance. The expanding economic value of these plants to the food and pharmaceutical industries, the lack of labour and mechanized production systems for collection and harvest in native habitats, and an acknowledgement of the need to preserve plant genetic resources at a time of increasing destruction of natural ecosystems have made the introduction of wild species into cultivation a necessity to ensure a continued supply of plants and plant products (Franz, 1986; Crakes et al., 1986). Successful domestication of wild medicinal plant species implies an improvement in the quality of the raw crude plant extract, enabling standardization of the content of active ingredients, and homogenous plant populations necessary for modem production, processing and utilization. O. sanctum L. Tulasi, Holy basil or sacred basil is very common, often abundant near cultivated fields and on waste lands in the plains and lower hills in most parts of India. It is also found in Sri Lanka, Java, Western Asia and tropical Africa. It is an erect much branched, strongly aromatic softly hairy, annual herb, generally up to 60 cm, high, stems and branches usually purplish, sub quadrangular. Leaves are elliptic, oblong 2-5 cm long and 1-3 cm wide apex obtuse or acute margins entire or serrate softly pubescent on both sides, minutely gland dotted, petioles 1.3-2.5 cm long, slender hairy. Flowers are small purplish or crimson, borne in close whorled racemes, 15-20 cm long bracts to 3 mm long and almost wide broadly orate, ciliate, pedicels longer than flowering early calyx purplish, 3-4 mm long in flower to 5 mm in fruit, 2 lipped pubescent upper lip orbicular reflexed lower lip 4-lobed, corolla 4 mm long 2-lipped, upper lip pubescent on the back. Fruit is minute subglobose or broadly ellipsoid, slightly compressed, dry nut let enclosed in the enlarged membranous calyx, nearly smooth, pale brown or reddish with small black markings, mucilaginous when wet. The plant is held sacred by Hindus and is grown in pots on pedestals at homes and near temples throughout India. In Ayurveda the leaves, flowers and occasionally the whole plants are used medicinally in treatment of heart and blood diseases, leucoderma, strangury, asthma, bronchitis, lumbago and purulent discharge of the ear. The leaf juice possesses diaphoretic, antiperiodic, stimulant and expectorant properties. It is used to treat infantile enough, cold, catarrh, bronchitis, diarrhea and dysentery and is applied to the skin to treat ringworm and other skin diseases and as an ear drop to relieve ear ache. An infusion of the leaves in used as a stomachic for gastric disorders in children. A decoction of the root is given as a diaphoretic in the treatment of malarial fevers. The oil extracted from the leaves by steam distillation is reported to possess antibacterial and unsecticidal properties, and is particularly effective as a mosquito repellent (Parrota, 2001). The genus Ocimum has approximately 150 spp. ranging from annuals to perennial shrubs. The whole plant of Ocimum sanchlm has medicinal value. Preclinical and clinical studies have also proved the well known antistress and antistimulant property of O. sanctum. Pretreatment with the O. sanctum extracted brought back the stress altered values like leucopenia, increased corticosterone level and enhanced neutrophil functions to normal levels indicationg the stress alleviating effect of O. sanchlm. The oil was obtained from O. sanchlm, to posses significant anti bacterial and insecticidal properties. It inhibits the in vitro growth of Mycobacterium hlberculosis and Micrococcus pyogenes
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and Staphylococcus aureus. In antitubercular activity it has one tenth the potency of Streptomycin and one fourth that of ionized Ether and alcohol extracts of leaves of O. sanctum were shown to possess significant activity against E. coli. O. sanctum has been also extensively studied for therapeutic potentialities in various areas like immunostimulation, anticancer, antioxidant, as adjuvant to radio therapy, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antidiabetic. Antioxidant bio assay directed extraction of the fresh leaves and stems of O. sanctum and purification of extract yielded cirsilineol, cirsimaritin, isothymusin,
isothymonin, apigenim, rosmarinic acid and appreciable quantities of eugenol. The drug has numerous plasma ecological activities like hypoglycemic, antiinflammatory antiulcerogenic, antis tress, anti hypertensive radio protective, antibacterial expectorant, analgesic and antitumor. The leaf extract showed insecticidal activity and antibacterial against gram negative and gram positive bacteria at relatively high concentration. Ethanol of 70% in o. sanctum extract has the ability to inhibit aflatoxin production. The leaves were used for treating diabetes, arthritis and bronchial asthma. Ethanol leaf extracts of O. sanctum noise induced changes in total and differential leukocyte counts in rats were also reported. Benzene extract have anti fertility effect in rat, mice and rabbits were also reported. Use of natural products from plant origin forms a major part of complementary and alternative medicine or traditional medicine. These natural products have been the basis of treatment of human diseases. The current accepted modern medicine or allopathy has gradually developed the year by scientific and observational efforts of scientists. However the basis of its development remains noted in traditional medicine and therapies. Scientifically validated and technologically standardized herbal medicines may be derived using a safe path of reverse pharmacology approach based on traditional knowledge database. A large number of indigenous plants used as food and medicines around the world are known for their ability to lower blood sugar level through a variety of mechanisms. In some instances, the plants have often been used by practitioners of herbal medicines in treating individuals with diabetic mellitus. Ethnobotanical studies of traditional herbal remedies used for diabetes around the world have identified more than 1200 species of plants with hypoglycemic activity. A large number of traditional remedies dedicated to diabetes likely reflect the relative case of diagnosing this disease-sugar in the urine can be determined even in technology poor societies. Scientific testing supports this traditional knowledge desired activity, plants with a traditional indication for diabetes are more randomly selected plants to show activity in standard hypoglycemic assays (Maries et al., 1995). O. sanctum is another comely model suggests hypoglycemic effects. Udupa et al. (2006) reported that wound healing property. Goel et al. (2005) studied the effect of standardized effect of O. sanctum on gastric mucosal offensive and defensive factors. Ravindran et al. (2005) reported that the effect of O. sanctum on noise stress induced brain neurotransmitter changes. Sembulingam (2005) analysed the effect of O. sanctum on changes in central cholinergic system induced by acute noise systems. Gholap (2004) studied the hypoglycemic effects of some plant extracts. Hence an attempt has been made to study
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the antibacterial and antidiabetic activity of O. sanctum in albino mice and also the VI (0 regeneration ability.
in
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample Collection The samples were collected from the herbal garden of the Ponnaiyah Ramajayam College Campus, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India (Plate 1) Description of the Plant Family Lamiaceae Botanical Name Ocimum sanctum L. Common Name Holy basil, Tulsi Habitat The genus Ocimum has approximately 150 species ranging from annuals to perennial shrubs. It is tropical, much branched annual herb up to 18 inches tall; it grows into a low bush. The tulsi or holy basil considered sacred by the Hindus has small leaves with a strong smell and purple flowers. Chemical Constituents Volatile oil 0.4 - 0.8%, chiefly contains eugenol approximately 21% and B carophyllene 37% and number of sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes and methyl esters of common fatty acids. Medicinal uses The drugs from O. canum, has numerous pharmacological activities like hypoglycemic, immunomodulatory, antistress, analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antiulcerogenic, antihypertensive, CNS depressant, radio protective, antibacterial and antitumour activities. Phytochemical Study (Chandrakala et al., 2005) The leaves of O. sanctum were dried at room temperature (30°C) and made into fine powder. Preparation of O. sanctum leaf extract (a) Methanol Extract O. sanctum leaf powder (30 gms) weighed and extracted with 100 ml of methanol by continuous hot percolation (60) for 24 hrs. Until, the completion of the extraction, the extract was collected and the solvent was removed by distillation under reduced pressure a dark green residue was obtained. (b) Ethanol Extract O. sanctum leaf powder (30 gms) weighed and extracted with 100 ml of ethanol by hot percolation (60°C) for 24 hours. The extract was collected and the solvent was removed by distillation under reduced pressure, a dark green residue was obtained. Screening tests for Secondary metabolites Secondary metabolites such as steroids, triterpenoids, alkaloids, phenolic compounds, tannins, saponins, xanthoproteins and carbohydrates were screened by standard methods.
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Alkaloids To the extract 2N hydrochloric acid was added, the aqueous layer was decanted. In the precipitate 2 drops of Mayer's reagent was added. Tannins and phenols Small quantity of alcoholic extract was dissolved in water and S% ferric chloride was added. Appearance of blue colour indicates the presence of tannins and phenols. Flavonoids The extract mixed with few ml of alcohol and was heated with 200mg of magnesium and concentrated hydrochloric acid was added, under cooling appearance of pink colour indicates the presence of flavonoids. Gums and Mucilages Extract (10ml) was added to 2Sml of absolute alcohol under constant stirring, precipitation indicates the presence of gums and mucilages. Fixed oils and fats A drop of concentrated extract was pressed between two filter papers and kept undisturbed. Oil stains on the paper indicate the presence of oil. Saponins Extract (lml) was dissolved in 20ml of water and shaken well, formation of foam layer indicate the presence of saponins. Phytosterols The ether extract was evaporated and the residue was subjected to LB test. Appearance of orange to red colour indicates the presence of phytosterols. Carbohydrates Alcholic extract (300 mg) dissolved in water and filtered. The filterate was added with Fehling's solution (Sml) and Benedict's solution (Sml). Appearance of brick red indicates the positive result. Steroids and Triterpenoids Extract (Sml) was evaporated and the residue were dissolved in O.5ml of glacial acetic acid followed by the addition of chloroform and few drops of sulphuric acid, the appearance of green or red violet colour indicate the presence of steroids and triterpenoids respectively.
In vitro Regeneration Murashige and skoogs (1962) basal medium (MS medium) was used for the study. Free MS medium and BS vitamins used for preparation of medium. Preparation of Hormones Kinetin (SO mg) dissolved in O.lN Hcl (2.0 ml) and diluted the concentration using distilled water till 1mg/2ml concentration; the solution was stored in the refrigerator. Similarly 6-benzyl aminopurine (BAP), the concentration of 1mg/2ml was prepared.
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Auxins such as Indole 3 acetic acid (IAA) (50mg), Indole 3 butyric acid (IBA)(50mg) and Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) 50mg were dissolved in 2N NaOH and diluted till the concentration of 1 mg/2ml using distilled water. 2, 4 dichloro phenoxy acetic acid (2,4 D), 50mg dissolved in ethanol (1 ml) and diluted with distilled water to make 1.0mg/2.0 ml and stored in the refrigerator. These hormones were stable to be added before autocIaving the medium. (c)
Preparation of Vitamins
Pyridoxine HCI (0.2 g), Nicotinic acid (0.2 g), Thiamine HCI (2.0g) and myo inositol (2.0g) were dissolved in distilled water to make one litre stock solution. To prepare 1 liter medium 5.0 ml of vitamins stock solution was added before autoclaving. Preparation of MS Basal Medium A stock solution of the MS Basal Medium was prepared as suggested above. An aliquot of the frozen stock solution was thawed at room temperature just before use. To make one litre of medium about 500ml distilled water was added to clean Erleynmeyer flask with appropriate aliquots of the stock solution while stirring with a magnetic bar, sucrose solution was added slowly to prevent clumping of the sucrose in the bottom of the flask then the vitamins and hormones were added. It was then brought to one liter volume and adjusted to pH 5.8 with O.lN NaoH. Agar (0.8% w/ v) was added slowly while shaking and the medium was distributed to the test tubes (about 15 ml/tube) or conical flasks (about 50ml/conical flask or size 250 ml) plugged with cotton wrapped with gauge and the containers were autoclaved at 121°C for 15 minutes. Culture Techniques for Different Explants (a)
Preparatio:::t of. Explants
Based on the initial experiments, from 1 to 10 days old seedlings were finally selected as sources of explants. Different explants namely young leaf, stem node, shoot tip were excised and cultured on a medium containing various growth hormones. (b)
Culture Conditions
All cultures were maintained at 25±2°C under 16/8 hours light/dark condition of 80 EMS 2S irradiance provided by florescent lamps (TL 40w /54 cool-day light) (c) Induction of Callus from Explants The hypocotyl explants were cultured on MS basal medium containing 3% (w / v)sucrose ,0.8% (w/v) agar and various concentrations of IAA,NAA,IBA and 2,4 D(0.5,1.0,1.5,and 2.0mg/l)in combination with BAP (0.5 mg/l) for callus induction. The effect of hormones on callus induction response was studied and effort was made to determine the appropriate hormones combinations for optimal callus growth. Callus induction was observed from 15-21 days. Shoot Induction Based on preliminary experiment with both kin and BAP only latter was selected for shoot bud regeneration. Well developed calli were transferred to regeneration
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medium containing MS based medium 3%(w/v) sucrose, 0.8% (w/v) agar and different concentrations of BAP and KIN (0.5,1.0,1.5,2.0 mg/l) in combination with 0.5 mg/l of NAA individually for shoot bud generation .shoot bud differentiation was observed from 45-60 days. The calli were subcultured on same fresh medium until regenerated shoot buds formed 2-3 pair of leaves .Then the shoot buds were separated. The callus was sub cultured on shoot multiplication medium containing various concentration of BAP or KIN (1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0 mg/l) in combination with 0.1 mg/l of NAA for further growth and multiple shoot bud formation. The mass of shoot initial was observed 21-30 days. The influence of cytokinins (BAP or KIN) in combination with various auxins shoot bud differentiation was studied. Antibacterial Activity (Bauer et al., 1962) Pure culture of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacter aerogens and E.coli were collected from Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India. Broth cultures were prepared; a bacterial (4-6h old) lawn was made on the nutrient agar plates. Sterile Whatman No lfillter paper discs were prepared, 10 J.l.1 of the extract was loaded and the discs were allowed to dry. After drying the discs were impregnated over the plates. The plates were incubated at 37°C±2°C for 18-24 hrs. The inhibition zone was measured and compared with standard chart Hypoglycemic Activity-Induction of Diabates Mellitus Alloxan dissolved in citrate buffer (ph 4.5) was given as single intradermal vein injection to the mice under light diethyl ether anesthesia. The dosage of alloxan was 50mg/kg body weight. Control mice were also maintained. The mice were classified into 3 groups viz., control. Diabetic + a.sanctum, methanol extract (group 1) and Diabetic + a.sanctum ethanol extract (group 2). The blood samples were collected by tail snipping method .The blood glucose was estimated using glucose estimation kit (AGAPPLE, India) through spectro photometric method using glucose oxidase peroxidase method. Principle Glucose is oxidized by the enzyme glucose oxidase to give D-glucoronic acid and hydrogen peroxide, which reacts with 4-amino antipyrine and 4-hydroxy benzoic acid in the presence of peroxidase to form N (4 antipyral)p-benzoic quinoniemine. The addition of mutorotase accelerates the reactions. The amount of dye formed is proportional to glucose concentration. Procedure Three clean dry test tubes labeled as Blank (B) Standard (S) and Test (T) the following components were performed.
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Samples
Blank
Standard
Test
Enzyme reagent
1.0 ml 10 ml
1.0 ml
1.0 ml
Distilled water Glucose standard
10 ml
Serum /Plasma
10 ml
Mixed well and incubated at 37°c for 15 mins, the 00 was measured at 505 nm. The amount was calculated by using following formula Glucose (gm%) = 00 of Test /00 of Standard *100
3. RESULTS Phytochemical Studies Alcoholic extracts was subjected to phytochemical analysis. The analysis showed higher protein, free aminoacids which was followed by saponins moderate amount of alkaloids, phytasterols and tannis (Table 1). TABLE 1 Phytochemical screening of Ocimum sanctum Methanol
Ethanol
+++
+++
+
+
Xanthoprotein
+
+
Steroids & Triterpenoids
+
+
Fatty Acids
+
Compounds Emodins Alkaloids Carbohydrates Tannins and Phenols Flavanoids Gums and Mucilage Fixed oil of Fat Saponins Phytosterols Volatile Oil
Note
+++
Appreciable amount
++
Moderate
+
Little amount /Trace amount Absent
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In vitro Regeneration The response of explants of O. sanctum to different level of auxin in combination with cytokine level of auxin in combination with cytokine was represented in Table 2. The expIants were cultured in MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of IAA, BAP, IBA, NAA and 2.4 D(0.5-2.5mg/l) in combination with BAP (1.0 mg/I).After 15 days the callus was initiated from the explant. The highest frequency of callus was observed in the concentration of 2.5 mg/l of NAA and 1 mg/l of BAP (Table 3).The mass callus tissue was transferred to shoot induction medium for regeneration. After one week the callus was indicated to bud primordial.Then the callus was subcultured on the same medium the bud primordial developed into shoot. The highest frequency of shoot induction was observed on MS medium containing IAA (3mg/1 and 0.5 ml of BAP) (Table 4) (Plate 2&3) TABLE 2 Effect of various concentrations of auxins on callus induction of O. sanctum Hormone (mWJ.) IAA 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 IBA 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 NAA 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 2,4-D 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Percentage of callus induction BAP 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
14.68±2.6 29.01±6.4 33.31±9.7 38.51±5.5 42.51±6.2
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
13.82±3.1 22.52±4.1 34.68±5.1 42.58±2.1 50.29±9.3
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
28.26±8.2 34.93±10.6 44.52±8.1 51.56±4.3 57.30±6.2
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
22.08±4.6 27.97±7.3 35.16±7.6 47.37±7.3 50.19±4.5
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TABLE 3 Effect of various concentrations of cytokinin on shoot induction of O. Sanctum Hormone (myt) IAA
BAP
0.5
0.5
7.36±2.4
1.0
0.5
12.43±2.4
1.5
0.5
15.26±4.1
2.0
0.5
16.3±2.9
2.5
0.5
22.4±3.6
3.0
0.5
31.7±6.0
0.5
0.5
5.96±1.3
1.0
0.5
8.74±4.1
1.5
0.5
13.12±4.2
2.0
0.5
17.16±4.6
2.5
0.5
20.4±3.7
3.0
0.5
28.17±5.3
Percentage of callus induction
KN
TABLE 4 Effect of leaf extract of O. sanctum against the body weight Parameters
Body weight before Body weight after Body weight after alloxan (gm) alloxan (gm) treatment(gm)
Control
90.6±5.7
92.7±6.1
94.3±7.2
Group-I (0. sanctum Methnol ext. act)
87.3±4.1
70.2±3.1
82.3±3.1
Group-II (0. sanctum Ethanol extract)
88.3±4.2
71.3±3.1
86.4±2.1
Antibacterial Activity Methanol and ethanol extract of O. Sanctum was tested against different bacteria. The maximum zone of inhibition was observed against Pseudomonas aerugenosa and was followed by Proteus species (Table 5). Hypoglycemic Activity After diabetic induction the mice were administered a graded dose of O. sanctum of methanol and ethanol extract of 750 ml and 1000 ml. General condition was recorded daily. Body weight and food consumptions were recorded twice in a week. Initial body
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weight of mice were recorded and the level was found to be normal (Table 5). After alloxan injection the glucose level was increased significantly .There was a significant reduction in the glucose level after the treatment with plant extracts (Table 5). TABLE 5 Effect of leaf extract of O. sanctum against glucose level Parameters
Glucose (mgll) before alloxen
Glucose (mgll) after alloxen
Glucose (mgll) after treatment
Control
80.25±1.0
80.25±1.0
Group-I (0. sanctum Methnol extract)
83.02±1.1
80.25±1.0 120.12±1.2
Group-II (0. sanctum Ethanol extract)
85.1±1.0
121.3±2.0
88.50±1.6
87.02±1.3
4. DISCUSSION In general, BAP was used for multiple shoots from nodal explant. Maximum numbers of shoots were observed at 1 mg/l of BAP. Similar observations were recorded by Sivakumar and Krishnamoorthy (2000) in Gloriosa superba L.; Kathiravan and Ignachimuthu L. (1999), in C. viscosa L. in Ocimum sp. by Begum et al., (2000), O. americanum L. and O. sanctum L. by Pattnaik and Chand (1991). Phytochemical screening revealed the presence~ of flavonoids, which have been reported to expert multiple biological effects such as anti-inflammatory, anti allergics, antiviral and anticancer activities (Havsteen, 1991). Alkaloids are important defence of the plant against pathogenic organisms and protoxins for insects (Haartmann, 1991). The flavonoids have effective against various groups of bacteria (Yadha and Deepak, 1998). The antimicrobial activities of higher plants were well documented (Saxena and Vyas, 1986; Perumalsamy et al., 1998; Iqubal Ahaamad et al., 2000). The plants contain a spectrum of secondary metabolities such as phenols, flavonoids, quinines, tannins, alkaloids and essential oils. These substances had antimicrobial activity against various pathogenic bacteria (Mahadevan, 1979). So, the present study revealed that the alcoholic extracts of O. sanctum showed antimicrobial activity against various bacteria. The injection of leaf extract of O. sanctum showed hypoglycemic effects. Hypoglycemic effects of some plant extracts are pOSSibly mediated through inhibition in corticosteroid concentration (Cholap, 2004).
5. SUMMARY In recent times, focus in plant research has increased all over the world. Herbal medicines represent the first and the oldest system of human healthcare and plants have contributed significantly to the allopathic medicine. Use of natural product from plant origin forms a major part of complementary and alternative or traditional medicine. These natural products have been the basis of treatment of human diseases. The basis
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of modem medicine development remains noted in traditional medicine and therapies. A large number of indigenous plants used as food and medicines around the world are known for their ability to lower blood sugar level through a variety of mechanisms. Odmum sanctum is commonly used herb in Ayurveda, studies in animal model suggests its hypoglycemic activity. Hence, an attempt has been made to study the in vitro regeneration, phytochemical, antibacterial activity and hypoglycemic effect in albino mice. The study revealed that the highest frequency of callus was observed in the concentration of 2.5mg/1 of NAA and Img/l of BAP. The methanol and ethanol extract was tested against bacteria. The maximum zone of inhibition was observed against P.aeruginosa and was followed by Proteus sp. After diabetic induction with alloxan injection the glucose level was increased significantly. There was!l significant reduction in the glucose level after the treatment with plant extracts.
REFERENCES Bauer, AW., Kirby, W.M.M., Truch, H. & Shreeies, J.e. (1962) Antibiotic susceptibility testing by standardized single disk method. Am. ].Clin. Pathol. 45: 493-496. Begum, F., Admin, M.M. & Azad, M. (2000) In vitro clonal propagation of Ocimum sanctum. Plant Tissue Cult. 10(1): 31-37. Craker, L.E., Chadwick, AF. & Simon, J.E. (1986) An introduction to the scientific literature on herbs, spices and medicinal plants. In: L.E. Craker and J.E. Simon eds. Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants. Recent Advances in Botany, Horticulture and Pharmacology. Vol.1, Oryx Press, Phoenix pp1-8. Gholap, S. & Kar, A (2004) Hypoglycemic effects of some plant extracts are possibly mediated through inhibition in corticosteroid concentration. Pharmazie 59(1): 876-878. Goel, R.K., Sairam,K., Dorababu, M. & Prabha, T. (2005) Effect of standardized extract of Ocimum sanctum Linn. On gastric mucosal offensive and defensive factors. Indian ]. Physiol. Pharmacol. 49(2):125-131. Harton, T. (1991). Alkaloids in Herbivores. Their interaction with secondary plant metabolities. 2nd Ed., Academic Press, San Diego, pp1-9. Havsteen, B., (1991). Flavonoids a class of natural production of high pharmacological potency Biochem. Pharmacol, 32: 1141-1148. Iqubal Ahmed, Mehmood, Z., Mohamed, F. & Ahamed, 5., (2002) Antimicrobial potency and synergistic activity of five traditionally used Indian Medicinal Plante;. In : Proceedings of the National Seminar on the Frontiers of Research and Development in Medicinal Plants, pp. 173. Kathiravan, K. & Ignacimuthiu, 5., (1999) Antimicrobial activity of Canavalia virosa. Phytomorphology, 49: 61-66. M~devan, A. (1979). Biochemical aspects of plant disease resistance. Biochem. Rev. 449: 5156. Maries, R.T. & Fransworth, N.R. (1995) Antidiabetic plants and their active constituents. Phytomed. 2: 187-189. Murashige, T. & Skoog, F. (1962) A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassay with tobacco plant Plant Tissue Cult. 8: 225-227.
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Parrota, J.A. (2001) Healing Plants of Peninsular India CABI Publishing, Walling Ford, UK pp. 441-442. Pattnaik, 5., & Chand, P.K. (1991) In vitro propagation of medicinal herbs O. americanum, O. canumsims and O. sanctum. Plant Cell Rep. 15: 846-850. Perumalsamy, R., Ignacimuthu, 5., & Sen, H., (1998) Secrrening of 34 medicinal plants for their antibacterial properties. J. Ethnopharmacol. 62: 178-182. Ravindran, R., Rathinasamy, S.D., Samson, J. & Senthllvelan, M. (2005) Noise-stress-induced brain neurotransmitter changes and the effect of Ocimum sanctum (Linn.) treabnent in albino mice. 1. Pharmacol. Sci. 98(4): 354-360. Saxena, AP. & Vyas, K.M., (1986) Antimicrobial activity in seeds of some ethnomedicinal plants. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 82: 1-97. Sembulingam, K., Sembulingam, P. & Namasivayam, A (2005) Effect of Ocimum sanctum Linn. on the changes in central cholinergic system induced by acute noise stress. J. Ethnopharmacol. %(3): 477-482. Sivakumar, G., & Krishnamoorthy, K.V. (2000) Micro-propagation of Gloriosa superba and endangered species of Asia and Africa. Curro Sci. 78(1): 30-32. Udupa, S.L., Shetty, 5., Udupa, AL. & Somayaji, S. N. (2006) Effect of Ocirr.um sanctum Linn. On normal and dexamethasone suppressed wound healing. Indian 1. Exp. Bioi. 44(1): 49-54. Yadha, R.N. & Deepak, B. (1998) Chemistry and antimicrobial activity of essential oil from Anisomeles indica (L.) Ancient Sci. Life 18: 1-10.
000
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-! N.K. PATEL, I.C. PATEL, A.R. SELIYA AND D.N. PARMAR Chapter 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Outline Introduction Materials and methods Enumeration Acknowledgements Table-I: Inventory of angiospermic plants of north Gujarat region Summary
1. INTRODUCTION Gujarat is the most industrialized state in India after Maharashtra and is located in western India, bordered by Pakistan to the northwest and Rajasthan to the north. Its capital is Gandhinagar. Gujarat covers an area of 196,024 sq km (75,685 sq mi). It has a fertile plain land in the south cut by several rivers, low hills in the west, and broad mudflats in the north that adjoin the Thar (Great Indian) Desert. It is bounded by the Arabian Sea to the west, by the state of Rajasthan to the north and northeast, by Madhya Pradesh to the east, and by Maharashtra to the south and southeast. Gujarat has about 1600 km of coastline, which is about a third of India's total coastline and the longest coastline of all Indian states. This coastline includes the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Cambay. North Gujarat includes four district viz., Banaskantha, Sabarkantha, Mehsana and Patan. It has two wildlife sanctuaries and nature preserves, Balaram-Ambaji and Jessore. The climate of Gujarat is varied. The climate is mostly dry, and even desertic in the north-west. The northwestern part of the state is dry, with less than 500 mm (20 in) of rain a year. In the more temperate central part of the state, the annual rainfall is more than 700 mm (28 in). In the southern part of Gujarat, rainfall average is 2000 mm (79 in) a year. In the winter average temperatures ranges between 12° and 27° C (between
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540 and 81 0 F), although freezing levels have been recorded in the state. In the summer average temperatures ranges between 250 and 430 C (770 and 1090 F) and have been known to reach as high as 48 0 C (118 0 F). The population was 41,309,582 (1991 census) and an average density was 211 persons per sq km. More than 70 percent of the population is Hindu; there are also significant minorities of Muslims and Jains in Gujarat. In 1991 more than 60 percent of the population was literate.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS During the present work we visited to the various villages and forests areas including hill and hillocks for 'collection of angiospermic plants. Good number of the trips were arranged. The collected plants were brought to the laboratory, identified up to species level wherever it is possible and then dried with customary method which was mounted on herbarium sheet and label. The ethnobotanical data on was collected through the dialogue and arranging meetings with local tribals and knowledgeable people of the villages.
3. ENUMERATION 1. Abrus precatorius L.( Fabaceae) Local name: Chanothi FIs & Frs: July-Dec. Description: Perennial, deciduous twiners. Leaves oblong, glabrous, and appressedhairy. Flowers pinkish-purple in compact racemes. Pods liner-oblong. Seeds shining, black, smooth, glabrous. Parts Used: Seeds, leaves and roots. Uses: Used in nervous disorders, sciatica and paralysis; leaf decoction used in cough, conic pain, skin diseases; root used in preparation for gonorrhoea, jaundice.
2. Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet ( Malvaceae) Local name: Kanski FIs & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: An undershrub. Leaves broadly ovate, entire, hairy, and petiolate. Flowers bright-yellow, axillary, and solitary. Fruit appressed-hairy. Parts Used: Seeds, leaves, bark and root. Uses: In piles, gleet and gonorrhoea; leaf boils and ulcers, painful part of body; root fever, chest affection, and urethritic; bark astringent and diuretic.
3. Acalypha indica L. ( Euphorbiaceae) Local name: Vaichikato Fla & Frs: June-Dec. Description: An annual herb; leaves ovate, with slender petiolate; spikes slender, erect, axillary with male flowers, clustered at the top, and female flowers with accrescent; capsules often one-seeded; seeds pale-brown, acute, smooth.
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Part Used: Whole plant, Uses: Decoction of the herbs is used as a cure for tooth and speedy laxative. It is useful in pneumonia and asthma. Leaves are used in scabies and snake bite.
4. Achyranthes aspera L.( Amaranthaceae) Local name: Anghedi Rls & Frs: Aug.-Feb. Description: Erect, hearbs. Leaves membranous, hairy. Flowers bright-purple. Spike long. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: Their paste is applied to clear opacity of cornea; it is reported to be useful in cancer. Decoction of the roots is used for stomach troubles, and an aqueous extract for stones in the bladder. 5. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic.( Acanthaceae)
Local name: Ardusi PIs : Dec.-June. Description: Evergreen, bushy shrubs. Leaves petiolate, elliptic-Ianceolate, and glabrous. Spikes long. Fruits not seen. Parts Used: Leaves, roots, flowers and stem bark. Uses: It is employed in bronchitis and bronchial asthma, pyorrhea, cough, local due to peptic ulcer and piles. Fresh juice of leaves have been used in tuberculosis. 6. Aeroa lanata L. Juss. ex Schultes (Amaranthaceae)
Local name: Gorakhdi PIs & Frs: More or ·less throughout the year. Description: A much branched herb, erect, leaves alternate, woody-tomentose, Flowers greenish-Wight, axillary panicles, fruits greenish, roundish. Part Used: Whole plant. Uses: It is useful to treat boils, cephalagia, cough, diabetes and lithiasis. Useful in catanh of bladder. Flowers are used for kidney stone. 7. Allium cepa L. ( Liliaceae)
Local name: Dongri PIs: - Feb. Apr. Description: A biannual or perennial herb with fleshy underground bulb. Leaves linear, cylindrical, and flashy. Flowers many, white, in globular umbels. Parts Used : Bulbs. Uses: The bulbs are useful in dysentery, dyspepsia, colic, jaundice, asthma, vomiting, malaria fever, wounds, paralysis and skin diseases.
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8. Andrographis paniculata (Buml.f.) Wall. (Acanthaceae) Local name: Kariyatu FLS & FRS: Aug.-Oct. Description: An erect, glabrous herb, leaves elliptical. Flowers dirty white, with light purple. Capsule long. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: The leaves are used in diarrhoea, fever, coryza cough, sore throat, hypertension and snake-bite.
9. Arachis hypogaea 1. ( Fabaceae) Local name: Mungfali Fls : July-Oct. Frs : Aug.-Dec. Description: A branched hairy annual herb, erect branches trailing on the ground, leaves compound, pulvinate, oblong, entire, flowers yellow, axillary, fruits pods, ripening underground, leathery, containing 1-3 seeds. Parts Used: Seeds Uses: The seeds are useful in diarrhoea, and general debility.
10. Argyreia neroosa (Bumt.f.) Boj. (Convolvulaceae) Local name: Smudrasos FLS & FRS: Aug.-Oct. Description: A very large climbing shrub with woody, white stems. Leaves simple large, ovate. Flowers large, purple, silky-pubescent without in long-peduncle cymes. Fruits dry, globose. Parts Used: Roots and Seeds. Uses: The roots are useful in wounds, ulcers, dyspepsia, colic, cough, nervous weakness, syphilis, anemia and diabetes.
11. Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. (Aristolochiaceae) Local name: Batak Vel Fls & Frs: July-Dec., sometimes almost throughout the year. Description: A perennial prostrate herb, with weak, glabrous, stems. Leaves simple, alternate, reniform, and cordate at the base. Flowers solitary, with large sessile orbicular bract at the base. Fruits oblong, glabrous, capsule. Seeds deltoid with cordate base Parts Used: Roots and Leaves Uses: The roots and leaves are useful in amenorrhoea, foul ulcers, boils, syphilis, gonorrhoea, skin diseases and eczema.
12. Bacopa monnieri (1.) Wettst. (Scrophulariaceae) Local name: Methi
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Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: A prostrate, juicy, glabrous annual herb. Leaves simple, opposite, decussate, sessile, axillary, solitary, fruits acute, capsules, seeds minute numerous. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: It is useful in anemia, tumors, ulcers, dyspepsia, asthma, skin diseases, leprosy, leucoderma, syphilis and fevers.
13. Boerhavia diffusa L. (Nyctaginaceae) Local name: Satodo Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: A perennial diffuse herb, leaves simple, opposite, ovate-oblong, acute, rounded at base, glabrous above and whitish beneath, flowers pole, rose coloured, small, short-stalked, fruits highly viscid, easily detachable, one seeded. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: - It is useful in all types of inflammations, leucorrhoea, myalgia, jaundice, anemia, dyspepsia and cough.
14. Brassica juncea L.(Brassicaceae) Local name: Rai Fls & Frs: More or less throughout the year, profuse in winter. Description: A glabrous annual herb. Leaves long, ovate, coarsely dentate, upper leaves broadly linear, entire. Flowers yellow in racemes, fruits siliqua. Seeds attached to the replum. Parts Used: Seeds, Oil. Uses: The seeds useful in dengue fever, dyspepsia, worms and skin diseases.
15. Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.) Pers. (Crassulaceae) Local name: Panphuti Fls & Frs: Jan.-Mar. Description: A succulant herb, leaves decussate simple, ovate, elliptic, margins crenate, flowers on long scopes in large panicles, light red bell-shaped, seeds small. Parts Used: Leaves Uses: Leaves are employed in diarrhoea, dysentery, calculi, scurvy and burning micturition, pounded leaves applied on boils, wounds, bites of insects and swellings.
16. Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Asclepiadaceae) Local name: Akado Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Shrubs, latex milky, bark ash-colored. Leaves sessile, thick and glaucous-g~een. Flowers terminal, umbellate cymes. Seeds flat, long coma.
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Parts Used: It is useful in intestinal worms and cough. The leaves are useful in the treatmeht of paralysis and fevers. Flowers are useful in asthma and catarrh.
17. Canavalia gladiata(]acq.) Uacq.) DC. (Fabaceae) Local name: Fofal FIs & Frs: Aug.-Jan. Description: A stout perennial twiner, glabrous twiner, leaves compound, leaflets, glabrous on both surfaces, flowers large, white, axillary racemous, fruits large, sword shaped flattened pods, seeds reddish brown or white. Parts Uses: Fruits and seeds. Uses: The fruits are useful in burning sensation, hyperdipsia, dyspepsia, wounds, and ulcers.
18. Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabinaceae) Local name: Bhang FIs & Frs: Not seen. Description: A large aromatic, resinous herb, erect, angular stem, the female plant usually taller than the male; leaves palmately, divided, male flowers in short drooping panicles, female in short axillary crowded spikes, fruits achene's seeds black. Parts Used: Dried leaves and flowering shoots. Uses: Leaves are used in diarrhea, otalgia, Its excessive use causes dyspepsia, cough.
19. Cassia italica (Mill.) Lam. (Caesalpiniaceae) Local name: Mindhi Aval FIs & Frs: Sep.-Feb. Description: A diffuse, perennial herb, leaflets oblong, 6-9 pairs, flowers yellow in axillary and terminal racemes, pods flat, oblong, curved, longitudinally crested, seeds cuneate. Parts Used: Leaves Uses: Leaf powder is employed in constipation, colic, flatulence and indigestion.
20. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (Apocynaceae) Local name: Barmasi Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Perennial herbs, leaves opposite, obovate, glabrous on both sides, dark shining above flowers pink or white, follicle, cylindrical, narrow, seeds numerous, tiny, blackish-brown. Parts Used: Leaves Uses: The leaves are useful in treating oliguria, haematuria, it is also used in leukemia.
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21. Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin (Vitaceae) Local name: Khat-khatumbo Fls & Frs: July-Oct. Description: Herbaceous climber, Leaflets obovate, glabrous. Flowers greenishwhite, broad, branched cymes. Berries deep purple, black when ripe, smooth. Parts Used: Whole plant Uses: It purifies the blood, and is useful in ulcer, wounds, dropsy, hemorrhoids and strangury.
22. Celosia argentea L. (Amaranthaceae) Local name: Lobadu Fls &Frs: July-Dec. Description: An annual erect tropical herb, glabrous, more branching, leaves variable, linear, entire glabrous, leaves sessile, flowers at pinkish, afterwards glistening white, crowded and imbricate, cylindrical blunt spikes, seeds black. Parts Used: Seeds Uses: They are beneficial in chronic uveitis and dizziness due to hypertension.
23. Cephalonoplos segetum (Bunge) Kitam. (Asteraceae) Local name: Fls & Frs: Mar.-May Description: A perennial herb, stem erect, slightly purplish, leaves alternate, sessile, long-elliptic, hairy, inflorescence a terminal head, erect. Flowers, unisexual, dioecious. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: It is useful in epitasis, haematuria and other hemorrhagic condition, pyogenic infection.
24. Chenopodium album L.( Chenopodiaceae) Local name: Chil Ni Bhaji Fls & Frs: Nov.-Apr. Description: Annual, erect, tall herbs. Leaves elliptic-Ianceolate, entire, and glabrous. Flowers minute, green, clustered, axillary and terminal, compact spikes. Seeds glabrous, blacks. Parts Used: Seeds. Uses: It is useful in peptic ulcer, helminthiasis, dyspepsia and weakness.
25. Cicer arietinum L. (Fabaceae) Local name: Chana Fls & Frs: Jan.-Mar.
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Description: An erect much branched annual herb, leaves compound, leaflets small, oval, glandular hairs, inflorescence stalk jointed about the middle, flowers pink, blue, fruits pubescent pods, seeds black or white. Parts Used: Leaves, seeds Uses: Leaves are useful in dyspepsia and bronchitis. The seeds are useful in hyperdipsia, leprosy, bronchitis and skin diseases.
26. Cichornm intybus L. (Asteraceae) Local name: Chikudi Fls & Frs: Oct.-Mar. Description: Erect, glabrous herbs, spine scent, leaves upper subsentire, lower pinnatifid, flowers all ligulate, bracts involucres, Achenes glabrous, pappus pale, 2-3 seriate Parts Used: Seeds, roots & flowers. Uses: It is employed in cough with dyspnoea, hepatitis, The powder of dried roots is used in the treatment of liver congestion.
27. Cissus quadrangula L. ( Vitaceae) Local name: Hadsankal Fls: June-Oct. Frs: Aug.-Dec. Description: Tendril climber. Leaves ovate glaucous-green, flashy. Flowers greenishwhite, leaf-opposed cymes. Berries in diam., ovoid, glabrous, purple. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: It is useful in skin diseases, colic, chronic ulcer and tumors. Shoots are useful in asthma, burns and wounds.
28.Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (Cucurbitaceae) Local name: Kadva Inravarna Fls & Frs: Aug.-Dec. Description: A prostrate creeping herb, leaves deeply 3-7 lobed, scabridly hairy, flowers pale yellow, axillary, solitary, fruit globose pepo, variegated green, and white spots. Parts Used: Fruits and seeds Uses: Fruits are employed in biliousness, jaundice, fever, dropsy, coughs and bronchitis, oil of seeds is used for snake bite and scorpion sting, roots are given in jaundice, and cough.
29. Cleome viscosa L. (Capparaceae) Local name: Pili Talvani Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Glandular- pubescent, tall herbs.
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Leaves folio late, petiolate, leaflet, elliptic oblong, glabrous, sessile or subsessile. Flowers axillary, solitary, lax racemes. Capsules long, cylindrical, and hairy. Seeds numerous, dark brawn. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: The plant is acrid, thermogenic. The root is stimulant, antiscorbutic and vermifuge. The seeds are useful in fever and diarrhoea.
30. Clitoria tematea L. (Fabaceae) Local name: Garni-Bibli Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Slender twiner. Leaves alternate, elliptic-oblong. Flowers blue or white. Pods linear-oblong, flat, and appressed-hairy. Seeds oblong, yellowish-hairy, smooth, glabrous. Parts Used: Roots, leaves, seeds. Uses: It is used in tubercular glands, l~ucoderma, elephantiasis, ulcer and fever. The roots are useful in visceralgia. 31. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. (Cucurbitaceae) Local name: Kadvi Ghilodi Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Herbaceous, glabrous climber. Leaves broadly ovate, glabrous. Flowers axillary, solitary. Seeds oblong, white, smooth, glabrous. Parts Used: Roots, leaves and fruits. Uses: The roots are useful in vomiting; leaves fruits useful in skin diseases, fever, asthma, cough and jaundice. 32. Commelina diffusa Burm. f. (Commelinaceae) Local name: Sismuliyu Fls & Frs: Aug.-Jan. Description: Annual herbs, creeping, rooting at nodes. Leaves glabrous. Flowers 1-3 in a spathe, blue. Capsule oblong. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: It is useful in the treatment of fractured bones and to treat eye irritation and rashes. 33. Corchorns aestuans L. (Tiliaceae) Local name: Chhunch Fls & Frs: Aug.-Dec. Description: A prostrate herb, leaves ovate, serrate, flowers yellow in axillary, fruit capsule, 6-angled, 3-winged and 3- bifid beaks, seeds brownish-black. Parts Used: Fruits
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Uses: Infusion of crushed fruits is given in fever, pneumonia, stomatitis, diabetes, calculi, diarrhea and sexual debility.
34. Crotalaria retusa L. (Fabaceae) LO(''3.1 name: Gughro Fis & Frs: July-April. Description: An erect herb, leaves oblanceolate oblong, glabrous, flowers yellow, numerous, large, showy in erect terminal racemes, fruits stalked pond, seeds per pods. Parts Used: Whole plant Uses: The plant is useful in dyspepsia, fever. The leaves are used for diarrhoea. The seeds are powdered and boiled with milk. It is useful for increasing body strength and life span. The seeds are useful in skin diseases and leprosy.
35. Ctenolepsis cerasiformis (Stocks) Hk.
f.
(Cucurbitaceae)
Local name: Ankh Futamani FIs & Frs: Aug.-Oct. Description: A monocious climber, leaves 3-lobed broadly ovate, stipules imbricate leafy, flowers pale yellow, berries globose, orange-red, seeds ovoid. Parts Used: Whole plant Uses: Decoction of roots is given in colic, fever, indigestion, anorexia and rheumatism, paste of leaves is applied to boils and swelling, fruits are given in gonorrhoea, fruits pulp is applied on foot sole to reduce body heat.
36. Cucumis callosus (RottI.) Cogn. (Cucurbitaceae) Local name: Kothimdu Fls & Frs: July-Jan. Description: A prostate monocious herb, leaves 5-7 lobed hairy ovate, flowers yellow, in axillary, female flowers solitary, barriers orbiculate ellipsoid softly echinate bright yellow, seeds ellipsoid oblong. Parts Used: Roots Uses: Paste of root is applied on scorpion sting, decoction of root is given in indigestion, dropsy, pulp of fruit is women for abortion and to increase menses.
37. Cucumis sativus L. (Cucurbitaceae) Local name: Kakadi Fls & Frs: Throughout the year Description: An annual hairy climber, leaves simple, alternate, deeply cordate, both surface hairy, margin denticulate, flowers yellow, male clustered, female solitary, fruits cylindrical, pepo, seeds cream-white, testa hard smooth. Parts used: Fruits and Seeds. Uses: The fruits are useful in, hyperdipsia, fever, jaundice. Seeds are useful in burning sensation, fevers, and renal calculus.
168
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38.Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.( Cuscutaceae) Local name: Amarvel Fls & Frs: Nov.- Apr. Description: Twiners, creamy-yellow, glabrous. Flowers white or creamy-white, solitary, cymes. Capsule globose, glabrous. Seeds black, glabrous. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: The plant is useful in jaundice, cough, cephalalgia, fever and paralysis.
39. Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. (Poaceae) Local name: Lili Chaha FIs & Frs: Not seen Description: Tall, perennial herbs, throwing dense fascicles of leaves from a short, oblique rhizome. Leaves glabrous-green, rough along margins. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: The entire plant is used in influenza and pyrexia; it is also used in vomiting, dyspepsia, and eczema.
40. Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub. (Fabaceae) Local name: Gawar Fls & Frs: Throughout the year Description: An erect robust annual, stems grooved, leaflets, elliptic, acute, flowers small, purplish in axillary racemes, fruits thick fleshy, pods in clusters, seeds per pods. Parts Used: Pods and seeds. Uses: The pods are useful in constipation, dyspepsia and anorexia.
41. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.( Poaceae) Local name: Darbh FLS & FRS: Throughout the year. Description: Perennial, creeping herbs, slender, erect, culms. Leaves narrowly linear, lanceolate, flat. Spikes long, digitate, spreading. Spike lets sessile, laterally compressed, greenish. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: The plant is useful in hyperdipsia, wounds, cephalagia, skin diseases, vomiting, diarrhoea, abortion and general debility.
42. Cyperus rotundus L.( Cyperaceae) Local name: Chio FIs & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Perennial, herbs. Leaves linear, glabrous. Spikelets linear-cylindrical, compressed. Nuts triquetrous, oblong, smooth, dark-brown.
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Parts Used: Tubers. Uses: The tubers are useful in the treatment of irregular menstruation, gastralgia, dyspepsia, diarrhoea and vomiting. 43. Datura metel L. (Solanaceae) Local name: Dhaturo Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Plant herbaceous plant, leaves alternate, unequal at the base, margin wavy, flowers large, white, capsule, glabrous, slender spines, seeds numerous, blackishbrown. Parts Used: Leaves and flowers. Uses: The leaves are used for reating cough, asthma, gastric ulcers. The dried leaves and flowers are cut into small chips and used in antiasthmatic cigarettes. 44. Echinops echinatus Roxb. (Asteraceae) Local name: Kantaseliyo Fls & Frs: Oct.-Jan . • Description: A perennial herb, stem erect, simple, leaves alternate, elliptic, wide, pinnetifid, spinous, heads in globose involucrate solitary head, paleblue or white sessile, flowers oblong, bracts multi-seriate, Parts used: Roots. Uses: It is used in acute mastitis, obstruction of mnk secretion, skin diseases and hemorr hoids. 45. Eclipta prostrata L. (Asteraceae) Local name: Jal Bhangro Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Perennial herbs, erect or prostate, stems green, thickened at the nodes, leaves opposite, subsessile, lanceolate, denticulate, flowers white, axillary, the female radiated, the bisexual in the center. Part Used: Whole plant. Uses: The plant is useful in skin diseases, wounds, ulcers, fever and jaundice. 46. Enicostema axillare (Lam.) Raynal (Gentianaceae) Local name: Navali FLS & FRS: June-Dec. Description: A glabrous perennial herb, leaves simple, opposite, sessile, linear, elliptic-Ianceolate, flowers white, tubular, in whorled axillary clusters, fruits ellipsoid capsules. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: The plant is useful in dyspepsia, colic, ulcers, hernia, dropsy, skin diseases, fevers and malaise. The plant is locally applied in snake bite.
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47. Euphorbia neriifolia L. (Euphorbiaceae) Local name: Thor FIs & Frs: Dec.-Apr. Description: Deciduous shrubs, younger branched strongly, 5-angled, stipular thorns black. Leaves sub fleshy, glabrous, and obovate - lanceolate. Inflorescence fewflowered cymes, towards ends of branches. Capsule obovoid-trigonous, red-purple, smooth, and glabrous. Parts Used: Whole plant Uses: It is useful in bronchitis, asthma, cutaneous diseases, dropsy, dyspepsia, intermittent fever, jaundice and ulcer. 48. Evolvulus alsinoides L.( Convolvulaceae) Local name: Shankhavali FIs & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: A perennial herb, with prostrate branches and small elliptic to oblong, lanceolate, obtuse, leaves, flowers mostly solitary in upper axils, corolla blue rotate and broad funnel shaped, capsule glabrous. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: It is used in fever, nervous debility, loss of memory, also in syphilis and scrofula.
49. Fagonia cretica L. ( Zygophyllaceae) Local name: Dhamaso FIs & Frs: Aug.-Apr. Description: An erect spiny herb, leaves trifoliate, stipules spines, flowers pale pink, axillary, fruit 5-lobes, cocci, seeds flat, smooth, pale brown. Parts Used: Leaves, stems and roots Uses: Twig is used as tooth-brushes; leaves decoction is given in sore throat, stomatitis, diarrhoea, fever, dropsy, vomiting and itch, wounds, scabies, ringworm and boils. Root decoction is given in burning micturition and calculi.
50. Gloriosa superba L. (Liliaceae) Local name: Kankasani FIs: July-Sep. Frs: Aug.-Oct. Description:- A herbaceous climber. Root stock tuberose, cylindrical. Leaves alternate, rarely opposite or in whorls. Flowers bisexual, axillary, solitary, orange and scarlet crimson colour. Seeds numerous, globose, dorsally compressed, straw-coloured. Parts used: Seeds and tubers. Uses: The tuberous roots are useful in ulcers, bleeding piles, skin diseases, leprosy, snake-bites, fevers, and debility. Roots are given internally as an antidote for snake poison. Seed are used for rheumatic pain jind as muscle relaxant.
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51. Glycine max (L.) Merr. (Fabaceae) Local name: Soya Bean Fls & Frs: July-Nov. Description: An erect hairy annual, leaves alternate, long petiolate, leaflets 3, ovate, elliptic, stipule linear, flowers small, in axillary racemes, pink or white, seeds valves spiral after dehiscence. Parts Used: Fruits and seeds. ~
Uses: Soybean is useful in reduced ovulation rate and wound healing.
52. Gymnema sylvetre (Retz.) Schult. (Asc1epiadaceae) Local name: Gudmar Fls : Aug. Description: A large, woody, much climber. Leaves simple, opposite, elliptic or ovate, pubescent on both sides. Flowers small, yellow in umbellate cymes. Fruits slender. Parts Used: Whole plant / Leaves. Uses: It is useful in dyspepsia, jaundice, cough, asthma, fever, conjunctivitis and leucoderma. The fresh leaves are use in diabetes.
53. Hibiscus micranthus L.f. (Malvaceae) Local name: Chnak Bhindo Fls & Frs : Aug.-Jan. Description: An erect hairy herb, flowers pink to bright-rosy, axillary, in terminal, racemes, fruit capsule, small, 5-valved. Parts Used: Roots and Flowers. Uses: Root decoction is given in fevers, flowers are given along with honey in diabetes, leaves powdered are boiled in milk and used as a tonic.
54. Indigo/era tinctoria L. (Fabaceae) Local name: -Gall Fls & Frs: Aug.-Jan. Description: Erect nearly glabrous shrub. Leaves alternate, oblong, obovate, and hairy beneath. Flowers red, axillary racemes. Pods long, linear, brown. Seeds brown, cylindrical, and glabrous. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: It is useful for promoting growth of hair, asthma, ulcer and skin diseases. Juice from the leaves is useful in the treatment of hydrophobia.
55. Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth (Convolvulaceae) Local name: Padada Vel Fls & Frs: Aug.- Feb.
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Description: An extensively twining hairy herbaceous perennial, leaves simple, ovate, cordate, flowers large, funnel shaped, blue tinged with pink, in umbellate cymes, fruits smooth, capsules, seeds black, glabrous. Parts Used: Seeds. Uses: The seeds are useful in verminosis, skin diseases, leucoderma, dyspepsia and scabies.
56. Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) Local name: Ratanjot Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: A soft-wooded, deciduous shrub, smooth, often with scars of fallen leaves. Leaves ovate, entire 3-5 lobed, glabrous. Flowers terminal, axillary, paniculate cymes. Capsule globose, yellow, and smooth. Parts Used: Leaves, seeds. Uses: The leaves are useful in foul ulcers, tumours and scabies, ulcer. Seeds are useful in skin diseases.
57. Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet (Fabaceae) Local name: Val (Valol) FIs & Frs: Oct.-May. Description: Perennial twining plant, stems green or purple, hairy, leaves alternate, slightly hairy, inflorescence in axillary racemous, flowers white, pod flat, seeds reniform, whitish. Parts Used: Seeds. Uses: The seeds are useful in nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. 58. Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Stindl. (Cucurbitaceae) Local name: Duthie Fls & Frs: Throughout the year Description: An annual stout climber, leaves 3-5 lobed, flowers white, solitary, berries light to dark green in various shapes and size, seeds white, flat. Parts Used: Leaves and Fruits. Uses: Leaves are applied on swelling and in cough. Fruits are beneficial in piles, jaundice and to treat cough. Bitter variety is used as emetic in vomiting and cough.
59. Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.) Wt. & Am. (Asclepiadaceae) Local name: Dodi FIs & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Twiners, deeply bark. Leaves ovate, glabrous. Flowers greenishyellow, in axillary. Follicle oblong, lanceolate, dark-green. Seeds ovate, glabrous, coma. Parts Used: Whole Plant.
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Uses: The roots are useful in secondary syphilis and tenesmus. Leaves are useful in scorbutic diseases. Seeds are useful in skin diseases, diarrhoea, and scurvy, seminal weakness, asthma, cough. 60. Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link(Lamiaceae) Local name: Kubi Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: An erect or diffuse much branched annual herb, quadrangular stern and branches, leaves sub-sessile, linear, obtuse, entire, flowers white, small, dense, axillary, whorls, fruits oblong, brown, smooth, inner face angular and outer face rounded. Parts Used: Leaves, flowers. Uses: The leaves and flowers are useful in colic, dyspepsia, chronic skin eruption, cough and catarrh in children.
61. Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. (Cucurbitaceae) Local name: Turiya FLS & FRS: Throughout the year Description: A large monocious climber, sterns 5 angled tendrils 3-fid, leaves palmately 5-7 angled, flowers bright-yellow, berries cylindric, acute ridged, seeds black. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: Leaves are applied as paste on swelling, piles, splenetic, and leprosy. Seeds are given in cough, decoction of roots is employed in calculi. 62. Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem. (Cucurbitaceae) Local name: Galka FIs & Frs: Throughout the year Description: A large monoecious climber, stern twisted, tendrils 3-fid leaves palmately 5-lobed base cordate. Flowers yellow. Berries cylindric, longitudinal striped. Parts Used: Leaves and Fruits Uses: Green fruits are employed in cough. Juice of leaves is given dropsy, paste of leaves on swellings, boils, ulcers and wounds. 63. Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. (Solanaceae) Local name: Tamata FLS & FRS: Throughout the year. Description: An annual herb, leaves pinnate, pubescent throughout, flowers yellow in extra axillary cymes, fruits globose, glabrous, seedsmany on flashy pal centum, flat, kidney shaped. Parts Used: Fruits. Uses: The fruits are useful in atomic dyspepsia, asthma, and bronchitis. 64. Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae) Local name: Karela
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Fls & Frs: Throughout the year Description: An annual monocious climber. Leaves deeply 5-lobed. Flowers bright yellow, solitary. Berries obtuse, fusiform, pendulous, green, ribbed. Seeds flat. Parts Used: Whole plant Uses: Fruits are used in diabetes, piles, worms, jaundice. Juice of leaves is given in snakebite, bleeding piles. Roots are used in opthalmia andvaginal prolapsed. Seeds are given for round worms and liver worms.
65. Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd. (Cucurbitaceae) Local name: Kankoda Fls & Frs: July-Oct. Description: A perennial climber. Leaves ovate, entire, 3-5 lobed. Flowers bright yellow, male flowers solitary, bract near the flower and enclosing it. Fruit softly globose. Seeds globose. Parts Used: Fruits and Roots Uses: Paste of root of male creeper is applied on scorpion sting, snake bite and rat bite. Fruits used in anorexia, diabetes and cough. 66. Mukia maderaspatana L. (Cucurbitaceae) Local name: Chanak Chibhdi Fls & Frs: July-Oct. Description: An annual, monoecious, prostrate climber. Leaves deltoid-ovate, 35 lobed. Flowers yellow, in fascicles, female flowers sessile. Fruit globose. Parts Used: whole plant Uses: Fruits are eaten for deworming. Decoction of plant is given in colic. Roots are chewed in tooth ache. Leaves paste applied on ulcers.
67. Nicotiana tabacum L. (Solanaceae) Local name: Tamaku Fls & Frs: Nev.-Jan. Description: A glandular pubescent erect herb with few branches, leaves simple, ovate, oblong, flowers light red, racemes, fruits narrowly elliptic ovoid capsule, seeds many brown. Parts Used: Leaves Uses: The leaves are useful in dental caries, dyspepsia, asthma, scabies, skin diseases, ulcers, painful tumors.
68. Odmum tenuiflorum L. ( Lamiaceae) Local name: Tulsi Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Perennial, woody herbs. Leaves ovate, hairy. Flowers pale-pink, in compact whorls, terminal and axillary racemes. Nutlets ellipsoid, smooth brown.
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-I
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Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: It is used in leucoderma, asthma, fever, vomiting, hiccough, opthalmia, ringworms, verminosis and skin diseases. 69. Passiflora foetida L.( Passifloraceae) Local name: Krishna Kamal Fls & Frs: Aug.-Dec. Description: A herbaceous, slender, foetid, tendril climber. Leaves simple, shining, glandular 3 lobed, margins ciliate, flowers solitary, creamy white, fruits subglobose, ovate berry, foetid smelling. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: Plant paste is applied on itches, boils, wound, swelling and headache, fruits are given in asthma, biliousness and giddiness, leaf juice is used as vaginal douche to increase menses. 70. Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. (Asc1epiadaceae) Local name: Chamar Dudheli FLS & FRS: Oct.- Mar. Description: A slender perennial milky twining herb, leaves simple, opposite, sub orbicular, cordate, flowers greenish yellow, axillary, cluster, fruits long, beak and soft spines, seeds many, ovate, densely velvety on both sides. Parts Used: Whole plant Uses: It is useful in cough, asthma, fevers; the leaves are used in vitiated condition of kapha, leprosy, fruits are useful in dyspepsia, 71. Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabaceae) Local name: Fansi Fls & Frs: Nov.-Dec. Description: Slender-stemmed, annual, climbers, clusters of white flowers and a bean pod containing kidney-shaped seeds. Parts Used: Bean pods and Bean. Uses: The pods are diuretic and stimulating. Powder is also used in the treatment of diabetes. 72. Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. (Euphorbiaceae) Local name: Bhonya Amli Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Annual. Leaves glabrous, obovate. Flowers pale-greenish-yellow, axillary and minute. Capsule globose, smooth. Seeds trigonous. Parts Used: Whole plant Uses: The fresh root is used for the treatment of viral hepatitis. The plant is also used as diuretic in oedema.
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73. Physalis minima L. (Solanaceae) Local name: Popati FIs & Frs: July-Jan. Description: Herbaceous annual herbs, leaves simple, ovate, alternate, less pubescent, flowers yellow, solitary, nodding, fruits green, many seeds round berry, seeds many, discoid, orange yellow. Parts Used: Whole plant Uses: It is useful in burning sensation, colic, ulcers and cough.
74. Portulaca quadrifida L.( Portulacaceae) Local name: Zini Luni Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Prostate, glabrous, herbs. Leaves sessile, fleshy. Flowers yellow terminal. Capsule long, conical. Seeds dark-brown. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: Fresh leaves are used to boils and impetigo.
75. Raphanus sativus L. (Brassicaceae) Local name: Mulo FIs & Frs: Oct.-Apr. Description: A biennial, hispid herb, leaves radical and cauline, lyrate pinnetifid, flowers in racemes, light pink or white, fruits thick, beaked, siliqua. Parts Used: Leaves, roots and seeds. Uses: Fresh leaf juice is given in calculi and burning maceration, root is beneficial for bleeding piles, cough, whooping cough, seeds are given to increase menses, to purify womb and for abortion.
76. Rosa damascena MiIl.( Rosaceae) Local name: Gulab FIs & Frs: Throughout the year Description: A perennial armed herb, leaves compound imparipinnate, leaflats 5, ovate, serrate, stipules adnate, flowers pink, red, white, many coloured, fragrant, solitary. Parts Used: Flowers Uses: Petals are used for burning micturition, leucorrhoea, cough and sore throat.
77. Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss. (Malvaceae) Local name: Bhoya Bala FIs & Frs: Oct.-Jan. Description: A perennial hairy herb, leaves cordate, lobes triangular, flowers yellow, axillary, solitary, fruit globose, seeds brown.
177
HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
Abrus precatorius
Abutilon indicum
Acalypha indica
Achyranthes aspera
Adhatoda zeylanica
Aerva lanata
Andrographis paniculata
Arachis hypogaea
178
HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
Argyreia nervosa
Aristolochia bracteolata
Bacopa monnieri
Boerhavia diffusa
Brassica juncea
Kalanchoe pinnata
Calotropis gigantea
Canavalia gladiata
1 1'
BAL CURES: TKADTTlOXAL APPROACH
Cannabis sativa
Cassia italica
Catharanthus roseus
Cayratia trifolia
Celosia argentea
Cephalonoplos segetum
Chenopodium album
Cicer arietinum
180
HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
Cichorum intybus
Cissus quadrangula
Cleome viscosa
Clitoria ternatea
Coccinia grandis
Commelina diffusa
Corchorus aestuans
Crotalaria retusa
181
HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
Ctenolepsis cerasifonnis
Cucumis sativus
Cuscuta reflexa
Cymbopogon citratus
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
Cynodon dactylon
Cyperus rotundus
Echinops echinatus
HERBAL CUI~ES : TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
182
Eclipta prostrata
Enicostema axillare
Euphorbia neriifolia
Evolvulus alsinoides
Fagonia cretica
Gloriosa superba
Glycine max
Gymnema sy lvetre
183
HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
Indigo/era tinctoria
Ipomoea nil
Jatropha curcas
Lablab purpureus
Lagenaria siceraria
Leptadenia reticulata
Leucas aspera
Luffa acutangula
184
HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
Luffa cylindrica
Lycopersicon esculentum """'"'--::-01''''''''''--'''''
Momordica charantia
Momordica dioica
Mukia maderaspatana
Nicotiana tabacum
Ocimum tenuiflorum
Passiflora foetida
185
HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
Pergularia daemia
Phaseolus vulgaris
Phyllanthus amarus
Physalis minima
Pithecellobium dulce
Pongamia pinnata
Portulaca quadrifida
Psidium guajava
186
HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
Pterocarpus marsupium
Raphanus sativus
Rosa damascena
Sapindus laurifolia
Saraca asoca
Semecarpus anacardium
Sesbania grandiflora
Sida orientalis
187
HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
Syzygium cumini
Syzygium malaccense
T amarindus indica
Tenninalia bellirica
Tenninalia catappa
Tenninalia chebula
Thespesia populnea
Trichosanthes dioica
188
HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL ApPROACH
Triticum aestivum
Typha domingensis ...-,----=~~
Vigna radiata
Vigna unguiculata
Viola cinerea
Vitis vinifera
Withania somnifera
Xanthium strumarium
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-I
189
Parts Used: Leaves and Frits Uses: Leaf paste is applied on boils, leaf decoction is given in diarrhoea, decoction of fruits is given in fever and sexual debility, and decoction of roots given in leucorrhoea, bronchitis and asthma.
78. Sida orienta lis Cav. ( Malvaceae) Local name: Mahabala PIs & Frs: Aug.-Feb. Description: An erect, woody herb with hairy sterns, leaves rhomboid (diamond shaped) margins toothed, flowers yellow, axillary, fruits subglobose. Parts Used: Stems roots and seeds. Uses: Decoction of fresh stems is given in calculi, decoction of roots is given in rheumatism, fever, swelling, and burning maturation, seeds are employed in gonorrhoea, and sexual debility.
79. Solanum nigrum 1. (Solanaceae) Local name: Ringan PIs & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: An erect, divaricately branched, annual herb, leaves ovate, glabrous, flowers axillary, drooping subumebellate cymes, fruits, purplish black, seeds many, discoid, yellow. Parts Used: Whole plant Uses: It is useful in cough, asthma, ulcers, dyspepsia, vomiting, leprosy, skin diseases, fever; the leaves are used in gouty joints and skin diseases.
80. Solanum virginianllnl 1. (Solanaceae) Local name: Bhoy Ringni PIs & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: A prickly, diffuse, perennial, woody at the base, with zigzag branches, leaves ovate, oblong, hairy on both sides, flowers blue, fruits glabrous, globular drooping berry, yellow, seeds many, small, smooth, yellowish-brown. Parts Used: Whole plant Uses: It is useful in dental caries, colic, dyspepsia, leprosy, skin diseases, hypertension, fever, cough and asthma.
81. Trapa "a tans 1.( Onagraceae) Local name: Shingoda PIs: Sep.-Oct. Frs: Oct.-Dec. Description:- A floating herb. Leaves broadly rhomboid, dark-green above, flowers white, axillary, solitary, fruit nut, black, angles spinescent, 1-seeded. Parts Used: Fruits, seeds
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Uses: Seeds are edible, paste of fruit is applied on verbal column in pain, !lciatica and back ache. 82. Tribulus te"estris L. (Zygophyllaceae) Local name: Bethugokharu Fls & Frs: Throughout the year Description: An annual prostate herb, slender, leave simple, pinnate, opposite, sessile, flowers yellow, solitary, fruits a 5 angled or winged spinous, seeds one or more each coccus. Parts Used: Whole plant Uses: The roots and fruits are useful in dyspepsia, cough, asthma, anemia, and scabies. The leaves are useful in gonorrhea, skin diseases, verminosis and general weakness. 83. Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. (Cucurbitaceae) Local name: Rata Indramana Fls & Frs: May-Aug. Description: An extensive, woody climber, with 2-3 branched tendrils. Leaves 35 lobed. Flowers white, axillary. Fruits berries, red. Parts Used: Fruits Uses: Fruit pulp is boiled in Brassica oil and applied on head to cure head ache, also applied on wounds, ulcers and boils. 84. Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.(Cucurbitaceae) Local name: Parval FIs & Frs: Throughout the year Description: A dioecious climber. Leaves ovate, cordate, acute, and sinuate. Flowers are white. Male and female flowers in axillary. Berries ellipsoidal oblong longitudinally ribbed. Seeds minute. Parts Used: Fruits and Roots. Uses: Fruits are used in anorexia, jaundice and indigestion. The roots are used in fever, boils and skin diseases. 85. Triticum aestivum L. ( Poaceae) Local name: Ghahun FIs & Frs: Dec.- Mar. Description: Tufted herbs. Leaves linear, flat, glabrous or hairy. Spikelets distichous, laterally compressed, 3-5 flowered. Parts Used: Grains. Uses: The grains are used in boils, skin diseases and ulcer.
86. Triumfetta rotundifolia Lamk. ( TiIiaceae) Local name: Zipto Fls & Frs: Aug.-Oct.
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Description: An erect stellately hairy herb, leaves orbicular, irregular toothed hairy, base rotunded, flowers yellow, racemes, fruit ovoid, hairy, seeds reddish-brown. Parts Used: Leaves Uses: Leaves are chewed and applied to stop bleeding from wounds and boil, leaf decoction is used in diarrhea. 87. Typha domingensis Pers.( Typhaceae) Local name: Gha Bajariyu Fls & Fsr: Jun.-Sep. Description: A perennial herb, with creeping rhizomes. Stem erect, cylindrical. Leaves linear, thick and spongy. Flowers in vary dense superposed cylindrical spikes, the male and female similar, male above and female below. Parts Used: Pollen. Uses: It is used in abdominal pain during the puerperium, stomach-ache, haematuria, skin diseases.
88. Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. (Asteraceae) Local name: Sahadevi Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Erect hearb. Leaves ovate, elliptic, glabrescent above, densely hairy beneath. Heads bright purple, in terminal, paniculate cymes. Achenes minute brown, hairy on angles. Parts Used: Whole plant. Uses: Roots are useful in diarrhoea, cough, and skin diseases, chronic and internal fever. Leaves are useful in ringworm, elephantiasis, flowers in fever. Seeds used in roundworms, cough, leucoderma. 89. Vigna aconitifolia ijacq.) Morecha!. (Fabaceae) Local name: Math Fls & Frs: Aug.-Jan. Description: A diffuse or sub erect herb, leaflets lobes linear, lanceolate, flowers pale to bright yellow in condensed racemes, pods small, cylindric, seeds brown. Parts Used: Roots and seeds Uses: Roots paste is applied on scorpion sting, seeds are used in fever, leprosy, cough, bleeding diarrhoea and worms. 90. Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek. var. sublobata (Roxb.) Verde. ( Fabaceae) Local name: Mag Fls & Frs: Sep.-Dec. Description: An annual erect, hairy herb, leaflets broadly ovate, flowers yellow in racemes, pods compressed, linear, oblong, hairy, seeds green. Parts Used: Roots and seeds
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Uses: They are used for consumption, cough, fever, diarrhoea, burning sensation and dyspepsia. 91. Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. (Fabaceae) Local name: Choli Fls & Frs: Aug.-Nov. Description: A slender, twining, annual, leaflet ovate, flowers bright purple in condensed racemes, pods cylindric, long, seeds pinkish-white, oblong. Parts Used: Fruits Uses: Green fresh pods are also used to crease sexual vigour and to increase breast milk. 92. Viola cinerea Boiss.( Violaceae) Local name: Zinko FIs: July-Sep. Frs: Aug.-Oct. Description: A suberect herb, leaves glabrous, minutely toothed, flowers solitary, white or purple, fruits capsule, cylindric, 3-valved, seeds minute. Parts Used: Whole plant, Root powder is powerful emetic, the flowers are emollient and demulcent, whole plant is considered a useful febrifuge. Uses: Seeds are cooked and given in diarrhoea, fever, vomiting, energetic. 93. Vitis vinifera L. (Vitaceae) Local name: Draksh Fls: Oct.-Dec. Frs: Dec.-Apr. Description: - A deciduous climber with tendrils. Leaves orbicular deeply 3-5 lobed denate. Flowers green, in branched panicles, scented. Berry 1-2 seeds or seedless. Parts Used: Fruits. Uses: Fruits are given in anaemia, dyspepsia, dysuria, jaundice, fever, vomiting, speedy energy, thirst and heart diseases. Black resins are used as a cooling in burning micturition and erysipelas. 94. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. (Solanaceae) Local name: Shvagandha FIs & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: An undershrub. Leaves ovate, appressed-hairy. Flowers greenishyellow, sessile, and axillary. Berries smooth, red when ripe. Seeds flat, oblong, rarely subreniform, smooth. Parts Used: Roots Uses: The tuberous roots are useful in leucoderma, tissue-building and nervous breakdown. Also useful in ulcer and painful swellings.
95. Xanthium strumarium L. (Asteraceae) Local name: Gadariyu Fls & Frs: Throughout the year.
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ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-I
Description: Annual herb. Leaves broadly ovate, hairy. Heads, greenish-yellow, axillary, spikes. Fruits ellipsoid, pale to dark-brown. Achenes smooth, glabrous, oblong. Parts Used: Roots, leaves and fruits, seed oil. Uses: It is useful in chronic malaria, leucorrhoea and urinary diseases. It is also useful in asthma. 96. Zornia diphylla(L.)Pers. (Fabaceae) Local name: Haran Charo Fls & Frs: Aug.-Nov. Description: An annual, procumbent herb, leaves bifoliolate, ovate, flowers yellow, in terminal and axillary, racemes, pods 2-6 jointed seeds yellowish brown. Parts Used: Whole plant Uses: Plant paste is applied on guinea worms and swelling; leaf juice is dropped in ear in case of ear-ache, plant decoction is given in toxemia.
6. SUMMARY The present paper incorporates the results of ethnomedicinal surveys conducted in North Gujarat area of Gujarat state. It gives an account of 96 species belonging to 37 families of angiosperms. The information on correct botanical name, family, local name, part used and local uses are given, apart from short description and phenology for each species. Photograph of each taxon is also provided.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are thankful to the notified and denotified adivasi groups, their Vaids, Ojhas; Bhopas etc. and forest officials who provided valuable information on this subject. We are also thankful to the authorities of various herbaria and musea for their help and co-operation extended in several ways. TABLE-l Inventory of angiospermic plants of north Gujarat region Sr. No.
Botanical Name
Family
1.
Abrus precatorius L. Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Acalypha indica L. Achyranthes aspera L. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schultes. Allium cepa L. Andrographis paniculata(Burmf.) Wall. Arachis hypogaea L.
Fabaceae Malvaceae Euphorbiaceae Amaranthaceae Acanthaceae Amaranthaceae Liliaceae Acanthaceae Fabaceae
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Contd ...
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... Contd. Sr.No.
Botanical Name
Family
10.
ArgljYeia nervosa (Burmf.) Boj. Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Boerhavia diffusa L. Brassica juncea L. Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.)Pers. Calotropis gigantea (L.)R.Br. Canavalia gladiata acq.) DC. Cannabis sativa L. Cassia italica (Mill.) Lam. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. Cayratia tnfolia (L.)Domin Celosia argentea L. Cephalonoplos segetum (Bunge)Kitam. Chenopodium album L. Cicer arietinum L. Cichorum inttJbus L. Cissus quadrangula L. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. Cleome viscosa L. Clitoria ternatea L. Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt.
Convolvulaceae Aristolochiaceae Scrophulariaceae Nyctaginaceae Brassicaceae Crassulaceae Asdepiadaceae Fabaceae Cannabinaceae Caesapiniaceae Apocynaceae Vitaceae Amaranthaceae
Commelina diffusa Burmf. Corchorus aestuans L. Crotalaria retusa L.
Commelinaceae
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.
38. 39. 40. 41.
a
Ctenolepsis cerasiformis (Stocks) Hkf.. Cucumis callosus (RottI.) Cogn. Cucumis sativus L. Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Cyperus rotundus L.
Asteraceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Asteraceae Vitaceae Cucurbitaceae Capparaceae Fabaceae Cucurbitaceae TiIiaceae Fabaceae Cucurbitaceae Cucurbitaceae Cucurbitaceae Poaceae Fabaceae Poaceae Cyperaceae Contd ...
195
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-I
... Contd. Sr.No. Botanical Name 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71.
72. 73.
Datura metel L. Echinops echinatus Roxb. Eclipta prostrata L. Enicostema axillare (Lam.) Raynal Euphorbia neriifolia L. Evolvulus alsinoides L. Fagonia cretica L. Gloriosa superba L. Glycine max(L.) Merr. Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.)Schult. Hibiscus micranthus Lf. Indigofera tinctoria L.. Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth Jatropha curcas L. Lablab purpureus (L. )Sweet. Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Stindl. Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.)W.&A. Leucas aspera (Willd.)Link. Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. Luffa ClJlindrica (L.) Roem. Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Momordica charantia L. Momordica dioica Roxb.ex Willd. Mukia maderaspatana L. Nicotiana tabacum L. Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. Phaseolus vulgaris L. Phyllanthus amarus Schumach.&Thorn. Physalis minima L. Passiflora foetida L. Portulaca quadriftda L.
Family Solanaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Gentianaceae Euphorbiaceae Convolvulaceae Zygophyllaceae Liliaceae Fabaceae Asclepiadaceae Malvaceae Fabaceae Convolvulaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Cucurbitaceae Asclepiadaceae Lamiaceae Cucurbitaceae Cucurbitaceae Solanaceae Cucurbitaceae Cucurbitaceae Cucurbitaceae Solanaceae Lamiaceae Asclepiadaceae Fabaceae Euphorbiaceae Solanaceae Passifloraceae Portulacaceae Contd ...
196
N.K.
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... Contd. Sr.No. Botanical Name
74. 75. 76. 77. 78.
79. 80.
81. 82.
83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95.
Family
Brassicaceae Raphanus sativus L. Rosaceae Rosa damascena Mill. Malvaceae Sida cordata (Burm. f) Borss. Malvaceae Sida orientalis Cay. Solanaceae Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae Solanum virginianum L. Onagraceae Trapa natans L. Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae Cucurbitaceae Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. Cucurbitaceae Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. Poaceae Triticum aestivum L. Tiliaceae Triumfetta rotundifolia Lamk. Typhaceae Typha domingensis Pers. Asteraceae Vernonia cinerea (1.) Less. Fabaceae Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Morechal. Fabaceae Vigna radiata (1.) Wilczek. var.sublobata (Roxb.) Verdc. Fabaceae Vigna unguiculata (1.) Walp. Violaceae Viola cinerea Boiss. Vitaceae Vi tis vinifera 1. Solanaceae Withania somnifera (1.) Dunal Asteraceae Xanthium strumarium 1. Fabaceae Zornia diphylla (1.) Pers.
000
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-II N.K. PATEL, I.C. PATEL, A.R. SELIYA AND D.N. PARMAR Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Enumeration
3. Summary
1. INTRODUCTION This paper is in continuation with the earlier part I and reports the traditional uses of 77 shrub and tree species being practiced by the tribes in North Gujarat area of Gujarat state. The methodology and pattern of presentation of data followed for the present paper is the same as in the part-I.
2. ENUMERATION 1. Acacia catechu L.f. Willd.(Mimosaceae) Local Name: Kher Fls & Frs: Jul.- Jan. Description: A moderate sized deciduous tree, with grey bark. Leaves bipinnately compound. flowers pale yellow. Fruits flat brown pods, shiny. Seeds 3-10 per pod. Uses: The bark is useful in passive diarrhoea and leprosy. Heartwood is also used in leprosy.
2. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. (Mimosaceae) Local Name: Hermo Baval Fls & Frs: Jul.-Jan. Description: A medium sized armed tree. Bark yellow. Leaves bipinnately compound. Nodes with a pair of stout pointed spines. Flower dull creamy white.
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Uses: Paste of root is applied on guinea worm. Bark is useful in diarrhoea and for washing ulcers. Stem bark is used in cough and tanning leather. Flowers are given in diabetes.
3. Acacia nilotica (L.)Del. (Mimosaceae) Local Name: Baval Fls &; Frs: Jul.-Apr. Description: An armed tree with black bark. Leaves bipinnately, main rachis hairy and with gland, linear, stipulates modified in spines. flower yellow in axillary and terminal panicles. Uses:- Leaves and bark are useful in dysentery, diarrhoea, gonorrhoea and piles. Gum s useful in fever, diabetes, diarrhoea, dysentery, cough and pyorrhoea. Pods are given in cough, diarrhoea and bronchitis. Leaves are given to pregnant women for white progeny. 4. Acacia senegal (L.)WiIld. (Mimosaceae) Local Name: Goradio Baval Fls &; Frs: May.-Feb. Description: A medium sized tree. Leaves bipinnate 3-5 pairs, leaflets linear stipules apines usually threat at node. Flower greenish white, shining, in axillary spikes. Uses:- Paste of leaves is applied on boils, wounds and swelling. Gum is useful in checking haemorrhoea and epistaxia, in cough, sprue and stomatitis. Bark is useful in diabetes. 5. Adansonia digitata L.(Bombacaceae) Local Name: Rukhdo Fls: Apr.-May Frs: May-Dec. Description: A tall, deciduous tree. Leaves compound, digitate, shining upper surface, leaflet obovate. Flowers pendulous, red, axillary, solitary. Uses: Bark decoction is given for intermittent fever. Leaf paste is applied on boils, rheumatism. Pulp of fruit is given in diarrhoea, dysentery, sprue, fever and thirst. Gum is used to cure mouth ulcers. 6. Aegle marmelos (L.)Corr.(Rutaceae) Local Name: Bili Fls: May-Jun. Frs: Jun.-May. Description: A thorny, deciduous tree. leaves trifoliate, leaflets lanceolate. Flowers greenish white. Fruit globose, rind woody. Seeds wrinkled, pale-brown. Uses: Leaf paste is applied on swelling and rheumatism. Leaf juice is employed in diabetes, fever, asthma, jaundice, ear complaints and dropsy. Bark is useful in fever and vomiting.
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7. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. (Simaroubaceae) Local Name: Arduso. Fls & Frs: Dec.-May Description: A tall, deciduous tree. Leaf pinnate, irregular, serrate, leaflets, ovate, lanceolates glabrous. Flower pale yellow in large panicles. Fruit samara. Uses: Decoction of bark is given to women in debility after childbirth, fever, sprue, cholera, cold and dysentery. Bark used in bronchitis and asthma. bark paste is applied on stomach pain. S. Albizia lebbeck (1.) WiIld. (Mimosaceae) Local Name: Kalosaras Fls & Frs: Aug.- Mar. Description: A large unarmed deciduous tree, leaves bipinnate with a large gland on petiole, leaflets elliptic oblong. Flowers greenish yellow, fragrant, in globose umbellate heads. Uses:- Flowers are given in piles, diarrhoea, swelling and gonorrhoea. The seeds are applied as poultice to reduce swelling of cervical glands. Root is useful in hemi crania. Stem bark is useful for on poisonous insect bites and poisonous animal bites.
9. Alstonia scholaris (1.) R. Br.(Apocynaceae) Local name: Saptaparni Fls & Frs : Dec.-Jan. Description: A large evergreen tree, bark grayish brown, rough, lenticellate, milky latex. Leaves whorl, elliptic-oblong, pale beneath. Flowers small, greenish white, numerous in umbellate panicles, corolla tube short. Fruits follicles. Seeds papillose with brownish hair at each end. Uses:- The bark is useful in fevers, malaria fever, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, leprosy, skin diseases, foul ulcer and asthma. 10. Annona squamosa 1. (Annonaceae) Local Name: Sitaphal. Fls: April-Aug. Frs: June-Aug. Description: A deciduous tree with light-black, rough, longitudinally, fissured bark. Leaves glabrous elliptic. oblong, rarely obovate, petiolate. Flowers solitary, axillary. Fruits globose. Uses: The root is useful in mental depression and spinal disorder. The leaves and seeds are used to kill lice. Fruits are useful in anaemia, burning sensation, vomiting, cough, malignant tumours. 11. Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex GuiIl.(Combretaceae) Local name: Dhavdo Fls & Frs : Sep.-Dec.
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Description: A large deciduous tree with greenish white smooth bark. Leaves elliptic, obtuse at the apex, rounded, glabrous, midrib prominent, pink, leaves turning red before falling. Flowers sessile in small dense heads. Fruits small, many in globular head, yellowish-brown, winged, a single seed. Uses: The roots are useful in wounds and ulcers, inflammations, diabetes, diarrhoea, skin diseases, leprosy. The leaf juice is good for otopyorrhea.
12. Azadirachta indica A. Juss.(Meliaceae) Local name: Limado PIs: Dec.-Mar. Frs: Jan.-May Description: A medium to large size tree, having grayish to dark grey tubercled bark. Leaves compound, imparipinnate, leaflets, sub opposite, serrate. Flowers creamy or yellowish white in axillary, panicles, cylinric. Fruits one seeded. Seeds ellipsoid, thick, fleshy and oily. Uses: The bark and leaves are useful in hyperdipsia, leprosy, skin diseases, eczema, leucoderma and malaria fever, wounds, ulcer, burning sensation, tumour, vomiting dyspepsia, internal worms, cough and diabetes.
13. Bauhinia racemosa Lamk.(Caesalpiniaceae) Local Name: Kanchnar Fls & Frs: Mar.-Jui. Description: A deciduous, small tree. Leaves simple, divided into 2 rounded lobed, white and hairy below, cordate at base. Flowers creamy yellow, small in terminal or leaf opposed racemes. Uses: Leaves useful in piles, gonorrhoea, malaria and headache. Leaf paste is applied on tumours. Roots are useful in burning sensation, toxaemia, TB and obesity. Bark useful in liver, swelling, goiter and swelling.
14. Bauhinia variegata L.(Caesalpiniaceae) Local name: Kanchnar PIs & Frs : Sep.-Feb. Description: A moderate sized deciduous tree with vertically cracked gray bark. Leaves connate, leaflets, ovate, rounded at apex. flowers white or pink, in short axillary. fruits flat dehiscent pods, seeds 10-15. Uses: The roots and bark are useful in diarrhoea, skin diseases, leprosy, internal worms, tumours, wounds, ulcers, cough and diabetes.
15. Boewellia serrata Roxb.ex Colb.(Burseraceae) Local Name: Haleri PIs & Frs: Dec.-Apr. Description: A deciduous, tall tree. Leaves alternate, leaflets 13-31, sessile, hairy. Flowers white, in axillary racemes.
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Uses: Twig is used as tooth brush to cure tooth complaints and mouth ulcers. Leaves, seed or gum are used on snake bite. Bark used in muscular pain and rheumatic pain.
16. Bombax ceiba L(Bombacaceae) Local Name: Simlo FIs: Feb.-April FRS:- Mar-June Description:- A tall deciduous tree with a straight buttressed trunk, bark gray, covered with hard, sharp, conical prickles, leaves large, glabrous, entire. Flower red, numerous, appearing when the tree is bare of leaves. Fruits capsule. Uses: The roots are used in dysentery. The gum is useful in dysentery, haemoptysis of pulmonary tuberculosis, burning sensation. The bark is used for healing wounds. Leaves are good for skin eruption. Flowers are good for skin troubles. 17. Buchanania lanzan Spreng.(Anacardiaceae) Local Name: Charoli Fls: Dec.-Apr. Frs: Jan.- Apr. Description: A medium sized tree 18 m height, dark gray rough fissured bark and young branches clothed with silky hairy. Leaves simple, obtuse, base rounded, straight and parallel. Flowers small, greenish white, in terminal and axillary panicles which are shorter than leaves, carpel 5. Fruits black. Uses: The roots are useful in leprosy, skin disease and diarrhoea. The leaves are useful in burning sensation, cough, bronchitis and skin diseases. The fruits are antiinflammatory and useful in leprosy, skin diseases, and gleets, burning sensation, abdominal disorders, cough, asthma, fever and ulcers. 18. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.(Fabaceae) Local Name: Khakhro Fls & Frs: Dec.-May. Description: A medium sized deciduous tree, leaves 3-foliate, leaflets coriaceous, obtuse, glabrous above when old, finally silky, flowers bright orange red, large, in rigid racemes, fruits pods. Uses: The bark is useful in diarrhoea, dysentery, intestinal worms, bone fractures, gonorrhoea, ulcers, tumours and diabetes. The leaves useful in pimples, boils, colic, worm infestations and haemenorrhoea. The flowers are useful in diarrhoea, fever, leprosy, skin diseases, bone fractures and are very efficacious in birth control. The seeds are useful in herpes, shin disease, ringworm, epilepsy, roundworm and diabetes. gum is useful in diarrhoea, haematemesis, diabetes, leprosy, skin diseases, ulcer and fever. 19. Caesalpinia sappan L(Caesalpiniaceae) Local Name: Galtoro Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Small tree, with hard wood. Stem prickly. Young shoot tomentose,
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branches glabrous covered with short spines. Leaves alternate, glabrous above. Inflorescence in terminal raceme. Flower yellow coloured. Seeds yellowish-brown. Uses: It is useful for treatment of bacillary dysentery, diarrhoea, intestinal and uterine haemorrhages, wound, impetigo and anaemia. 20. Callistemon lanceolatus DC.(Myrtaceae) Local Name: Bottle Brush Fls & Frs: Feb.-Apr. Description: A small evergreen tree. Leaves narrow, lanceolate, pointed. Flowers red in long drooping spike like bottle brush. Fruit a small pyxis. Uses: Leaf extract is applied on ringworm, boils and ulcers. 21. Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae) Local Name: Papayu Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: A small, soft-wooded, short lived laticiferous tree. Leaves deeply lobed, palm-like long, hollow petiole. Flowers unisexual, white coloured, rarely bisexual, males in long drooping panicles, females in short clusters. Fruits one chambered, succulent and spherical. Seed many, yellowish brown. Uses: The fruits are useful in cough, bronchitis, inflammations, ringworm, skin disease, urinary calculus and injures of the urinary tract. The latex is useful in round worm infestation, stomachalgia, dyspepsia, skin diseases, leprosy, fever and general debility.
22. Caryota urens L.(Arecaceae) Local Name: Shivjata Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. I
Description: A palm with a smooth, cylindrical, shiny, bearing a crown of large leaves. Leaves long, drooping, and bipinnate with leaflets shaped like the tail of a fish. Flowers on pendulous spadix, inflorescence long, flowers group of three, female in the centre and male on side. Fruit globose, reddish when ripe. Uses: The pulp of the fruit is good for hyperdipsia and fatigue. A paste made from the nut is good for hemicranias.
23. Cassia fistula L.(Caesalpiniaceae) Local Name: Garmalo. Fls: Mar.-June. Frs: Throughout the year. Description: A moderate sized deciduous tree, smooth bark when young. Leaves pinnately compound, ovate, acute, bright green. Flowers bright yellow in lax pendulous racemes. Fruits cylindrical pods. Uses: The roots are useful in skin diseases, tuberculius glands and burning sensation. The bark is useful in boils, pustules, leprosy, ringworm, colic, fever, diabetes
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and cardiopathy. The leaves are useful in skin diseases, leprosy, ulcers and fevers. Flowers are useful in skin diseases, burning sensation, dry cough and bronchitis.
24. Casuarina equisetifolia L.(Casuarinaceae) Local Name: Saru. Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: A tree with drooping branches and needle like branchlets. Leaves reduced and scale-like giving branthlets. Flowers anemophilous, male flower borne in spikes. Uses: The plant is used to treat nervous disorders, diarrhoea and gonorrhoea. It is used into treat cough, ulcers and constipation. Bark is used as an emetic to treat throat infection, coughs and stomachache. It is used an infusion of the grated bark to treat mouth infection and urinary tract infection.
25. Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn. (Bombacaceae) Local Name: Safed Simlo Fls & Frs: Description: A medium sized deciduous tree. Leaves digitately compound, glabrous, petioles long, entire and lanceolate. Flower white. Fruits oblong or fusiform capsule. Uses: The roots are useful in gonorrhoea, dysuria, intermittent fevers. The bark is useful in hepatopathy, abdominal complaint, tumours and colic.
26. Citrus limon (L.) Burm. (Rutaceae) Local Name: Limbu Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: A thorny tree. Leaves elliptic oblong, gland dotted. Petiole winged. Flowers white, fragrant in axillary. Fruits globose berries. Uses: Fruit juice is employed in vomiting, nausea, indigestion piles, scurvy, dyspepsia, pyorrhoea and cholera. Lemon oil is also applied to check postpartum bleeding.
27. Cordia dichotoma Forst.f. (Boraginaceae) Local Name: Gundo Fls & Frs: Feb.-Mar. Description: A medium sized tree. Leaves simple, entire, dentate, and ellipticlanceolate. Flowers white, terminal. Fruit drupes, yellowish brown. Uses: The bark is useful in dyspepsia, fever, diarrhoea, burning sensation, leprosy and skin diseases. The leaves are useful in gonorrhoea. the fruits are useful in ulcers, leprosy, skin diseases, burning sensation, bronchitis, dry cough, chronic fever and ring worm.
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28. Crateva adansonii DC. (Capparaceae) Local Name: Vayvarno Fls & Frs: Jan.-May. Description: An unarmed, deciduous tree. Leaves trifoliate, petiolate. Leaflets obovate. Flowers white. Fruits subglobose, pale orange. Uses: Leaves paste is applied on boils, mumps, burning sensations and swelling. Leaf decoction is given in fevers, indigestion. decoction of dried flowers is given in toxaemia. Bark paste applied on boils, ulcers, swellings, joints pains. Root and bark used for fever, cancer and toxaemia.
29. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC. (Fabaceae) Local Name: Sisam Fls & Frs: Jan.-Oct. Description: A deciduous tree. Leaves imparipinnate, alternate, rachis zigzag. Flowers pale yellow, sessile or nearly so in axillary panicles, shorter than leaves. Fruit pods narrowed at the base into a long stalk. Uses: The roots are useful in diarrhoea and dysentery. The leaves are useful in gonorrhoea, menorrhagia, dyspepsia, colic, diarrhoea, dysentery, vomiting and burning sensation. The bark and heartwood are useful in hyperdypsia, burning sensation, vomiting, skin diseases, leprosy, leucoderma, scabies, ulcers, dysentery, bronchitis, gout and fever.
30. Delonix elata (L.)Gamble(Caesalpinaceae) Local Name: Sandesro Fls & Frs: Mar.-Aug. Description: A tall deciduous tree. Leaves bipinnate, leaflets 10-20 pairs, linear oblong. flower creamy white in terminal racemes. Uses:- Root paste is applied for scorpion sting. Leaf paste is applied to boils, plague and piles. leaves are also useful in vagina in case of leucorrhoea. Bark is useful in fever.
31. Delonix regia (Boj. ex Hook.) Raf. (Caesalpinaceae) Local Name: Gulmohor Fls: Apr.-Aug. Frs: Jun.- Mar. Description: A tall branched, deciduous tree. bark grey. Leaves pinnate, leaflets 15-20 pairs. Flower reddish orange. Uses: Bark is given in fever and diarrhoea. Flowers are eaten in anorexia for energy and to quench thirst.
32. Drypetes roxburghii (Wall.) Hurusawa (Euphorbiaceae) Local Name: Putranjivi Fls & Frs: July-Dec.
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Description: A moderate sized evergreen tree having dark grey bark. Leaves simple, alternate, dark green, shiny, elliptic-oblong. Male flower pedicellate in axillary cluster, female flowers in axile. Fruit ellipsoid or rounded drupes. seed normally one. Uses:- The leaves are useful in catarrh, fever and sterility. The seeds are useful in burning sensation, hyperdipsia, constipation, elephantiasis, habitual abortion and sterility.
33. Erythrina variegata L. (Fabaceae) Local Name: Pangaro Fls: Feb-Apr. Frs: Best part of the year. Description: A tree. Stem branched, smooth, covered with short prickles. Leaves alternate, trifoliate, the terminal largest. Inflorescence dense axillary and terminal raceme. Flower red. Seeds reniform, red or brown. Uses: The leaves used for the relief of insomnia and anxiety. Crushed fresh leaves are used as poultice in haemorrhoids and metroptosis. Powdered leaves are topically applied for wound and ulcer. The stem bark is used against rheumatism in the form of decoction.
34. Eucalyptus camaldulellsis Dehnh. (Myrtaceae) Local Name: Nilgiri Fls & Frs: Dec.-Mar. Description: An evergreen, erect tree. Bark smooth, deciduous in thin layer. Leaves narrowly lanceolate. Flowers pale green, nearly globular, valves exserted, lid usually narrowed beak and rim. Uses: Oil obtained from leaves is applied as externally on chest and temple in headache, fever and common cold also used in flatulence, fever and cough.
35. Ficus benghalensis L.(Moraceae) Local Name: Vad Receptacles: July-Oct. Description: A very large tree bearing many aerial roots bark greenish white. Leaves simple, alternate, often in cluster at ends of branches, stipulate, ovate, and entire. The fruit receptacles are axillary, sessile, in pairs, red when ripe. Fruit small. Uses: The aerial roots are useful in obstinate vomiting and leucorrhoea. The bark is useful in burning sensation, haemoptysis, diarrhoea, dysentery, diabetes, ulcers, skin diseases, and gonorrhoea. The leaves are good for ulcers, leprosy, allergic condition of skin and burning sensation. The latex is useful in neuralgia, rheumatism, lumbago, gonorrhoea, inflammations, and crack of the sole and skin diseases.
36. Ficus carica L. (Moraceae) Local Name: Anjir Receptacles: July-Oct.
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Description: Deciduous tree. Have large leaves and fleshy receptacles which ripen into purple-brown, pear-shaped fruit. Uses: The fruit's emollient pulp help relieve pain and inflammation, and it has been used to treat tumours, swellings. Figs are also used in treating dry and irritable cough and bronchitis. The milky latex from leaves and stem are used to treat warts, insect bites and stings. 37. Ficus religiosa L. (Moraceae) Local Name: Piplo Receptilc1es: Dec.-May. Description: A large deciduous tree. The dropping branchlets bear long-petiole ovate, cordate. Leaves bright green, shiny. The receptacles occurring in pairs, axillary, globose and smooth. Uses: The bark is used for inflammatory swelling and good for burns. leaves and tender shoots are used for wound and skin diseases. Fruits are taken in water to cure asthma. The latex is good for neuralgia, inflammations and haemorrhages. 38. Grewia tilii/olia Vahl (Tiliaceae) Local Name: Dhaman FIs: Mar.-June. Frs: Apr.-July, some times up to Jan. Description: A medium sized tree with blackish brown rough fibrous bark. Leaves simple, alternate and ovate. Flower yellow, small on thick axillary peduncles. Fruits globose drupes, black when ripe. Uses: The bark is useful in burning sensation, hyperdipsia, seminal weakness and general debility. 39. Helicteres isora L.(Sterculiaceae) Local Name: Maradsing Fls: July-Oct. Frs: Aug.-Apr. Description: A small tree with grey bark and young shoots clothed with stellate hairs. Leaves simple, alternate, bifarious, obovate, obliquely cordate and serrate. Flowers red, axillary cluster. fruits reenish brown. Uses: The roots and bark are useful in colic, scabies, diabetes, diarrhoea and dysentery. The fruits are useful in colic flatulence diarrhoea, dysentery, wounds ulcers and diabetes.
40. Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don (Apocynaceae) Local Name: Indrajav FIs: Jan.-June. Frs: Mar.-Dec. Description: A tree. Bark pale-brown. Leaves opposite, oval, subsessile. Flowers white in axillary or terminal corymbiferous cymes. Seeds numerous, brownish. Uses: The trunk bark is effective against amoebiasis. Leaves cure scabies. Bark is used in amoebic dysentery and diarrhoea.
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41. Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. (Ulmaceae) Local Name: Kanjo Fls: Dec.-Feb. Frs: Jan.-May. Description: A medium sized deciduous tree. leaves alternate, simple, distichously, elliptic, entire, glabrous with rounded base. Flowers greenish yellow. Male and hermaphrodite mixed in short racemes of fascicles near the leaf scar. Uses: The bark and leaves are useful in inflammations, colic, helminthiasis, vomiting, skin diseases, leprosy, diabetes and rheumatism. 42. Lannea longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. (Anacardiaceae) Local Name: Moyno FIs: Jan.-June Frs: Feb.-July. Description: A large tree with grayish bark rough. leaves imparipinnately compound, crowded at the ends of branches. Leaflets membranous, oblong-ovate, green above, glabrous, base rounded. flower small, yellowish. Uses: The bark is useful in cuts, wounds, bruises, ulcers, gout, diarrhoea and dysentery. The leaves are useful in elephantiasis, inflammations and bruises. 43. Limonia acidissima L. (Rutaceae) Local Name: Kothi Fls: Mar.-July. Frs: Mar.-Dec. Description: A moderate sized deciduous tree, armed with strong, straight, axillary spines. Leaves compound, imparipinnate, alternate, obovate. Flower small, dull red. Fruits globose, woody, rough, grey-coloured berries. Uses: The leaves are useful in gastropathy, anorexia, diarrhoea, vomiting, cough, bronchitis and hiccough. The unripe fruits are useful in diarrhoea, dysentery, vomiting, stomatitis, tumour, cough, asthma leucorrhoea, wounds and ulcers. The gum is useful in diarrhoea, dysentery, gastropathy and diabetes. 44. Madhuca longifolia(Koen.)Macbr.(Sapotaceae) Local Name: Mahudo FIs & Frs: Mar.-June. Description: A large evergreen tree with dark grey bark. Leaves thin, clustered near the ends of branches. Flower pale yellow and fleshy appearing in dense cluster near the ends of branches, corolla tubular. Fruits ovoid berries, yellow when ripe. Uses: The bark is good for inflammations, sprains and pruritus. Flowers are useful in strangury, verminosis, haemoptysis and hepatopathy. The fruits are useful in bronchitis, consumption. The oil obtained from the seed is useful in dermatopathy, rheumatism and haemorrhoids. 45. Mangifera indica L.(Anacardiaceae) Local Name: Ambo Fls: Dec.-May Frs: Feb.-July.
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Description: A large evergreen tree. Leaves simple, crowded at the ends of branches, linear-oblong or elliptic-Ianceolate, acute, acuminate. flower small, pungently odorous, reddish white. fruits large, fleshy drupes, green, orange, yellow or red. Uses: The roots and bark are useful in metrorrhagia, colonorrhagia, leucorrhoea, wounds, ulcers, vomiting, diarrhoea, dysentery and rheumatism. The leaves are useful in burning sensation, wounds, ulcers and diarrhoea. The flowers are useful in haemorrhagia, haemoptysis, wounds, ulcers and dyspepsia.
46. Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dub. (Sapotaceae) Local Name: Rayana FIs: Sep.-Oct. Frs: Nov.-Apr. Description: A medium sized glabrous evergreen tree with grey bark. Leaves simple, alternate, elliptic-obovate or oblong, glabrous on both side. Flowers white or pale yellow, axillary, solitary. Fruits one seeded reddish yellow berries, ovoid or ellipsoid. Uses: The bark is useful in ulorrhagia, ulitis, odontopathy, fever, colic, dyspepsia and burning sensation. The fruits are useful in consumption, hallucinations loss of consciousness, anorexia, dipsia and leprosy. The seeds are useful in ulcers and the opacity of the cornea.
47. Melia azedarach L.(Meliaceae) Local Name: Bakanlimdo Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: A tree. Bark pale brown, lenticellate, longitudinally furrowed. Leaves alternate, odd- pinnate; leaflets opposite, serrate. flower white. Drupe ovate or ellipsoidglobose with 4 seeds. Uses: Root-bark is used in treating ascariasis and oxyuriasis and vaginal infection. Decoction is effective for trichomonas infection.
48. Michelia champaca L.(Mangoliaceae) Local Name: Pilo Champo Fla & Frs: Apr.-Aug. Description: A small evergreen tree, leaves lanceolate, glabrous. Flowers yellow, fragranted. fruit an etaerio of follicles. Uses: Young leaves are beneficial for clear vision. Leaf juice with honey is used for colic. Bark decoction used in rheumatism. Flowers are used in gonorrhoea and fevers. Flower oil is used for cephalagia, ophthalmia and gout.
49. Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Sinclair (Annonaceae) Local Name: Umbio Fls: Mar.-Apr. Frs: Apr.- June. Description: A deciduous tree. Leaves alternate, ovate-oblong, Flowers on slanders pedicels. Fruit subglobose, tomentose, stipulate.
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Uses: Leaves are used on ulcers and animals wounds. Leaves warmed and applied on castor oil then used on inflammation due to guinea worm infection.
50. Moringa concanensis Nimmo ex Dalz. & Gibs. (Moringaceae) Local Name: Kadvo Saragavo Fls & Frs: Oct.-Dec. Description: Deciduous tree. Wood soft and white. Bark rough, thick and corky. Leaves pinnate, rachis jointed, opposite. Flowers bisexual, irregular. Seeds numerous, 3-andled. Uses: The root and root bark are useful for the treatment of paralysis, intermittent fever, epilepsy, rheumatism and giddiness. Stem bark is abortifacient and fruits are used for curing liver and spleen diseases, joint pains and paralysis. Flowers are used as aphrodisiac. Seed oil is used for treatment of rheumatism. Gum is used for treating dental and ear problems.
51. Moringa olei/era Lamk. (Moringaceae) Local name: Saragvo Fls &Frs: Throughout the year. Description: Deciduous tree, rough, greyish-brown, corky bark. Leaves ovate, glabrous, and axillary. Capsule pendulous, deeply striate. Seeds triangular, winged on angles, glabrous. Uses: The roots are useful in dyspepsia, anorexia, verminosis, diarrhoea, colic flatulence, paralysis, anemorrhoea, fever, ascites, cough, asthma, bronchitis and pectoral diseases. The bark is useful in ascites, ringworm. Leaves are useful in scurvy, wounds, tumours and helminthasis. The seeds are useful in neuralgia, inflammations and intermittent fevers. 52. Morns alba L.(Moraceae) Local Name: Shetur Fls & Frs: July-Dec. Description: A deciduous tree, stem brown, rough. Leaves alternate, very variable in size and shape. Flower monoecious or dioeciously, greenish, grouped in stalked, hanging catkin. Fruit aggregate, consisting of all the ovaries of the catkin forming a crustaceous. Uses: Leaves are useful to cure cough and dyspnoea, facial dropsy, oedema, oliguria and injury. 53. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Oleaceae) Local Name: Parijatak Fls & Frs: Aug.-Feb., often throughout the year. Description: A hardy small tree with grey or greenish white rough bark. Leaves simple, opposite, ovate, acute or acuminate. Flowers small, white with bright orange corolla tubes.
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Uses: The leaves are useful in vitiated condition of vata and kapha, inflammations, dyspepsia, pruritus, dermatopathy, chronic fever, bronchitis, asthma, cough, greyness of hair and blandness. The flowers are useful in inflammations, ophthalmopathy, flatulence, colic, dyspepsia, greyness of hair and baldness. The seeds are very useful in baldness, scurvy and affections of the scalp.
54. Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. (Bignoniaceae) Local Name: Tetu Fls: June-Aug. Frs: Aug.-Dec. Description: A medium sized deciduous tree with soft wooded. Leaves very large, 2-3 pinnate, rachis very soft, cylindrical. Flowers lurid to reddish purple outside, dull or pale pinkish yellow within, numerous in large erect racemes. Fruits flat capsules. Uses: The roots are useful in inflammations, dropsy, sprains, cough, asthma, bronchitis, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dysentery, gout, vomiting and fever. The leaves are useful in ulcers. The mature fruits are useful in cardiac disorders, bronchitis and haemorrhoids.
55. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.)Benth. (Mimosaceae) Local Name: Gorasamli Fls & Frs: Dec.-Apr. Description: A tall armed tree. Leaves bipinnate, stipulate modified in to spines. Leaflets 2, oblong obtuse, oblique. Flowers creamy white, in axillary and terminal panicles, globose heads. Uses: Pulp of pod is eaten along with sugar in jaundice and diarrhoea. Paste of leaves is applied on blunt injury and to promote hair growth. decoction of bark is given in fever and diarrhoea.
56. Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. (Annonaceae) Local Name: Asopalav Fls: Dec.-June. Frs: Apr.-Aug. Description: A tall handsome evergreen tree, bark smooth, grayish brown. Leaves simple, green, shining with undulate margins. Flowers yellowish green in fascicles, fruits a bunch of small ovoid one seeded berries. Uses: The bark is useful in fever, skin diseases, diabetes and hypertension.
57. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Fabaceae) Local Name: Kanji Fls & Frs: Feb.-Aug. Description: An evergreen tree. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate, leaflets broadly ovate, acute. Flowers purplish white in axillary racemes. Uses: Twigs are used as tooth brushes, it relieves toothache. Leaves are useful in rheumatism, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, cough and whooping cough. Flower is useful in
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diabetes. Bark is useful in piles. Seed oil is applied to skin diseases. Seed powder is given in fever and rheumatism.
58. Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce (Mimosaceae) Local Name:· Khijado Fls & Frs: Dec.-May. Description: An armed small tree. Leaves bipinnate, opposite, leaflets oblong, linear. Flowers yellow, in axillary spikes. Pods straight, cylindrical. Uses: Decoction of bark is given in rheumatism, sprue, diabetes and diarrhoea. Leaves useful in boils, cough, asthma and diarrhoea. Pods are used in diarrhoea and for energy.
59. Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae) Local Name: Jamphal Fls & Frs: Major part of the year. Description: A small tree. Bark peeling off. leaves opposite, elliptic-oblong, coriaceous. flowers white in axillary, solitary. Fruit a fleshy berry, pyriform. Seed small and hard. Uses: Unripe fruit is employed in diarrhoea. Leaf decoction is given in scurvy, ulcers, as mouth wash in stomatitis, swollen gums, cholera, vomiting and diarrhoea. 60. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Fabaceae) Local Name: Biyo Fls: Apr.-May. Frs: May-Oct. Description: A tall, deciduous tree. leaflets ovate oblong, glabrous. Flower on panicles, terminal and axillary. Pods glabrous. Uses: Gum is used in diarrhoea. Root paste is used on swelling.
61. Salvadora persica L.(Salvadoraceae) Local Name: Piludi Fls & Frs: Nov.-Feb. Description: A much branched evergreen small tree with short trunk and drooping branches. leaves somewhat fleshy, grayish green, ovate, oblong, and often mucronate at the apex. Flowers small, greenish yellow in axillary and terminal compound lax panicles. Fruits globose and smooth. Uses: The stem bark is good for gastropathy. The leaves are useful in asthma, bronchitis, cough, painful tumours and haemorrhoids. Shoot and leaves useful in all types of poisons, cough and bronchitis. The fruits are useful in gastropathy, constipation and seminal weakness. 62. Sapindus laurifolia Vahl (Sapindaceae) Local Name: Aritha FIs: Sep.-Dec. Frs: Nov.-Mar.
212
N.K.
PATEL,
I.C.
PATEL,
A.R.
SELIYA AND
D.N.
PARMAR
Description: Medium sized deciduous tree with grey smooth bark. Leaves pinnate, leaflets 2-3 pairs, terminal pair being largest. Flowers white, male flower many, bisexual flower few. Fruits fleshy drupes. Uses: The roots are good for hemicranias, hysteria and epilepsy. The fruits are beneficial for asthma, diarrhoea, cholera, lumbago, verminosis and gastralgia.
63. Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde. (Caesalpiniaceae) Local Name: Ashok Fls: Dec.-April Description: A medium sized handsome evergreen tree. leaves pinnate. Flowers orange or orange-yellow in dense corymbs, very fragrant. fruits leathery, compressed. Uses: The bark is useful in dyspepsia, fever, dipsia, burning sensation, colic, ulcers, leucorrhoea and pimples. The leaves are used for treating stomachalgia. The flowers are used in hyperdipsia, burning sensation, dysentery. The dried flowers are used in diabetes. The seeds used for treating bone fractures.
64. Semecarpus ana cardium L.f. (Anacardiaceae) Local Name: Bilva Fls & Frs: July-Dec. Description: A medium sized tree with grey bark. leaves simple, alternate, obovate-oblong, rounded at the apex. Flowers greenish-white, fascicled in pubescent panicles. Fruits obliquely ovoid or oblong. Uses: The fruits are useful in beriberi, cancer, neuritis, cough, asthma, colic, helminthiasis ~ specially hookworms, leprosy, leucoderma, scaly skin eruption, fever, diabetes and ulcers.
65. Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir. (Fabaceae) Local Name: Agathio Fls & Frs: Aug.-Feb. Description: A soft wooded, quick growing tree. leaves paripinnate, pulvini large leaflets obovate. flowers white-pinkish, torulose. Seeds oblong. Uses: Leaf juice is used as nasal drops in headache. Fruits used as vaginal douche in leucorrhoea. Fruits used as curative agents in colic, jaundice and food poisoning. Root is useful in rheumatic swelling.
66. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Myrtaceae) Local Name: Jambu Fls: Feb.-Apr. Frs: Mar.-July. Description: A large tree, with smooth light grey bark. Leaves simple, opposite, variable in shape, smooth and shiny. Flowers greenish-white. Fruits oblong or ovoidoblong.
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-II
213
Uses: The bark is useful in fever, gastropathy and dermatopathy. The leaves are used for strengthening the teeth and gums. Tender leaves used for vomiting. The fruits and seeds are useful in diabetes, diarrhoea, and ringworm.
67. Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr & Perry. (Myrtaceae) Local Name: Safed Jambu Fls & Frs: Apr.-Jun. Description: A small tree. Leaves opposite, oblong-Ianceolate, coriaceous, gland dotted. Flowers creamy white in dense racemes. Fruit obovoid. Uses: Leaves powdered are applied in cracked tongue.
68. Tamarindus indica L.(Caesalpiniaceae) Local Name: Amli Fls: Mar.-July. Frs: Apr.-Nov. Description: A large to very large evergreen tree with grey bark. Leaves paripinnate, rachis slender, subsessile, and oblong. Flower yellow. Fruits pods, brownish ash coloured. Seeds enveloped by a tough leathery epicarp Uses: The root bark is useful in diarrhoea, asthma, amenorrhoea and ulcers. The leaves are useful in swelling, fever, wounds, ulcers, jaundice, tumours, ringworms, boils. The fruits are useful in gastropathy, vomiting, scabies, stomatitis, haemorrhoids and ophthalmopathy. The seeds are useful in stomachalgia, diarrhoea, dysentery, dipsia, burning sensation, vertigo, ulcers and diabetes.
69. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Am. (Combretaceae) Local Name: Arjun Sadad Fls: Mar.- Apr. Frs: May - Nov. Description: A large evergreen tree with buttressed trunk, bark smooth. Leaves simple, sub opposite, oblong or elliptic. Flowers white in panicles of wings. Uses: The bark is useful in fractures, ulcers, leucorrhoea, and diabetes, vitiated conditions of pitta, anaemia, fatigue, asthma, bronchitis, tumours and inflammations.
70. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (Combretaceae) Local Name: Behda Fls: Jan.-May. Frs: Throughout the year. Description: A large deciduous tree. Leaves simple, alternate, long-petioled, broadly elliptic, and entire. Flowers pale greenish yellow. Fruits ovoid grey drupes, obscurely 5 angled, narrowed into a very short stalk. Uses: The bark is useful in anaemia and leucoderma. The fruits are useful in cough, bronchitis, insomnia, dropsy, dipsia, vomiting, skin diseases, leprosy, fevers and ulcers. The mature and dry fruits are useful in diarrhoea and dysentery. The seeds are useful in skin disease and leucoderma.
214
N.K.
PATEL,
I.e.
PATEL,
A.R.
SELIYA AND
D.N.
PARMAR
71. Tenninalia catappa L. (Combretaceae) Local Name: Deshi Badam Fls & Frs: Throughout the year. Description: l.arge, spreading tree with leaves mostly near ends of branches. Leaves alternate, short-petiolate, the blade obovate, deciduous and turning orange to red before falling. Flowers small, white borne in densely packed spike. Uses: The fluid from the bark is used to treat diabetes and as a tonic. It is used to treat thrush. The juice of the leaves is used for cough. Leaves are used to treat jaundice, indigestion. The bark is used to treat mouth sores and stomach-ache. The leaves are used to treat wound and burns.
72. Terntinalia chebula Retz. (Combretaceae) Local Name: Harde Fls: Mar.-May. Frs: Oct.-Dec. Description:- A moderate sized to large deciduous tree. Leaves ovate, elliptic or obovate. Fruits glabrous, shining, obovoid or ovoid drupes, yellow coloured. Uses: The fruits are useful in wounds, ulcers, inflammations, and gastropathy, anorexia, leprosy, jaundice, cough and skin diseases.
73. Tenninalia crenulata Roth (Combretaceae) Local Name: Sadad Fls: Feb.-May. Frs: Apr.-Dec. Description: A medium sized to large tree with clear bole and grayish black bark. Leaves simple, leathery" under surface villous, linear-oblong with two large glands. Flowers in willows panicles. Uses: The bark is useful wounds, ulcers, haemoptysis, diarrhoea, dysentery, cough, bronchitis, leucorrhoea and gonorhoea.
74. Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland.ex Corr. (Malvaceae) Local Name: Paras Piplo Fls & Frs: Oct.-Mar. Description: An evergreen tree. Leaves broadly ovate, cordate, acuminate, and entire. Flowers sulphur yellow. Fruits globose. Seeds black, hairy. Uses: Fruit juice is used on rheumatism sprains, eczema, scabies, swellings insect bites and warts. Pulp of fresh fruits is applied for relief of migration. Unripe fruit juice is used to cure piles. Decoction of bark is given in diarrhoea and arthritis.
75. Wrightia tinctoria R.Br.(Apocynaceae) Local Name: Kudi Fls: Dec.-June. Frs: Throughout the year. Description: A small deciduous tree, with pale grey, smooth, thin bark. Leaves simple, opposite, elliptic-ovate or oblong, acuminate. Flowers white, fragrant, in lax terminal. Fruits follicles in pairs, pendulous, cylindrical.
215
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-II
Uses: The leaves are useful in odontalgia and hypertension. The bark and seeds are useful in dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, diarrhoea.
76. Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) W.&A. (Rhamnaceae) Local Name: Chani Bor Fls: Sep.-Feb. Frs: Nov.-Feb. Description: A spiny deciduous small tree, leaves alternate, ovate. Inflorescence an axillary cymes. flowers perfect, 7-8 flower in each cluster, greenish-yellow coloured. Uses: Fruits are used for poor appetite, general fatigue, loss bowels, palpitations insomnia, night sweats and hysteria. 77. Ziziphus xylopyra (Retz.) (Rhamanaceae) Local Name: Gut Bor Fls: Oct.-Nov. Frs: Nov.-Jan. Description: An armed, small tree. Leaves broadly elliptic-oblong, apprised hairy beneath. Flowers creamy white, in axillary fascicles. Uses: Leaf paste is applied on boils and wounds. Bark decoction is given in diarrhoea. TABLE 1 Inventory of angiospermic plants of north Gujarat region Sr.No.
Botanical Name
Family
1.
Acacia catechu Lf. Willd.
2.
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd.
Mimosaceae Mimosaceae
3.
Acacia nilotica (L.)Del.
Mimosaceae
4.
Acacia senegal (L.)Willd.
Mimosaceae
5.
Adansonia digitata L.
Bombacaceae
6.
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.
Rutaceae
7.
Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.
Rutaceae
8.
Albizia lebbeck (L.)Willd.
Simaroubaceae
9.
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.
Mimosaceae
10.
Annona squamosa L.
Apocynaceae
11.
Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill.
Annonaceae
12.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Combretaceae
13.
Bauhinia racemosa Lamk.
Meliaceae
14.
Bauhinia variegata L.
Caesalpinaceae
15.
Boswellia serrata Roxb.ex Colb.
Caesalpiniaceae Contd ...
216
N.K.
PATEL,
I.e.
PATEL,
A.R.
SELIYA AND
D.N.
PARMAR
... Contd. Sr. No.
Botanical Name
Family
16.
Bombax ceiba L. Buchanania lanzan Spreng. Butea monospenna ·(Lamk.) Taub. Caesalpinia sappan L. Callistemon lanceolatus DC Carica papaya L. Caryota urens L. Cassia fistula L. Casuarina equisetifolia L. Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn. Citrus limon (L.)Burm. Cordia dichotoma Forstf. Crateva adansonii DC Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC Delonix elata (L.) Gamble Delonix regia (Boj. ex Hook.)Raf. DnJPetes roxburghii (Wall.) Hurusawa Erythrina variegata L. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Ficus benghalensis L. Ficus carica L. Ficus religiosa L. Grewia tiliifolia Vahl Helicteres isora L. Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.)Wall.ex G. Don Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.)Planch. Lannea longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. Limonia acidissima L. Madhuca indica (Koenig) Macbride Mangifera indica L. Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dub. Melia azedarach L. Michelia champaca L.
Burseraceae Bombacaceae Anacardiaceae Fabaceae Caesalpiniaceae Myrtaceae Arecaceae Caesalpiniaceae
17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
22. 23. 24.
25. 26. 27.
28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.
34. 35. 36. 37.
38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43.
44. 45.
46. 47. 48.
Casuarinaceae Bombacaceae Rutaceae Boraginaceae Capparaceae Fabaceae Caesalpinaceae Caesalpinaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Myrtaceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Tiliaceae Sterculiaceae Apocynaceae Ulmaceae Anacardiaceae Rutaceae Sapotaceae Anacardiaceae Sapotaceae Meliaceae Mangoliaceae Contd ...
217
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH GUJARAT PART-II
... Contd. Sr. No. Botanical Name 49.
50. 51.
52. 53. 54.
55. 56.
57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62.
63. 64. 65. 66. 67.
68. 69. 70.
71. 72. 73. 74.
75. 76.
77.
Family
Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Sinclair Moringa concanensis Nimmo ex Dalz. & Gibs. Moringa oleifera Lamk. Morus alba L. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.)Benth. Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce. Psidium guajava L. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Salvadora persica L. Sapindus lauriJolia Vahl Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde. Semecarpus anacardium Lf Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Syzygium malaccense (L.)Merr & Perry. Tamarindus indica L. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC) Wight & Am. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Terminalia catappa L. Terminalia chebula Retz. Terminalia crenulata Roth Thespesia populnea (L.)Soland.ex Corr. Wrightia tinctori,a R.Br. Ziziphus nummularia (burmf) W. & A. Zizyphus xylopyra (Retz.)
Annonaceae Moringaceae Moringaceae Moraceae Oleaceae Bignoniaceae Mimosaceae Annonaceae Fabaceae Mimosaceae Myrtaceae Fabaceae Salvadoraceae Sapindaceae Caesalpiniaceae Anacardiaceae Fabaceae Myrtaceae Myrtaceae Caesalpiniaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae Malvaceae Apocynaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae
4. SUMMARY Ethnomedicinal uses of 77 species belonging 31 families of angiosperms are being communicated as adhered from the tribal and rural slots of North Gujarat part of Gujarat state. The data includes botanical name and its family, local plant name, part employed, diseases/ animals treated, besides phenology and precise description of each species. CJCJCJ
FOLK REMEDIES AGAINST SKIN AFFLICTIONS IN MAHARASHTRA SHUBHANGI PAWAR,
M.V.
PATIL AND
D.A.
PATIL
Chapter Outline 1. Introduction 2.
Method adapted
3.
Discussion
4.
Summary
5.
References
1. INTRODUCTION The state of Maharashtra is a political entity extending 800 km east-west and 700 km north-south. It is an irregular dentate pentagon lying between 22°1'-16°4' north latitude and 72°6'-80°9' east longitude. It has total area of 307762 sq.km. It limited to the west by the Arabian Sea with about 120 km coastline. It is limited to Goa and Karnataka to the south, by Andhra Pradesh on the south-east, by Madhya Pradesh on the north, and by Gujarat to its north-west. It is a part of Indian Peninsula. It comprises four regions viz., Vidarbha, Desh, Marathwada and Konkan. Climate of Maharashtra is mainly monsoonal. The climate, temperature, humidity, rainfall are very varied throughout the state. The highest annual rainfall is at Mahabaleshwar (6226.3 mm) in Western Ghats. The number of rainy days are also variable in the state. The temperature rises maximum 48°C in some parts of the state. The state is divisible into nine agro-cIimatic zones. This indicates that a large variety of crop plants can be raised in the region. The total forest area is 54,188 hundred hectares. Area under agriculture is 68.8%. The forests in the state are concentrated in four regions viz., Chandrapur-Bhandara, Tapi Valley (Satpura mountain), Western Ghats (Sahyadri mountain) and Melghats (Spur of Satpuras). The forests types are also variable considerably. They belong to : (i) Tropical west evergreen forests, (ii) Tropical semi-
FOLK REMEDIES AGAINST SKIN AFFLICflONS IN MAHARASHTRA
219
evergreen forests, (iii) Tropical moist deciduous forests, (iv) Littoral and swamp forests and southern tropical dry deciduous forests. Thus state is fairly species-rich. As far as people of Maharashtra is concerned, people from nearly all religions, many castes, sub-castes and tribes inhabit the state as in other parts of our country. The state is predominantly rural and there are some districts completely tribal in nature. Agriculture is the mainstay of the people. Still they depend traditionally on minor forest products. It is doubtless that they have close association with plants an in other Indian communities. A large number of botanists botanized in the state, as a part of Western India. These works before independence has culminated into a monumental compilation 'The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay' by T. Cooke. It is also surveyed floristically after independence, as a result many district floras have been published. Earlier uses of plants were mostly noted as a part of floristic studies. But in recent times, the wave of 'Ethnobotany' is discernible in the state also. Considerable number of publications are on record. The earliest documentation of plants is found in the work of Van Rheede and Garcia de Orta who published 'Hortus Indicus Malabaricus' and 'Simple D~gs of India (cf Page 861, Mahabale, 1987). The present attempt is to review the ethnomedicinal plants emphasizing particularly plants employed to combat skin afflictions in the state.
2. METHOD ADAPTED Authors attempted to collect data related to various skin diseases, their plant remedies, recipe, plant part/ product used plant and its family name, local name and area of study especially in the state of Maharashtra. The results of our literature survey are given in tabular form.
3. DISCUSSION The word 'hygiene' is originated from 'Hygeia', the goddess of health in Greek mythology. Hygiene is the science of health and embraces all factors which contribute to healthful living. Hygiene is 'health', and health is both-physical and mental. Physical health is an important component of total health. In encompasses all organs of the human body. Skin plays important role in human health. The skin is a finely laminated threelayered coating viz., hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue), fatty insulating cushion and dermis. The dermis contains blood vessels and nerve endings, sweat glands and hair follicles. The epidermis conducts various functions such as protection, sense, heat regulation, excretion and source of vitamin-D. The skin is thin or thick. It can be normal or dry. Since skin is in contact with the external environment it accumulates dirt which may consists of evaporated sweat, bacteria and dead epithelial cells. This dirt on account of one's negligence toward personal hygiene leads to many diseases, being a very complex tissue. Human societies take care of it using different methods and drugs. The present review is focused on skin care by plant-derived drugs as employed by the inhabitants of the state of Maharashtra.
220
SHUBHANGI PAWAR,
M.V.
PATIL AND
D.A.
PATIL
The present appraisal includes as many as 287 plant species belongs to about 65 families of angiosperms used in combating different skin afflictions amongst the rural and tribal communities along with their local names, family, parts/ products employed and recipes. Of these about 15 species are found under cultivation as seasonal crops or planted on bands of fields of farmyards, home gardens etc. The various afflictions/ diseases that disturb normal skin are : scabies, ringworm, carbuncles, eczema, psoriasis, sores, wounds, injuries, pimples, boils, burns, itching, leprosy, reddening of skin, white or black spots on skin, cuts/scars on feet, skin irritation, leucoderma, tumours, ulcers, swellings, rashes, blisters, scalds, abscesses, soggy cuts between toes, allergic dermatitis, 'anjuri' etc. These are cured using various plant parts like leaves, stem and root barks, roots, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, wood, flowers/inflorescence, fruits and seeds. Mature or sometimes young parts are employed to prepare various recipes. Plant products such as latex and gum/gum-resin are also in vogue. The various recipes include decoction, infusion, juice, extract, powder, paste, poultice, ash or even fumes. Entire plants are used in few cases. They are used either singly or in combination with parts of other plants. Certain additives e.g. oils, milk, honey etc. are mixed while preparing medicines. The ethnomedicines/home remedies are regaining their lost esteem. The green wave all over the world is discernible and pushing the traditional knowledge on the ascending spirals. These will/are lead/leading to remarkable discoveries from the world of plantbased medicines. They are being appreciated by research workers of various fields e.g. ethnobotany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, folk remedies, ethnomedicine, indigenous / traditional medicines etc. These would obviously help survive golden heritage of our wise ancestors.
4. SUMMARY Ethnomedicinal studies have offered wider scope and great opportunities for the development of new drugs. Many modern drugs sprung from folklores. The efforts of research workers in the state of Maharashtra have yielded a considerable bulk of ethnomedicinal information of different human diseases. Their claims are highlighted and reviewed in this contribution selecting a group of ailments particularly skin afflictions. More than 30 diseases or ailments of skin are very common in the state. These are cured by as many as 287 species of angiosperms belonging to about 65 families. Majority of them are wild in nature, very few (about 15 species) are observed under cultivation for various purposes. Their phytochemical and pharmacological screening apart from biological activities will help lead to discovery of new drugs for skin diseases. The interest in ethnomedicinal research over the last few decades has been although episodic, there are very few attempts to summarize and review them diseases-wise.
ITj
TABLE 1
0
r-<
Ethnomedicinal plants against skin afflictions in Maharashtra
~
Sr. No.
Botanical Name & Family
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
1.
Cassia tora L. Caesalpiniaceae
Will Senna Chukanda
Pune
Leaf decoction
Skin disease
Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
2.
Mimosa pudica L.
Lajalu
Pune
Root decoction
Sores
Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
5.
Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.) Wt. & Am. Asclepiadaceae Hemidesmus indica (L.) R. Br.
Shinguti
Pune
Plant, leaves root
Eczema, Leprosy, Syphilitic ulcers Skin disease
Anantmool
Pune
Dried root
Skin disease
Bhahmi
Pune
Plant
Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
Argyreia nervosa (Hurm. f.) Boj.
>
C/l ~
Z
Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
"11 "11
r-<
0 Z
en
Z
Periplocaceae 6.
0
en
Apiaceae 4.
> -.., -> -B Z
Mimosaceae
3.
~
rn rn == t:l rn en
Somandarka pat
Pune
Leaves
Skin disease
Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
Convolvulaceae 7.
Jatropha gossipifolia L. Euphorbiaceae
Bherenda
Pune
Leaves, seed oil
Carbuncles Eczema, Itches
Anand Kumar et aI., 1981.
8.
Crinum asiaticum L.
Nagdavan
Pune
Bulb
Skin disease
Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
Kergawat
Pune
Bulb
Skin disease
Anand Kumar et al., 1981.
Rosh Gawat
Pune
Bulb
Skin disease
Anand Kumar et aI., 1981.
~ > :r: > ~ en
2i
">
Amary llidaceae 9.
Crinum defixum L. Amary lIidacee
10.
Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.) Wats Poaceae
Contd ...
N N
I-l
N
... Contd.
Sr. No.
Botanical Name & Family
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
II.
Alangium salvifolium (L.f) Wong Alangiacee Abutllan indicum (L. )SW. Malvaceae
Akkal
Dhule, Nandurbar Dhule, Nandurbar
Root paste
Skin disease
Bhamare, 1998
Leaves, Fresh juice
Eczema
Bhamare, 1998
12. 13. 14. 15.
16.
17. 18. 19.
20. 2I. 22. 23.
Khapat
Albizia amara (Roxb.) Biovin Mimosaceae
Kansar
Dhule, Nandurbar
Leaf pulp
Leucoderma
Bhamare, 1998
Aloe vera (L.) Burmf
Korphad
Dhule, Nandurbar
Leaf pulp
Wounds due to burns
Bhamare, 1998
Neem
Dhule, Nandurbar
Leaves and bark juice
Ringworm, Scabies
Bhamare, 1998
Dati
Dhule, Nandurbar
Latex
Scabies
Bhamare, 1998
Sayar
Dhule, Nandurbar
Bark pest
Pimples
Bhamare, 1998
Dhule, Nandurbar Dhule, Nandurbar
Leaf decoction
Liliaceae Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Meliaceae Baliospermum raziana Keshav et. Yog. Euphorbiaceae Bombax cieba L. Born bacaceae Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae Curculigo orchioides Caertn. Hypoxidaceae Datura innoxia Mill. Solanaceae Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Papilionaceae Eclipta prostata (L.) L. Asteraceae Euphorbia parviflora L. Euphorbiaceae
N N
C/)
Carmal Kalimusali
Kantal Karanj Kala Maka Dhudi
:= c:: OJ := > Z C'l ....
Iotj
Bhamare, 1998
Rhizome paste
Scabies, Psoriasis Pimple
Dhule, Nandurbar
Seed oil
Scabies, boils
Bhamare, 1998
Dhule, Nandurbar Dhule, Nandurbar
Seed oil
Dhule, Nandurbar
Stem, Latex
~
>
~
Bhamare, 1998
~
~
....~
I'"'
Leaves
Scabies, ringworm Fresh wound, Itch
Bhamare, 1998 Bhamare, 1998
0
Boils, Scabies
Bhamare, 1998
Iotj
~ 0
~
~
Contd ...
I'"'
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
"r:I
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
0
t""' :or:::
~
r!\
24.
Fagonia bruguieri DC. var. bruguieri, Zygophyllaceae
Dhamsa
Dhule, Nandurbar
Root, Stem paste mixture
Tumours
Bhamare, 1998
25.
Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq. Moraceae
Amasa
Stem and bark decoction
Scabies
Bhamare, 1998
Meyna laxifiora Robyns.
Alu
Dhule, Nandurbar Dhule, Nandurbar
26.
Rubiaceae
is: r!\
0 r !\ en
> C)
-.., ;I>-
Wound
Bhamare, 1998
Z en
CJ'l
27.
Martynia annua L.
Kutri, Vichhdo
Seed oil
Scabies, Itching
Bhamare, 1998
28.
Martyniaceae Ocimum canum Sims. '. Lamiaceae
Dhule, Nandurbar
Rantulus
Dhule, Nandurbar
Leaves
Ringworm
Bhamare, 1998
:or:::
Z
> "ll "ll
t""'
29.
Psoralea corilyfoIia L. Papilionaceae
Brachi
Dhule, Nandurbar
Leaves, seed oil
Scabies, Leprosy
Bhamare, 1998
9
30.
Sida mysorensis Wight & Arn. Malvaceae
Gubata
Leaves
Fresh wounds
Bhamare, 1998
Z
31.
Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss. MeIiaceae
Rehani
Dhule, Nandurbar Dhule, Nandurbar
Stem bark paste
Scabies
Bhamare, 1998
32.
Tacca leoneptoloides (L.) O. Ktze. Taccaceae
Bhala
Dhule, Nandurbar
Tuber paste
Boils
Bhamare, 1998
33.
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Am. Combretaceae
Arjuna sadada
Dhule, Nandurbar
Stem bark
Wounds due to burning
Bhamare, 1998
34.
Tridax procumbens L. Asterceaae
Ghavati
Dhule, Nandurbar
Leves
Fresh burning injuries
Bhamare, 1998
35.
Typha angustifolia L.
Chilam
Dhule, Nandurbar
Inflorescence
Eczema
Bhamare, 1998
Typhaceae
0 Z en
~
;I>-
::t: ;I>-
::=:: ;I>-
en
:1::=:: ;I>-
Contd ...
N N
~
... Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
N
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janchen.
Samber weI, Bhinth, Galodi
Marathwada, Nanded
Leaves
Skin disease
Rathor et ai., 2002
37.
Scrophulariaceae Homonoia retusa Lour.
Pashona Bhada
Marathwad a, Leaves Nanded
Skin disease
Rathor et ai., 2002
38.
Ziziphus oenoplia Mill.
Kadavel
Vengurla Sawantwadi, Phonda, Ratnagiri, Dishea
Fresh Wound
Kulkarni,1968
Gulvel
Vengurla Sawantwadi, Phonda, Ratnagiri, Dishea Vengurla Sawantwadi, Phonda, Ratnagiri, District
Skin disease
Kulkarni, 1968
Vengurla, Sawantwadi, Phonda, Ratnagiri District
Skin disease
Vengurla, Sawantwadi, Phonda, Ratnagiri District
Skin disease
36.
Euhorbiaceae Rhamnaceae
39.
Tinospora cordifolia (W illd.) Miers. Menispermeaceae
40.
Cassia fistula Linn.
Bhava
Fabaceae
41.
Wagatea spicata Dalz.
Chaukal
Caesalpiniacee
42.
Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urb. Apiaceae
Bramhi
~
(J'J
::r:
e
1:11
::r:
~
C"l
Skin disease
Kulkarni,1968
~
~
>
~
~
~
Kulkarni, 1968
->~ r-<
Z
t:)
Kulkarni,1968
0
~ ~
..,>
Contd ...
r-<
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
61
I"'
l"!
~
ttl
43.
44.
45.
Embelia tsjeriam-cottam DC. Myrisnaceae
Leucas lavandulaefolia J.E.Sm. Lamiaceae
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae
Wavding
Bhedshi
Kalimusli
Vengurla, Sawantwadi, Phonda, Ratnagiri District VengurIa, Sawantwadi, Phonda, Ratnagiri District Vengurla, Sawantwadi, Phonda, Ratnagiri District Vengurla, Sawantwadi, Phonda, Ratnagiri District
46.
Gloriosa superba Linn. Liliaceae
Danoli
47.
Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae
Osadi
Kolhapur
48.
Amoord lawii Bed.
Burundi
49.
Meliaceae Blumeasp.
Skin disease
Kulkarni,1968
== ttl
0 .... ttl
C/l
> Cl i!:
Skin disease
Z
Kulkarni, 1968
~
en
....~ Z
Wounds
> ~
Kulkarni, 1968
....
I"'
q.... 0
Z
C/l
.... Z
a:
Partial affection
Kulkarni,1968
Leaves
Skin disease
Vartak et al., 1986
Kolhapur
Leaves
Skin disease
Vartak et al., 1986
Kolhapur
Leaves
Skin disease
Vartak et al., 1986
Kolhapur
LeafJuice
Redness of skin
Vartak et al., 1986
> == > ~ C/l
:i ~
Asteraceae 50.
Melanthesa turbinata
Owi,Por
Euphorbiacee Contd ...
N N
U1
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 51.
Cassia fistula L.
52.
Calycopteris floribunda Lam.
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source Vartak et al., 1986
Bahava
Kolhapur
LeafJuice
Ringworm
Ukshi
Kolhapur
LeafJuice
White patches on skin
Vartak et al., 1986
Umber
Kolhapur
Leaf Juice
Dermatis
Vartak et al., 1986
~
0'1
Caesalpiniaceae
Combretaceae 53.
Ficus glomerata Roxb. Moraceae
54.
Strychnos nux-vomica L.
Kochilakhai
Chandrapur
Stem bark
Skin 'disease
Das & Misra, 1988
55.
Carissa congesta Wight
Karvanda
Western Maharashtra, Pune, Raigad, Shindkheda
Root paste in leaf juice
Skin disease
Upadhey et al., 1994
Western Maharashtra, Pune, Raigad, Sindhudurga, Kolhapur
Seed paste
Western Maharashtra, Pune, Raigad, Sindhudurga, Kolhapur
Leaves
Seed oil
Apocynaceae
56.
57.
Entada rheedii Spreng. Fabaceae
Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz.
Garbi
Madhavi
Malpighiaceae
58. 59.
Garcinia indica Choiss Guttiferae
Bhirand, Kokam
Sawantwadi
Bombax ceiba Linn. Bombaceae
Savar
Sawantwadi
en c: ==
01
== > Z
....
C)
Scabies
Upadhey et al., 1994
"'tI
~
>
~
Scabies
Upadhey et al., 1994
== ~ "'tI
~ .... t"" Healing wounds
Almeida & Almeida, 1989
> Z Ij
0
Hard thorns
Pimple
Almeida & Almeida, 1989
~
Contd ...
> .-j .... t""
Iod
... Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
~
0
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
Mangifera indica Linn. Anacardiaceae
Amba
Sawantwadi
Leaves
Healing wounds
Almeida & Almeida, 1989
61.
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.) Pers. Crassulaceae
Panphuti
Sawantwadi
Juice of plant
Fresh wounds
Almeida & Almeida, 1989
Pedilanthus tithymaloides (Linn.) Poit. Euphorbiaceae
Nival
Sawantwadi
Fruit
Skin infection
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
>
-> Z
-q-~ ~
Wound
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
64.
Agertatum conyzoides L. Asteraceae
Western Maharashtra
Leaf paste
Wound
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
65.
Emilia sonchifolia L. Asteraceae
Western Maharashtra
Leaf paste
Wound
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae
Western Maharashtra
Leaf paste
Wound
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
Western Maharashtra
Decoction of leaves
Cracked feet
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
Western Maharashtra
Latex
Skin disease
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
Pandharkhair
Western Maharashtra
Leaf juice
Eczema
Jayanand Tosh, 1996
Bhahava
Western Maharashtra
Leaf paste
Scabies
Jayanand Tosh, 1996
Madhuca longifolia 0) (Koen.) Macbr. var. latifolia (Roxb.) Chev.
CIl
~
Fruit
68.
0
I:JJ
Western Maharashtra
Vitex negundo L. Verbenaceae
C)
Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. Alangiaceae
67.
3: f!1 f!1
63.
66.
~
~
60.
62.
t"'
Mahuwa
Z
0 Z
CIl
Z
~
> ::r: > ~ > CIl
:i ~
>
Sapotaceae 69.
Acacia ferruginea Willd. Leguminoceae
70.
Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae
Contd ...
N N
.......
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
71. 72.
73.
74. 75. 76. 77.
78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83.
Crotalaria verrucosa Linn. Leguminoceae Hydrocarpus wightiana Blume Flacourtiaceae Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Leguminoceae Crotalaria retulsa L. Leguminoceae Psoralia corylifolia L. Leguminoceae Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth. Mimosaceae Albizia lebbek (L.) Benth. Mimosaceae Turraea villosa Benn. Mcliaceae Aristolochia indica L. Aristolochiaceae Barleria prionitis L. Acanthaceae Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. Zinziberaceae Coldenia procumbens L. Boraginaceae Euphorbia thymifolia L. Euphorbiaceae
N N
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
Western Maharashtra
Leaf juice
Skin disease
Jayanand Tosh, 1996
Kadu Kavath
Western Maharashtra
Seed oil
Pimples boils
Jayanand Tosh, 1996
Palas
Amaravati tahsil
Leaves
Scabies
Deshmukh et ai., 1999
Khulkhula
Amaravati tahsil Amaravati tahsil
Plant
Skin disease
Deshmukh et ai., 1999
Seed oil
Leprosy
Deshmukh et ai., 1999
Bawchi Kinnal Shirish Kapur bhendi Sapsan Akhara Panhaladi Tripakshi Dakati Dudhi
Raigad District Raigad District
Root Bark Root, Seeds
Skin disease, leprosy Leprosy
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
co
til
e1:11 == == > Z
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
C"l
~
Raigad District
Root tuber
Raigad District Raigad District Raigad District Raigad District
Root tuber
Leprosy
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
~
Leaf ash
Leprosy
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
~
Rhizome and tubers Plant ash
Leucoderma
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Eczema
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Plant
Ringworm
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Raigad District
Leprosy
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
~
>
~
~
~
r-<
> Z 0
0
~ ~
~
Contd ...
r-<
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 84.
Argemone mexicana L.
~
0
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
t"' ~
Pivla Dhotra
Raigad District
Root, Leaf, Seed
Scabies
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
-:>
Papaveraceae 85.
Argyriea sericea Dalz.
~ a::
rTI
0
rTI
fJ)
Gaval
Convolvulaceae Bahava
Scabies
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Raigad District
Leaf juice
Raigad District
Leaf juice
Scabies
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Raigad District
Fruits
Pimples
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
C)
> Z
86.
Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae
87.
Striga gesneroides (Willd.) Vatke Scrophulariaceae
88.
Woodfordia fruiticosa (L.) Kurz. Lythraceae
Dhati
Raigad District
Flower paste
Injuries
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
89.
Cissus pallida (Wt and Am.) Steud. Vitaceae
Khaud
Raigad District
Root
Tumours
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
90.
Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. Rhizophoraceae
Phanasi
Raigad District
Bark, fruit
Ulcer
Kothari & MoorthY' 1988
Z
91.
Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl Hydrophyllaceae
Raigad District
Leaf Poultice
Ulcer
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
:=>
en
-:> --q"" ~
Z
~
0 Z fJ)
s:: > > fJ)
:;::l
92.
Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae
BhamSet
Raigad District
Leaf paste
Wounds
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
93.
Argyriea nervosa (Burm. f) Bojer. Convolvulaceae
Samydra Shok.
Raigad District
Leaf Poultice
Wounds
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
94.
Termanalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wt. & Am. Combretaceae
Arjuna
Raigad District
Bark, Leaves
Wounds
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
95.
Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker. -Gawl. Convolvulaceae
Pungi
Jalgaon District
Leaf Paste
Swellings
Shisode & PatiI, 1993
96.
Tragia phukenetii R. Smith
Agya
JaIgaon District
Root
Injury
Shisode & PatiI, 1993
Euphorbiaceae
fJ)
>oj
~
Contd ...
:;::l
>
~
\0
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 97.
Clematis gouriana Roxb.
N
~
Local Name
Study Area
Maruvel
Dahanu District
Ranunculaceae
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
Leaf paste
Blisters on skin
Shah et al., 1983
Plant part used and Recipe
98.
Coculus hirsutus (L.) Diels. Menispermacee
Verti, Vag Vel
Dahanu District
Leaf & Root extract
Rash on the skin
Shah et al., 1983
99.
Cleome gynandra L.
Tilivani
Dahanu District
Leaf juice
Skin disease
Shah et al., 1983
Karanj
Dahanu District Dahanu District
Seed oil
Shah et al., 1983
Leaf juice
Cutaneous disease Ringworm
Dahanu Forest division Dahanu Forest division
Leaf juice
Ringworm
Shah et al., 1983
100. 101. 102.
103.
104.
105.
Capparadiaceae Derris indica (Lam.) Bennet. Fabaceae Cassia occidentalis L. Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae Eclipta alba L. Asteraceae
Neuracanthus trinervis wt. Acanthaceae Vitex negundo L.
Ran Takala Mika
Bhanjra
Nasula
Nirgudi
Verbenaceae 106.
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br. Lamiacee
107.
Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae
Dipmal
0
Shah et al., 1983 CJ'l ::I:
c::
OJ
::I:
> ....
Z
Plant extract
Skin rash
C)
Shah et al., 1983
~
Dahanu Forest division
Plant ash
Dahanu Forest division
Leaf paste
Dahanu Forest division
Flower bud
Dahanu Forest division
Root decoction
Skin disease
~
Shah et al., 1983
:(J
Shah et al., 1983
:<
~
Eczema
~
~
I""
Ringworm
Shah et al., 1983
>
Z 0
Eczema'
0
~
Shah et ai" 1983
~
..,> Contd ...
r=
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
IoTj
Local Name
0
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
r'
~
~
ttl
108. 109. 110. 111.
112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120.
Conyza stricta WilId. Argemone mexicana Linn. Papaverceae Cleome chelidonii Linn. f Capparidiaceae Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Malvaceae Thespesia populnea Linn. Soland ex Corr. Malvaceae Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. Rhamnaceae Zizyphus oenoplia Mill. Abrus precatorius Linn. Fabaceae Desmodium trifolium (Linn.) DC. Fabaceae Indigofera tinctoria Linn. Fubaceae Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre Fabaceae Cassia occidentalis Linn. Caesalpiniaceae Cassia tora Linn. Caesalpiniaceae
Bham bynti Piw la Dhotra
Khandala
Root decoction
Skin disease
Khed Taluka
Plant juice
Skin disease
Khed Taluka
Infusion of plant
Skin disease
Ved Prakash & Mehrotra, 1987 Ved Prakash & Mehrotra, 1987 janardhanan,1963
3: ttl
> Cl t tl
til
G"l
> Z
~
Ambadi
Khed Taluka
Plant juice
Sores, wound
janardhanan,1963
C/l ~
Z
Ran Bhendi Bor
Khed Taluka Khed Taluka
Leaves Root powder
Eczema
janardhanan,1963
Ulcer, old wounds Fresh wounds
janardhanan,1963
~
90 Z
-E: til
Burja
Khed Taluka
Decoction or Root bark
Lalgunja
Khed Taluka
Leaves, root bark, seeds
Skin disese
janardhanan,1963
Ranmethi
Khed Taluka
Fresh leaves
Wound absecess
janardhanan,1963
Nil, Cali
Khed Taluka
Root juice
Ulcer sores, scabies
janardhanan,1963
Karanj
Khed Taluka
Root juice
janardhanan,1963
Rantakala
Khed Taluka
Leaves, seeds
Ulcer, sorus, scabies Skin disease
Takaia
Khed Taluka
Root paste
Ring worm, skin disease
janardhanan,1963
janardhanan,1963
Z
> ::t: > ~ til ~ ::o::s >
janardhanan,1963
~
Contd ...
Vl .....
...Contd. Botanical Name &: Family Sr. No.
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
121.
Acacia arabica Willd. Mimosaceae
Babhul
KhedTaluka
Gum powder
Burns, scald
Janardhanan,l963
122.
Acacia rugata (Lamk.) liam.Mimosaceae Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Korth Rubiaceae Artemisia nilagirica Pomp. Rubiaceae Plumbgo zeylanica Linn. Plumbaginaceae Dregea volubilis (Linn. f.) Benth. ex liook. f. Asc1epiadaceae liemidesmus indicus (Linn.) Schultz. Asc1epiadaceae Datura metel Linn. Solanaceae
Shikakai
Khed Taluka
Pod decoction
Dendruff
Janardhanan,l963
Kadam
Khed Taluka
Barkpste
Muscular pain
Janardhanan,l963
Dhordavan
KhedTaluka
Infusion of plant
Skin disease
Janardhanan,1963
Chitrak
Khed Taluka
Root paste
Skin disease
Janardhanan,1963
liirandodi
Khed Taluka
Leaves
Boil, abscesses
Dhatura
Khed Taluka
Seed, leaves
Skin disease
Janardhanan,1963
129.
Leucas aspera Spreng.
Dipmal
Khed Taluka
Roots
Scabies
130.
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. liypoxidaceae Aloe vera Linn. Liliaceae
Kali musali
Khed Taluka
Leaves
Korphad
Khed Taluka
Rhizome
Itch, skin disease Skin disease
Janardhanan,1963 Janardhanan,1963 Janardhanan,1963
Bach-nag
Khed Taluka
Leaf juice
Skin disease
Janardhanan,1963
123. 124. 125. 126.
127.
128.
131. 132 133.
Gloriosa superba Linn. Liliaceae Ocimum sanctum L. Labiatae
'"
~
Local Name
Janardhanan,1963
'"
en c:==
=
== >
Z
Anantmul
KhedTaluka
Root
Skin disease
Janardhanan,1963
C"l
~
~ >
~
~
Tulsi
Marathwada
Leaves
Skin disease
Rohidas & Bankar, 2002
:<
-~ r-<
> Z 0
0
~ ~
Contd ...
~
r-<
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name &: Family No.
'T.I
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
0
r"
X
:;:a t!1
134.
Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f) Convolvulaceae
135.
Calophylum inophylum L.
136.
Heterophragma quadriloculare (Roxb.) K.Schum. Bignoniaceae
137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142.
Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Rutaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Argemone mexicana Linn. Papaveraceae Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae Garcinia indica Choisy
Samudrashok
Marathwada
Flower
Skin disease
Jtohidas & Bankar, 2002
0
t!1
Tripakshi
Raigad district
Leaves
Skin disease
Kothari & Moorthy, 1996
Raigad district
Wood extract
Skin disease
Kothari & Moorthy, 1996
Kadhineem
Raigad district
Root extract
Chitrak
Raigad district Kamala tribal area
fIl
> G1
-.., >
Z
fIl
(/)
Piwla dhotra
Kothari & Moorthy, 1996
ZS Z
Root paste
Itching, Leucoderma Skin disease
Kothari & Moorthy, 1996
Root Seed
Skin disease
Vartak & Mandavgane, 1981
S
Vartak & Mandavgane, 1981 Vartak & Mandavgane, 1981
-q -a:: Z
Bhava
Kolaba Dist.
Rhizome
Skin disease
Kali musali
Kolaba Dist.
Fruit, Bark
Skin disease
Kokam
Kolaba Dist.
Root bark
Skin disease
Vartak & Mandavgane, 1981
Guttiferae 143.
Wagatea spicata Dalz. Caesalpiniaceae
Vagati
Kolaba Dist.
Leaves
Black spot on skin
Vartak & Mandavgane, 1981
144.
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. Papilionaceae
Shurpunkha
Dhule
Leaf root
Ringworm
Yadav & Bhamare, 1989
145.
Cassia tora L. Caesalpiniaceae Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. Asteraceae
Takalu
Dhule
Achenes
Skin disease
Borse et al., 1990
Kadu-jira
Dhule
Bulb
Burns, swelling
Borse et al., 1990
146.
== t!1
>
." ." r"
Z
fIl
~
> ~
fIl
.., = ~
N
Contd ...
~ ~
... Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 147.
Crinum defixum Ker.GawI. Amaryllidaceae
148.
Lepidagathis trinervis Wall. ex Nees Acanthaceae
149.
Phyllanthus fraternus Webster Euphorbiaceae
150.
Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae
151.
Sterculia urens Roxb. Sterculiaceae
152.
153.
154.
N
Local Name Kumbaya
Dador
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae
155.
Allium cepa L. Liliaceae
156.
Cissampelos pareira Linn.
157.
Menispermaceae Argemone mexicana Linn. Papaverceae
Kuru phad Piwla dhotra
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
Nasik Dist.
Ash of inflorescence
Wound, swelling
Sharma & Lakshminarsimhan, 1986
Nasik Dist.
Plant latex
Boils
Nasik Dist.
Seed oil
Skin disease
Sharma & Lakshminarsimhan,1986 Sharma & Lakshminarsimhan, 1986
Salsette island near Bombay Salsette island near Bombay Salsette island near Bombay Salsette island near Bombay Salsette island near Bombay
Gum
Blisters
Shah, 1984
Seed oil
Cutaneous disease
Shah, 1984
Skin disease
Shah, 1984
Root paste
~
C/'J
= = >-Z c:: til
C)
....
Leaves
Scabies, skin disease
Shah, 1984
Skin disease
Shah, 1984
loti
~
>-
!!J Cloves
~
~
~
Salsette island near Bombay
Paste of leaves
Sores
Shah, 1984
Chandra pur
Paste of leaves
Boils
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
0
Malhotra & MoorthY' 1973
loti
Chandrapur
.... t'"
>-
Plant
Burns
Contd ...
Z 0
~
>..., .... t'"
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
"T1
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
0
Literature Source
t""
:;0:
~
tn
158. 159. 160. 161.
Polycarpea corymbosa Linn. Caryophyllaceae Portulaca oleracea Linn. Portulacaceae
Bhisky
Boils
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Chandrapur
Plant
Burns
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet. Malvaceae
Kankari
Chandra pur
Paste of leaves and flowers
Skin disease
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Sida rhombifolia Linn. Malvaceae
Gubatada
Leaves
Swelling
Byltneria herbacea Roxb. Sterculaceae
163.
Boswellia serrata Roxb. Burseraceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Abrus precatorius Linn. Fabaceae Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Fabaceae Psoralea corylifolia Linn. Fabaceae
Gunja
168.
165.
Paste of leaves
Pasale
162.
164.
Chandra pur
Chandrapur
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Chandra pur
Powdered stem
Swelling
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Salai
Chandrapur
Gumresin
Sores
Neem
Chandrapur
Paste of seed
Skin disease
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973 Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Chandrapur
Leaves
Skin disease
Palas
Chandrapur
Leaves
Skin disease
Bavachi
Chandrapur
Seed Powder
Piles
Albizzia lebbeck Benth. Mimosaceae
Chinchola
Chandrapur
Seed Powder
Piles
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
169.
Careya arborea Roxb. Lecythidacee
Kumbi
Chandrapur
Bark powder
Skin disease
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
170.
Glinus lotoides (Linn.) Kuntze. Aizoaceae
Cho.ndrapur
Decoction of plant
Piles
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
171.
Tricholepis glaberrima DC. Rubiaceae
Chandra pur
Paste of plant
Skin disease
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
166. 167.
Bhrhmidandi
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973 Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973 Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
-:> tn ==
t:l tn
trJ
0
>
..,Z trJ
en
-:> :;0:
Z
-B ~
t""
0 Z
trJ
Z
~
> ::t: > ::::l > trJ
..,::t: ~
N
Contd ...
w
til
... Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
t-) ~
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
172.
Verononia cinerea (Linn.) Less. Rubiaceae
Osari
Chandrapur
Plant
Wound, sore
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
173.
Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. Ebenaceae
Tumri
Chandrapur
Dried flower
Skin disease
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
174.
Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Green Euphorbiaceae
Julapimpli
Chandrapur
Boils
Malhotra & Moorth) , 1973
175.
Mallotus philIippensis (Lamk.) MuelI.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis Linn. Euphorbiaceae Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae Butea superba Roxb. Fabaceae Garcinia indica Choiss. Clusiacee
Korvel
Chandrapur
Poulitice of leaves Root powder
Skin disease
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Erand
Chandrapur
Stem
Skin disease
Umber
Chandrapur
Root fumes
Piles
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973 Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184.
Ziziphus oenoplia MilI.Rhamnaceae Ougeinia dalbergioides Benth. Papilionaceae Celastrus paniculata Willd. Celastraceae Capparis horrida Lj. Cappiridacee
C"\
en ::t: c: l:1l:I ::t:
Piwla Dhotra
Akola District
Tuber paste
Ulcer
Kamble & Pradhan, 1980
> Z ~ ....
Palas bel
Akola District Akola District
Decoction of fruit
Skin disease
Kamble & Pradhan, 1980
~
Ratan bel Ramber Tinis Malkagni Taral
West Melghat West Melghat West Melghat Baramati
~
~
Fruit paste
Boils
Kamble & Pradhan, 1980
Stem bark
Wounds
Badhe & Sharma, 1981
3:: ~
Badhe & Sharma, 1981
~ .... I"'
Root bark Leaf powder
Wounds Skin disease
Badhe & Sharma, 1981
Piles
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
"tI
> Z 0
0
Contd ...
~ "tI
~ .... I"'
... Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 185. 186. 187.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Derris indica A. Juss. Fabaceae Psoralea corylifolia L.
"rl
Local Name Kadulimb Karanjii Bawachi
Study Area Baramati Baramati Baramati
Plant part used and Recipe Bark leaves seeds Seeds Whole plant
Ailment Treated Skin disease Skin disease Skin disease
Fabaceae 188.
Tephrosia purpurea L.
Unhali
Baramati
Whole plant
Skin disease
Fabaceae 189.
Coccinia indica L.
Literature Source Deokule & Magdum, 1992
m ==
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
'JJ
Deokule & Magdum, 1992 Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Baramati
Leaves
Skin disease
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Chitrak
Baramati
Root, Milky juice
Scabies
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Jai
Baramati
Leaves
Skin disease
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Haldikumkum
Baramati
Root, leaves, flower
Pile
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae
Gulbakshi
Baramati
Root, leaves
Boils
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
194.
Aristolochia bracteata Retz. Aristolochiaceae
Popte
Baramati
Root, leaves
Eczema
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
195.
Gossypium herbaceum Linn. Malvaceae
Kapasyo
Baramati
Root leaves
Abscess
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
1%.
Urginea indica Kunth Liliaceae Acacia catechu Willd. Mimosaceae
Jangali kando
Baramati
Fruits
Abscess
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Katis
Baramati
Bulb
Cuts on feets
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Cucurbitaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae 191. 192.
Jasminum grandiflorum (L.) Bailey Oleaceae Asclepias currassavica L. Asclepiadaceae
193.
197.
r-' :;;r:::
~ m
Tondali
190.
0
Contd ...
0 .... m
> C)
> .... Z
'JJ
>-l
fJl
....:;;r::: Z
~
~ .... q ....
0 Z
'JJ
.... Z
~
> ::e > := > 'JJ
::e>-l
:=
>
I'.J ~
'I
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 198. 199. 200. 201. 202. 203. 204.
205. 206. 207.
208. 209. 210.
Citrus medica Linn. Rutaceae Argemone mexicana Linn. Papaveraceae Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Fabaceae Annona squamosa Linn. Anonnaceae Vigna trilobata Verdc. Pa pilionaceae Carica papaya Linn. Caricaceae Lawsonia inermis Linn. Lythraceae Pongamia pinnata Pierre Papilionaceae Ficus religiosa Linn. Moraceae Tridax procumbens Linn. Compositae Aegle marmelos Corr. Rutaceae Mangifera indica Linn. Anacardiaceae Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq. Moraceae
N
~
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
Nimbavi
Baramati
Bark decoction
Scabies
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Unhalyo, Piw la dhotra Palaho, palas
Baramati
Fruit
Scabies
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Baramati
Latex
Scabies
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Sitaphal
Baramati
Flower infusion
Abscess
Baramati
Root paste
Abscess
Papai
Baramati
Root paste
Ringworm
Mehndi
Baramati
Fruit
Deokule & 1992 Deokule & 1992 Deokule & 1992 Deokule & 1992
C»
Magdum, Magdum, Magdum,
fJl ::t:
Magdum,
::t:
Konji, Konruj
Baramati
Leaf paste
Scabies, Soggy cuts between toes Scabies
Pimple
Baramati
Seed oil
Abscess
Kodakja khod, Ghav Pala, Unnalgo Bili, Bil
Baramati
Bark ash
Bleeding wounds
Baramati
Leaf paste
Abscess
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Amba
Baramati
Leaf juice
Wounds
Amsa
Jalgaon District
Bark decoction
Ringworm
Deokule & Magdum, 1992 Pawar & Patil, 2004
c:: = > Z
C) ....
Deokule & Magdum, 1992 Deokule & Magdum, 1992 Deokule & Magdum, 1992
~
~
~
~
~
~
....~ !'"'
> Z t:j
0
~ ~
Contd ...
~ r:::
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
IT.!
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
ar-< ~
~
r!1
211. 212. 213. 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. 221. 222. 223. 224.
Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae Cassia tora L. Caesalpiniaceae Cassine albens (Retz.) Kosterm. Celastraceae Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae Ficus bengalensis L. Moraceae Bryophyllum pinnatum Kurz. Crassulaceae Mangifera indica Linn.Anacardiaceae Tridax procumbens Linn. Asteraceae Calatropis gigantea R.Br. Salmalia malabarica Sch. & Endl. Bombacaceae Convolvulus microphylIus Linn. Convolvulaceae Sesamum indicum Linn. Pedaliaceae Cyperus rotundus Linn. Cyperaceae Martynia annua Linn. Pedaliaceae
Mendi
Jalgaon District
Leaf extract
Tarota, Takala
Jalgaon District
Pimpal
Jalgaon District
Seed and other additives Gum
Wad Pan phuti Amba Ekdandi Rui Sawar Hawari Lapati Tili Gundayo cunjwla Wagh nokhyo
Jalgaon District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District
Allergic dermatitis
Pawar & Patil, 2004
Wound due to thorns Anjuri
Pawar & Patil, 2005
~
r!1
t:j
....
r!1 til
> C)
Pawar & PatiI, 2005
>.... Z
til
Bark infusion
Scabies
Pawar & PatiI, 2005
-l
C/l ~ ....
Leaf infusion
Abscess
Pawar & Patil, 2005
Leaf poultice
Wound, boils, swellings Cracked feet cut
Sonawane et al., 2006
Rooted leaves
Sonawane et al., 2006
Z
..,r-<~ ~ ....
a
Z
til
....
Gum
Cuts, wounds
Sonawane et al., 2006
Leaf juice
Scabies, abscess
D'souza, 1993
Root paste
Pimples
D'souza, 1993
Z
~
::r:
>>til
:::0
::r: -l
:::0
Entire plant
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
Seed oil
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
Tuberous root pastel powder Ripe fruit oil
Boils, abscess
D'souza, 1993
Scabies
D'souza, 1993
>-
N
Contd ...
w
1.0
... Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
225.
Ocimum sanctum Linn. Lamiaceae
Kali tulji
Nandurbar District
Leaf paste
Wounds
D'souza, 1993
226.
Ocimum gratissimum Linn. Lamiaceae Aloe barbadensis Mill. Liliaceae Psoralea corylifolia Linn. Papilionaceae Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. Verbenaceae Cleome viscosa Linn. Capparadaceae Cajanus cajan Millsp. Pa pilionaceae Trichodesma indicum R. Br. Boraginaceae Operculina turpenthum Silva Manso. Convolvulaceae Sterospermum suaveolens DC. Bignoniaceae Orthosiphon pallidus Royle Lamiaceae
Ran tulus
Nandurbar District
Leaf paste
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
Dekti Korphad
Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District
Leaf pulp
Bums, wounds
D'souza, 1993
Leaf powder entire plant paste Leaf juice
Scabies, white spots on skin Scabies
D'souza, 1993
Leaf paste
Wound
D'souza, 1993
Leaf paste
Fresh wound
D'souza, 1993
Leaf paste
Scabies
D'souza, 1993
227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 233.
234. 235.
236. 237.
Cayratia camosa Gagnes Vitaceae Apluda mutica Linn. Poaceae
Bapchyo Bawachi OraniPokai arandi Berocero Stengalue Leydya Tuwi Tor Agykhod Agyo
D'souza, 1993
:I:
> Z
C)
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
Nandurbar District Nandurbar District
Leaf paste
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
Leaf paste
Wounds ringworm
D'souza, 1993
Tiwanyo
Nandurbar District
Leaf powder
Wounds
D'souza, 1993
Tilkhado
Nandurbar District
Bark Paste
Boil with pus
D'souza, 1993
Sonyo Jaigli tulasi, Mali phuli
fJl :I:
c:: CiS
Leaf paste
Padlo
~
0
~
~ ~ 3:: ~ ~
~
r"'
> Z t:l
0
~ ~
Contd ...
~
r "'
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 238.
Local Name
Crataeva nurvula Ham. Capparidaceae
Wayrow
239.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae
240.
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
61 !"" ~
~
:::rn
Nandurbar District
Bark paste
Nimbwo, Nimbda
Nandurbar District
Fumes of dried leaves
Skin allergy
D'souza, 1993
Tectona grandis Linn. Verbenaceae
Hag, Sag
Nandurbar District
Entire plant paste or ash
Scabies
D'souza, 1993
-
241.
Cressa cretica Linn. Convolvulaceae
Ran Chana, RanChano
Nandurbar District
Leaf paste
Scabies
D'souza, 1993
C/l
242.
Hibiscus cannabinus Linn.
Kheto-pendo
Nandurbar District
Root paste
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
Malvaceae
Scabies
Literature Source D'souza, 1993
0 en
rn
~
> Z
~
~
--~
Nandurbar District
Entire plant decoction
Wound
D'souza, 1993
Polycarpaea corymbosa Lam. Caryophyllaceae
Tomano Dhamda Pandharphuli, Viali Phuli
Q
Nandurbar District
Tender leaf
Rinworm
D'souza, 1993
-
245.
Cassia fistula Linn. Pa pilionaceae
Kerwalo Bahava
Nandurbar District
Bark paste
Scabies
D'souza, 1993
246.
Jatropha gossipifolia Linn.
Nandurbar District
Latex
Burns
D'souza, 1993
Euphorbiaceae
Roturondo Chandrya
Ziziphus oenoplia Mill.
Chambor
Nandurbar District
Root paste
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
243.
Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl Tiliaceae
244.
247.
Rhamnaceae 248.
Alstonia scholaris R. Br. Apocynaceae
Sciten
Nasik District
Stem bark smoke
Itching
Patil & Patil, 2006
249.
Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae
Kate-math
Nasik District
Leaf ash
Eczema
Patil & Patil, 2006
250.
Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae
Kardai
Nasik District
Latex
Skin infection
Patil & Patil, 2006
0 Z en
Z
~
> == > ::c > en
:i::c
>
Contd ...
..-~
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
251.
Cassine albens (Retz.) Koestem. Celastraceae
Bhuttya kalas
Nasik District
Latex gum
Crack of lips
Patil & Patil, 2006
252.
Cryptolepsis buchananii R.&S.. Asclepiadaceae
Bhui-kawali
Nasik District
Latex
Boils
Patil & Patil, 2006
253.
Cucumis prophetarum Linn. Cucurbitaceae
Chibbd
Nasik District
Fruit paste
Eczema
Patil & Patil, 2006
254.
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae
Kala cheda
Nasik District
Root paste
Wounds
Patil & Patil, 2006
255.
Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk. Asteraceae
KalaMaka
Nasik District
Leaf juice
Soggy cracks between toes
Patil & Patil, 2006
256.
Ficus amottiana (Miq.) Miq. Moraceae
Khadak Payer
Nasik District
Latex
Boils, pimples
Patil & Patil, 2006
257.
Ficus glomerata Roxb.
Umber
Nasik District
Root latex
258.
Ficus virens (Miq.), Mig. Moraceae
Ambepayer
Nasik District
259.
Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. Rubiaceae
Haldu
260.
Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. Asclepiadaceae
261.
262.
~
N
rJl
:=
c:::
1:11
Patil & Patil, 2006
Latex
Chicken pox, small pox Eczema rayer
:= > Z C1 ....
Patil & Patil, 2006
I-d
Nasik District
Stem bark ash
Burns
Patil & Patil, 2006
~
Anantmul, Upsali
Nasik District
Root Paste
Itching and burning sensation of skin
Patil & Patil, 2006
;<:
Heterophragma quadriloculare (Roxb.) K. Schum. Bignoniaceae
Waras
Nasik District
Fresh bark paste
Injuries
Patil & Patil, 2006
~ .... r-<
Indigofera glandulosa Wendle Fabaceae
Vasolya tarota
Nasik District
Leaf ash
~
>
~
~I:j Soggy cuts between toes
Patil & Patil, 2006
Contd ...
0
~ I-d
~ .... r-<
...Contd. Botanical Name &; Family Sr. No. 263.
264.
265. 266. 267.
268. 269. 270. 271. 272 273. 274.
Ipomoea illustris (CB.CI.) Prain. Convolvulaceae Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merril Anacardiaceae Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb. Cucurbitaceae Meyna laxiflora Robyns Rubiaceae Mukia maderaspatana (L.) Roem. Cucurbitaceae Phyllanthus fratemus Webster Euphorbidceae Pistia stretiotes Linn. Araceae Polygonum barbatum Linn. Polygonaceae Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Fabaceae Psoralea coryllifolia L. Fabaceae Stemodia viscosa Roxb. Scrophulariaceae Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC) Wight & Am. Combretaceae
Local Name Gogveli Mondhal
Study Area Nasik District Nasik District
Plant part used and Recipe Leaves fumes Stembark paste
Ailment Treated Chicken box Swellings
Literature Source
'T.I 0 r-<
~
~ Patil & Patil, 2006 Patil & Patil, 2006
==
I!I
0
I !I CII
;I> C'l
> Z
Dodka Aliv Mekh,Gel Mekh Dadar Gondal
Karanj Bauchi Ramban Arjuna Sadada
Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District
Leaf paste
Leprosy
Patil & Patil, 2006
CII
"'l
en
-q~
Leaf ash
Inflammed part or swelling Soggy cuts been toes Boils, skin infections Burns
Patil & Patil, 2006
Leaf extract
Septics wounds
Patil & Patil, 2006
Seed oil
Eczema
Patil & Patil, 2006
Warmed leaf Leaf ash Plant paste
Patil & Patil, 2006 Patil & Patil, 2006 Patil & Patil, 2006
Z
;I> :;! r-<
0 Z
CII
Z
~
> > ">CII
= = "> "'l
Seed oil
Leucoderma
Patil & Patil, 2006
Leaf ash
Leprosy
Patil & Patil, 2006
Stem bark ash
Injuries
Patil & Patil, 2006
Contd ...
~
~
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
275.
Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker.Gawl. Convolvulaceae
Pingul weI
Nasik District
Leaf paste
Swellings, Knots
Patil & Patil, 2006
276.
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f
Kunwarpato
Nasik District
LeaflJulp
Burns
Tayade & Patil, 2005
277.
Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae Aristolochia bracteata Retz. Aristolochiaceae Baliospermum raziana Keshav et Yog. Euphorbiaceae Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.Papilionaceae Calatropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. Apocynaceae Crataeva adansonii DC. Ca pparidaceae
Piwala Dhotra
Nandurbar District
Latex
Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
Kidmar
Nandurbar District Nandurbar District
Leaf juice
Eczema
Tayade & Patil, 2005
Seed paste
Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
278. 279.
280. 281. 282. 283.
Emblica officinalis Gaertn.
Dati
en
Palas Rui Varno
Jatropha gossipifolia L. Lawsonia inermis L.
287.
Trichondesma indica (L.) R. Br. Boraginaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae
Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
c:: =
::r: Latex
Boils, Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
Bark infusion
Boil withpus
Tayade & Patil, 2005
~
Cl ....
""d
~
,?:l
Fruit powder
Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
Chandra Jyot
Nandurbar District
Latex
Burn
Tayade & Patil, 2005
~
Mendi
Nandurbar District
Leaf paste
Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
....I""'~
Udanfuli
Nandurbar District Nasik District
Leaf powder
Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
Bark infusion
Scabies
Patil & Patil, 2006
Lythraceae 286.
Nandurbar District
Flower paste
Nandurbar District
Euphorbiaceae 285.
Nandurbar District Nandurbar District
::r:
Awala
Euphorbiaceae 284.
t
Neem
~
""d
> Z t:l
0
~ ~
Contd ...
~ .... I""'
... Contd. Botanical Name & Family Sr. No.
"rj
Local Name
0
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
r-<
~
~
tTl
288.
Cassia fistula "Linn.
Bahava
Nasik District
Costus speciosus (Koenig) J. E.5m. Zingiberaceae
Pewda
Nasik District
Maduca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. Sapotaceae
Mahuwa
Nasik District
Flower paste
Plumbago zeylanica Linn. Plumbaginaceae
Chitrak
Nasik District
Root juice
292.
Terminalia bellirica Roxb. Combretaceae
Behda
Nasik District
293.
Thespepsia lampas Dalz. Malvaceae
Panbhendi
Nasik District
Caesalpiniaceae 289. 290. 291.
Leaf paste
Patil & Patil, 2006
Bark paste
Ringworm Scabies
Rhizome
Leprosy
PatH & Patil, 2006
:::
> tTl
!;j
tTl
rn
Cl
Abscess
PatH & Patil, 2006
>
Z
rn
o-l
Scabies, leprosy, white spot on skin
Patil & Patil, 2006
Seed oil
Pimples
PatH & Patil, 2006
Root powder
Skin disease
Patil & Patil, 2006
en
-> ~ q~
Z
0 Z
rn
Z ~
> > ~ rn :t: :t: o-l
:;::::I
>
246
SHUBHANGI PAWAR,
M.V.
PATIL AND
D.A.
PATIL
REFERENCES Almeida, M.R. & Almeida, S.M. (1989) Folklore and utility of vascular plants from Sawantwadi. In : Proceedings of All India Symposium on Biology and Utility of Wild Plants (Prof.G.L. Shah Comm.Vol.), Department of Biosciences, South Gujarat University, Surat, India, pp.2339. Anand Kumar, Kulkarni, B.G. & Singh, N.P. (1981) Medicinal and economic plants growing at Pune. Maharashtra Vidnyan Mandir Patriea 15:64-74. Badhe, P.D. & Sharma, B.N. (1981) Ethnomedicinal methods of Korkutribes of West Melghat. B.M.E.B.R. 3(2-4):162-172. Bhamare, P.B. (1998) Ethnomedicinal plants used by tribals in Dhule district, Maharashtra, India. ,.Swamy Bot.CI. 15:78-83. Bhamare, P.B. (1998) Traditional knowledge of plants for skin ailments of Dhule and Nandurbar districts, Maharashtra (India). ,.Phytol.Res. 11(2):195-196. Borse, S.c., Bhamare, P.B. and Patil, D.A. (1990) Medicinal plantlore of tribals of Dhule district, Maharashtra. Biojournal 2(1):47-54. D'Souza, Marie (1993) Tribal Medicine. Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development, New Delhi. Das, P.K. & Misra, M.K. (1988) Some medicinal plants among Kondhas around Chandrapur (Koraput). J.Eeon.Tax. Bot. 12(1):103-109. Deokule, S.s. & Magdum, D. K. (1992) Enumeration of medicinal plants from Baramati area, District Pune, Maharashtra State. ,.Eeon.Tax.Bot. (Addl.Ser.) 10:289-299. Deshmukh, V.R., Muratkar, G.D. & Rothe, S.P. (1999) Preliminary observations of the medicinal and economically important leguminous plant species from Amaravti Tehsil. rEeon. Tax.Bot. 23(2) : 283-289. Janardhan, K.P. (1963) An enumeration of the medicinal plants of Khed taluka, Maharashtra State. Bull. Bot.Surv. India. 5(3-4):363-374. Jayananda Tosh (1996) Ethnobotanical study of western Maharashtra. rEeon.Tax.Bot. (Addl. Ser.) 12:169-174. Kamble, S.Y. & Pradhan, S.G. (1980) Ethnobotany of the 'Korkus' in Maharashtra. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 22(1-4):201-202. Kothari, M.J. & Moorthy, S. (1987) Floristic composition and utility of wild plants in Raigad district, Maharashtra. In : Proceedings of All India Symposium on Biology and Utility of Wild Plants (Prof.G.L. Shah Comm. Vol.), Department of Biosciences, South Gujarat University, Surat, India, pp.100-107. Kothari, M.J. & Moorthy, S. (1996) Ethnobotany in human welfare of Raigad district of Maharashtra. In : Ethnobiology In Human Welfare (Ed. S.K. Jain), Deep Publications, New Delhi, India. pp.403-407. Kulkarni, B.G. (1968) Medicinal plants from Vengurla, Sawantwadi, Phonda and Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra. Maharashtra Vidnyan Mandir Patriea 3(1):18-24. Mahabale, T.S. (1987) Botany And Flora of Maharashtra, Gazetteer of India, Maharashtra State, Gazetteers Department, Government of Maharashtra, Bombay, India. Malhotra, S.K. & Moorthy, S. (1973) Some useful and medicinal plants of Chandrapur district, Maharashtra State. Bull.Bot.Sure;. India 15(1-2):13-21.
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Patil, M.V. & Patil, D.A (2006) Certain ethnomedicinal practices amongst aborigines of Nasik district (Maharashtra) for human skin afflictions. In : Advances in Medicinal Plants, Vol.II. (Ed. Prajapti et al.). Asian Medicinal Plants and Health Care Trust, Jodhpur, India. Pawar, Shubhangi & Patil D.A (2004) Observations on folkloric medicinal plants of Jalgaon district, Maharashtra. Indian J. Trad. Knowled. 3(4):437-441. Pawar, Shubhangi & Patil, D.A (2005) Herbal folk medicine of Jalgaon district (Maharashtra). ].Phytol.Res. 18(2): 235-237. Rathor, O.S., Zare, M.K. & Chavan, V.B. (2002) Ethnobotanical studies in some less known plants of Marathwada. In : Plant Resource Development (Ed. AM.Mungikar & AS. Bhutkar) Dr. B.AM. University, Aurangabad·, India. pp.86-89. Rohidas, S.B. & Bankar, G.J. (2002) Marathwada : Rich source of medicinal plants. In : Plant Resource Development (Ed. AM.Mungikar & AS.Bhutkar) Dr.B.AM.University, Aurangabad, India, pp.224-228. Shah, G.L. (1984) Some economically important plant of Salsette island near Bombay. J.Ecoll. Tox.Bot. 4:141-151. Shah, G.L., Yadav, S.S. & Badrinath, V. (1983) Medicinal plants from Dahanu forest division in Maharashtra State. J.Econ.Tax. Bot. 4:141-151. Sharma, B.D. & Lakshminarsimhan, P. (1986) Ethnobotanical studies in Nasik district (Maharashtra). J.Ecoll. Tax. Bot. 8(2):439-454. Sharma, B.D. & Malhotra, S.K. (1984) A contribution to the ethnobotany of tribal areas in Maharashtra. ].Econ. Tax. Bot. 5(3):533-537. Shisode, S.B. & Patil, D.A (1993) Native medicinal plants of Jalgaon district, Maharashtra. Biojournal 5(1-2):79-82. Sonawane, Y.D., Ansari Ziya & Mamude, Y.B. (2006) Utilization of some medicinal plants of Baglan Taluka of Nasik District (Maharashtra State). ].Swamy.Bot. Cl. 23:173-174. Tayade, S.K. & Patil, D.A (2005) Ethnomedicinal traditions of tribals of Nandurbar district (Maharashtra) J.Phytol.Res. 18(2):251-254. Tayade, S.K. & Patil, D.A (2006) Ethnomedicinal wisdom of tribals of Nandurbar district (Maharashtra). Natural Prod. Rediance 5(1):64-69. Upadhye Anuradha, 5., Kumbhojkar, M.S. & Vartak, V.D. (1986) Observations on wild plants used in folk medicine in the rural areas of Kolhapur district. Ancient Sci.Life 6(2):119-121. Upadhye, Anuradha S. & Kumbhojkar, M.S. (1992) Ethnobotany of Madhuca from western Maharashtra. ].Econ. Tax. Bot. (Addl.Ser.) 10:79-81. Upadhye, Anuradha S., Vartak, V.D. & Kumbhojkar, M.S. (1994) Ethnomedico-botanical studies in western Maharashtra, India. Ethnobotany 6:25-34. Vartak, V.D. & Mandavgane Rekha (1981) Enumeration of medicinal plants from Kamala tribal area, Kolaba district, Maharashtra State. J.Univ.Poona (Sci. & Tech.) 54:91-99. Ved Prakash & Mehrotra, B.N. (1987) Ethnobotanical studies on the flora of Khandala, Maharashtra State. J.Econ. Tax.Bot. 9(1):205-208. Yadav, 5.5. & Bhamare, P.B. (1989) Ethnomedico-botanical studies of Dhule forests in Maharashtra. J.Econ. Tax.Bot. 13(2):455-460.
000
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF JHARKHANDt
INDIA
HARISH SINGH
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Enumeration
3.
Summary and conclusion
4.
Acknowledgements
5.
References
1. INTRODUCTION th
Jharkhand is the 28 State of the Indian Republic, formed by carved out from Bihar on November 15, 2000. It is lies between 220 00' and 240 37' N latitude and 83 0 15' and 870 01' E longitude. The state is bounded by Bihar in the North, West Bengal on the East, Chattisgarh in the West and Orissa on the South with 79,714 sq. km. geographical area. The phisiography of the state is hills, valley, and plateau with altitude ranging from 1000 to over 4000 feet. Jharkhand is the home of many tribal communities along with a dynamic floristic diversity. The scheduled tribe population of Jharkhand is 26.30 % of the total population of the state. There are all together 29 scheduled tribe in the state, but the largest tribal group are Munda, Oraon, Kharia, Ho and Santhal. The tribes are mainly concentrating in Chhotanagpur Plateau and Santhal Parganas including Ranchi, Gumla, Lohardaga, Palamau, Hazaribagh, Singhbhum, Giridih, Dhanbad, Sahibganj, Godda, Pakud, Dumka and Deoghar districts. Due to close association of forest, the tribes possess a unique knowledge about the medicinal uses of plant wealth of their surroundings from many generations. They depend mostly on ethno medicines for the treatment of different diseases, disorders and ailments. This traditional knowledge is now fast disappearing due to modernization, habitat destruction and tendency of the younger generation to discard traditional health system.
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A considerable ethnomedico-botanical work has been done by a large number of ethnobotanists on the state viz., (Bodding, 1925, 1927; Bondya et al., 2004; Chandra, 1995; Chandra and Pandey, 1984, 1985; Chandra et al., 1985,1987; Chaudhuri, 1974; Chaudhuri, and Pal, 1976; Chaudhuri et al., 1977; Girach and Aminuddin, 1995; Goel et al., 1984, 1987, 1987; Goel and Mudgal, 1988; Guha, 1957; Gupta, 1963, 1981, 1987; Hembrom, 1991, 1994, 1996; Hembrom and Goel, 2005; Islam & Jha, 2003; Jain, and Tarafder, 1970; Jain, 1989, 1996, 2003; Jain et al., 1990, 1994; Jaipuriar, 2003; Jha et al., 1997; Jha and Verma, 1996; Kumar, 1997; Kumar and Goel, 1998; Kumar, 1992; Kumari et al., 1991; Mahato and Mahato, 1996; Mahato et al., 1996, 1992; Manna and Samaddar, 1984; Pal, 1980; Pal and Jain, 1998; Pal and Srivastava, 1976; Pandey et al., 1998; Paul, 1977; Prasad et al., 1998; Prasad, 1988; Raghav et al., 2005; Ram and Saha, 1998; Rani, and Mishra, 2002; Roy Choudhuri, 1963; Sahoo and Mudgal, 1993(1997); Sahu et al.,2003; Saren et al., 2006; Sarkar & Agarwal, 1978; Sharma, 1981, 1988; Sharma & Sinha, 1980; Shukla and Verma 1996; Singh, 2003; Singh and Singh, 1992; Singh and Sinha, 1991; Singh et al., 1992, Singh, 1987; Singh, 1955; Sinha et al., 1981; Sinha and Nathwat, 1989, 1989, 1991; Srivastawa and Verma, 1981; Srivastava, 2006; Tarafder, 1978, 1983a, 1983b, 1983c 1983d, 1984a, 1984b, 1984c, 1984d, 1984e, 1985, 1986, 1987; Tarafder & Chaudhuri, 1981; Topno, 1997; Trebedi, 1986; Trevedi et al., 1985,1987; Uniyal, 1995; Upadhyay et al., 1998; Verma and Pandey, 1990; Verma et al., 1999; Vidhyarthy and Gupta, 2004). In the present paper, author has given emphasis on diseasewise ethnomedicinal plants, which might be useful for further ethno-pharmacological investigation.
2.
ENUMERATION
In the present paper, the plant species have been arranged alphabetically in each group of diseases, disorders and ailments alongwith parts used, author citation, parts used and local names in brackets. Abortion Root of Barleria cristata L. (Bantishi), root of Ruellia suffruticosa Roxb. (Charpandu, Ranu) and soft twig of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used for abortion porposes. Asthma Bark of Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), leaf of Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn. (Brahmi), fruit pulp of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), root of Clerodendrum serra tum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili, Bharangi), leaf, flower and seed of Datura metel L. (Tuntura, Datura), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Sinar), fruit of Trichosanthes palmata Roxb. and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are given in asthma, bronchitis, lung infection and as expectorant. Bone fracture Roots of Vitis repanda W. & A. (Harjora, Harjarwa) is used on bone fracture in tribal belt of Jharkhand. Burns Seed of Argemone mexicana L. (Bakula, Rangeni Kata, and Sial Kanta), root of Bombax
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ceiba L. (Mur-red, Simbal), rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru, and Talmuli) and fruit of Marttj11ia annua L. (Budisarsar) are used in the treatment of burns. Contraceptives Root of Flemingia c/tappar Buch.-Ham. ex Benth. and leaf juice of Vitex negundo L. (Sind war, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used as contraceptives in the tribal area of Jharkhand. Cough and Cold Seed of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, and Kanijari), leaf of Adhatoda vasica Nees (Vasaka, Basak), leaf of Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. (Be]), stem bark of Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), plant of Barleria cristata L. (Bantishi), bark of Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook.f. (Dauntha), root of Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili, Bharangi), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Sinar), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. ( Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), leaf of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Saparum, Khirsari, Harsingar), root of Polygala crotalarioides Buch.-Ham. ex DC. (Chanbida, Nilkanthi, Nil Kanti), fruit and flower of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi), fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Rolla, Harra), seed of Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. ex Dalz. ex Gibs. (Bankapas, Ban Kapasi), and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used by the tribe in cough and cold. Diaorrhoea and Dysentery Bark of Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd.ex Del. ssp. indica (Benth.) Bren. (Babul), plant of Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. (Midni, Lupora), stem bark of Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. (Chhatni, Chatian), gum of Anogeissus lati/olia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), bark of Bauhinia purpurea L. (Singda, Koinar), root bark of Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Palati, Akanta, Akwan, Palti), root of Croton roxburghii Balak. syn. C. oblongifolius Roxb. (Kuti-KunJaw, Miridi, Putri, and Gote Potri), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Sinar), stem bark of Desmodium oojeinensis (Roxb.) Ohashi (Sanan), tuber of Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Darukanda), fruit, seed oil and bark of DiosptJros melanoXljlon Roxb. (Tiril, Kend, Tendu, Kendu, Terel), root of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), plant of Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. (Buang-dumbo, Teli), leaf of Gloriosa superba L. (Kari-hari, Nagaser), root of Glossogt;ne pinnatifida DC. (Otebarangu, Bajardanti), bark of Holarrhena antidysenterica (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. (Karaia, Korea, Hat dudhia, Toa and Koroiya), stem bark of Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Robinson (Meda, Meda bokla), plant of Mimosa pudica L. (Lajouni, Jajwanti, Chauimaui), root of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Saparum, Khirsari, Harsingar), leaf of Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. , fruit of Punica granatum L. (Anar), fruit of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi), and fruit of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Kudda, Jamun) are given in the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. Diabetes Root of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, Kanijari), wood of Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Bija, Bijasal), seed and bark of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Kudda, Jamun) are used in the treatment of diabetes.
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Digestive disorder Seed of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, Kanijari), leaf of Aegle marmelos (L.) Carr. (Bel), plant of Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex. Nees (Chirak, Kalmegh, Kamraj, Chireita, Chiraita), root of Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk. (Rajguru mba, Gadh), root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Sabnul, Satawar, Satur and Gogotram), root and flower of Bauhinia purpurea L. (Singda, Koinar), root of Blumeopsis jlava (DC) Gagnep. (Mageba, Bansorso), root of Bombax ceiba L. (Mur-red, Simbal), Bark of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (Benda, Paras, Palas, Dhak), leaf and fruit of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), leaf of Cassia tora L. (Chakar, Chakor), root of Cissampelos pareira L. (Parai, Nankijari, Parhi, Chatakpapar, Pitusing and Bandarkana), plant of Commelina benghalensis L. (Kanchare), root of Croton r~xburghii Balak. syn. C. oblongifolius Roxb. (Kuti-Kun-Jaw, Miridi, Putri, Gate Potri), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC (Sinar), root of Desmodium pulchellum (L.) Backer (Eth-Ka-Jar), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), plant of Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC (Buang-dumbo, Teli), plant of Equisetum debile Roxb.ex Vauch. (Hajorua), fruit of Ficus racemosa L. syn. F.glomerata Roxb. (Dumbri, Gular), root of Holarrhena antidysenterica (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. (Karala, Korea, Hat dudhia, Toa and Koroiya), root of Lygodium jlexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), root of Meyna laxiflora Robins. (Katob, Mauna, Ber-Ka-Mowna-Gach), bark of Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Korth. (Karmi), plant of Polygonllm barbatllm L. (Gara-bera-aha, Sensa), bark of Pongamia pi/mata (L.) Pierre (Karanj), flower of Pterospermum acerifolium willd. (Mackchand, Mackchun), seed of Ruellia Sllffruticosa Roxb. (Charpandu, Ranu), resin of SllOrea robusta Roxb. ex Gaertn. f (Sal, Sakhua), root of Smilax zeylanica L. (Ram Pawan, At- Ker, Ram datoon), stem bark of Spodias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz (Amra), plant of Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. (Chiraita), fruit of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Kudda, Jamun), bark and leaf of Tamarindus indica L. (Emli, Tetar), fruit of Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (Bahera, Bahaira), fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Rolla, Harra), and root of Thalictrum foliosum DC Gurbula) are used in digestive disorder including indigestion, stomach pain, gastric trouble, as appetizer, constipation, biliousness, burning sensation etc. Delivery Root of Achyrallthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, and Chirdhiri), root of Adhatoda vasica Nees (Vasaka, Basak), leaf of Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk. (Rajgurumba, Gadh), root of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), root of Gloriosa superba L. (Kari-hari, Nagaser), flower of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. (Urhul), root of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), bark of Sterculia urens Roxb. and root of Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz.ex Dalz.ex Gibs. (Bankapas, Ban Kapasi) are used to accelerate and for easy, smooth and painless delivery. Dog bite Plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), flower of Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Palati, Akanta, Akwan, Palti), bark of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), leaf of Clerodelldrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), plant of Lygodium jlexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), root of Sida acuta Burm. f (Baria~, Ipidipium, Bariari), root of
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Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay syn. Randia dumetorum (Retz.) Lam. (Kharhar, Loto and Mouna) and fruit of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi) are used in jackal, monkey and dog bite including hydrophobia. Ear trouble Seed of Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.) Bojer syn. A. speciosa (Lf) Sweet (Marang- harlu, Jamru chalam, Chherisim), seed of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), fruit of Trichosanthes palmata Roxb., root of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. syn. Vernonia conyzoides DC (Kaliziri, Jonkitin, Ranu) are used in earache, pus discharges and infection in ear. Epilepsy Seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-gui, Minjni, Kujri), whole plant of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), plant and root of Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri) and leaf of Marttjnia annua L. (Budisarsar) are given in epilepsy. Eye complaints Seed of Argemone mexicana L. (Bakula, Rangeni Kata, Sial Kanta), root and leaf of Clerodendrum serra tum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili, Bharangi), plant of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (Dubilata), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), plant and root of Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC (Buang-dumbo, Teli), seed of Flemingia chappar Buch.-Ham. ex Benth.(Gal Phuli), fruit of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi),stem bark of Symplocos racemosa Roxb. (Lodh, Ratan Gaur, Ratanganda), root of Thalictrum foliosum DC (Jurbula)and plant of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. syn. Vernonia conyzoides DC (Kaliziri, Jonkitin, Ranu) are used in the treatment of redness, swelling, pain, inflammation, conjunctivitis etc. in eyes. Fever Bark of Adina cordifolia (Willd.ex Roxb.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Brandis (Karam, Karam), plant and root of Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. (Midni, Lupora), leaf of Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ex. Nees (Chirak, Kalmegh, Kamraj, Chireita, Chiraita), root of Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk. (Rajgurumba, Gadh), root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and Gogotram), seed of Caesalpinia crista L. (Kath Karanj), root of Carissa spinarum L. (Gara, Gadasur, Khunti, Karonda, Karanda, Konad), leaf of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), root of Cassia occidentalis L. (Ba:ka Chakur, Chakar), plant and root of Cissampelos pareira L. (Parai, Nankijari, Parhi, Chatakpapar, Pitusing and Bandarkana), root of Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili, Bharangi), root of CnJPtolepis buchanani R.Br. ex Roem & Schult. (Vaish- Lakashman, Medha- Singhi), leaf, seed and root of Datura metel L. (Tuntura, Datura), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC (Sinar), seed oil and bark of Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. (Tiril, Kend, Tendu, Kendu, Terel), root and stem bark of Diosptjros montana Roxb. (Kendu), root of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), leaf of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), root of Gloriosa
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superba L. (Kari-hari, Nagaser), root of Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. (Chotaka -dudhi, Anaising, Dudhmala, Dudhijeri), bark of Holarrhena antidysenterica (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. (Karaia, Korea, Hat dudhia, Toa and Koroiya), root of Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), bark of Melia azedaraclz L. (Bakain, Nim), fruit of Meyna laxiflora Robins. (Katob, Mauna, Ber-Ka-Mowna-Gach), plant of Mimosa pudica L. (Lajouni, Jajwanti, Chauimaui), bark of MitragrJna parviflora (Roxb.) Korth. (Karmi), bark of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), root of Mucuna pmriens (L.) DC (Alkusi, Algusi), root of Plumbago zeylanica L. (Chitrak), root of Polygala crotalarioides Buch.-Ham. ex DC (Chanbida, Nilkanthi, Nil Kanti), seed oil of POllgamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Karanj), root of Smilax zeylanica L. (Ram Pawan, At- Ker, Ram datoon), root of Thalictrum foliosum DC (Jurbula), bulb of Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth. (BanPiyaj, Jangli Piyaj), whole plant of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. syn. Vernonia conyzoides DC (Kaliziri, Jonkitin, Ranu), leaf and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi), root of Wattakaka valubilis L. Stapf. (Par, Nak-chikni), root of Woodfordia fruticosa ( L.) Kurz (Dhutkiphul, Itchea, Dhawai, Ichha, Dhaunai), root of Wrightia toementosa (Roxb.) Roem. & Schult. (Kari-dudhi), plant of Xanthium strumarium L., root of Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay syn. Randia dumetomm (Retz.) Lam. (Kharhar, Loto and Mouna) are used in fever including malarial, typhoid, intermittent and high fever with senselessness. Gum diseases Leaf of Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. and leaf of Vitex llegundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in gum diseases including swelling, pyorrhea, bed smell etc. Headache Plant of Andrographis palliculata (Burmf.) Wall. ex Nees (Chirak, Kalmegh, Kamraj, Chireita, Chiraita), leaf of Blumeopsis flava (DC) Gagnep. (Mageba, Bansorso), root of Croton roxburghii Balak. syn. C. oblongifolius Roxb. (Kuti-Kun-Jaw, Miridi, Putri, Gote Potri), plant of Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri), fruit of Leonotis nepetafolia (L.) R.Br. (Pogu-jata, Tompepuru, Traangia), Leaf of Ocimum basilicum L. (Achi-Koam, Jatni), bark of Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. (Banskali), Spilanthes calva DC, root of Trichosanthes palmata Roxb., leaf of Vitex llegundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) and root of Woodfordia fruticosa ( L.) Kurz (Dhutkiphul, Itchea, Dhawai, Ichha, and Dhaunai) are used for treating headache. Jaundice Whole Plant of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), Leaf of Phyllanthus nimri L.(Jara amla), plant of Solanum nigmm L. (Makoi) and whole plant of Urtica dioica L. (Bichhu ghas) are used in jaundice and liver troubles. Leprosy Whole Plant of Commelina benghalensis L. (Kanchare), flower bud of Hibiscus rosasinensis L. (Urhul), plant of Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri), and root of Mucuna pmriens (L.) DC (Alkusi, Algusi) are used in leprosy and leucoderma. Leucorrhoea Root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and
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Gogotram) and rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru, Talmuli) are used in the treatment of leucorrhoea. Miscarriage Seed of Butea monospenna (Lamk.) Taub. (Bendo, Paras, Palas, Dhak), root of Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. (Banskali), fower and root of Prosopis spicigera L. (Mimosaceae), leaf of Punica granatum L. (Anar) and wood of Symplocos racemosa Roxb. (Lodh, Ratan Gaur, Ratanganda) are used to prevent miscarriages during pregnancy. Pains Leaf of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, and Kanijari), root of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, and Chirdhiri), stem bark of Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. (Chhatni, Chatian), root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and Gogotram), whole plant of Atljlosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. (Bonkurthy, Bankurthi), root of Carissa carandas L. (Kanwad) and Carissa spinarum L. (Gara, Gadasur, Khunti, Karonda, Karanda, Konad), seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkangui, Minjni, Kujri), whole plant of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), root of Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), whole plant of Crotolaria spectabilis Roth syn. c.sericea Retz. (Jhuka, Jhunjhunia), rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru, Talmuli), root of Desmodium gangeticllm (L.) DC. (Sinar), root of Desmodium oojeinensis (Roxb.) Ohashi (Sanan), root of Lygodillm fIexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), seed of Ruellia suffruticosa Roxb. (Charpandu, Ranu), resin of Shorea robllsta Roxb. ex Gaertn. f (Sal, Sakhua), root of Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. (Atkir), stem, leaf and fruit of Tillospora cordifolia (L.) Miers. (Gursilai), leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) and root of Vi tis repanda W. & A. (Harjora, Harjarwa) are used in body pain, muscle strain, chest pain, etc. by the tribal people of Jharkhand. Piles Whole plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), leaf of Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. (Kakrendha), rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru, and Talmuli), tuber of Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Darukanda), whole plant of Equisetum debile Roxb.ex Vauch. (Hajorua), peduncle of Solanum melollgena L. (Baigan), plant juice of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi) and leaf juice of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in the treatment of itching piles, bleeding piles and fistula. Post delivery complaints Stem bark of Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Palati, Akanta, Akwan, Palti), leaf of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), root of Costus specioslls (Koen.)Smith, plant of Crotolaria alata Buch.-Ham. (Jhunjhunka), root of Piper longum L. (Pipali), root of Pogostemon parviflorus Benth., bark of Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Bija, Bijasal), leaf of Punica granatum L. (Anar), root of Ruellia suffruticosa Roxb. (Charpandu, Ranu), and leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in fever, weakness, and to check bleeding and to remove out the placenta after delivery.
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF JHARKHAND, INDIA
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Rheumatism Gum of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Salga, Salia), whole plant of Crotolaria spectabilis Roth syn. c.sericea Retz. (Jhuka, Jhunjhunia), root and plant of
Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri), seed oil of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), pseudo bulb of Pholidota imbricata (Roxb.) Lindl. (Patharkela), seed oil of Pongamia pimzata (L.) Pierre (Karanj), root of Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. (Atkir) and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in the treatment of rheumatism. Scorpion sting Plant of Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), root of Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Palati, Akanta, Akwan, Palti), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC (Sinar) and root of Rubia cordifolia L. are used locally on the part stung by scorpion. Skin diseases Seed of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, Kanijari), plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), leaf of Ageratum conyzoides L. (Gandhari, Puru), leaf of ArgtjTeia nervosa (Burm. f) Bojer syn. A. speciosa (Lf) Sweet (Marang- harlu, Jamru chalam, Chherisim), whole plant of Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn. (Brahmi), gum of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Salga, Salia), seed of Cassia tora L. (Chakar, Chakor), seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-gui, Minjni, Kujri), root and leaf of Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), leaf of Commelina bengizalensis L. (Kanchare), rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru, Talmuli), seed ,leaf and root of Datura metel L. (Tuntura, Datura), tuber of Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Darukanda), plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), plant of Euphorbia hirta L. (Lal dhunia), whole plant of Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri), inflorescence of Leonotis nepetafolia (L.) R.Br. (pogu-jata, Tompepuru, Traangia), stem bark of Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) CB.Robinson (Meda, Meda bokla), seed oil of Melia azedarach L. (Bakain, Nim), seed oil of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), root of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Saparum, Khirsari, Harsingar), inflorescence of Ocimum basilicum L. (Achi-Koam, Jatni), seed oil of Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Karanj), seed oil of Schieichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken (Kusum), wood oil of Tectona grandis L.f. (Sagwan), fruit of Terminalia chebuia Retz. (Rolla, Harra) and leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in skin diseases including ringworm, itches, scabies, acne, boils, blister, sores, ulcer, tumor, irritation, sprain, blood purifier etc. Snake bite Whole plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), leaf of Ageratum conyzoides L. (Gandhari, Puru), plant of Anogeissus Iatifolia (Roxb. ex DC) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), root and leaf of Barleria cristata L. (Bantishi), root of Bauhinia vahlii (Wt. & Am.) Benth. (Gungu Sakam), stem bark of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Salga, Salia), root of Cissampelos pareira L. (Parai, Nankijari, Parhi, Chatakpapar, Pitusing and Bandarkana), root and leaf of Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili,
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Bharangi), root of Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC (Sinar), root of Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. (Saurighas, Chorant), bark of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), whole plant of Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth.ex Kurz (Serpgandha) and root of Rubia cordifolia L. are used in snakebite as well as to keep away the snakes. Swelling Root and leaf of Barleria cristata L. (Bantishi), root of Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), seed of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. (Pogu-jata, Tompepuru, and Traangia) is used in the treatment of swollen breast of woman and root of Lygodillm flexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri) are used in the treatment of swelling. Throat sore Leaf of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), plant of Spilanthes calva DC, gum of Sterculia urens Roxb. and fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Rolla, Harra) are used in the treatment of throat infection. Toothache Bark of Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd.ex Del. ssp. indica (Benth.) Bren. (Babul), seed of Argemone mexicana L. (Bakula, Rangeni Kata, Sial Kanta), root of AhJlosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. (Bonkurthy, Bankurthi), plant of Blumeopsis flava (DC) Gagnep. (Mageba, Bansorso), fruit of Datura metel L. (Tuntura, Datura), whole plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma. ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), leaf of Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC (Buang-dumbo, Teli), whole plant of GlossogtJne pinnatifida DC (Otebarangu, Bajardanti), fruit of Melia azedarach L. (Bakain, Nim), plant of Spilanthes calva DC, and leaf and twig of Vitex negundo L. (Sind war, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in the treatment of toothache, swelling and caries. Tuberculosis Seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-gui, Minjni, Kujri), seed of Holarrhena antidysenterica (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. (Karaia, Korea, Hat dudhia, Toa and Koroiya) and leaf of MarhJnia annua L. (Budisarsar) are given in the treatment of tuberculosis. Urinary disorder Root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and Gogotram), root of Mimosa pudica L. (Lajouni, Jajwanti, Chauimaui), leaf of Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir., root of Pueraria tubeorsa (Roxb. ex Willd) DC (Bandundi, Sarur) and root of Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. (Atkir) are used in renal trouble, gravel complaint, blood discharge and other urinary disorder. Venereal diseases Seed of ArgtjYeia nervosa (Burm. f) Bojer syn. A. speciosa (Lf.) Sweet (Marang- harlu, Jamru chalam, Chherisim), bark of Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook.f. (Dauntha), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), twig of Sida acuta Burm. f (Bariatu, Ipidipium, Bariari), root of Smilax ovalifolia
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Roxb. (Atkir), leaf of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Kudda, Jamun), root and fruit of Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz.ex Dalz.ex Gibs. (Bankapas, Ban Kapasi) and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in burning sensation in vagina, gonorrhoea, spermatorrhoea, irregular menstruation cycle, hydrocele and genital related diseases. Veterinary Leaf of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, Kanijari), bark of Alstonia scholaris (L.) RBr. (Chhatni, Chatian), leaf of ArgtjYeia neroosa (Burm. f) Bojer syn. A. speciosa (Lf.) Sweet (Marang- harlu, Jamru chalam, Chherisim), plant of Attjlosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. (Bonkurthy, Bankurthi), fruit of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), root of Dillenia indica L. (Korkot), whole plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), leaf of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), plant of Euphorbia hirta L. (Lal dhunia), bark of Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Robinson (Meda, Meda bokla), bark of Pueraria tllbeorsa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC. (Bandundi, Sarur), root of Smilax ze1jlanica L. (Ram Pawan, At- Ker, Ram datoon), leaf and branch of Sterculia urens Roxb., root of Trichosallthes palmata Roxb., bulb of Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth. (Ban-Piyaj, Jangli Piyaj) and whole plant of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. syn. Vernonia conyzoides DC. (Kaliziri, Jonkitin, Ranu) are used in diarrohoea, swelling, esophagus trouble, hoof disease, injury, fracture and other diseases of cattle/ animals. Vomiting Root of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Sinar), stem bark of Diospyros montana Roxb. (Kendu), whole plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti) and plant of Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. (Chiraita) are used to check vomiting. Vermifuge Fruit granules of Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg. (Gari- Sandari, Rurigach, Rori and Thipaj kanla), leaf of Melia azedarach L. (Bakain, Nim), pseudo-bulb of Pholidota imbricata (Roxb.) Lind!. (Patharkela), whole plant of Urtica dioica L., root of Vitex negundo L. (Sind war, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) and root of Wattakaka valubilis L. Stapf. (Par, Nak-chikni) are used for killing/removing tapeworm, thread worm, round worm, hook worm, pin worm, ascaris, and other intestinal worms. Weakness Roots of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and Gogotram), leaf of Attjlosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. (Bonkurthy, Bankurthi), leaf of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), root of Crotolaria alata Buch.Ham. Ghunjhunka), root of Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffrey (Kaoputki), root of Rubia cordifolia L., plant of Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. (Chiraita), fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Rolla, Harra), root of Thalictrum foliosum DC. Gurbula) and leaf and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sind war, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used as tonic in weakness for vigor, vitality and strength.
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Wound Whole plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), leaf and inflorescense of Ageratum conyzoides L. (Gandhari, Puru), leaf of Argemone mexicana L. (Bakula, Rangeni Kata, Sial Kanta), bark of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Salga, Salia), root of Carissa spinarum L. (Gara, Gadasur, Khunti, Karonda, Karanda, Konad), seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-gui, Minjni, Kujri), plant of Lygodium j1exuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Na&enacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), fruit of MarhJnia annua L. (Budisarsar), leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) and root of Vi tis repanda W. & A. (Harjora, Harjarwa) are used for cut, wound, injury, sore and inflammation. Wormicide Bark of Adina cordifolia (Willd.ex Roxb.) Beth. & Hook. f. ex Brandis (Karam, Karam), seed and bark of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (Bendo, Paras, Palas, Dhak), root of Carissa spinarum L. (Gara, Gadasur, Khunti, Karonda, Karanda, Konad), root of Dioscorea alata L. (Pahadkanda, Chupri- Au), whole plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), and leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used to kill sore worm.
3. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The present paper describes some important ethnomedicinal plants of Jharkhand, which are being used by various tribes for the treatment of forty major groups of diseases, disorders and ailments (Abortion, asthma, bone fracture, burns, contraceptives, cough and cold, diarrhoea and dysentery, diabetes, digestive disorder, delivery, dog bite, ear trouble, epilepsy, eye complaints, fever, gum diseases, headache, jaundice, leprosy, leucorrhoea, miscarriage, pains, piles, post delivery complaints, rheumatism, scorpion sting, skin diseases, snake bite, swelling, throat sore, toothache, tuberculosis, urinary disorder, venereal diseases, veterinary, vomiting, vermifuge, weakness, wound and as wormicide). These plant species have been arranged alphabetically in each group along with author citation, parts used and local names in parenthesis.
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata and Deputy Director, Central Botanical Laboratory, Howrah for all necessary facilities.
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Chandra, K. & Pandey, B.N. (1984) Some folk medicine of Singhbhum. Sachitra Ayurlleda 36(4):253257. Chandra, K. & Pandey, B.N. (1985) Medicinal plants of Santal Pargana, district Dumka (Bihar) Part I. Sachitra Ayuroeda 37(3): 307-314. Chandra, K., Pandey, P. & Pandey, B.N. (1987) Ethnobotany of Santhal pargana district Dumka (Bihar). Bull. Medico- ethno-bot. Res. 8:134-146. Chandra, K., Pandey, B.N., & Lal, V.K. (1985) Folk-lore medicinal plants of Dumka(Bihar). Ancient Science of Life 4:181-185.
Chaudhuri, Rai H.N. (1974). Green Medicine. Indian Mus. Bull. 9(1):35-40. Chaudhuri, Rai H.N. & Pal, D.C (1976) Poor man's medicine. Man and Life 2:126-131. Chaudhuri, Rai H.N., Pal, D.C, Tarafder, CR & Guha, A (1977) "Ranu"- A Tribal tablet. Vanyajati 25(2): 9-13. Girach, RD. & Aminuddin (1995) Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the tribals of Singhbhum district, Bihar, India. Ethnobotany 7:103-107. Goel, AK., Sahoo, AK. & Mudgal, V. (1984) A contribution to the ethnobotany of Santal Pargana. B.S.I. Howrah. pp. 1-37. Goel, A.K., Sahoo, AK. & Mudgal, V. (1987) Medico-ethnobotany of Santal Pargana (Bihar): Stomach & gastric troubles. The Eastern Anthropologists 40(2):161-167. Goel, A.K., Sahoo, A.K. & Mudgal, V. (1987) Ethnobotanical notes on some plants used for birth control in Santal Pargana, Bihar. ]. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 11(2):493-495. Goel, AK. & Mudgal, V. (1988) A survey of medicinal plants used by the tribals of Santal Pargana (Bihar). ]. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 12(2):329-335. Guha, U. (1957) Five folk tales of the Santal. Indian Folklore 2(1): 34-40. Gupta, S.P. (1963) An appraisal of chhotanagpur tribal pharmacopia. Bull. Bihar Tribal Res. Inst. 5(2): 1-18. Gupta, S.P. (1981) Native medicinal uses of plants by the Asurs of Netarhat Plateau (Bihar). p.218231. In Jain,S.K. (ed.) Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany. Oxford and IBH, New Delhi. Gupta, S.P. (1987) Study of plants during ethnobiological research among tribals.p.12-22. In Jain,S.K. (ed.) A Mannual of Ethnobotany, Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. Hembrom, P.P. (1991) Tribal medicine in Chotanagpur and Santal Parganas of Bihar, India. Ethnobotany 3:97-99.
Hembrom, P.P. (1994) Adivasi Oushadh (Horopathy), Paharia sewa samiti, Satia (DST, Government of India, New Delhi)-in Hindi. Hembrom, P.P. (1996) Contact therapy practiced by Mundas of Chotanagpur, Bihar. Ethnobotany 8:36-39. Hembrom, P.P. & Goel, AK. (2005) Horopathy: Ethnomedicine of Mundas. Ethnobotany 17:8995. Islam, M.A. & Jha, RK. (2003) Ethnopharmacology of tribals of Ranchi district of Jharkhand. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 27(2):300-310.
Jain, S. K. & Tarafder, CR(1970) Medicinal plant lore of the Santals (a revival of P.O. Bodding's work). Econ. Bot. 24:241-278. Jain, S.P. (1989) Tribal remedies from Saranda Forest Bihar, India-I. Int. J. Crude Drug Res. 27(1):2932.
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Paul, S.R (1977) Medicinal plants of Netarhat, Bihar (India). Qurt. J. Crude Drug Res. 15:79-97. Prasad, AN., Singh, B.K. & Dangi, M.K. (1998) Ethnomedicinal plants of Hazaribagh forest mine region (series-I). Int. J. Mendel 15(1-2):47-48.
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Prasad, U.N. (1988) Survey Report on availability resources of medicinal plants in the tribal and other areas of North and South Chhotanagpur division as well as tribal area of Dumka and other areas of Gaya, Aurngabad, Nawada and Monghyr districts (Unpublished). Chapter 9:56-62. Raghav, C.S., Suneja, Poonam, Bhatt, KC., Tomar, J.B. & Malik, 5.5. (2005) Exploration of medicinal and aromatic plants in tribal areas of Jharkhand and West Bengal for Chemo-ethnobotanical studies. p.147-158. In. Prabhuji, S.K et aI. (eds) Recent Advances in Medicinal Plant Research: Vision 21 st Century. Satish Publication House, New Delhi. Ram, RL. & Saha, V. (1998) Ethnobotanical wealth of Ranchi district, Bihar. Part I: Herbal medicinal plants used against dysentery. Adv. Plant Sci. 11(1):249-252. Rani, Sandhya & Mishra, G.D. (2002) Some medicinal plants used by the tribes of Jharkhand. Indian Med. Homoeo. Jour. 1(4):16-19.
Roy Choudhuri, P.c. (1963) Folklore in aid of medicine. Folklore 4(9):308-309. Sahoo, AK & Mudgal, V. 1993. (1997) Ethnobotany of South Chotanagpur (Bihar). Bull. bot. surv. India 35(1-4):40-59.
Sahu, H.B., Bondya, S.L., Kumar, J. & Sharma, H.P. (2003) Studies on ethno-medicinal properties of plant barks used as drugs by the indigenous people of Ranchi district of Jharkhand. Int.
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Saren, AM., Halder, AC. & Singh, Harish (2006) Ethnomedicinal plants of Mahilong Forest Range in Ranchi District, Jharkhand. J. econ. taxon. Bot. Sarkar, PK & Agarwal, V.S. (1978) Notes on Pholidota imbricate LindI. (Orchidaceae) and its local uses in Ranchi district, Bihar. Bull.Bot.Surv.India 20(1-4):182-183. Sharma, P.c. (1981) Folklore antifertility plant drug of Bihar. Bull. Medico- ethno- bot. Res. 2: 296302. Sharma, P.c. (1988) Some intresting medicinal folklores from Bihar. Bull. Medico- ethno- bot. Res. 9(3-4):89-95. Sharma, P.c. & Sinha, G. N. (1980) Folklore medicinal plants of Ranchi district (Bihar). Nagarjun 24(1):1-3. Shukla, Gyanesh & Verma, B.K(1996) Roots- A vital plant part to cure body ailments among tribal/rural folklore of western Bihar. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. Add. Ser. 12: 392-394. Singh, C.B. (2003) Forest flora in the life and economy of the tribals of Santhal Parganas, Jharkhand. Jour. Non-Timber Forest Prod. 10(1-2): 20-33. Singh, L.B. & Singh, c.L. (1992) An Ethno-Medico-Botanical study of Deoghar district (Bihar). BiojournaI4(1-2):83-86.
Singh, L.B. & Sinha, S.K. (1991) Ethnobotany of Paharia tribe of Sahibganj District, Bihar. Environment and Ecology 9(2): 541-543. Singh, L.B., Verma, AK & Sinha, S.s.N. (1992) Preliminary observations on the ethnomedicinal plants of Godda district (Bihar). J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. Add. Ser. 10:205-208. Singh, M.P. (1987) Tribal medicinal plants used in animals diseases of Chotanagpur. Indian Forester 113(11):758-759. Singh, Thakur Balwant (1955) Bihar ki vanaspatiyan. Sree Baidyanath Ayurveda Bhawan Pvt. Ltd. Publication, Patna. Sinha, G.N., Pandey, B.N. & Sharma (1981) Geographical distribution of ayurvedic medicinal plants in Bihar-I Haritakyedivarga. Sachitra Ayurveda 34(1): 30-33.
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Sinha, RK & Nathwat, G.S. (1989) Antifertility effects of plants used by the street herbal vendors for birth control. Ancient Science of Life 9(2):66-68. Sinha, R.K & Nathwat, G.S. (1989) Medicinal plants and plant products used by the street herbal vendors in the treatment of poliomyelitis in children. Jour. Research & Education in Indian medicine 8(1):23-26. Sinha, R.K & Nathwat, G.S. (1991) Plants and plant products used in the treatment of some respiratory disorder by the street herbal vendors. Jour. of Scientific Res. in plants and medicine 10(1-4):1-5. Srivastawa, D.K & Verma, S.K (1981) An ethnobotanical study of Santal Pargana, Bihar. Indian Forester 107:30-41. Srivastava, Sanjay (2006) Dependence of local people and issues in conserving local resources: Case of Dalma Wildlife Sanctury, Jharkhand. Indian Forester 132(1):31-42. Tarafder, CR. (1978) Some in~eresting new uses of the well known plant Vitex negundo L. (Nisinda). Bull. Bot. SUrD. India 20:176-177. Tarafder, CR. (1983a) Traditional medicinal plants used by the tribals of Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts, Bihar- plants used in stomach troubles. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 4(3):891-896. Tarafder, CR. (1983b) Ethnobotanical observation on Nisinda. Folklore 24(8):170-174. Tarafder, CR. (1983c) Ethnogynaecology in relation to plants. Part I : Plants used for antifertility and conception. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 4:483-489. Tarafder, CR. (1983d) Ethnogynaecology in relation to plants. Part II : Plants used for abortion. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 4:507-516. Tarafder, CR. (1984a) Medicinal plants traditionally used by the tribals of Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts, Bihar: Skin diseases and sores. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 26(3-4):149-153. Jarafder, CR. (1984b) Less known nine medicinal plants used by the tribals for curing gonorrhoea in Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts, Bihar. Folklore 25:47-49. Tarafder, CR. (1984c) Less known ten medicinal plants are used by the tribals of bringing taste to a sick person in Hazaribagh district, Bihar. Vanyajati 32(3):9-11. Tarafder, CR. (1984d) Ethnogynaecology in relation to plants. III. Plants used to accelerate delivery and pre and post natal care. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 5: 572-576. Tarafder, CR. (1984e) Less known twenty three medicinal plants used by the tribals for curing boils in Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts, Bihar. Vanyajati 32:14-19. Tarafder, CR. (1985) Acacia catechu Willd. Fabaceae. Indigenous and less known uses of the plants. Folklore 26(8):158-159. Tarafder, CR. (1986) Ethnobotany of Chhotanagpur. (Less known and unknown 38 medicinal plants used by the tribals). Folklore 27(6):119-125. Tarafder, CR. (1987) Some traditional knowledge about tribal healths of Hazaribagh and Ranchi districts. Folklore 28(2):37-42. Tarafder, CR. & Chaudhuri, H.N.Rai (1981) Less known medicinal uses of plants among the tribals of Hazaribagh and Ranchi districts in Bihar. p.208-217. In Jain, S.K. (ed.) Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany. Oxford and IBH, New Delhi. Topno, KK (1997) Plants used by tribals of Chotanagpur against diabetes. The Botanica 47:99101. Trebedi, G.N. (1986) Ethnobotany of Chotanagpur (Bihar). Folklore 27:119-124.
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Trebedi, G.N., MolIa, H.A. & Pal, D.C. (1985) Some use of plants from the tribal areas of Chotanagpur, Bihar. Nagarjun 29:15-18. Trebedi, G.N., MolIa, H.A. & Pal, D.C. (1987) Some traditional knowledge about tribal health (plants used by the tribals of Hazaribagh and Ranchi districts). Folklore 28(20):37-42. UniyaI, M.R. (1995) Bihar ke Adivasi evam Jari Bootiyan. Sree Baidyanath Ayurveda Bhawan Pvt Ltd. Publication, Patana. Upadhyay, D.P., Kumar, K. & Tiwari, R.K. (1998) Ethnobotanical study of skin treatment uses of medicinal plants of Bihar. Pharma. Biology 36(3):162-172. Verma, S.K. & Pandey, A.K. (1990) Ethnobotanical notes on certain medicinal plants used by the tribals of Lohardaga district, Bihar. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 14(2):329-333. Verma, S.K., Srivastava, D.K. & A.K. Pandey (1999) Ethnobotany of Santhal Pargana. Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi.p. 1-132. Vidhyarthy, Anil Kumar & Gupta, H.S. (2004) Ethnomedicinal study of some important plants of Jharkhand and their conservation. Indian Forester 130(2):149-156.
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THE PARASITIC ANGIOSPERMS : FROM MYTHOLOGY TO MEDICINE R.B. JADHAV, S.P. BHATNAGAR AND S.J. SURANA
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Parasitic angiosperms : General consideration
3.
Parasitic plants : Myths or medicine ?
4.
Parasitic plants : Diversity and distribution
5.
Host-Parasite interaction : Cause and consequence of pharmacological Effects
6.
Are the parasitic plants only pests or more than that ?
7.
Conclusions
8.
References
1. INTRODUCTION Despite of remarkable developments in separation and screening sciences, bioinformatics and data handling systems, computational and combinatorial chemistry, natural products (NP) remain dominant part of modem medicine. From recent survey, it is evident that about 67% of today's marketed drugs find their origin in natural products (Newman et. al., 2003). Unsurpassable structural and functional diversity, unique design, relevance to biological systems and biocompatibility of NP constitute the central dogma of drug discovery arena (Feher & Schmidt, 2003; Grabowski & Schneider, 2007). The industrial drug discovery is always in search of novel molecules that can be developed into the drugs. This drug discovery and development is trillion dollars business and large amount of money is invested in searching such new molecules. Since success rate in 'lead' finding is frequently poor, the drug discovery program usually includes chemically diverse material in lead finding process in order to enhance chances of getting new molecules. In addition of 'normal' life-forms, unusual life-forms thus considered as important source
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of unusual molecules. Parasitic plant community consequently attracted researchers because of their strange habit and long ethnomedicinal history. About 3900 species of parasitic plants (about 1 % of flowering plants) are reported from in nearly every habitat type and plant communities found throughout world (Musselman & Press, 1995). Because being unusual life-form, parasitic plants remain subject of much curiosity to the scientific community since ancient times. Similarly their strange growth habit, blooming during winter, does not follow a 12 month vegetation period, unusual mode of seed dispersal, and wide spread distribution could be the origin of their mystic and ethnomedicinal use in different cultures. The European mistletoe, Viscum album L. having more than 2000 year's history of its medicinal uses. The term 'mistletoe' has been used to refer to a large number of perennial hemi-parasitic flowering plants from the families Viscaceae and Loranthaceae sensu stricto. The term 'mistletoe' derives from the Anglo-Saxon misteltan (or mistiltan); 'mistle' meaning dung, and 'tan' meaning twig. Thus it literally means 'dung-on-a-twig' (Calder 1983). The mistletoe as a medicine was not restricted to Europe, but is also observed in other parts of the world, or was transformed to similar plants. Mistletoes, in general, are considered to have magical properties and uses among different cultural groups. These are primarily thought to be mystic in origin (Arndt 2000). Despite of widespread prevalence of parasitic plants in ethnomedicine, except few European species, most of the parasitic plants of world have not been investigated extensively in terms of modern pharmacology. The major problem in rationalization of ethnomedicinal claims of mistletoes is transformation of similar folk remedy claims to several different mistletoes. The likeness in their morphological and nutritional mode might be the reason for such transformation. In addition, presence of certain secondary compounds varies within and among the populations of parasitic plants, depending on the host association of individual parasite (Stermitz & Harris 1987). Thus their" characterization as well as specifying host plant is necessary to authenticate the folk' remedy claims and to allocate observed pharmacological activities. It is, therefore, important to know the species-wise ethnobotanical information which is much more' pertinent in rationalizing their ethnomedicinal claims. In present communication effort has been made to review the parasitic plants used traditionally by different ethnic groups/ cultures and civilizations in the light of recent pharmacological and phytochemical findings. On the basis of data accumulated and our experience on some parasitic plants, we observed some trends in both folk medicine and pharmacological activities. These are also discussed in this paper. Unfortunately, parasitic plants are largely investigated as invasive pests and as a detriment to forest health by policy makers, foresters, lay people and even biologists. However, recent studies underline their significance in different facets of life sciences. A brief account of these investigations is also considered to familiarize with significance of parasitic plant community.
2. PARASITIC ANGIOSPERMS: GENERAL CONSIDERATION The medicinal properties of plants are dependent on their chemical composition. Several exogenous and intrinsic factors are known to affect chemical makeup of the plants. These factors include climate, altitude, ontogenetic stage, geographical location, diurnal
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changes, genetic make-up etc. In addition to these factors, chemical composition of parasitic plants is dependent on type of host plant and degree of dependence of parasitic plant on the host. In understanding the degree of influence caused by host plant on secondary chemicals of parasitic plant, it is pertinent to consider various nutritional modes of parasites. The parasitic plants are evolved with complex nutritional mode which is quite different from 'normal' photosynthetic green plants. On the basis of nutritional modes, flowering plants can be categorized as autotrophic and heterotrophic (Daniel 2002). The majority of green plants (angiosperms) are autotrophic. The plants which have adopted a heterotrophic mode, obtain all or some of their carbohydrates from another organism. The heterotrophs are further divided into two groups, mycotrophs and haustorial parasites (Furman & Trappe 1971). Haustorial parasite that form modified roots called haustoria constituting the morphological and physiological connection with host plant. Haustorial parasitism appears to have evolved only in flowering plants (dicots). Among the various unrelated families of parasitic plants, two basic types of parasitism exist: holoparasites and hemi-parasites. Holoparasites are totally achlorophyllus (or nearly so), non-photosynthetic, and obtain all their water and nutrients from host xylem and phloem. Most holoparasites occur on host roots; however, some species of Cuscuta are stem parasites that have lost thylakoids, chlorophyll and light-dependent CO2 fixation (Machado & Zetsche 1990). Holoparasitism has evolved independently in different lineages like Cynomorriaceae, Convolvulaceae Balanophoraceae, Scrophulariaceae, Rafflesiales, Lennoaceae and Hydnoraceae. Hemi-parasites (semi-parasites) are chlorophyllus and photosynthetic (at least during some part of their life cycle) yet they obtain water and nutrient via haustorial connections to the host plant. Depending upon their degree of dependence on host, hemiparsites can be grouped into facultative and obligate. Facultative hemiparasites do not require a host to complete their life cycle but are photosynthetic and, when presented with host roots, invariably form haustorial connection. When attached to host roots, these parasites extract water and dissolved mineral via direct, cell-to-cell connections to the xylem. Facultative hemiparasites found in several root parasitic families such as Scrophulariaceae, Oleaceae, Opiliaceae, Santalaceae and Krameriaceae. Obligate hemiparasites needs to attach to a host to complete their life cycle. These are further grouped as primitive and advanced type. The primitive type includes stem parasites of Loranthaceae, Misodendraceae and some Viscaceae. These parasites are photosynthetic xylem feeders, but being stem parasites, they cannot exist independent of host plant. The advanced obligate hemiparasites attach not only to host xylem but also obtain host carbon via phloem connections. Concomitant with this nutritional is the loss of photosynthetic function, at least to some degree or during some stage of life cycle. It includes most species of Phacellaria (Santalaceae), Cuscuta (Convolvulaceae), Arceuthobium (Viscaceae), Cassytha (Lauraceae) and Striga gesnerioides (Scrophulariaceae). The present review, however, considers not only hemi-parasites (mistletoes) but also holoparasites since later category demonstrated some interesting pharmacological properties.
3. PARASITIC PLANTS: MYTHS OR MEDICINE? In many cultures, mistletoes have been a source for many concepts, symbols, and rituals. Since early days, they have been one of the most magical, mysterious and scared
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plants of folklore. Mistletoes, in general, are considered to have magical properties and uses among different cultural groups tend to be primarily for illness thought to be mystic origin. Because of their unusual life-form (strange growth habit, blooming during winter, does not follow a 12 month vegetation period, and unusual mode of seed dispersal), many cultures have respected, feared or thought them to have magical properties (Polhill & Wiens 1998; Arndt 2000). To them, plant represented ever-lasting life and they believed the plant was antidote for poisons and ensured fertility, and to possess miraculous properties to cure each illness. The mythological and medicinal history of parasitic plants is more or less co-evolved with European mistletoe, Viscum album L. Even today, the evergreen mistletoe is thought to be a symbol of fertility and good luck during the Christmas tide in many European countries and North America. This tradition dates back several thousand years to a time when bough of mistletoe were hung to protect evil spirit and to promote fertility (Kandela, 2001). The occurrence of Viscum album L. in Southern Europe was first reported by Theophrastus (321-287 BC) and was later mentioned by others such as Aristotle and Plinius (Doris 2004). The intensions of mistletoe uses were manifold and conflicting in several cases. According to the Greek physician and author Dioscorides (15-85 AD), Hippocrates (460-377 BC) used the mistletoe to treat disease of the spleen and complaints associated with menstruation. Plinius (23-79 AC) reported mistletoe from Oak trees, when applied as chewed pulp, to be beneficial for epilepsy, infertility and ulcers. Around 150 AC, the Platonist Celsus reported the use of mistletoe in the treatment of swelling or tumors (Arndt 2000). During middle ages, mistletoe was recommended as a treatment for epilepsy. In the 12th century, the abbess and composer Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179) wrote mistletoe as a treatment for spleen and liver. It was also applied for deworming children, to treat labour-pains, gout and affections of lung and liver. However, when applied in wine, it was used to treat leprosy. When applied as a plaster, mistleto~ was suggested to be beneficial in the treatment of mumps and fractures, while the binding of their leaves to the palms and sole will heal hepatitis. During the 18th century, mistletoe was applied for 'weakness of the heart' and oedema. Mistletoe-containing ointment, Viscin, was reported to be effective for eczema, ulcers of the feet, burns and granulating wounds. The scientific interest on mistletoe awakened in the 20 th century, as Gaultier (1910) investigated the effect of oral or subcutaneous applications of fresh V. album extracts on blood pressure in man and animals. In 1920, Rudolf Steiner (founder of anthroposophy), introduced Viscum album as anti-cancer agent. Around 1960, anti-cancer lectins were isolated by Vester and Nienhaus. Recognition of these medicinal properties substantially changes the view of European community towards this plant. Perhaps made possible by their wide distribution, mistletoe species have been used in folk medicine by cultures on almost every continent at some point in history. Similar to Europe, mistletoe as a remedy is also observed in other parts of the world. It is evident that several of ethnomedicinal claims of Viscum album were also transformed to several different mistletoes around globe. The likeness in their morphological and nutritional mode might be the reason for such transformation. The North American mistletoe (Pharadendran spp.) was used by the Native Americans as an abortifacient, and by farmers for 'clearing cattle'. Argentine mistletoe (Ligaria cuneifalia) is used in local
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folk medicine to treat hypertension (Arndt 2000). In Africa, Viscum aethiopicum was a remedy to treat diarrhoea. Loranthus and Viscum species were used by the Zulu as an enema for stomach troubles in children. To treat diabetes mellitus, Loranthus bengwensis L. has been widely used in Nigerian folk medicine (Obatomi et. al., 1994). Similar to Europe, mistletoes in Asia are known for their magical as well as medicinal properties. In Nepal, Tamang ethnic group of Phulchoki area believed that the use of mistletoes infected Urtica dioica wood brings good luck during gambling (Kunwar et.al., 2005). Mistletoes are also used by several ethnic groups in India with bad intension to reduce fertility and milk in cattle. In Japanese folk medicine, mistletoe (Taxillus kaemferi) was a remedy to treat hypotension while other mistletoes such as Loranthus parasitikus, Loranthus yadoriki were used in Traditional Chinese Medicine to treat hypertension, spasms of the heart, rheumatic pain, threatened abortion and locally to treat frost-bite (Paulus & Ding, 1987). In western part of India, a tea prepared from mistletoe is traditionally used to treat diabetes. In Nepal, mistletoes are used as medicine, fodder and food. Besides these, few species are used in trapping birds and few others are for food for birds and butterflies. These are extensively applied for curing muscular swelling, sprains, fractures and dislocations (Kunwar et.al., 2005). Some important parasites with their ethnomedicinal claims and findings in pharmacological activities along with their chemical constituents are given in table 1.
4. PARASITIC PLANTS : DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTION Although parasitic plants do not constitute dominant life form in an ecosystem, there exists approximately 3900 species of haustorial parasitic plants (about 1 % of flowering plants) distributed in 278 genera of 18 families. Parasitic plants are present in highly diverse ecosystems from tropics to temperate and are reported from in nearly every habitat type found throughout world except tropical rain forests from where only few species of parasitic plants are reported. This might be because of special requirement of negative water potential for parasitic (especially hemi-parasites) plants which is difficult to maintain high transpiration rate in dense and dark conditions of tropical rain forests. The moist tropical habitats are dominated by families such as Rafflesiaceae, Loranthaceae, Balanophoraceae, Mitrastemonaceae and Olaceae. In Grassland and Savannah ecosystems, diverse members of families Scrophulariaceae and Loranthaceae are observed. Savannas, with large solar exposure and several host trees, provide ideal habitat for these mistletoes. From xeric habitats families such as Cynomoriaceae, Hydnoraceae and Apodanthaceae are reported. In terms of overall numbers, the majority of parasitic plant species occur in ecosystem undisturbed by humans. The habitat is topographically and ecologically defined by the host trees. Host size and canopy characteristics determine where mistletoe can grow (Dawson et. al., 1990). The parasite families, Loranthaceae and Viscaceae have separate geographic origins and a different cytological history. The most primitive genera of LQranthaceae occur in South America, New Zealand and Australia. The Viscaceae seems to have originated in south-east Asia, from where it has dispersed mainly in the tropics and northern hemisphere (Kirkup et. al., 2000). The accrual of knowledge of medicinal properties of natural products in any ethnic group is largely dependent on the distribution and diversity of flora and fauna of region.
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This can be evident from distribution data of Loranthaceae and Viscaceae. About 280 species of Loranthaceae and Viscaceae are reported from Africa. From this brief review, it is perceptible that diverse mistletoes constitute the part of African folklore out of which Loranthaceae members are predominant. It was also recorded that in comparison to Viscaceae, Loranthaceae are more prominent group of mistletoes in Africa (Kirk up et. al., 2000). Thus it appears that the evolution of folklore is largely dependent on magnitude of biodiversity of region. From this brief survey of parasitic plants, it is evident that about 71 % folk remedy claims are acceptable when validated in terms of modern pharmacology. Most frequently recorded folk remedy claims of parasitic plants are (in decreasing order): anti-hypertensive, anti-cancer, anti-microbial, anti-arthritic, wound-healing, anti-diabetic, anti-asthmatic, anti-convulsant, diuretic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory activities. Most frequently observed pharmacological activities of parasitic plants are (in decreasing order): cytotoxic/ anti-cancer, anti-microbial, antihypertensive, anti-viral, anti-diabetic, anti-fertility, anti-oxidant, imm~lnomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and diuretic.
S. HOST-PARASITE INTERACTION : CAUSE AND CONSEQUENCE OF PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECTS Although chemical ecology of interaction between parasitic plants and their hosts is poorly understood, transfer of secondary compounds to a parasite from its host plant is known to sustain the existence of parasites (Adler et al. 2001). The host plant does have influence on secondary chemicals and thus observed pharmacological activity (Osadebe et. al., 2004). When such activities are based on phenolics of parasite, the chances of variation are high. This is due to fact that several phenolics are reported to transfer from host to parasitic plant ijadhav et. al., 2005). Additionally the variation is also dependent on the degree of dependence of parasitic plant on host. The transfer of secondary metabolites from host to parasite is parallel to their nutritional mode. The holoparasite chemistry is largely dependent on host since these are non-photosynthetic, and obtain all their water and nutrient from host xylem and phloem. On other hand, the hemiparasites are photosynthetic yet they obtain water and nutrient from host xylem, thus the presence of certain secondary compounds varies within and among the populations of hemiparasitic plants, depending on the host association of individual parasites (Stermitz & Harris 1987). It was also recorded that a high concentration of phenolics appears to be a general feature of parasitic angiosperms (Khanna et al., 1968). This broad class comprises flavonoids, tannins, phenolic acids and phenylpropanoid compounds. The reduced forms of polyphenolics are powerful antioxidants equivalent to ascorbate. Thus several activities such as cytoprotection, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-microbial, anti-fertility, anti-ulcer, anti-hypertensive and eNS related activities are mediated, at least in part, through anti-oxidant potential of these polyphenolics. However, it should not be confused that it is only transferred secondary chemicals that are responsible for activity. The parasitic plants (both holoparasite and hemi-parasite) have their own secondary chemicals. It is also known that parasitic plants do not synthesize or modify the secondary compounds taken up from their hosts (Simms, 1992). Thus the secondary chemicals of parasitic plant are the sum of the accumulated, transferred chemicals from host and its own chemicals. Thus this might be the reason why several parasitic plants are effective in treatment of different disorders.
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R.B. }ADHAV, S.P. BHATNAGAR AND S.}. SURANA
The parasitic plants unable to biotransform the transferred secondary chemicals because of absence of enzymes required. This subsequently leads to accumulation of certain secondary compounds in parasitic plant and their quantity in certain parasite found to be several fold higher than host plant (Katrin et. al., 1999). The chances of maximal transfer and accumulation of secondary chemicals are more in holoparasitic plants since these are feeding on xylem as well as phloem. This is an important part of commercial exploitation. An additional benefit in this connection is that holoparasite offer lower chemical complexity and thus simplicity of isolation in comparison to the host plant. Along with primary metabolites, secondary metabolites such as alkaloids can be transferred from host plants to certain parasitic plants without the capability of producing alkaloids (Stermitz & Harris, 1987). Alkaloids are an important class of phytoconstituents having potential and diverse pharmacological activities. Transfer of alkaloids from host to parasitic plant has been reported in several genera e.g. Cuscuta (Convolvulaceae), Viscum (Viscaceae), Castilleja, Pedicularis, Orobanche and Ortizocarplls (Scrophulariaceae) (Adler & Wink, 2001). The alkaloid transfer in hemiparasite is due to fact that these compounds are trapped by hemiparasite when these are moved via the phloem as alkaloid N-oxides. It was also recorded that transferred alkaloids are utilized for defense purpose by parasite either directly or in modified forms ego Castilleja and Pediculan's spp. are known to synthesize their own irridoid toxins. It should be however noted that uptake of alkaloids is selective and only one or more of the alkaloids of the host are found in parasite. Further, a given parasite growing on different host may sequester different kinds of alkaloids and the amount of the alkaloids borrowed from given host by different parasites is also different (Harbone, 1999). Although the passive as well as active transport mechanisms are reported in such transfer, why only selective secondary chemicals are transferred and by which mechanism is largely still remains to be answered. One of the potential applications of mistletoe is their anti-cancer activity. Ample information available that indicates that the European mistletoe, Viscum album, can be used as adjuvant in treatment of cancer therapy because of its anti-cancer and immunomodulatory activity. Similar use of several other parasites from different continent is also reported (Varela et. al., 2004). It is apparent that compounds such as lectins, viscotoxins, thionins, proteins, yeptides, oligosaccharides, alkaloids and polyphenolic are responsible for cytotoxic and immunomodulatory effects (Pfuller, 2000). Certain C16-alkynic fatty acids are reported to have inhibitory effects on cancer cell invasion (Ohashi et. al., 2003). Thus from above discussion it is clear that in addition to the other factors, influence caused by host on secondary chemicals becomes important concern in pharmacological rationalization of folk remedy claims of given parasite. However, only in few cases, such claims are given on host basis. Probably, this might be the reason why different species of parasitic plants have been investigated for similar pharmacological properties. Interestingly, folk remedy claims share striking similarity between different cultural groups and persisted for over 2000 years are also reflected in pharmacological validation. 6. ARE THE PARASmC PLANTS ONLY PESTS OR MORE mAN TIIAT?
The major part of world community considers parasitic plants as invasive pests and eventually strategies are framed to destroy them in protection of the forests.
~
TABLE 1
:I: rrJ
Parasitic plants with their ethnomedicinal claims and recorded pharmacological activities Parasitic plant
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported
Pharmacological report
Phytochemical(s)
~
References
> > cr> ~
-:> >-j
Balanophora abbreviata BI. (Balanophoraceae)
(Thailand) Used in treatment of infectious fever and thought to be a toxic herb which causes leprosy and lymph-node cancer. (Denmark) Used as antiCassytha filiformis L. hypertensive agent (Lauraceae) Cuscuta chinensis Lam. (Asia) Used as a tonic for liver and kidney, and to treat (Convolvulaceae) impotence and seminal emission. Also used as aphrodisiac and anti-tumor agent (Asian) Used as a substitute of Cuscuta japonica Cuscuta cJlinensis Choisy (Convolvulaceae) Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. (India) In treatment of fits, insanity, melancholy, (Convolvulaceae) protracted fevers, retention of wind and indurations of the liver and externally for itch
Dendrophthoe falcata (Linnf-) (Loranthaceae)
(India) Used as astriengent, aphrodiasiac, narcotic and diuretic. Plant useful in
Antibacterial and antiinflammatory activities
Lignans
Hosokawa et. aI., 2004; Trakulsomboon et. al., 2006.
n
z
-
Cl
acr>
'"tI rrJ
Anti-hypertensive and cytotoxic Bone healing, immunomodulatory, anti-oxidant and hepatoprotective activity Anti-hypertensive and anti-oxidant activity Anti-fertility effects (Delayed maturation and suppression of ovarian steroidogenesis), antimicrobial, analgesic, anti-convulasant, antiviral activity Diuretic, anti-lithiatic, anti-hypertensive, antifertility activity
Aporphine alkaloids Flavonoids, cuscutic acids A-D, alkaloids, glycosides, polysaccharides and lignans Caffeoylquinic acid Derivatives and flavonoids Cuscutalin (lactone), flavonoids, and proteins
Adsersen & Adsersen, 1997; Stevigny 2002. Yahara, 1994; Yao et. aI., 2005; Hang-Jun, 2005; Yen, 2007.
~
s::
cr>
~
~
~ ~
:I:
Oh et. aI., 2002; Yang et. al.,2006.
ar-< a
Cl
100( >-j
a Awasthi, 1981; Gupta et. al., 2003; Pal et. al., 2003; Pal et. aI., 2006.
~
-rrJ
0
n
Z
rrJ
Triterpenoids, flavonoids
Hemadri et. al., 1983; Alekuttey et. aI., 1993; Balraman et. al. 1993; N
Contd ...
;::1
N
... Contd. Parasitic plant
Elytranthe globose BI. (Loranthaceae) Elytranthe maingayi Van Tiegh. (Loranthaceae)
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported pulmonary TB, asthma, wound swelling, renal calculi and also used as anti-fertility agent (Indonesia) Cough, headache, and expel the afterbirth (Indonesia) In treatment of cancer, malaria, and as tonic and diuretic
Elytranthe tubaej10ra (Indonesia) In treatment of Ridley (Loranthaceae) cancer, malaria, and as tonic and diuretic Globimetula cupulata (Africa) Used in treatment of (DC.) Van Tiegh. diabetes mellitus and (Loranthaceae) hypertension Korthalsella opuntia (Denmark) Used as anti(Thunb.) Merrill hypertensive agent (Loranthaceae) Ligaria cuneifolia (R. et (Argentina) As substitute of P.) Tiegh. Viscum album for anti(Loranthaceae) hypertensive effects
Loranthus bengwensis L. (Loranthaceae) Loranthus globosus Roxb. (Loranthaceae)
(Africa) Used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus (Asia) Used in the treatment of menstrual abnormalities, to check abortion, acute and
Pharmacological report
Phytochemical(s)
References
~
Nadkami, 2000; Mallavadhani et. al., 2006. Antiviral and cytotoxic activities Antiviral and cytotoxic activities
Antiviral and cytotoxic activities
Flavonoids, steroids, condensed tannins Alkaloids, amino acids, flavonoids, triterpenoids, hydrolysable tannins Alkaloids, flavonoi~, triterpenoids, hydrolysabIe tannins
Lohezic-Le D. at et. aI., 2002. Lohezic-Le D. et. al., 2002.
Lohezic-Le Devehat et. al.,2002.
Anti-diabetic and antihypertensive activity
Ojewole & Adewole, 2007.
Anti-hypertensive
Adsersen & Adsersen, 1997.
Immunomodulatory, cytotoxic, antiproliferative and proapoptotic activities
Anti-diabetic activity
Galactoside-specific lectin, leucoanthocyanidins, catechin-4-a-01 and Proanthocyanidins and flavonoids
Fernandez et. al., 2003; Cerda, 2005.
~
~ > 0 := ~ r;J'l
~
=
:= > >-l Z
Obatomi et. aI, 1994.
> C') > '" > Z 0
r;J'l
Antihypertensive, Antimicrobial, cytotoxic, antiviral,
Sadik et. al., 2003; Islam et. al., 2004.
~ r;J'l
c:: > Z >
'"
Contd ...
... Contd. Parasitic plant
Loranthus micranthus Linn. (Loranthaceae)
Loranthus parasiticus Linn. (Loranthaceae)
Lorantltus yadoriki Sieb. (Loranthaceae) Phoradendron crassifolium (Pohl ex DC.) Eichler (Viscaceae) Phoradendron liga (Gill. ex H. et A.) Eichl. (Viscaceae)
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported chronic diarrhea, headache and itch (Africa) Used in the treatment of epilepsy, diabetes, hypertension, headache, infertility, cancer, rheumatism, menopausal syndrome, Plant is also used locally as an antimicrobial and antispasmodic agent (China) Used to tonify liver and kidney, dispel wind-damp, strengthen sinews and bones, and nourish blood. Also used to treat defiCiency of liver and kidney, with symptoms of pain of the joints and muscles or weakness of the tendons and bones
Pharmacological report
Phytochemical(s)
References
"":l m == "0
~
CIl
antihepatotoxic activity.
:3 (")
Anti-microbial, antidiabetic activity.
Alkaloids, cyanogenetic glycosides, saponins, fIavonoids, tannins, proteins, and resins
Osadebe et. al., 2004; Osadebe & Akabogu, 2006; Ojewole & Adewole, 2007.
> Z
Cl ....
0
CIl "U
m :;o:l
::CIl ITt 0
:;o:l
Bone healing and hepatoprotective activity
Sesquiterpene lactones
Okuda et. al., 1987; Yang et. al., 1987; Yao et. al., 2005.
::
~ ~ 0== I"'" 0 Cl 0<
~
0
~
m
Anti-viral activity (Bolivia) Used to treat fever
Cytoprotective activity
(Argentina) Used in the treatment of hypertensive and as substitute of Viscum album
Anti-hypertensive, immunomodulatory , anti-cancer, antimicrobial activity
Triterpenoids and saccharides
Yung, 1996; Wang et. al., 2000. Gonzales et. al., 2000.
Galactose-specific lectin (Ligatoxin-B), Flavonoids, C-
Varela et. ai., 2004.
....t:::J (") ....
Z m
N
Contd ...
tj
~
·..Contd. Parasitic plant
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported
Pharmacological report
Phytochemical(s)
References
~
glucosylflavones, 3desoxyproanthocyanidins
Phoradendron robinsonii Urb. (Viscaceae) Phoradendron tomentosum (DC.) Gray. (Loranthaceae)
Used as substitute of Viscum album
Anti-mycobacterial activity
Used as substitute of Viscum album
Cytotoxic activity
Phrygilanthus acutifolius (Ruiz & Pav.) Eichler (Loranthaceae)
(Argentina.) Used in the treatment of throat pain and respiratory diseases
Psi ttacanthus calyculatus (DC.) G. Don. (Loranthaceae) Psittacanthus cuneifolius (Ruiz and Pav.) Blume (Loranthaceae) Scurrula atropurpurea (Blume) Danser (Loranthaceae)
Rivero-Cruz et. al., 2005
Apigenin, apigenin Cglycosides, vitexin, schaftoside and isoschaftoside, phoratoxins
Anti-microbial, antiinflammat.ory, antinociceptive antipyretic effects and diuretic activity (Mexico) Used in the treatment Endothelium-dependent vaso-relaxation in rat of hypertension aortic ring (Argentina) Used to cure (+ )-catechin, quercitrin, fractures. reynoutrin (quercetin3-xyloside) and avicularin (quercetin3a-arabofuranoside) Oava and Indonesia) Used for Inhibitory effects on Xanthines, flavanes, the treatment of cancer cancer cell invasion flavonol glycosides, activity monoterpene glucoside, lignan glycoside and fatty acids
Dossaji et. al., 1983; Johansson 2003.
Daud et. al., 2005; Daud et. ai., 2006.
'-" > I::J
== Rodriguez-Cruz et. al., 2003 Graziano et. al., 1967.
~
CIl
~ c= == >
2l
> G1 > Ohashi et. al., 2003.
"~
I::J CIl
~
CIl
Contd ...
•
~
!=
e > Z >
"
~
...Contd. Parasitic plant
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported
(Indonesia) Used in treatment of snakebite, wounds, fever, beriberi, malaria and after childbirth Scurrula fusca (BL.) G. (Indonesia) Used for the treatment of cancer Don. (Loranthaceae) (Indonesian) Used to treat Scurrula oortiana (Korth) Danser tumors (Loranthaceae) (India) Used to prevent Striga densiflora conception (Benth.) Benth. (Scrophulariaceae) (Africa) Used in the treatment Striga hermonthica of malaria (Del.) Benth. (Scrophulariaceae) (India) Used to prevent Striga lutea Lour. conception (Scrophulariaceae) (India) Used in treatment of Striga Orobanchioides Benth. diabetes (Scrophulariaceae)
Scurrula ferruginea Danser (Loranthaceae)
Pharmacological report Antiviral and cytotoxic activities
Phytochemical(s) Flavonoids, condensed tannins
References Lohezic-Le D. et. al., 2002.
::r: tTl
~ ~
fIl
=l
( ')
~
-
C')
Anti-tumor activity
Perseitol (D-glycero-Dgalacto-heptitol)
Anti-tumor activity
lsruzu et. al., 2002.
0
Murwani, 2003.
:::fIl
fIl
~
:=
"T1
Anti-fertility activity
Flavonoids
Okpako & Ajaiyeoba, 2004.
Anti-malarial activity
Anti-fertility
Anti-fertility, Antiandrogenic, antibacterial, antioxidant, antihistaminic, mast cell stabilizing activities (Latin America) In treatment of Inhibit the Struthanthus snakebites haemorrhagic effect orbicularis (H. B. K.) induced by Bothrops Blume (Loranthaceae) atrox venom in vitro (Africa) In treatment of Anti-microbial activity Tapinanthus stomach ache, diarrhea, dodonelfolius (DC.)
Hiremath et. al., 1997.
Flavonoids
Hiremath et. al., 1997.
:= 0
::: ~ ~
::r: 0 r-< 0
C')
0< -,j
0
Flavonoids
Hiremath 1997; Harish et.al., 2001; Badami et. al., 2003.
~
-tTl
I:)
( ')
Z
tTl
Otero et. al., 2000.
Anthraquinones, saponins and tannins
Deeni & Sadiq, 2002; Ojewole & Adewole, 2007. Contd ...
N
"
U1
N
...Contd. Parasitic plant Danser, (Loranthaceae) Tapinanthus globiferus (A. Rich.) Van Tiegh. (Loranthaceae) Tapinanthus nyasicus (Baker & Sprague) Danser (Loranthaceae) Tapinanthus sessilifolius (p. Beauv.) van Tiegh (Loranthaceae) Taxillus chinensis (Dc.) Danser (Loranthaceae) Viscum album L. var. album
Viscum angulatum Heyne ex DC. (Viscaceae) Viscum articulatum Burm. f. (Viscaceae)
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported dysentery, wound and cancer
Pharmacological report
Phytochemical(s)
Antioxidant activity
(Mexico USA) Used as food
Cook et. al., 1998.
(Africa) Used in treatment of diabetes mellitus and hypertension.
Anti-diabetic activity
(Africa) Used in the treatment of malaria
Anti-malarial, antimicrobial, calcium channel-blocking activity Inhibit fatty acid synthase
(Europe) Used in managing of a wide range of diseases such as diabetes mellitus, chronic cramps, stroke, stomach problems, heart palpitations, to lower blood pressure, difficulties in breathing and hot flushing in menopause. Also used as sedative and anticancer (Asia) Used to treat hypertension, atherosclerosis, rheumatism, neuralgia and arthritis in Chinese medicine. In India,
References
~
Vasodilator, sedative, cardiac-depressant, diuretic, antiinflammatory, lmmuno-stimulant, anti-ulcer, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant activity
Musabayane et. al., 2006.
Avicularin (glycosylated flavonoid), quercetin
Okpako & Ajaiyeoba, 2004; Tarfa et. al., 2004. Wang et. al., 2006.
~
~ > t:l
--= ~
Lectins, non-lectin proteins, peptides, thionins, alkaloids, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, triterpenoids, polyalcohols and polysaccharides
Pfuner Uwe, 2000; Gurbuz et. al., 2002; Orhan et. al., 2005.
C/)
~ Q:j
= ~ Z
> C"l > :;a > Z t:l
Flavonoids, triterpenoids and fatty acids
Chiu & Chang, 1986; Rastogi & Mehrotra, 1993; Krishnamani & Kumar, 2000; Kshirsagar Contd ...
'J)
~ C/)
c:: :;a > Z >
... Contd. Parasitic plant
Viscum capense L. j, (Viscaceae)
Viscuin coloratum (Kom.) Nakai (Viscaceae) Viscum cruciatum Sieber (Viscaceae) Viscum trifiorum DC. (Viscaceae) Viscum tuberculatum A. Rich. (Viscaceae)
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported whole plant is used externally in the form of pest for skin cuts and as food source (Asia) In India it is used as alexipharmic, aphrodisiac, and alternative, useful in 'kapha', 'vata', disease of blood and in treatment of ulcer, epilepsy and biliousness and paste applied on minor fractures. In Chinese medicine plant used in treatment of hemorrhage, pleurisy, gout, heart disease, epilepsy, arthritis and hypertension (Africa) for the treatment of epilepsy, asthma, bronchitis, warts, excessive or irregular menstruation and also applied to bleeding parts including the nose, to stop hemorrhage Used in treatment of inflammation
Pharmacological report
Phytochemical(s)
References & Singh, 2001; Lin et. al.,
2002. Anti-inflammatory activity
Flavanones and triterpenoids.
Jain, 1%5; Chandra et. al., 1985; Tiwari 1995; Chhetri et. al. 2005; Chiu, 1996; Leu et. al. 2004.
Antimicrobial and anticonvulsant activities
Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins and triterpene steroids
Amabeoku et. al., 1998.
(palestinian) Used in treatment of cancer
Inhibitor of Viscolin, a chalcone phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity Antimitotic and cytostatic activity
(Denmark) Anti-hypertensive
Anti-hypertensive
Hwang et. al., 2006. Ahumada et. al., 1995; Mohammed et. m., 2000. Adsersen & Adsersen , 1997.
Kenya as a poultice on the chest for pneumonia and liver trouble
Arndt,2000.
278
R.B. JADHAV, S.P. BHATNAGAR AND S.J. SURANA
However, numerous studies have shown that mistletoes are an important structural and functional com!,onent of forests and woodland communities. It is an ideal material for understanding the various interaction interfaces such as plant-plant, plant-microorganisms, plant-animals and plant-plant community. Mistletoes having profound consequences for those species associated with their hosts and also have a strong impact on the larger communities in which they occur by altering forest structure and composition (Geils & Hawksworth, 2002). The common opinion that mistletoes are destructive weeds should be challenged. These are more important as indicators of habitat health, rather than agents of destruction. Their significance is already proven in supporting continental drift theory (Leppik, 1973). The communication in between two cells is hot topic in life sciences. Parasitic plants have proven their suitability in understanding such communications. Recently, these are identified as ideal tool to understand the horizontal gene transfer (Mower et. al., 2004; Roney et. al., 2007). Therefore conservation of this unusual life-form needs to be emphasized. 7. CONCLUSIONS
Mistletoe was considered a heal-all by the Druids and the history of its use reflects this idea. Surprisingly, although much of early uses of parasitic plants were based on myth and folklore, many of these uses may be supported by the findings of modern science. However, only few species have been attempted for systematic investigation and several species need validation in terms of modern pharmacology. Mistletoe may prove beneficial as primary or adjunct treatment of various pathologies and its therapeutic utility in cancer treatment can be hoped as only just beginning. The parasitic plants have history of thousand years for their medicinal uses and are also proven their suitability in treatment of several disorders. In addition, these are emerging as fundamental instructive tools in understanding various biochemical processes. Thus conventional thinking about parasitic plants needs to be changed and these should be viewed in broader perspective. REFERENCES Adler, L.S. & Wink, M. (2001) Transfer of quinazolidine alkaloids from host to hemiparasites in two Castilleja-LupL'lus associations: analysis of floral and vegetative tissue. Biochem. Syst. EcoZ. 29: 551-561. Adler, L.S., Karban, R. & Strauss, S.Y., (2001) Direct and indirect effects of alkaloids on plant fitness via herbivory and pollination. Syst. EcoZ., 82: 2032-2044. Adsersen, A & Adsersen, H. (1997) Plants from Reunion Island with alleged antihypertensive and diuretic effects an experimental and ethnobotanical evaluation. J. EthnopharmacoZ. 58: 189-206. Ahumada, M.e, Garcia, M.D., Saenz, M.T. & Aznar, J., (1995) Antimitotic and cytostatic activity of Viscum cruciatum Sieber parasitic on Crataegus monogyna Jacq. Pharmaceutica Acta Helvetiae 70: 233-236. Alekutty, N.A, Srinivasan, K.K., Gundu, P.R., Udupa, AL., & Keshavamurthy, K.R. (1993) Diuretic and anti-lithiatic activity of Dendrophthoe fa1cata. Fitoterapia 64: 325-331. Amabeoku, G. J., Leng, M. J. & Syce, J. A, (1998) Antimicrobial and anticonvulsant activities of Viscum capense. ]. Ethnopharmacol. 61: 237-241.
THE PARASmC ANGIOSPERMS: FROM MYTHOLOGY TO MEDICINE
279
Arndt, B. (2000) Introduction: history of mistletoe uses In: Arndt Bussing (Ed.), Mistletoe: The genus Viscum, Hardwood Academic Publishers, Singapore, pp.1-6. Awasthi, L.P. (1981) The purification and nature of an antiviral protein from Cuscuta reflexa plants. Arch. Virol. 70: 215-23. Badami,S., Gupta, M. K. & Suresh, B. (2003) Antioxidant activity of the ethanolic extract of Striga orobanchioides. J. Ethnopharmacol., 85: 227-230. Balraman, R, Hingorani, N. & Rathod, S. (1993) Studies on the anti-hypertensive effect of abana in rats. Ind. J. Pharmacol. 25: 209-214. Calder, M. (1983) Mistletoes in focus: An introduction In: Calder M & Bernhardt (Eds), Te Biology of Mistletoes, Academic Press, Australia, pp.19-46. Cerda, Z.P., Fernandez, T., Aulicino, P., Cavaliere, V., Greczanik, 5., Caldas, Lopes. E., Wagner, M., Ricco, R, Gurni, A., Hajos, S. & Alvarez, E. (2005) Ligaria cuneifolia flavonoid fractions modulate cell growth of normal lymphocytes and tumor cells as well as multi-drug resistant cells. Immunobiol. 209: 737-749. Chandra, K., Pandey, B.N. & Lal, V.K. (1985) Folk-lore medicinal plants of Dumka (Bihar). Ancient Sci. Life 4: 181-185. Chhetri, D.R, Deewa, B., Po F.e., Sujata, K., Gagan, e. & Sippy, P., (2005) Current status of ethnomedicinal plants in the Darjeeling Himalaya. Curro Sci. 89: 264-268. Chiu, N.Y. & Chang, K.H. (1986) The Illustrated medicinal plants of Taiwan, SMC Publishing Inc. Taipei, Vol-2, pp. 23. Chiu, S.T. (1996) Flora of Taiwan, 2nd Ed., Vol. II, Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Taipei, pp. 282-285. Cook, J.A., VanderJagt, D.J., Dasgupta, A., Mounkaila, G., Glew, R.5., Blackwell, W. & Glew, RH. (1998) Use of the trolox assay to estimate the antioxidant content of seventeen edible wild plants of niger. Life Sci. 63: 105-110. Daniel, L.N. (2002) Parasitic plants of the world In: Lopez-Saez J.A., Catalan P. & Saez L. (Eds.) Parasitic plants of the Iberian peninsula and Balearic Island, Mundi-Prensa Libros, S.A., Madrid, pp. 7-27. Daud, A., Gallo, A. & Riera, A.S. (2005) Antimicrobial properties of Phrygilanthus acutifolius. J. Ethnopharmacol. 99:193-197. Daud, A., Habib, N. & Sanchez Riera A. (2006) Anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive and antipyretic effects of extracts of Phrygilanthus acutifolius flowers. J. Ethnopharmacol. 108:198-203. Dawson, T.E., Ehieringer, J.R & Marshall, J.D. (1990) Sex-ratio and reproductive variation in the mistletoe Phoradendron juniperinum (Viscaceae). Am. J. Bot. 77: 584-589. Deeni, Y.Y. & Sadiq, N.M. (2002) Antimicrobial properties and phytochemical constituents of the leaves of African mistletoe (Tapinanthus dodoneifolius (Dq Danser) (Loranthaceae): an ethnomedicinal plant of Hausaland, Northern Nigeria. J. Ethnopharmacol. 83: 235-240. Doris, Z. (2004) Biological flora of Central Europe: Viscum album L. Flora, 199: 181-203. Dossaji, S. F., Becker, H. & Exner, J. (1983) Flavone C-glycosides of Phoradendron tomentosum . from different host trees. Phytochem. 22: 311-312. Feher, M. & Schmidt, J.M. (2003) Property Distributions: Differences between Drugs, Natural Products, and Molecules from Combinatorial Chemistry. J. Chern. Inf. Comput. Sci. 43: 218227.
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000
IN
VITRO ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS OF GENUS BAUHINIA
RAVINDRA
G.
MALI, SHAILAJA
G.
LINN.
MAHAJAN AND ANITA A. MEHTA
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Materials and methods
3.
Results
4.
Discussion and conclusions
5.
References
1. INTRODUCTION Plants are recognized for their ability to produce a wealth of secondary metabolites and mankind has used many species for centuries to treat a variety of diseases (Cragg et ai., 1999). Secondary metabolites are biosynthesized by plants for different purposes including growth regulation, inter and intra-specific interactions and defense against predators and infections. Many of these compounds from natural sources have been shown to present interesting biological and pharmacological activities and are used as chemotherapeutic agents. They serve as the prototypes or models for synthetic drugs possessing physiological activities similar to the originals (Verpoorte, 1998). The traditional medicines hold a great promise as source of easily available effective anthelmintic agents, particularly in tropical developing countries. It is in this context that the people consume several plants or plant-derived preparations to cure helminthic infections (Satyavati, 1990). Mali et ai (2004, 2005, 2007) have studied indigenous medicinal plants for anthelmintic activity; similar activity is evaluated of three species of the genus Bauhinia Linn. (Caesalpiniaceae) viz., Bauhinia variegata, Bauhinia tomentosa and Bauhinia racemosa.
Bauhinia is a genus distributed throughout the tropical regions of the world. About 15 species of Bauhinia occur in India (Anonymous, 1988). Many useful products such as tannin, fibre, gum and oil are obtained from Bauhinia species. Bauhinias are also
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used for afforestation and in the manufacturing of wood wool board (Puntambekar, 1952). BAUHINIA VARIEGATA LINN.
The plant popularly known as 'Raktakanchan' is a medium sized deciduous tree found throughout India, Burma and China (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999). A freshly collected bark is greyish brown externally and cream colored internally. The internal surface, however,gradually turns red and on drying becomes brown and smooth. The external surface remains greyish brown and rough due to large number of exfoliations, transverse cracks and fissures (Prakash et al., 1978). Leaves are 10-15 cm long, rigidly sub-coriaceous and deeply cordate. The flowers are bisexual, irregular and light magenta in colour. The pods are long, hard, flat, dehiscent and 10-15 seeded.
Bauhillia variegata Linn.
Traditional uses All parts of the plant like bark, root, flower and flower buds are ascribed to possess various medicinal properties. In Ayurveda, stem bark is reported to be useful in krmiroga (helminthic infestation), gandamala (scrofula) and vrana (wounds). In Unani system of medicine, the bark is described as liver tonic and useful in asthma, wounds, leprosy, dysmenorrhoea and menorrhagia.The flower buds are useful for piles, cough, eye diseases, liver complaints, as styptic in haematuria and menorrhagia (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999). The root is carminative and is used in dyspepsia and flatulence. Decoction of the root is reported to prevent obesity. The bark is astringent, tonic and anthelmintic. It is also beneficial in scrofula, ulcers and skin diseases. Dried flower buds are used for the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery, worms, piles and tumours. Decoction of the buds is given in cough, piles, haematuria and menorrhagia. The flowers are used as laxative (Chopra et al., 1956; Nadkarni, 1954; Anonymous, 1988). Phytochemical Studies In a preliminary phytochemical study, the stem bark of B.racemosa showed presence of steroids, saponins and tannins Ooshi and Sabnis, 1989). The stem bark also showed presence of hentriacontane, octacosanol and stigmasterol (Prakash and Khosa, 1978). The
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stem yielded a flavonone glycoside characterized as 5, 7-dihydroxyflavonone-4 -0 a -L - rhanmopyranosyl- P - D - glucopyranoside (Gupta et ai., 1979). The isolation of d-sitosterol, lupeol, kaempferol-3-glucoside and a 5, 7-dimethoxyflavonone-4 -0 -a - L - rhanmopyranosyl- P- D-glucopyranoside was also reported from the stem of the plant (Duret and Paris, 1977; Gupta et ai., 1980). Pharmacological Studies The effects of B.variegata were studied on rats with goitre induced by neomercazole and found to be effective in bringing the goitrogenic thyroid to normal level (Veena et ai., 1975). The saline extract of seeds exhibited haemagglutinating activity against erythrocytes of man, rat, rabbit, sheep and horse (Roy and Bhalla, 1981). The leaf extract of the plant exhibited toxicity against ringworm causing fungi Epidennophyton floccosum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Microsporum gypseum (Mishra et ai., 1991). The decoction of bark and leaves was found to inhibit the activity of peptic enzymes like protopectinase andpolygalacturonase of Alternaria tenuis (Prasad and Gupta, 1967). The antitumour activity of ethanol extract of B.variegata was evaluated against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in Swiss albino mice (Rajkapoor et al., 2003).The plant has shown chemoprotective and cytotoxic effect against N-nitrosodiethylamine induced liver tumours and human cancer cell lines (Rajkapoor et al., 2006). As claimed in the traditional system, the stem bark of B.variegata is not investigated for its anthelmintic potential. BAUHINIA TOMENTOSA LINN. Bauhinia tomentosa Linn. popularly known as 'Pivala kanchan' is an erect shrub found throughout India, North and South America, Australia, Nepal and China. The leaves are broader than long, coriaceous and pubescent below. The flowers are yellow, with a maroon dot at the base of the central petal and distinct odour. Pods are stalked, flat, pointed, glabrous and 8-12 seeded (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999). Traditional uses All parts of the plant like leaves, fruits, flowers, seeds, root bark and stem bark have been reported to be useful in traditional system of medicine to relieve a variety of ailments. Decoction of the root bark is prescribed for liver troubles and as a vermifuge. The bruised bark is externally applied on tumours and wounds. Infusion of the stem bark is useful as an astringent gargle. The leaves constitute an ingredient of a plaster applied to abscesses. The native practitioners in southern India prescribe the small dried buds and young flowers in dysentery. The fruit of the plant is diuretic while seeds are used as tonic (Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1956; Anonymous, 1988). Phytochemical Studies The flowers are reported to yield rutin, quercetin (Rowand Viswanadham, 1954), isoquercetin and quercetin-3-glucoside (Subramanian and Nair, 1963). The seeds are rich source of minerals like Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn (Mohan and Janardhan, 1995). Pharmacological Studies The 50 percent ethanolic extract of the plant screened for various biological activities, viz., antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antiprotozoal and diuretic (Abraham et ai., 1986).Various extract of dried leaves of B.tomentosa were screened for antimicrobial activity
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and chloroform and ethanol extract of the plant showed significant antimicrobial activity against tested organisms (Mythreyi et al.,2005). As mentioned in indigenous system of medicine, the root bark of B. tometltosa is not investigated for its proclaimed anthelmintic activity.
BAUHlNIA RACEMOSA LAMK. It is a small, bushy tree with drooping branches, found throughout India, Ceylon
and China. Leaves are broader than long, rigidly coriaceous and slightly cordate. The bark is bluish black, rough, pinkish red inside, turning brown on exposure. Flowers are white or pale yellow and pods are stalked, glabrous, blunt at the apex, tapering to the base (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999). Traditional Uses Traditionally the leaves are used in diarrhoea, pyrexia and as astringent and alexipharmic. Decoction of leaves is given in malaria. They are also. used as fodder and in the manufacturing of bidis. The bark is astringent and used for the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery. It is reported as vermicide (Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1956; Anonymous, 1988). Phytochemical Studies The stem bark of B. racemosa was reported to contain octacosane, a-amyrin and a-sitosterol (Prakash and Khosa, 1976). The root bark yielded a new, tetracyclic 2, 2dimethykhroman derivative, de-O-methylracemosol along with racemosol (Prabhakar et al., 1994). The fixed oil obtained from seeds was found to be rich with linoleic acid and others were lauric, myristic, stearic, palmitic and oleic acids ijoshi and Garg, 1980}. Pharmacological Studies The 50 percent ethanolic extract of the stem bark revealed CVS effects in dogs and cats, hypothermia and gross behavioral effects in mice and anticancer activity against human epidermoid carcinoma of nasopharynx in tissue culture (Dhar et al., 1968). The seed extract is reported to exhibit platelet antiaggregation activity (Mukherjee and Chatterjee, 1991). As described in traditional system of medicine the bark of B.racemosa is not investigated for its anthelmintic activity. The phytopharmacologicalliterature search and wide variety of traditional uses of all these three species of Bauhinia Linn. prompted us to investigate their anthelmintic potential in a scientific manner.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Plant collection and authentication The stem bark of B.variegata, root bark of B.tomentosa and stem bark of B.racemosa were collected from the fields near Chopda and their botanical identification were confirmed from Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Koregaon Road, Pune. Specimen voucher of each plant having No.165415, RGM Aland RGM A4 has been deposited in the department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, College of Pharmacy, Chopda.
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Preparation of extract The plant materials were dried for several days in shade and powdered with the help of an electric grinder. The powder (300 g) of each plant, were defatted using petroleum ether (40-60°C). They were subjected for air drying and extracted exhaustively with 95 % ethanol in a Soxhlet apparatus separately. The liquid extracts so obtained were filtered and distilled on water bath to get syrupy mass. The extracts were finally dried at low temperature under reduced pressure in a rotary evaporator. The crude ethanolic extracts so obtained were subjected to preliminary phytochemical testing for the presence of different chemical classes of compounds (Kokate, 1994; Harborne, 1994). Worms Collection and Authentication Indian earthworm Pheretima posthuma L.Vaill (Annelida) were collected from the water logged areas of soil and Ascardia galli Schrank (Nematode) worms were obtained from freshly slaughtered fowls Gallus gallus Spadiceus (Phasianidae). Both worm types were identified at the P.G. Department of Zoology, Pratap College, Amalner, Maharashtra. Preparation of Test Sample Samples for in vitro study were prepared by dissolving 2.5 gm of crude ethanolic extract of each plant in 25 ml of distilled water to obtain a stock solution of 100 mg/ ml. From this stock solution, different working dilutions were prepared to get concentration range of 10, 50 and 100 mg/ml. Anthelmintic Assay The anthelmintic assay was carried out as per the method of Ajaiyeoba et al. (2001) with necessary modifications. The assay was performed on adult Indian earthworm, Pheretima posthuma due to its anatomical and physiological resemblance with the intestinal roundworm parasite of human beings (Vidyarthi, 1967; Thorn et al., 1977; Vigar, 1984; Chatterjee, 1967). Because of easy availability, earthworms have been used widely for the initial evaluation of anthelmintic compounds in vitro (Sollmann, 1918; Jain et al., 1972; Dash et al., 2002; Szewezuk et al., 2003; Shivkar et al., 2003). Ascardia galli worms are easily available from freshly slaughtered fowls and its use, as a suitable model for screening of anthelmintic drug was advocated earlier (Kaushik et al., 1974; Lal et al., 1976; Tandon et al., 1997). Fifty ml formulations containing different concentrations of crude ~thanolic extracts (10, 50 and 100 mg/ml in distilled water) were prepared and six worms (same type) were placed in it. This was done for both types of worms. Time for paralysis was noted when no movement of any sort could be observed except when the worms were shaken vigorously. Time for death of worms were recorded after ascertaining that worms neither moved when shaken vigorously nor when dipped in warm water (50°C). Piperazine citrate (10 mg/ml) was used as reference standard while distilled water as control.
290
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RESULTS
TABLE 1 Anthelmintic activity of ethanolic extract of stem bark of B. variegata Test subs. Concentration (mglml)
Time taken for Paralysis (P) and Death (D) of worms (Minutes) P. posthuma
A.galli
P
D
P
D
Vehicle Extract
10
49.25±0.31
60.84±0.45
57.16±0.29
64.94±0.33
Extract
50
21.86±0.52
41.20±0.35**
30.14±0.21
42.92±0.36*
Extract
100
10.97±0.12**
22.13±0.25***
Piperazine
10
16.17±0.14
55.32±0.19
14.27±0.41*** 29.93±0.43*** 20.10±0.13
59.08±0.14
citrate Results expressed as Mean ± SEM of six observations. Values are significantly different from reference standard (piperazine citrate) ***p
TABLE 2 Anthelmintic activity of ethanolic extract of root bark of B. tomentosa Test subs. Concentration (mglml)
Time taken for Paralysis (P) and Death (D) of worms (Minutes) P. posthuma
A.galli
P
D
P
D
Vehicle Extract
10
55.32±0.31
65.43±0.41
59.49±0.10
68.24±0.31
Extract
50
19.26±0.41
39.35±0.38
28.12±0.22
36.49±0.54*
Extract
100
09.27±0.28**
20.31±0.11 ***
Piperazine
10
16.17±0.14
55.32±0.19
12.22±0.30*** 22.49±0.51 *** 20.10±0.13
59.08±0.14
,
citrate Results expressed as Mean ± SEM of six observations. Values are significantly different from reference standard (Piperazine citrate) ***p
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ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS TABLE 3
Anthelmintic activity of ethanolic extract of stem bark of B.racemosa Test subs. Concentration (mlifml)
Time taken for Paralysis (P) and Death (D) of worms (Minutes)
P. posthuma
A.galli
P
D
P
D
Vehicle Extract
10
44.31± 0.52
65.45±0.10
35.54±0.40
67.18±0.20
Extract
50
21.37±0.32
53.51±0.61 *
18.33±0.26
51.22±0.11*
Extract Piperazine
100
11.43±0.48**
28.51±0.33***
16.17±0.14
55.32±0.19
10
10.41±0.41*** 31.54±0.21*** 20.10±0.13
59.08±0.14
citrate Results expressed as Mean ± SEM of six observations. Values are significantly different from reference standard (piperazine citrate) ***p
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The origin of many effective drugs is traced from the traditional medicines and in view of this it is important to undertake studies pertaining to screening of the folklore medicinal plants for their proclaimed anthelmintic efficacy. Preliminary phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts of all three plants revealed the presence of alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids and tannins. As shown in Table I, ethanolic extract of B.variegata exhibited anthelmintic activity in dose-dependant manner giving shortest time of paralysis (P) and death (D) with 100 mg/ ml concentration, for both types of worms. The ethanoIic extract of B.variegata caused paralysis in 14 min and death in 29 min respectively against the earthworm P. posthuma The reference drug Piperazine citrate showed the same at 20 and 59 min respectively. Ascardia galli worms were also shown sensitivity to the ethanolic extract significantly at higher concentration of 100 mg/m!. The ethanolic extract caused paralysis in 10 min and death in 22 min respectively. Piperazine citrate did the same at 16 and 55 min respectively. Table 2 and Table 3 depict the results of anthelmintic activity of ethanolic extracts of B.tomentosa and B. racemosa respectively. Both the plant extracts exhibited activity against P.posthuma and A.galli at all concentrations used for the study. The activity was found to be dose dependant and maximum activity was observed at highest concentration of 100 mg/ml used for the assay. The predominant effect of Piperazine citrate on worm is to cause a flaccid paralysis which results in expulsion of the worm by peristalsis. Piperazine citrate by increasing chloride ion conductance of worm muscle membrane produces hyperpolarisation. It reduces excitability that leads to muscle relaxation and flaccid paralysis (Martin, 1985). The ethanolic extract of B.variegata, B.tomentosa and B. racemosa not only demonstrated paralysis, but also caused death of worms especially at higher concentration of 100 mg/ ml, in shorter time as compared to reference drug
292
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MEHTA
Piperazine citrate. Phytochemical analysis of all the crude extracts has revealed tannins to be among the chemical constituent contained within them. Tannins were shown to produce anthelmintic activities (Niezen et al., 1995). Chemically tannins are polyphenolic compounds (Bate-Smith, 1962). Some synthetic phenolic anthelmintics e.g. niclosamide, oxyclozanide, bithionol etc., are shown to interfere with energy generation in helminth parasites by uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation (Martin, 1997). It is possible that tannins contained in the ethanolic extracts of all three plants produced similar effects. Another possible anthelmintic effect of tannins is that they can bind to free proteins in the gastrointestinal tract of host animal (Athnasiadou et al., 2001) or glycoprotein on the cuticle of the parasite (Thompson and Geary, 1995) and cause death. In conclusion, the folkloric uses of these plants in traditional system of medicine have been confirmed, as extracts displayed anthelmintic properties against the worms used in the study. Moreover, these results could be useful in the search for newer, more selective and potent anthelmintic compounds. In a nutshell, further studies are suggested to isolate the possible constituents those are responsible for the anthelmintic activity and to establish the mechanism (5) of action.
REFERENCES Abraham, Z., Bhakuni, D.S., Garg, H.5., Goel, AK, Mehrotra, B.N. & Patnaik, G.K (1986) Screening of Indian plants for biological activity. Part XII. Indian J Exp Bioi 24: 48-68. Ajaiyeoba, E.O., Onocha, P.A & Olarenwaju, D.T. (2001) In vitro anthelmintic properties of Buchholzia coriaceae and Gynandropsis gynandra extracts. Pharm Bioi 39: 217-220. Anonymous (1988) The Wealth of India, Vol. 2, Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi, India, pp. 53-58. Athnasiadou, S., Kyriazakis, I., Jackson, F. & Coop, R.L. (2001) Direct anthelmintic effects of condensed tannins towards different gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep: In vitro and in vivo studies. Vet Parasitol 99: 205-219. Bate-Smith, E.e. (1962) The phenolic constituent of plants and their taxonomic significance, dicotyledons. J Linn Soc Bot 58: 95-173. Chatterjee, KD. (1967) Parasitology, Protozoology and Helminthology. Guha Ray Sree Saraswaty Press Ltd, Calcutta, pp. 168-169. Chopra, R.N., Nayer, S.L. & Chopra, I.e. (1956) Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants.CSIR, New Delhi, pp. 35. Cragg, G.M., Boyd, M.R., Khanna, R., Kneller, R., Mays, T.D., Mazan, K.D., Newman, D.]. & Sausville, E.A (1999) International collaboration in drug discovery and development: the NCI experience. Pure Appl Chem 71: 1619-1633. Dash, G.K., Suresh, P., Sahu, S.K, Kar, D.M., Ganapaty, S. & Panda, S.B. (2002) Evaluation of Evolvulus alsinoids Linn. For Anthelmintic and Antimicrobial activities. J Nat Rem 2: 182185. Dhar, M.L., Dhar, M.M., Dhawan, B.N., Mehrotra, B.N. & Ray, e. (1968) Screening of Indian plants for biological activity. Part 1. Indian J Exp Bioi 6: 232-247. Duret, S. & Paris, R.R. (1977) The flavonoids of several species of Bauhinia. Plant Med Phytother 11: 213-215. Gupta, AK, Vidyapati, T.J. & Chauhan, J.5. (1980) Chemical examination of the stem of Bauhinia variegata. Planta Med 38: 174-176.
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Gupta, AK.,Vidyapati, T.J. & Chauhan, J.S. (1979) 5, 7-dihydroxyflavonone-4 -0 - a -L rhanrnopyranosyl- P - D - glucopyranoside from the stem of Bauhinia variegata. Indian J Chern 18B: 85-86. Harborne, J.B. (1994) Phytochemical Methods. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 60-68. Jain, M.L. & Jain, S.R. (1972) Therapeutic utility of Ocimum basilicum var. album. Planta Med 22: 66-70. Joshi, M.e. & Sabnis, S.D. (1989) A phytochemical study of South Gujarat forests plants with special reference to the medicinal and of ethnobotanical interest. Bull Med Ethnobot Res 10: 61-82. Joshi, R. & Garg, B.D. (1980) Component fatty acids of the seed oil of Bauhinia racemosa Lamk. J Sci Res 2: 133-134. Kaushik, R.K., Katiyar, J.e. & Sen, AB. (1974) Studies on the mode of the action of Anthelmintics with Ascardia galli as a test parasite. Indian J Med Res 62: 1367-75. Kirtikar, K.R. & Basu, B.D. (1999) Indian Medicinal Plants. International Book Distributor, Dehradun, India, pp.892-901. Kokate, C.K. (1994) Practical Pharmacognosy. 3,d Ed., Vallabh Prakashan, New Delhi, pp. 107111. Lal, J., Chandra, S., Raviprakash, V. & Sabir, M. (1976) In vitro anthelmintic action of some indigenous medicinal plants on Ascardia galli worms. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 20: 64-68. Mali, R.G., Hundiwale, J.e., Sonawane, R.S., Patil, R.N. & Hatapakki, B.e. (2004) Evaluation of Capparis decidua for anthelmintic and antimicrobial activities. Indian J Nat Prod 20:10-13. Mali, R.G., Mahajan, S. & Patil, K.S. (2005) Anthelmintic activity of root bark of Capparis spinosa. Indian J Nat Prod 21:50-51. Mali, R.G., Mahajan, S.G. & Mehta, AA (2007) In vitro anthelmintic activity of stem bark of Mimusops elengi Linn. Phcog Mag 3: 73-76. Martin, R.J. (1985) a-Aminobutyric acid & Piperazine activated single channel current from Ascaris suum body muscle. Br J Pharmacol 84: 445-61. Martin, R.J. (1997) Mode of action of anthelmintic drugs. Vet J 154: 11-34. Mishra, D.N., Dixit, V. & Mishra, AK. (1991) Mycotoxic evaluation of some higher plants against ringworm causing fungi. Indian Drugs 28: 300-303. Mohan, V.R. & Janardhanan, K. (1995) Chemical composition of Bauhinia tomentosa L. Adv Plant Sci 8: 219-223. Mukherjee, M. & Chatterjee, P.e. (1991) Study of phytoagglutinins on platelet deaggregation. Indian J Physiol Allied Sci 45: 193-198. Mythreyi, R., Murugan M., Muthusamy, P. & Venkatesh S. (2005) Antimicrobial activity of the leaves of Bauhinia tomentosa Linn. Indian J Pharma Sci 67: 732-734. Nadkarni, A.K. (1954) Indian Materia Medica. Vol.1, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, India, pp. 184190.
Niezen, J.H., Waghorn, G.e., Charleston, W.A.G & Waghorn G.e.(1995) Growth and gastrointestinal nematode parasitism in lambs grazing either Lucerne (Medicago sativa) or sulla (Hedysarum coronarium), which contains condensed tannins. J Agri Sci 125: 281-289. Prabhakar, P., Gandhidasan, R., Raman, P.V., Krishnaswamy, N.R. & Nanduri, S. (1994) De-Omethylracemosol: A tetracyclic 2, 2-dimethy1chroman from the roots of Bauhinia racemosa. Phytochemistry 36: 817-818.
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Prakash, A. & Khosa, RL. (1976) Chemical studies on Bauhinia racemosa. Curr Sci 45: 705. Prakash, A & Khosa, RL. (1978) Neutral constituents of Bauhinia lIariegata. J Res Indian Med Yoga Homeopath 13: 96-97. Prakash, A, Prasad, S., Wahi, S.P. & Wahi, A.K. (1978) Phamacognostical study of Bauhinia lIariegata Linn. J Res Indian Med Yoga Homeopath 13: 84-89. Prasad, V. & Gupta, S.c. (1967) Inhibitory effect of bark and leaf decoctions on the activity of peptic enzymes of Alternaria tenuis. Indian J Exp BioI 5: 192-193. Puntambekar. (1957) Review on Bauhinians. Indian Forestry 78: 39. Rajkapoor, B., Jayakar, B. & Murugesh N. (2003) Antitumour activity of Bauhinia variegata against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma induced mice. Pharma BioI 41: 604-607. Rajkapoor, B., Jayakar, B., Murugesh N. & Sakthisekaran D. (2006) Chemoprevention and cytotoxic effect of Bauhinia variegata against N-nitrosodiethylamine induced liver tumours and human cancer cell lines. J Ethnopharmacol 104:407-409. Row, L.R & Viswanadham, N. (1954) Coloring matter of the flower petals of Bauhinia tomentosa Linn. Proc Indian Acad Sci 39A: 195-201. Roy, S. & Bhalla, V. (1981) Haemagglutinins and lysins in plants and the application in characterizing human and animal red cells. Aust J Exp Sci 59: 195-201. Satyavati, G.V. (1990) Use of Plant Drugs in Indian Traditional System of Medicine and their relevance to Primary Health Care. In: Farnsworth NR, Wagner H, EDS., Economic and Medicinal Plant Research. Vol IV, Academic Press Ltd, London, pp. 163-198. Shivkar, Y.M. & Kumar, V.L. (2003) Anthelmintic activity of Latex of Calotropis procera. Pharm BioI 41: 263-265. Sollmann, T. (1918) AntheImintics: Their efficiency as test~d on earthworms. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 12: 129-170. Subramanian, S.S. & Nair, AG.R (1963) Isolation of isoquercetin from the flowers of Bauhinia tomentosa. Indian J Chern 1: 450. Szewezuk, V.D., Mongelli, E.R & P?milio AB. (2003) Antiparasitic activity of Melia azadirach growing in Argentina. Mol Med Chern 1: 54-57. Tandon, V., Pal, P., Roy, B., Rao, H.5. & Reddy, KS. (1997) In vitro anthelmintic activity of roottuber extract of F/emingia vestita, an indigenous plant in Shillong, India. Parasitol Res 83: 492-498. I Thompson, D.P & Geary, T.G.(1995) The structure and function of helminthes surfaces, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Parasites. Marr J.J,(Eds.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 203-232. Thorn, G.W., Adams, RD., Braunwald, E., Isselbacher, KJ. & Petersdorf, RG. (1977) Harrison's Principals of Internal Medicine. McGraw Hill Co, New York, p. 1088. Veena, Prasad, G.c., Singh, KP. & Udupa, KN. (1975) Preventive effect of some indigenous drugs on experimental goitre in rats. J Res Indian Med 10: 12-18. Verpoorte, R (1998) Exploration of nature's chemodiversity: the role of secondary metabolites as leads in drug development. Drug Develop Trends 3: 232-238. Vidyarthi, RD. (1967) A Textbook of Zoology. 14th Ed., S.Chand & Co, New Delhi, pp. 329370. Vigar, Z. (1984) Atlas of Medical Parasitology. 2nd Ed., P.G. Publishing House, Singapore, p. 216.
000
MEDICINAL USES OF PLANTS AS REVEALED FROM TRIBAL COMMUNITIES IN PURULIA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL SUJIT KUMAR MANDAL AND AMBARISH MUKHERJEE
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Materials and Methods
3.
Results and Discussion
4.
Summary
.
1. INTRODUCTION Purulia is the westernmost district of West Bengal. It lies between 23°41' North and 22° 43' South latitude and between 86°54' East and 85°49' West longitude and covers an area of 6259.00 Sq Km. The district is a part of the lateritic region of the state being flanked by the state of Jharkhand. The eastern border is in conformity with the districts of Burdwan in the north, Bankura in the major part and Midnapur in the south. Flora of Purulia and ethnobotanical heritage both are very rich. Forests of this district belong to the dry deciduous type. While studying the flora Malick (1966) recorded 94 families, 287 genera and 405 species of which 78 families, 235 genera and 324 species were dicots and the rest monocots. From the proposed Purulia Pumped Storage Hydropower Project at Bagmundi Hills as many as 246 species under 192 genera of 78 families of angiosperms could be identified by Paul (2003) of which 54 species were found to be ethnobotanically important. The major part of the district is inhabited by tribal communities viz., Majhi, Kishku, Murmu, Mandi, Soren, Santhal and Munda. The cultural heritage of these tribes add much to the ethnobotanical reputation of the district and offer ample opportunities to undertake research programmes on various aspects of direct man-plant relationship. The tribal communities have been sustaining many forest as sacred groves in the district which constitute the refuge of certain plant species protected on religious ground. These have the potential to satisfy aesthetic, scientific, cultural and recreational needs of mankind.
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SUJIT KUMAR MANDAL AND AMBARISH MUKHERJEE
These groves have been studied extensively by Basu (2000a, 2005a) who has also brought into light their status and future prospects. Traditional uses of plants in curing different diseases by tribal in Purulia have been recorded by Basu (2000b, 2005b); Maiti and Manna (2002) and Sur et al. (1992). However, there is still many more items of indigenous knowledge about practice of medicine, pharmacy, pharmacology and preservation of herbal medicines which need to be documented, evaluated and therapeutically proved for strengthening the rural primary health care system. The district, thus, necessitates a thorough medico-ethnobotanical study and documentation on war footing in the interest of extending its benevolence to greater section of mankind through enrichment of modern systems of medicine.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS The present study is based on application of standard ethnobotanical methods (Rao, 1989).Data were collected during field work in 10 villages of the district,~viZ. Bhalurdi, Kelahi, Karanjberia, Baragoria, Lohat, Bhatuykend, Uluberia, Goalberia, Pathuragoria and Ketankiari. Plants considered in this work were shown to the Folk doctors, elder women and other knowledgeable informants who were utilized as data sources from time to time to compile with the authors' own knowledge and experience .The concerned villages were visited periodically to crosscheck the data by interviewing reliable secondary sources and observing the medicinal practices. The specimens collected were used for their taxonomic studies and processing them for herbarium preservation as voucher specimens. The species are tabulated in alphabetic order with their respective family and local names and their medicinal uses.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION It Clppears from the comparison of the data scored for 33 species (Table I) with the information available from literature (Chopra et al., 1956; Kirtikar and Basu, 1975; Mukherjee and Namhata, 1988; Namhata ad Mukherjee, 1988; Jain, 1991; Sur et al. 1992; Guha Bakshi et al., 1999; Basu, 2000b and 2005b; Maiti and Manna, 2002) hat most of the information have novelty except for Cajanus cajan and Phyllanhus fraternus which are popular throughout India for curing jaundice. Interestingly,hypotensive property of lllsticia adhatoda, Hygrophila schulii, and Tabernaemontana divaricata has been revealed. The species called 'Somraj' (Blainvillea latifolia) is extensively used as revitalizer. From the work of Paul (2003) the plant leachate of Andrographis paniculata appears to have use against small worms of children. External use of seed oil of Argemone mexicana for treating sores and of leaf decoction of Tridax pocumbens against scorpion sting carne to be known from the same work. However, in the present work certain other uses of these three species have been recorded. Andrographis paniculata leaf-tablets are prescribed in dysentery and dermatitis. Local application of the latex of Argemone mexicana in curing ulceration within mouth cavity and of aqueous extract of leaf of Tridax procumbens in external injury are novel records in this communication. The present authors could find that cases of external injury and wounds could be easily healed with leaf juice of Clitoia ternatea. Ripe fruits of Semecarpus anacardium are warmed and applied over the injured part of the body. Certain very common diseases like cough and cold were seen to be cured with Paedaria joetida, Solanum incanum, S.surattense. Against skin diseases Andrographis paniculata and Cocos
MEDICINAL USES OF PLANTS AS REVEALED FROM TRIBAL COMMUNITIES
297
TABLE 1 Medicinal uses in Purulia district, West Bengal Botanical name
Vernacular name
Adhatoda Basak zeylanica Medic. Aegle marmelos Bel Corr.
Family
Parts used
Acanthaceae
Leaves
Rutaceae
Lea'Ves
Andrographis paniculata Nees
Kalmegh
Acanthaceae
Leaves
Argemone mexicana Linn.
Kaurkata
Papaveraceae
Shoot
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Neem
Meliaceae
Leaves
Blainvillea laifolia DC.
Sayraj, Somraj, Saoraj
Asteaceae
Seeds
Blumea lacera DC.
Kaksima
Asteraceae
Roots
Diseases
Method of use
High blood pressure General weakness
To be chewed
Given as powder after drying. Dysentery and Crushed leaves dermatitis pelleted and dried, used @ 2 pellets once daily the morning in empty stomach Ulceration of Latex collected mouth on finger tip and applied on the ulcerated spot in mouth and washed after five minutes. Pounded Dermatitis leaves made into tablets, dried and taken @ 1-2 tablets 2-3 times a day for about a week or so. Crushed seeds Debility given with seeds of Nigella sativa, Cuminum cyminum and leaves of Aegle marmelos. 3-4 leaves Dysentery chewed 3-4 times a day, for 2-3 days. Contd ...
298
8UJrr
KUMAR MANDAL AND AMBARISH MUKHERJEE
... Contd. Botanical n:fme\l\
Vernacular name
Family
Parts used
Diseases
Bambax eeiba Linn.
Sin)UI
Bombacaceae
Bark, gum and roots
Madhuea latifalia (Koen.) Macbr. Butea manasperma (Lamk.) Taub.
Maul
Sapotaceae
Young branch Zingivitis
Palash
Fabaceae
Young branch
Ulceration of mouth
Cajanus eajan (Linn.) Millsp.
Raher, Arhar
Fabaceae
Leaves
Clitaria ternatea Linn.
Aparajita
Fabaceae
Leaves
Cocos nudfera Linn.
Narkel
Arecaceae
Fruit coat and oil
Calatrapis praeera (Ait.) R. Br. Curcuma langa Linn.
Akanda
Asclepiadaceae Petiole with latex
Halud
Zingiberaceae
Loss of vitality, blood sugar & jaundice External injury Crushings are given at the site of injury. Ringworm Seed coats after burning are thoroughly mixed with coconut oil and given in the form of ointment. Bleeding of To be chewed female along with betel leaf. Dysentery Leaf extract mixed with the solution of
Leaves
Polyurea
Method of use Useful parts (10gm) aqueous extracted, sieved, mixed with 3-4 sugar candies and a soft drink (100m!) prepared for use once in the morning per day for about a fortnight. Used as toothbrush The stem burnt at one end and the exudate collected at the other end. Leaf extract administered orally
Contd ...
MEDICINAL USES OF PLANTS AS REVEALED FROM TRIBAL COMMuNmEs
299
... Contd. Botanical name
Vernacular name
Hygrophila Kuilakhara schullii (Buch.Ham.) M.R. & S.M. Almeida Kuchiverra Jatropha gossypifolia Linn.
Family
Acanthaceae
Parts used
Leaves
Diseases
High blood pressure
Method of use lime and eaten. Used as a vegetable and taken as soup.
Phyllanthus amarus Schumach& Thonn.
Bhuiamla
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Semecarpus ana cardium L.
Karang, karanja
Gingivitis and Stem used as external injury tooth brush and crushed leaf applied on wounds. Whole plant General Onagraceae Decoction of weakness, the plant usually in orally taken. pregnant women. Leucorrhoea Menyanthaceae Rhizome Paste rhizome is given with white sandal wood dust. Roots Dysentery Poaceae 2-4 gm roots are chewed with a betel leaf. Leaves Cough and Rubiaceae Leaves used cold to prepare a soup with a little amount of ginger. Jaundice Euphorbiaceae Whole plant The plant crushed and mixed with water and drunk. Young branch Gingivitis Fabaceae Used as tooth bush
BhaIa
Anacardiaceae
Ripen fruit
Solanum incanum Linn. Solanum virginianum L.
Birati, Brihati
Solanaceae
Fruit
Goat begun
Solanaceae
Fruit
Ludwigia parviflora Roxb.
Parsuti
Nymphoides hydrophyllum (Lour) Kuntze
Panhar
Oryza sativa Linn.
Dhan
Paederia foetida
Gandal
Linn.
Euphorbiaceae Young branches and leaves
External injury Ripen fruits warmed and used at the point of injury Cough and Used as cold vegetable Cough and Used as cold vegetable Contd ...
300
SUJIT KUMAR MANDAL AND AMBARISH MUKHERJEE
...Contd. Botanical name
Vernacular name
Family
Parts used
Diseases
Method of use
Santalaceae
Branch
Leucorrhoea
Khude tagar
Apocynaceae
Leaves
High blood pressure
Bhuydingla
Asteraceae
Leaves
Nayantara, pachpata
Apocynaceae
Leaves
External injury Given in the form of extract Blood sugar Chewed
Santalum album Linn.
Sada
Tabernaemontana divaricata (Linn.) R. Br. Tridax procumbens Linn. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don
chandan
Used with rhizome of Nymphoides hydrophyllum Chewed
nucifera are very useful. Uses of Nymphoides hydrophyllum and Santalum album for the treatment of leucorrhoea and Calotropis procea for dysmenorrhoea are especially noteworthy.
4. SUMMARY The present communication, based on medicoethnobotanical survey of Purulia District, records the novel uses of 30 species of angiosperms by the tribals in treatment of as many as 16 human diseases. Botanical name, vernacular name, family, parts employed, diseases treated, recipe and their administrations have been given. Since most of these species are quite common in the district and elsewhere in India, the novel uses recorded in this work can contribute towards the rural primary healthcare system. Some of the remedies are likely to enrich the modern system of medicine. REFERENCES
Basu, R. (2000a) Studies on sacred groves and taboos in Purulia District of West Bengal. Indian Forester 126: 1309-1318. Basu, R. (2000b) Exotic American plants employed as ethno-medicine in Purulia. Ad. Plant Sci. 13 (11): 521-523. Basu, R. (2005a)Status and future of sacred groves in Purulia, West Bengal. In : Strategy for conservation of sacred groves, Govt. of West Bengal, pp. 22-29. Basu, R. (2005b) Traditional utilization of plants in intestinal, malarial and sexual diseases by tribals of Purulia. Ad. Plant Sci. 18 (1):133-137. Chopra, R. N., Nayar, S. L. & Chopra, I. C.(1956) Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. CSIR New DeIhi. Guha Bakshi, D. N., Sensarma, P. & Pal, D. C. (1999) A Lexicon of Medicinal Plants in India (Vol. I). Nayaprokash, Calcutta, India. Jain, S K. (1991) Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine & Ethnobotany. Deep Publishers, New Delhi, India. Kirtikar, K. R. & Basu, B. D. (1975) Indian Medicinal Plants (Rep. ed.). L. M. Basu, Allahabad.
MEDICINAL USES OF PLANTS AS REVEALED FROM TRIBAL COMMUNITIES
301
Maiti, A.& Manna, C. K. (2002) Some ethno-medicines used by the Santhal of Purulia District, West Bengal in controlling fertility. Ethnobotany 12: 72-76. Malik, K. C. (1966) A contribution to the flora of Purulia District, West Bengal. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 8 (1): 45-59. Mukherjee, A. & Namhata, D. (1988) Herbal veterinary medicine as practiced by the tribals of Bankura District, West Bengal. ,. Bengal Nat. Hist. Soc. New Series) 7 (1): 69-71. Namhata, D. & Mukherjee, A. (1988) Ethnomedicine in Bankura District, West Bengal. Indian ,. Applied and Pure Bioi. 3 (2): 53-55. Paul, T. K. (2003) Botanical observation on the Purulia Pumped Storage Hydropower Area, Bagmundi. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 45 (1-4): 121-142. Rao, R. R. (1989) Methods and Techniques in Ethnobotanical Study and Research: Some Basic Considerations. In: Methods and Approaches in Ethnobotany (Ed. S. K. Jain). Society of Ethnobotanists, Lucknow, pp. 3-23. Sur, P. R., Sen, R., Halder, A. C. & Bandopadhyay, S. (1992) Ethno-medicine in the Ajodhya hills region of the Purulia District, West Bengal. India ,. Econ. Tax. Bot. Addl. Ser. 10: 333-337.
000
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINES AMONG GOND TRIBALS OF NORADEHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,
(M.P.) ANJALI RAwAT, ARTI GUPTA AND T.R. SAHU
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Methodology
3.
Systematic enumeration
4.
Result and discussion
5.
Summary
6.
References
1. INTRODUCTION Noradehi wildlife sanctuary lies between 79"5' to 79°25' East longitude and 23°10' to 23°43' North latitude. This sanctuary cover's 1, 197, 042 km of reserved and protected forest of South Sagar, Damoh and Narsinghpur forest divisions. There are 69 villages within its periphery. Gond tribals inhabit in the sanctuary. Besides agriculture, cattle rearing forms an important part-time means of livelihood. Tribals also rear poultry for their own use, as well as for sale in local markets. Since no modern veterinary medicinal facilities are available in remote areas, tribals rely mostly on the traditional remedies. A survey of literature reveals that publications on plants used in veterinary medicine are few Gain, 1968; Sebastine and Bhandari, 1984; Pal, 1991; Gaur et al., 1992; Borthakur & Sharma, 1996; Sharma, 2002; Patel and Merat, 2003; Mokat and Deokule, 2004). In Madhya Pradesh, Sikarwar et al., (1994) have worked on the ethnoveterinary medicines. The area under study is still untapped on this line. The present is an attempt to fill in this lacuna.
2. METHODOLOGY The information provided in this paper is based on observations and inquiry during field visits in the forest of the sanctuary over a period of 2 years (2004-2005).
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINES AMONG GOND TRIBALS
303
Ethnoveterinary information has been collected from knowledgeable persons like medicine men, Vaidyas, Hakims and elders from different area of the sanctuary. The Herbarium specimens are deposited in the Department of Botany, Dr. H.5. Gour University Sagar (M.P.).
3.
SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION
The species are arranged alphabetically. Botanical name, voucher specimen number, family, habitat, local name, plant part/sand medicinal use are given. VSN
Abrus precatorius 1. 109
Family
Papilionaceae
Habitat Local Name
Growing on hedges as twinners near villages and forest area 'Gumchi'
Plant Part
Leaves
Uses
Paste of leaves used on wounds.
Plant Name
Acacia auriculiformis Cunn. ex Benth.
VSN
112
Family Habitat
Mimosaceae Found in mixed forest
Local Name
'Australian babooI'
Plant Part
Fruits Fruits are boiled and vapours are applied on the septic to repel worm from wound of cattle.
Plant Name
Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
Adlzatoda zeylanica Medic. 121 Acanthaceae Occasionally found in waste places near habitations, roadsides and fringes of forests. 'Ad usa' Leaves Leaves crushed mixed with animal fodder relieve abdominal affliction and to repel intestinal worms.
Plant Name VSN Family
Aerva lanata (1.) Juss. 291 Amaranthaceae
Habitat
Found in the areas of the irrigation canals and nallah
304 Local Name
ANJALI RAWAT, ARTI GUPTA AND
T.R.
SAHU
Plant Part Uses
'Ghreet kumari' Whole plant Whole plant with Aristolochia indica root, black pepper and garlic made into juice, given orally to animals as antidote to insect bites and snake bite.
Plant Name VSN
Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f) Wall. ex Nees 122
Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part
Acanthaceae Common in moist and shady places 'Kalmegh'
Uses
Leaves Paste of fresh leaves is applied for skin diseases of cattle.
Annona squamosa L.
Plant Name VSN
110
Family
Annonaceae
Habitat
Found on dry and open forest areas
Local Name
'5aripha'
Plant Part Uses
Leaves Leaf paste is applied on the chronic wounds. Leaf juice mixed with Asafoetida used to kill maggots.
Plant Name VSN
Apluda mutica L. 284
Family
Poacea.e
Habitat Local Name
Common in grasslands of forest area 'Phulera'
Plant Part
Whole plant
Uses
Paste of whole plant given orally to treat mouth sore in case of calf.
Plant Name VSN
Asparagus racemosus Wild. 301
Family Habitat Local Name
Liliaceae Occasionally confined to the moist areas in the forests. '5atawari'
Plant ·Part
Roots
Uses
Powdered root or whole plant given to cattle to increase lactation.
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINES AMONG GOND TRIBALS
Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
Butea superba Roxb. 127
Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. 143
Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
Papilionaceae Extensively found in the hilly tracks of forest 'Palas bel' Roots Heated tuberous roots are applied on inflammation and swellings of cows or buffaloes.
Asclepiadaceae Extensively found in wasteland and in open dry places 'Aak' Whole plant Latex is applied on the effected body part.
Capparis ze1Jlanica L. 144 Capparidaceae A climber over the tall trees in scrub forest 'Ardanda' Roots Root paste is applied on eyes in the case of conjunctivitis of cattle.
Cassia fistula L. 145 Papilionaceae Found in deciduous forest also. 'Amaltash' Fruits Pulp of fruits mixed with one glass of water given to treat gas and acidity and decoction of fruits given on cold and throat infection in cattle.
VSN
Cissus quadrangularis L. 139
Family
Vitaceae
Plant Name
305
306 Habitat Local Name Plant Part
ANJALI RAwAT, ARTI GUPTA AND T.R. SAHU
As a climber on trees and along with the walls 'Hathjode'
Uses
Stem A mixture of stem powder and wheat flour in 1:1 ratio is fed to animals to cure fractures and dislocations of bones.
Plant Name
Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels
VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part
140
Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
~enispermaceae
Commonly found in open areas of the forest 'Jal jamni' Leaves The juice of the leaves is rubbed on the body to remove lice or external parasitic insects on the body. Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston.
138 Cochlospermaceae Scattered in the mixed forest 'Galgal' Stem Bark of the stem is pounded and applied to broken limbs of cattle. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.
149 Cuscutaceae Found on small trees, shrubs and on hedges. 'Amar bel' Whole plant Plant paste mixed with curd is given to treat diarrhoea and other intestine problems of cattle. Cypents rotundus L.
281 Cyperaceae Common in all grassy places 'Doob' Leaves Paste of leaves is given orally to cattle to expel intestinal worm.
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINES AMONG GOND TRIBALS
307
Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
Dioscorea pentaphylla L. 155 Dioscoreaceae Common on trees and shrubs of roadsides and forest hedges 'Gathora' Root bark Bark of root along with stem bark of Siris [Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd.] are soaked in butter milk overnight. Then the mixture is crushed and applied locally. Decoction is also given orally once daily for a week in the treatment of rheumatism.
Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
Dolichos uniflorus Lam. 152 Papilionaceae Found on hedges and trees. 'Kulthi' Seeds Seeds mixed· with pulp of raw fruits of Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. increase the lactation in lactating cattle.
Plant Name
Echinops echinatus Roxb. 275 Asteraceae Common in dry wastelands roadsides, fields and open forests. 'Utkatara' Whole plant Whole plant chopped fine and mixed with fodder. It is fed to lactating buffalo to improve milk yield.
VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN
Euphorbia hirta L. 274 Euphorbiaceae Common in forest area. 'Chhoti Dudhi' Whole plant Dried powder or crushed plants given to cattle to increase lactation.
Euphorbia thymifolia L. 270
308
Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name
ANJALI RAWAT, ARTI GUPTA AND
T.R.
SAHU
Euphorbiaceae Common in open wastelands. 'Thuar' Whole plant Whole plant 250 gm crushed with 125 gm of Aspara gives with wheat dough or water used as lactogauge.
Euphorbia indica Lamk. 271
Euphorbiaceae Abundant in fields, unused land near villages and rocky crevices. 'Lal Dudhi'
Plant Part Uses
Whole plant Crushed plant given to cattle to dissolve iron nails, iron pieces and other items eaten by them with fodder.
Plant Name
Evolvulus alsinoides L. 1 Convolvulaceae Found on rocky slopes with sandy soils. '5ankhpushpi' Roots Decoction of roots with paste of black pepper is used against pain of neck region of cattle.
VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
Lf.
Plant Name
Ficus hispida
VSN
162
Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
Moraceae Less common in dry waste place around villages. 'Bhui Gular' Fruits Fruits crushed with warm water given to cattle as lactogauge.
Plant Name VSN Family
Gardenia lati/olia Ait. 178 Rubiaceae Commonly found on dry hills and in dry forests. 'Dikamali'
Habitat Local Name
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINES AMONG GOND TRIBALS
Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
309
Seeds Oil is given orally and also cotton plug soaked in it is placed on wounds.
Grewia asiatica L. 174 Tiliaceae Grown in corners of forest and fields 'Dhamin' Fruits Dried green fruit powder is given to cattle for expulsion of dead foetus. Helicteres isora L. 187 Sterculiaceae Common in rocky places of hills. 'Marorphalli' Fruits Powder of dry fruits along with water used to cure stomach problem. It is also given as appetizer regularly. Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. 184 Ulmaceae Common in wasteland around cultivated field and road side 'ChiroI' Stem Fibres obtained from stem are tied around the neck of a bullock to cure neck swellings.
Plant Name
Jatropha curcas L.
VSN
191
Family
Euphorbiaceae
Habitat Local Name
Common in wastelands near villages 'Ratanjot'
Plant Part Uses
Whole plant Latex of the plant is applied on injuries and tumorous of cattle.
310 Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat
ANJALI RAWAT,
ART!
GUPTA AND
T.R.
SAHU
Lagerstroemia paroijlora Roxb. 197 Lythraceae Common in dry forest areas and wasteland 'Karia seja' Leaves Paste of leaves in applied on the dislocation or injury on any part of body. Lantana camara L. 199 Verbenaceae Found in wastelands, roadsides and along the cultivated field
Local Name Plant Part Uses
'Vidya nasni' Leaves Paste of leaves is given orally to goats to reduce swellings caused due to consumption of poisonous plants.
Plant Name
Listcea glutinosa (Lour.) Robins 194 Lauraceae Found usually in valley and fairly moist places 'Maida lakri' Leaves Crushed leaves are given with fodder to treat indigestion of domestic animals.
VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
Mangifera indica L. 202 Anacardiaceae Commonly planted along the roadside and wasteland 'Aam' Fruits Unripe fruits are crushed in water and infusion is given to chicks to control the dysentery.
Plant Name VSN
MarhJnia annua L. 254
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINES AMONG GOND TRIBALS
Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
311
Pedaliaceae Rarely found along roadside, river banks and also in open forest area. 'Harhjori' Leaves Leaf paste mixed with turmeric and applied locally for the cuts and wounds of cattle.
VSN
Mimosa pudica L. 206
Family Habitat
Mimosaceae Usually confined to forests edges and on the boundaries of fields
Local Name
'Chuimui'
Plant Part
Root Paste of root mixed with jaggery and butter milk is given orally once daily for three days in the treatment of dysentery.
Plant Name
Uses
Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part
Oxalis corniclliata L. 215 Oxalidaceae Common in field and in wet shady places 'Tinipatiya' Leaves
Uses
Juice of leaves is given during indigestion.
Plant Name
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 218
VSN Family Habitat Local Name
Papilionaceae Common in dry deciduous forest 'Bijasal'
Uses
Bark Juice of bark is given orally against dysentery.
Plant Name
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken
VSN
237
Family
Sapindaceae
Habitat
Scattered in the mixed forests of hilly places
Plant Part
312
ANJALI RAWAT, ARTI GUPTA AND
T.R.
SAHU
Local Name
'Kusum'
Plant Part
Seeds oil
Uses
Seed oil is applied on wounds of cattle to kill worm. Powdered fruits and sugar are filled in wound to kill maggots.
Plant Name VSN
Schrebera swietenoides Roxb. 234
Family
Oleaceae
Habitat
Found in mixed forest 'Ran palas'
Local Name Plant Part
Roots
Uses
Roots are crushed and used for killing worms in wounds.
Plant Name
Semecarpus anacardium
VSN
236
Family Habitat
Anacardiaceae
Lf
Local Name
Commonly found in mixed deciduous forest. 'Bhilma'
Plant Part
Seeds
Uses
Crushed seeds used for the treatment of cold infection in cattle.
Plant Name
Smilax zeylanica L.
VSN
Uses
296 Smilacaceae Common on trees and shrubs of roadsides and forest hedges. 'Ramdaton' Root Juice of fresh roots is given orally to cure dysentery.
Plant Name
Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss.
VSN
304
Family
Meliaceae
Habitat Local Name
Commonly distributed in mixed forests. 'Rohan'
Plant Part
Bark
Uses
Crushed bark is used for the treatment of inflammation on foot of cattle.
Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINES AMONG GOND TRIBALS
Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name
313
Tamarindus indica L. 250
Caesalpiniaceae Grown along the road side and waste lands near habitation 'Imli' Leaves Leaves of this plant and soil of ant-hill are mixed in water. Boiled leaves are applied on swelling part of the cattle.
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. 249 Papilionaceae Found in rocky slopes in open and waste places as weed 'Sarphonka' Root Juice of fresh root is given orally for stomach disorders. Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. 276
Boraginaoeae Found in the waste places along roadsides and forest areas 'Salkanta'
Plant Part Uses
Branches Necklace prepared from the branches of this plant is tied around the neck of cattle for curing wounds.
Plant Name VSN Family Habitat
Tridax procumbens L. 279 Asteraceae On grassland which are subjected to a high degree of grazing and trampling. 'Bhrang raj' Leaves Juice of fresh leaves is applied on the cuts and wounds.
Local Name Plant Part Uses
Tylophora indica (Burm. f) Merr.
Plant Name VSN
277
Family
Asc1epiadaceae
314 Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses Plant Name VSN Family Habitat Local Name
ANJALI RAwAT, ARTI GUPTA AND T.R. SAHU Common in grassland and wasteland of forest area. 'Anta moor Leaves Leaves along with pepper and garlic made into a fine paste and given to cattle as an antidote.
Vitex negundo L. 254
Verbenaceae Scattered in wastelands, cultivated fields and along roadsides. 'Nir gundi'
Plant Part Uses
Leaves Leaves are boiled in water and poured over the paralytic part of the animals.
Plant Name
Zingiber cernUU11l Dalz. 302 Zingiberaceae Common cultivated for its rhizomes. 'Gaura Sonth' Rhizome Rhizome used to increase lactation.
VSN Family Habitat Local Name Plant Part Uses
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Stomach disorders, swelling, cuts and wounds, conjunctivitis, dislocation/ fracture, dysentery, rheumatism and lactation are the most common diseases amongst the cattle of the Sanctuary area. The present study shows that 50 species belonging to 33 families are employed for the treatment of animals. In our country, enough attention has not yet been given to traditional veterinary herbal remedies. Even the 'Rigveda' Atharvaveda' and eight divisions of Ayurveda' the pioneer documents with curative properties of plants, have not provided much information on veterinary remedies. It is not that the entire tribal community in sauctuary used herbal remedies to cure their domestic animals. Some approach the nearby veterinary health centres occasionally. The tribals also believe in supernatural powers. The common recipes are paste, vapours, powder, decoction and juice. In some cases, entire plants or plant products like latex are used. Some additives e.g. black pepper, asafetida, wheat flour, curd, butter milk, jaggery, soil of anti-hill etc. are mixed in the various preparations. All these applications should be tested on modern scientific lines. I
I
5. SUMMARY Domestic animals served men in various ways, e.g. food, hide fat, game, riding, mikhing etc. Indigenous knowledge of folk medicines on veterinary practices existed
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINES AMONG GOND TRIBALS
315
in India since long past. Many experienced tribals of the sanctuary employ a large number of plants for their animal healthcare. The tribal people depend largely on the plants, not only for supply of fodder but also for the medicines used in the treatment of common ailments affecting their domestic animals. The present paper deals with the veterinary uses of indigenous herbal medicines against various diseases such as stomach disorders, swellings, cuts, wounds, bone fractures, dysentery etc. There is no proper facilities of veterinary clinics in these remote areas and hence the tribals rely mostly on the traditional recipes. The present paper enumerates the medicinal uses of 50 plant species belonging to 33 families of angiosperms.
REFERENCES Borthakur, S.K & Sharma, U.K (1996) Ethnoveterinary medicine with special reference to cattle prevalent among the Nepalis of Assam, India. In : Ethnobiology in Human Welfare, Deep Publications, New Delhi. pp. 197-199. Gour, R.D., Bhatt, KC. & Tiwari, J.K, (1992) An ethnobotanical Study of Uttar Pradesh, Himalaya in relation to veterinary medicines. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 72 : 139-144. Jain, S.K (1968) Medicinal Plants, National Book Trust, New Delhi, India. Mokat, D.N. & Deokule, 5.5., (2004) Plants used as veterinary medicine in Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. Ethnohotany 16 : 131-135. Pal, D.C. (1991) Plants used in treatment of cattle and birds among tribals of eastern India. In: S.K Jain (Ed.) Contribution to Indian Ethnobotany, Sci. Publ., Jodhpur: 285-297. Patil, S.H. & Merat, Manoj, M. (2003) Ethnoveterinary practices in Satpura of Nandurbar district of Maharashtra. Ethnobotany 15 : 103-106. Sebastian, M.K. & Bhandari, M.M. (1984) Some plants used as veterinary medicine by Bhils. Int. J. Trop. Agric. 2 : 307-310. Sharma, P.P. (2002) Toramal Yethil Vanspatinche Kahi Aushdhiy Gundharm (in Marathi). Institute of Ethnobiology, Lucknow. Sikarwar, R.L.5., Bajpai, AK. & Painuli, R.M. (1994) Plants used as veterinary medicines by aboriginals of Madhya Pradesh, India. Intern. J. Pharmacog. 32(3) : 251-255.
000
ETHNOBOTANY OF WESTERN ORISSA, INDIA L.M.
BEHERA AND S.K. SEN
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2. 3.
People and ethnology Methodology
4.
Enumeration
5.
Summary and conclusions
6.
Acknowledgements
7.
References
1. INTRODUCTION Orissa is situated in the eastern part of India between 17° 49' to 23° 34' Nand 81 ° 29' to 87° 29' E. Orissa state is a land of ancient temples and villages. Around 86.6 per cent of its total population occupy 51057 villages scattered throughout the state (Tripathy, 1995), out of which the tribal population is quite sizeable amounting to 81,45,081 out of total population of 3,68,04,660 in the state (Economic Survey, 2004-05). It comes to 22.13 per cent of tribal population of the state. There are 62 types of tribes recognised in the state. Western Orissa consists of 10 districts out of 30 districts of the state. The districts included under western Orissa are Bargaih, Bolangir, Boudh, Deogarh, Jharsuguda, Kalahandi, Nuapada, Sambalpur, Subarnapur, and Sundargarh. This part of Orissa lying between 19° 10' to 22° 42' N and 82° 30' to 85° 22'E covers an area of 47157 sq km where the total forest coverage is 19189.59 sq km. The total population of western Orissa is 90,15,031. In this part of Orissa 42 types of tribes are prevalent with a total population of 26,96,375. The prominent tribes of this area are the Kondh, Gond, Binjhal, Sahanra (Saora), Munda, Kisan, Kharia, Bhuiyan, Oran, Mirdha, Binjhia, Dal, Savar, Lodha, Bhotoda and Parja.
ETHNOBOTANY OF WESTERN ORISSA, INDIA
317
Phytogeographically western Orissa is very rich with a diverse terrain and offers immense scope for ethnobotanical study due to the sizeable and diverse tribal population. According to Champion and Seth (1968) the vegetation of this region in general falls under the tropical deciduous forest category. The hilly regions of the area are covered with a variety of vegetation ranging from semi-evergreen to dry-deciduous forests dominated by timber, fibre, gum and resin yielding plants besides plants providing edible products useful to mankind. The timber plant species like Shorea robusta Roth, Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., Tectona grandis L., Dalbergia latifolia Roxb., Terminalia alata Roth, Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr., Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd., Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC), Gmelina arborea Roxb., Bridelia retusa Hookf., Buchanania Ian zan Spreng., Lannea coromandelica (Hactt.) Merr., Bombax ceiba L., CarelJa arborea Roxb., Canthium dicoCCllm (Gaertner) Teijsm. & Binnend., Grewia tiliiefolia Vahl, Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb., Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde, Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken, Mangifera indica L., Phyllanthus emblica L., Terminalia arjllna (Roxb.) Wt. & Arn., are found to be the dominant species in different forests areas in western Orissa. Besides these, a large number of important medicinal and economically important plants are also found in different forests of western Orissa. The important medicinal plants are Alangium salvifolium (Lf.) Wang., Alstonia scholaris RBr., Andrographis paniculata Nees, Asparagus racemosus Willd., Boerhaavia diffusa L., Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub., Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb., Catunaregllm spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvengadum, Celastrus paniculata Willd., Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alst., Clerodendnml illdicum (L.) O. Ktze .., Cordia macleodii (Griff.) Hook f & Thoms., Costus specious (Koenig) J.E. Sm., Curculigo orchioides Gaertn., Curcuma aromatica Salisb., Cymbopogoll flexuosus Wats., Cyperus rohmdus L., Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf, Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jefery, Eclipta prostrata L., Embelia ribes Burm., Ehretia laevis Roxb., Euphorbia fusiformis (Buch.-Ham.) G.Don, Ficus racemosa L., Gloriosa superba L., Helicteres isora L., Hemides111lls indicus (L.) RBr., Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don, Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M.R& S.M. Almeida, Ichnocarpus jrutescens RBr., Ixora pavetta Andrews, Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C Robinson, Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Swartz, Mallotlls philippensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg., Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr., Michelia c1zampaca L., Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC, Nyctallthes arbor-tristis L., Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov., Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC, Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent., Rauvolfia serpentina Benth., Smilax zeylanica L., StnJchnos potatorum Linn.f, Symplocos racemosus Roxb., Tectaria ciclltaria, Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Tenninalia chebula Retz., Tragia involucrata L., Sterclliia urens Roxb., Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels, Stereospermum chelolloides DC, Vitex peduncularis Wall. and Wendlandia heynei (R & S.) Sant. & March.
2. PEOPLE AND ETHNOLOGY
.
The people of western Orissa are mainly dependent on agriculture and animal husbandry for their livelihood. The tribals exclusively depend on forest for their livelihood by practising hunting and collecting different forest products. They live in small huts made out of clay and plant materials found in the forest. Among the tribals, shifting cultivation, locally called 'podu ' is the usual practice. Festivals Like other communities, the tribals also observe several festivals (locally called Tihar
318
L.M.
BEHERA AND
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or Parab) throughout the year. The ceremonies and festivals of the tribals can be classified in to two groups such as those that relate to the individual families and those that relate to the communities as a whole. The ceremonies and rituals relating to birth, marriage and death are observed family-wise, whereas those relating to agriculture are observed by the village community. Some of the important festivals observed by the tribals of western Orissa are as follows: (1)
Nua-khai: It is also called Nabanna and celebrated during August-September. It is an important traditional festival of western Orissa celebrated by all tribals as well as non-tribals during which newly harvested paddy with delicacies is offered to local deity and the food is consumed by all members of the family in a group.
(2) Dashera: It is celebrated during September-October to worship Ban Durga (jungle deity). The tribals worship their weapons. Animal sacrifice is common during this festival. (3) Chhad-klzai: This festival is observed during November-December after 'HabiShya' (a type of ritual where one remains in vegetarian diet for one month following full-moon day of Dashera to the next full-moon day) consuming the food once a day (only lunch). After one month one can take non-vegetarian recipe. (4) Pua-juintia: It is celebrated during September/October (on 8th dark moon day of Ashwin) when fasting is done by mothers for the well being and long life of their sons. Nowadays this tradition is also followed for daughters.
Bhai-jllintia: It is celebrated during Dashera (October) on the 8th light fortnight (Sllklya-pakshya asthami called in local language) where fasting is done by sisters for the well being and long life of their brothers. The married sisters are also invited by the brothers for this ritual. (6) Pllspuni: This festival is celebrated during January on the full-moon day of Pausa after the harvest of paddy. People prepare various types of delicious food and cake and after offering to deity Laxmi (the Goddess of Wealth) consume the food as prasad. This festival is comparable with Pongal of South India. (7) Chait-puni: The festival is observed during March. During this festival the tribals go to forest for hunting wild animals after worshipping their deity. They remain in a festive mood for the whole month. They wear new clothes, sacrifice animals and birds before their deities, observe feast, drink liquor, sing and dance. During the day time women, young and old, keep on singing and dancing while men go out for hunting to the jungle. They bring what ever they kill. The meat is distributed among all the villagers. The nights are spent in drinking, singing and dancing. Besides the main festivals described above each category of tribal has its specific festival observed in different months of the year. There goes a local saying as Bara-mase tera parab, which means 13 festivals in 12 months. The Binjhal, Sahanra, and Gond observe the festival locally called as Karma puja to worship the deity Karamsani for well being (5)
"
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of all including domestic animals. The Kisan observe Bihal1-blll1a parab during the rainy season for sowing seeds. The Kondh observe Klzedll parab, Kadlla jatra or Maa Blldhial1i latra on the eve of ploughing their crop fields. The Bhuiyan observe Mllthi pllja and Aam-llua parab. Muthi puja is celebrated to initiate sowing of paddy after worshipping the Sun God. Aam-Ilua parab is celebrated during February-March after which they eat the first fruit of mango (Mangifera indica). The Parja observe Bandapana parab or Langaldhua parab during July. In this occasion they worship all their agricultural implements by covering these with a white cloth and flowers. The Binjhal observe Harali parab during July for well being of their children. Music and dance is an integral part of the festivals and rituals of all the tribals of western Orissa. These tribals despite their poverty and pre-occupation with the continual battle for survival have retained the rich and varied heritage of colourful dance and music. They have specific pattern of dance and music. They enjoy these with great enthusiasm. Among them, the dance and music is developed and maintained by themselves in a tradition without help and intervention of any professional teacher or dancer. It is mainly through the songs and dances, the tribes seek to satisfy their inner urge for revealing their soul. These are performed by single individual or in group. A dance may be religious, social or occupational but it is very difficult to make any specific division between them as they serve a common purpose. The dances in which the people of western Orissa take part in various festivals and religious ceremonies are as follows: (1) Dalkhai : It is a common and the most popular folk-dance of western Orissa, performed during all important festivals such as Bhai-jiuntia, Phangun-puni (Full-moon day of Falgun in February-March) and Nua-khai. It is performed by young women of Binjhal, Kuda, Mirdha and some other tribes of western Orissa in which men join them as drummers and musicians. The dance is accompanied by a rich orchestra of folk music played by a number of instruments known as Dhol, Nisan, Tasa, and Mahuri. However, the Dhol player controls the tempo while dancing in front of the girls. It is known as Dalkhai because in the beginning and end of every stanza this word is used as an address to a girl friend. The love story of Radha and Krishna, the episodes from Ramayana and Mahabaharata, the description of natural scenery are represented through the songs. The songs are of special variety with the additive Dalkhai Bo which is an address to a girl friend. (2) Dand: Dand (Danda Nata also known as the Danda Jatra) in western Orissa happens to be one amongst the most ancient form of histrionic arts of the state. Associated with ritualistic services, Dand forms an institution of dance, music and dramatics blended with religions, social reformation and an association of Universal Brotherhood. Mainly worship of Lord Shiva, the God of destruction of the Hindu mythology, who is also the Lord of histrionic arts (Nata Raj), this theatrical form brings into its fold a harmonious feeling of co-existence between followers of different philosophical doctrines, between political principles and set of opinions. Along with votive dedications to Lord Shiva (Rudra, Hara, Mahadeva, Shankar, Bholanath etc) in a Dand, the
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greatness of other Gods and Goddesses such as Vishnu, Krishna, Ganesh, Durga, Kali etc. are also equally invoked. (3) Ghoomra : Ghoomra is a typical drum. It is just like a big pitcher with a long stem made of clay. The mouth is covered with the skin of a Guye (Monitor lizard).When played with both hands; it produces a peculiar sound quite different from other varieties of drums. The dance performed to the accompaniment of this drum is called Ghoomra Nat. It begins fifteen days earlier of Gamha Purnima (Full moon in September) and culminates on that night in a ceremonial performance. (4) Karama : Karam or Karma literally means 'fate'. This pastoral dance is performed during the worship of Goddess of fate (Karamsani Devi), whom the people consider the cause of good and bad fortune. It begins from Bhadra Shukla Ekadasi (eleventh day of the bright moon of the month of Bhadra) and lasts for several days. This is popular among the scheduled tribes (the Binjhal, Kharia, Kisan and Kol). In western part of Orissa the dance is performed in honour of Karamsani, the deity who bestows children and good crops. However, the rituals connected with the dance remain the same everywhere. In the afternoon of the auspicious day two young unmarried girls cut and bring two branches of the Karama tree [Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd.] from a nearby jungle. They are accompanied by drummers and musicians. The two branches are then ceremonially planted on the altar of worship and symbolize the God. Germinated grains, grass flowers and country liquor are offered to the deity. After completing the ritual the village-priest tells the story or legend connected with it. This is followed by singing and dancing in accompaniment of drum (mandal)and cymbal. The dance performance is full of vigour and energy combined with charm of the youth decked with colourful costumes. In this dance both men and women take part and continue to engross themselves for the whole night. (5) Kirtan: It is a devotional song in which lines are sung by a leader and then repeated by a larger group. The usual subject is the life of Krishna. The group move round the platform where a photo-frame of Lord Krishna and Radha is placed on it. (6) Samparda : Samprada Dance is also known as Bahaka dance. This type of dance prevalent in western Orissa is a standardized performance of singing, danCing and playing on the musical instruments known as mandaI looking like mridanga but bigger in size and a type of cymbal locally known as kastal. It is performed by at least two persons known as Bahak (who sing) and Gahak (who used musical instrument). The peculiarity of this performace is that the performer displays his capability in singing, playing musical instrument and dancing. One cannot be an expert performer in this unless one acquires adequate knowledge in these three aspects. The tuning of the songs, the stepping movement of feet and rhythmic playing of the musical instruments make the performance very interesting and charming. This type of dance is generally arranged on social and festive occasions.
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The musical instruments played during these dance programmes in this part of Orissa are: (a) Dhol : It is a barrel shaped hollow wooden cylinder with leather covered on both sides. (b) Ghoomra : Ghoomra is a typical drum. It is just like a big pitcher with a long stem made of clay. The mouth is covered with the skin of a Guye (Monitor lizard). (c) Gini : A pair of small plate like instrument made of brass where each one is tied witq a thread and it is played by beating both like clapping hands. (d) Jhanj : It resembles gini but large in size. (e) Kastal : It is a pair of large brass plate like structures known as kastal (cymbal) which are played by beating both at a time. (f) Khanjini : tambourineshallow hollow drum with jingling discs in its rim, shaken or banged as an accompaniment. (g) Mandai: It is a barrel shaped hollow cylinder with both sides narrowed towards the ends, over which leather parchment is tightly stretched. (h) Muhuri : It is an instrument like 'Shehnai' but smaller in length and is always played with Dhol, Nisan and tasa. (i) Murdung : It is a barrel shaped hollow cylinder with one side is much narrow and the other side much wide over which leather parchment is tightly stretched. 0) Nisan : It is a huge pot shaped musical instrument, with an animal skin is tightly affixed and sound is produced on striking it with two leather sticks. (k) Sarangi : It is a hollow clay pot covered with thin leather with a long bamboo stick attached to it supporting two strings. A bow made of thin bamboo stick with a string is also used. Sound is produced when the string of the bow runs over the string of the main instrument. (1) Tasa : A musical instrument resembling a huge plate, an animal skin fixed to a frame and sound is produced on striking it with two wooden sticks. The tribals inhabiting remote areas far from the urban areas, residing deep inside the forests utilize many locally available plants for various purposes, which provide them with a wide variety of edible roots and fruits. Besides, the forest also provides animals for hunting to supplement their dietary requirements. This part of Orissa with its rich vegetation and variety of tribals; provide a good scope for ethnomedicinal study. Ethnomedicinal studies on various tribes in western Orissa have been carried out earlier by Panigrahi (1963), Brahmam and Saxena (1990), Satpathy and Panda (1992), Mishra et al. (1994), Pradhan et al. (1999), Sen and Pradhan (1999), Sen and Behera (2000,2001, 2003, 2005), Mishra (2004).
3. METHODOLOGY The methodology adopted for the study was that of Jain (1987). The authors have conducted extensive field trips to different forest and rural areas of western Orissa for collecting ethnobotanical data and voucher specimens. The tribals, the local traditional healers known as Kabiraj, Vaidya,Guniyan and the priests known as Jhankar, Desari, Dehuri and Jani were contacted individually to discuss and collect information regarding the ethnomedicinal and other uses of the plants. Common information obtained from more than one source only has been included in this paper. It has been cross-checked and found that no such reports are published in other available literature such as Panigrahi et al. (1964), Choudhury et al., (1975), Saxena and Brahmam (1975), Paul and Mudgal (1985), Dash and Mishra (1987), Aminuddin and Girach (1991), Kirtikar and Basu (1991), Ambasta et al. (1992), Chopra et al. (1992), Girach (1992), and Joshi (2006). The plant species
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are arranged alphabetically with their family within parenthesis, local name, locality and collection numbers.
4. ENUMERATION During the investigation it was observed that 58 plant species are used medicinally by the tribals and other rural inhabitants. Ethnobotanical uses of the plants are documented "here as per the information collected.
1. Abrns precatorius 1. (Fabaceae) 'Gunj', Barhaguda-55 A twining shrub. Leaves paripinnate, leaflets linear-oblong. Flowers pink, in axillary racemes. Seeds scarlet with a black spot. Use: A piece of root is tied on the opposite ear to cure dental carries.
2. Acacia nilotica (1.) Del. (Mimosaceae) 'Bamur', Ganjaguda-305 Tree; bark deeply cracked. Leaves bipinnata, pinnae 4-6 pairs; leaflets sessile, linearoblong. Flowers yellow. Pods green, flat shortly stalked, seeds 2-12 per pod. Use: Leaf decoction is used as a gargling agent to cure pyorrhea, mouth ulcer and toothache.
3. Acalypha indica 1. (Euphorbiaceae) 'Kaph-katuri', Ramkhol-726 An ecect herb. Leaves simple, ovate, cuneate, glabrous. Flowers on axillary spikes, hairy. Use: Leaf paste boiled with castor seed oil is applied on affected part to cure rheumatism.
4. Alangium salvifolium (Lj) Wang. (Alangiaceae) 'Ankel', Khandijharan-325 A small deciduous tree, armed. Leaves simple, oblong-elliptic. Flowers white in axillary fascicles. Fruits ovoid, dark purple when ripe. Use: Bark paste (5g) is taken twice daily to cure dysentery.
5. Antidesma acidum Retz. (Euphorbiaceae) 'Jamardi', Ramkhol-l64 A small deciduous tree, Leaves elliptic or oblong, acute, cuneate. Flowers green in slender racemes. Drupes subglobose, purplish red. Use: Fruit is edible. Fresh root (5g) is crushed with black pepper (12 number) and is taken once daily for 7 days to cure gonorrhoea.
6. Atylosia scarabaeoides (1.) Benth. (Fabaceae) 'Jharkulthia', Musanal-420 A slender twiner. Leaflets elliptic, obovate-oblong, obtuse or subacute .. Flowers yellow, in axillary racemes or clusters. Pods oblong, somewhat flattened, straight, densely hairy. Use: Root paste is applied externally to cure pimples.
7. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae) 'Leem', Nrusinghnath-586 A tree. Leaves imparipinnate, leaflets 5-9 pairs, obliquely lanceolate, serrate, glabrous, cuneate at base. Flowers white fragrant, many in axillary panicles. Drupes ellipsoid, long, yellow, glabrous.
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Use: Leaf crushed with polished rice and the paste is applied externally to cure syphilis. Bark powder is taken with sugar candy to cure syphilis.
8. Bauhillia racemosa Lamk. (Caesalpiniaceae) 'Kuthel', Bonaigarh-621 A small tree. Leaves simple, bilobed; lobes obtuse, cordate base. Flowers yellowishwhite in terminal and leaf-opposed cymes. Pods falcate, turgid. Use: Bark paste (1 teaspoon) with Piper nigrum fruit powder is taken once daily to cure dysentery.
9. Boerhaavia diffusa L. (Nyctaginaceae) 'Gadhapurni', Nrusinghnath-469 A diffuse herb. Leaves simple, opposite, ovate. Flowers pink, in axillary umbels. Achenes 5-ribbed, hairy. Use: Equal amount of root of the plant, Oroxylum illdiclIlIl (L.) Vent. bark and Phyllanthus fraternus whole plant crushed together and the paste (5-10g) is taken once daily in empty stomach to cure jaundice. 10. Buchallallia lallzall Spreng. (Anacardiaceae) 'Char', Ramkhol-246 A tree; bark tessellated in prominent squares. Leaves simple, broadly oblong, obtuse. Flowers greenish-white, in terminal and axillary paniculate racemes. Drupes ovoid-oblong, black. Use: Bark paste is applied. externally to cure bruises. "11. Butea mOllosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (Fabaceae) 'PhaIsa', Ramkhol-378 A tree. Leaves pinnately 3-folliolate; leaflets broadly obovate, truncate-mucronate at apex. Flowers orange-scarlet, in panicles. Pods flat, pubescent. Use: Young stem tip (3-5 inches long) crushed with Piper lOllgu11l Linn. fruit (5 numbers) is taken 1-2 times daily in empty stomach to cure itches.
12. Butea parviflora Roxb. (Fabaceae) 'Bardalaha', Harishankar-671 A large giant climber. Leaves pinnately 3-foliate; leaflets 10-23 cm long, terminal ovate or elliptic, acuminate, pubescent beneath, lateral leaflets oblique. Flowers creamy, long in fascicles of 3. Pods long, ferruginous-tomentose, oblong. Use: Leaf ash is mixed with Piper longllm fruit powder and a little water. The paste (2 teaspoon) is taken once daily to cure spleen enlargement.
13. Byttlleria herbacea Roxb. (Sterculiaceae) 'Samarkhai', Khandijharan-317 A perennial herb. Leaves ovate-Ianceolate, dentate, acuminate, glabrous. Flowers deep purple. Capsule globose; seeds ovoid, angular. Use: Root paste is applied on the affected part to cure swelling and pain.
14. Caesalpillia bOllduc (L.) Roxb. (Caesalpiniaceae) 'Gil', Ramkhol-239 A large, straggling, prickly shrub. Leaves bipinnate; leaflets elliptic-oblong. Flowers yellow, in terminal and supra-axillary spicate racemes. Pods broadly oblong densely clothed with sharp prickles. Use: Dry seed pulp is crushed to powder and mixed with ghee. It is massaged on chest to get relief from chest pain.
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15. Canthium diococcum (Gaertn.) Teijsm. (Rubiaceae) 'Benimanj', Kunarmunda-550 A small tree with drooping branchlets; bark dark grey, with vertical cracks. Leaves ovate, elliptic-ovate, acuminate, glabrous, light green above. Flowers white or greenish in corymbose. Drupe globose, black. Use: Bark decoction is taken along with honey to cure high blood pressure. 16. Capparis zeylanica L. (Capparidaceae) 'Asdhia', Nrusinghnath-174 A large, thorny, climbing shrub. Leaves simple, ovate-obovate, obtuse. Flowers pinkish-white, in supra-axillary umbels. Fruit ovoid, reddish-yellow. Use: Leaf paste (1-2 teaspoon) with sugar candy is taken to cure stomach disorder. 17. Careya arborea Roxb. (Barringtoniaceae) 'Kum', Samardhara-440 A medium-sized, deciduous tree. Leaves simple, obovate. Flowers yellowish-white, in terminal spikes. Berries globose. Use: Milky juice is used to cure toothache. 18. Chloroxylon swietenia DC. (Euphorbiaceae) 'Bheru', Ramkhol-374 A medium-sized deciduous tree. Leaves paripinnate; leaflets oblique, rhomboidoblong, gland dotted. Flowers pale white, axillary and terminal panicles. Capsules loculicidal. Use: Paste made from root and leaf is applied on forehead to cure headache.
19. Cipadessa baccifera (Roxb.) Miq. (Meliaceae) 'Pitmal', Nrusinghnath-514 A much branched shrub. Leaves imparipinnate; leaflets elliptic-Ianceolate, coarsely serrate. Flowers greenish-white, in axillary corymbose panicles. Berries globose, red. Use: Equal amount of leaf and bark are crushed together and the paste is applied on forehead to cure headache and migraine. 20. Cissampelos pareira L. (Menispermaceae) 'Akanbindhi', Ramkhol-733 A twining shrub, tomentose. Leaves simple, ovate, orbicular. Male flowers palegreen, in axillary cymose clusters. Female pale yellow in racemes. Drupe scarlet. Use: Leaf extract is sniffed into the nostrils to get relief from migraine. 21. Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Kuntze (Verbenaceae) 'Bhanrmal', Bisra-431 A tall shrub; stem erect, hollow. Leaves 3-5-nately whorled, lanceolate, subsessile, acuminate, entire. Flowers in axillary cymes; bracts linear. Drupes with red calyx. Use: Root paste is taken 1-2 times a day to cure stomach-ache during menstruation. 22. Diospyros malabarica Roxb. (Ebenaceae) 'Makarkendu' Nrusinghnath-1B1 A medium-sized deciduous tree. Leaves simple, oblong, glabrous. Flowers yellowishwhite; male in peduncle, axillary cymes; female solitary, axillary. Berries globose. Use: Fruit paste (5g) is taken twice daily to cure 'dhuda' (a type of infantile diarrhoea).
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23. Enydra fluctuans Lour. (Asteraceae) 'Hidmircha', Kamgaon-248 Prostrate herb; stems succulent. Leaves narrowly oblong, serrate. Heads yellow, terminal and axillary, sessile. Use: Leaf extract with honey is taken to cure vomiting of children. 24. Euphorbia fusiformis Buch.-Ham. ex G. Don. (Euphorbiaceae) 'Khirkanchan', Patharchepa-473 A dwarf herb. Leaves radical, sessile, oblanceolate or broadly obovate-spathulate. Flowers in short or long peduncled cyme. Capsule glabrous. Use: Tuber (about 30g) crushed with rice (15g) and taken during third and fifth day of menstrual cycle as contraceptive for one month. 25. Ficus racemosa L. (Moraceae) 'Dumer', Ramkhol-249 A medium-sized, deciduous tree. Leaves simple, ovate or ovate-oblong, cuneate. Receptacles in large clusters on leafless branches. Fruit reddish when ripe. Use: Bark is crushed and boiled along with 'triphala' (fruit of Termillalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Terminalia chebula Retz. and Phyllantl111s emblica L.) powder. The decoction obtained is useful to wash skin infection. 26. Flemingia stricta Roxb. (Fabaceae) 'Sabalbhanj', Ramkhol-254 A tall shrub, branches triquetrous, hairy. Leaves digitately 3-foliate; leaflets oblong, narrowed at both ends. Flowers small striped with pink, yellow and violet, in racemes. Pods small. Use: Root (1 kg) is crushed and boiled in mustard oil (8 kg). The decoction obtained is applied on the affected part to cure rheumatism.
27. Gloriosa superba L. (Liliaceae) 'Puraphul', Jampali-789 A climbing herb. Leaves sessile, apex ending in a tendril, ovate-Ianceolate. Flowers large, reddish-yellow, solitary or in subcorymbose cymes, towards the ends of branches. Capsules linear-oblong. Use: Tuber is crushed to paste. Warm paste is applied on the affected part to cure rheumatism. 28. Guizotia abyssinica (L.) Casso (Asteraceae) 'Gunaphul', Musanal-418 A small herb; stems hairy. Leaves sessile and half amplexicaul, linear-oblong or lanceolate serrate, acute. Heads on peduncles. Achenes blackish-brown, obovat-e with the angles rounded. Use: Leaf paste (5g) is taken once daily to cure constipation.
27. Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G.Don (Apocynaceae) 'Kure', Kamgaon247 A large shrub. Leaves simple, ovate-elliptic or oblong, acuminate. Flowers white, in terminal cymes. Follicles 2 long, round, joined at the tip, seeds oblong. Use: Bark paste (3-5g) is taken twice daily to cure piles.
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28. Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schum. (Asclepiadaceae) 'Khadu', Musanal-417 A climbing herb. Leaves oblong-ovate, cuspidate, base deeply cordate. Flowers white of pale outside, crimson inside. Follicles often solitary, ovoid to ellipsoid, thick with blunt acute apex. Use: Root paste with sugar candy is taken once daily in empty stomach to increase lactation of nursing mother. 29. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. (Lamiaceae) 'Ban-tulsi', Nrusinghnath-357 A tall, hispid, aromatic shrub. Leaves simple, ovate-Ianceolate, serrate, acuminate. Flowers pale blue, in axillary umbels. Nutlets ovoid blackish-brown. Use: Leaves of the plant and rhizome of Zingiber officinale are crushed together to paste. The paste (half a teaspoon) is taken twice daily to cure dysentery. 30. Ixora pavetta Andr. (Rubiaceae) 'Telkuruan', Manbhang-460 A small tree. Leaves simple, elliptic-obovate, obtuse at apex. Flowers white, in terminal branched cymes. Drupes black, globose. Use: Stem is used as toothbrush to strengthen gum and tooth. 31. Justicia adhatoda L. (Acanthaceae) 'Basang', Ramkhol-717 A dense shrub. Leaves, large, elliptic, elliptic-Ianceolate, narrowed to both ends. Flowers white, subsessile, large, long, in axillary and terminal spikes. Capsule clavateoblong, softly hairy, seeds 1-2, suborbicular, compressed. Use: Leaf extract (3 teaspoon) mixed with ghee (1 teaspoon) and sugar (2 teaspoon) is taken twice daily to cure dry cough. 32. Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. (Anacardiaceae) 'Made', Harishankar-542 A medium-sized tree; bark light-coloured. Leaves clustered at the end of branchlets; leaflets ovate or ovate-oblong, entire, acuminate, oblique at base. Flowers small, yellowish green, dioecious, fascicled in racemes. Drupes red, curved, oblong, compressed. Use: Leaf powder is applied externally to cure wound caused due to burn.
33. Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. (Lygodiaceae) 'Kalamahajal', Harishankar-610 A climbing, shrubby fern. Pinnae pinnately arranged; pinnules ovate, toothed. Sori in rows at the edge of segments. Use: Root decoction (2 teaspoon) is taken twice daily for 3-7 days to cure fever. 34. Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. (Sapotaceae) 'Mahuli', Uttam-179 A large, deciduous tree. Leaves simple, elliptic, acuminate. Flowers pale yellow, in dense clusters. Berries ovoid. Use: Bark powder is massaged on gum to cure bleeding teeth. 35. Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon (Asclepiadaceae) 'Chandur', Kuthikhol-581 A twining herb; with pubescent branchlets. Leaves broadly ovate, acuminate or cuspidate, velvety, cordate base. Flowers in corymbosely branched cymes. Follicles solitary, velvety, beaked, seeds flat.
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Use: Root of the plant crushed with polished rice washed water and the paste (1-2 teaspoon) is taken twice daily to cure post-natal pain. 36. Melastoma malabathricum 1. (Melastomaceae), 'Jal-mandar', Nrusinghnath-187 A shrub, densely strigose-hairy. Leaves simple, elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate. Flowers pinkish-purple in 1-5 flowered panicles. Berries globose. Use: Root paste (1 teaspoon) with sugar candy is taken 1-3 times daily to cure fever and stomach disorder. 37. Mucuna pmriens (L). DC. (Fabaceae) 'Baikhujen', Barhaguda-264 Annual twining herb. Leaves pinnately 3-foliate; leaflets appressed, hairy, subacute, ovate or rhomboid. Flowers dark purple, in peduncle racemes. Pods turgid, twined up at end, densely clothed with brown irritant bristles, seeds black, shining. Use: Leaf paste is applied on wound to check bleeding. 38. Ocimum canum Sims. (Lamiaceae) 'Kuabadli', Khandijharan-327 An erect branching herb; young parts softly hairy. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, entire or slightly serrate. Flowers in whorl, in spike like racemes. Nutlets oblong-ellipsoid, black. Use: Leaf paste is applied all over the body of cattle to remove maggots.
39. Olax scandens Roxb. (Olacaceae) 'Adniklu' Harishankar-544 A climbing shrub, with curved prickles. Leaves simple, ovate-oblong, puberulous beneath. Flowers white, in axillary racemes. Drupes ovoid or subglobose, orange. Use: Leaf paste is used as purgative. 40. Operculina turpethum (1.) Silva-Manso (Convolvulaceae) 'Tihidi', Ramkhol-370 A large climber; stems 3-winged. Leaves broadly ovate, cordate, acuminate or acute, obtuse and mucronate. Flowers in 3-5 flowered in peduncle cymes. Capsule globose, seeds obovoid, brown, glabrous. Use: Leaf paste is applied externally to cure ringworm. 41. Oroxylum indicum (1.) Vent. (Bignoniaceae) 'Phaphen', Ramkhol-718 A small tree. Leaves 2-3-pinnate; leaflets ovate, acuminate. Flowers pinkish-purple, in terminal racemes. Capsules linear-oblong, woody; seeds winged. Use: Bark paste (1 teaspoon) is taken along with Piper nigrum 1. fruit (5-7 numbers) powder once daily in empty stomach for 3 days to cure stomachache during the menstrual period. 42. Plesmonium margaritifemm (Roxb.) Schott. (Araceae) 'Dheu', Khandijharan-314 A tuberous herb, depressed hemispherical. Leaf solitary, digitately 3-foliate, lateral leaflet again bipartite and then pinnatifid. Peduncle long, brown streaked and clouded below. Spadix exserted, long, erect. Berries orange. Use: Leaf petiole is used as vegetable. Root paste mixed with Sterculia urens Roxb. gum powder and is applied externally on the affected part to cure scabies. 43. Plumbago indica 1. (Plumbaginaceae) 'Rakat-chintamul', Nrusinghnath-487 An undershrub. Leaves simple, ovate-oblong, acute. Flowers bright-rose Coloured, in long terminal spikes. Capsules enclosed in a persistent glandular calyx.
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Use: Root paste is applied on the affected part to cure piles. 44. Plumbago zeylanica L. (Plumbaginaceae) 'Dhob-chintamul', Nrusinghnath-423 An undershrub. Leaves simple, ovate, entire. Flowers white, in terminal spikes. Capsules oblong, enclosed in persistent glandular calyx. Use: Root of the plant and Abrus precatorius L. seeds are crushed to paste and is applied on the affected part to cure leucoderma. 45. Smilax zeylanica L. (Smilacaceae) 'Muter', Ramkhol-381 Climbing shrub; branches, stout, more of less angled. Leaves variable, lanceolate, elliptic, oblong or orbicular, acute. Flowers dioecious, greenish, in umbels. Berries globose, green, 1-3 seeded. Use: Root (red variety, 2 inches long) crushed with Piper nigrum L. fruit (10-15 numbers) is taken once daily to cure gonorrhoea.
46. Sterculia urens Roxb. (Sterculiaceae) 'Gindel', Ramkhol-255 A deciduous tree; trunk erect. Leaves crowded at the tips of branches. Flowers yellow. Follicles covered with stinging bristles. Use: Gum (10-15g) is soaked in water over night and is crushed. The paste obtained is taken with sugar candy twice daily to cure dysentery. 47. Strychnos potatorum L. (Strychnaceae) 'Koya', Nrusinghnath-518 A medium- sized tree. Leaves simple, ovate, truncate at base, acute at apex. Flowers white, in axillary cymes. Berries ovoid, bluish-black when ripe. Use: Fruit is used as fish poison.
48. Tectaria cicutaria (L.) Copel. (Aspidiaceae) 'Rakat mahajal', Harishankar-621 Terrestrial fern. Stripes deep chestnut-brown, scales few, flattened. Lamina pinnatifid, rarely bipinnate. Sori at the apex of the free veins. Use: Root (2 inches long) is crushed with Piper nigrnm fruit (7 numbers) and the paste (1 teaspoon) is taken once daily for 5 days to cure hyperacidity. 49. Tragia involucrata L. (Euphorbiaceae) 'Bichhati', Barhaguda-708 A hispid herb. Leaves ovate, oblong, serrate, acuminate, densely hirsute. Flowers in leaf opposed to terminal racemes. Capsule globose, 3-lobed; seeds globose, purple black. Use: Root (5-6gm) crushed with water is taken twice a day to cure indigestion. 50. Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth (Liliaceae) 'Banpiaj', 'Kander', Nrusinghnath-485 Bulbous herb; bulb tunicate. Leaves linear, flat, acute. Flowers racemed, bracteate, appearing much before the leaves. Capsule narrowly ovoid-oblong, coriaceous, 3-quetrous. Use: Bulb of this plant is hung at the entrance of the house to prevent entry of evil spirit.
51. Vitex negundo L. (Verbenaceae) 'Nirguni', Ramkhol-369 A large shrub. Leaves 3-5 foliate; leaflets lanceolate, acuminate. Flowers bluishwhite, in pedunculate cymes. Drupes globose, black.
ETHNOBOTANY OF WESTERN ORISSA, INDIA
329
Use: Leaves are crushed with a little salt and applied on the affected part to cure dental carries.
52. Vitex peduncularis Wall. ex Schauer (Verbenaceae) 'Chadeigudi', Harishankar-475 A medium-sized tree. Leaves 3-foliate, often winged; leaflets sessile, elliptic, ellipticoblong, entire or serrate, acuminate. Flowers white with yellow palate, in cymes. Drupes obovoid. Use: Leaf paste is taken twice a day to cure discharge of blood in urine. 53. Ventilago madraspatana Gaertn. (Rhamnaceae) 'Keinti', Ramkhol-521 A large climbing shrub; branchlets pubescent. Leaves simple, elliptic of ovatelanceolate, subacute at base, entire, acute or acuminate at apex. Flowers pale yellow, in terminal panicles. Fruit a samaroid nut. Use: Seed oil is applied externally to cure itches and scabies. 54. Wendlandia heynei (Roem. & Schult.) Sant. & Merch. (Rubiaceae) 'Tilai', Harishankar543 A small tree; bark light brown. Leaves elliptic, elliptic-oblong, acuminate, hoarytomentose, base acute. Flowers white, in terminal, branched, panicles. Capsule, globose, pubescent. Use: Bark (5gm) is crushed with Piper nigrum fruit (15 numbers) and is taken once in empty stomach as an antifertility drug.
55. Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. (Lythraceae) 'Dhatki', Ramkhol-396 A mush-branched shrub leaves simple, ovate-Ianceolate, acuminate. Flowers reddishorange in axillary panicled cymes. Capsules ellipsoid. Use: Flower is crushed to paste and is applied on wound for quick healing. 56. Xanthium indicum Koenig (Asteraceae) 'Kanthu', Barhaguda-391 A small herb; stem stout, terete. Leaves ovate-triangular, long petioled, toothed scabrid and hispid. Head unisexual, monoecious, globose in axillary and terminal short racemes. Achenes 2, oblong-ovoid, compressed, glabrous, black. Use: Root paste (3-5gm) with honey is taken once daily to cure leucorrhoea. 57. Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. (Rhamnaceae) 'Bagh-ampra', Nrusinghnath-426 A straggling thorny shrub; trunk armed. Leaves obliquely ovate or ovate-Ianceolate, entire or crenate, acute or acuminate. Flowers small, in axillary sessile, dichotomous cymes. Drupe black, globose. Use: Root paste is applied on the affected part to cure hydrocoel.
58. Ziziphus rugosa Lamk. (Rhamnaceae) 'Hadkankali', Manbhang-461 A large armed shrub; young parts tomentose. Leaves elliptic, suborbicular, serrate. Flowers greenish-yellow, in peduncled cymes arranged in large tomentose panicles. Drupes globose or pyriform, stone thin-walled; seeds obovoid, turgid. Use: Bark paste (5gm) with honey (5gm) is taken twice daily to cure muscular pain.
L.M.
330
BEHERA AND S.K. SEN
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The present study has enumerated 58 plant species of ethnobotanical interest belonging to 40 families. Among the 58 species two are ferns. Emphasis has been laid on the method of preparation of drug, dosages on important diseases like rheumatism, gynic disorders, jaundice, dysentery, piles, constipation, fever, dental problem, skin disease, contraceptive and antiferlity. The plant species reported here may be used as fastaid medicine but with the advice of an experienced herbal medicine practitioner. This study recommends a thorough and in-depth clinical study of those plants, which are used as medicine. Among the tribals, traditional beliefs and practices are deep-rooted. The tribals believe that many problems arise due to evil spirits. People suffer from diseases and sometimes they are faced with social problems as well. As a result, they contact the traditional healers like Jhankar, Desari, Dehuri Guniyan and Jani having knowledge to fight evil spirits. Besides prescribing medicines mostly prepared from plants, they also perform mantra-tantra or hymn for witch craft to fight evil spirits. Apart from this, during the field survey it was noticed that the distribution of several important plant species like Alangium salvifolium, Ehretia laevis, Euphorbia fusiformis, Gloriosa superba, Ixora pavetta, Lygodium flexuosum, Oroxylum indicum, Stnjchnos potatorum, Tectaria cicutaria, Tragia involucrata, Vitex peduncularis, Wendlandia heynei are rare species in this part of Orissa. Therefore, it is highly essential to monitor such rare and valuable plants to prevent them from extinction. Appropriate care should also be taken by the local inhabitants and NGOs to save these plants. Moreover, protective measures should be implemented strictly by the central and state government so that indiscriminate overexploitation of the valuable plants may be checked.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are thankful to Mr N. B. Pradhan, Retired Reader in Botany and Pareswar Sahu, Department of Botany, Panchayat College, Bargarh for their kind help and suggestions. The authors are also thankful to the informants for sharing valuable information reported in this paper and the forest officials for their help during the survey.
REFERENCES Ambasta, S. P., Ram Chandran, K, Kashyappa, K & Chand, R (1992) The Useful Plants of India. Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi, India. Aminuddin & Girach, RD. (1991) Ethnobotanical studies on Bondo tribes of District Koraput (Orissa), India. Ethnobotany 3:15-19. Anonymous. (2004-05) Economic Survey. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Planning and Co-ordination Department, Govt. of Orissa, India. Brahmam, M. & Saxena, H. O. (1990) Ethnobotany of Gandhamardan Hills - Some noteworthy folk-medicinal uses. Ethnobotany 2: 71-79. Champion, H.G. & Seth, S.K (1968) A revised survey of the forest types of India. Manager of Publications, Government of India, New Delhi, India. Chopra, R N., Nayar, S. 1. & Chopra, 1. R (1996) Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. (Reprint edn.). National Institute of Science Communication, CSIR, New Delhi, India.
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Choudhury, H.N.Rai; Pal, D.C & Tarafdar, CR (1975) Less known uses of some plants from the tribal areas of Orissa. Bull. Bot. Suro. India 17(1-4): 132-136. Das, P.K & Misra, M.K. (1987) Some medicinal plants used by the tribals of Deomali and adjacent areas of Koraput district. Orissa. Ind. J. For. 10(4): 301-303. Girach, RD. (1992) Medicinal plants used by Kondh tribe of district Phulbani (Orissa) in eastern India. Ethnobotany 4: 53-66. Jain, S. K (1991) Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany. Deep Publications, New Delhi. Jain, S.K (1987) A Manual of Ethnobotany. Scientific Publications, Jodhpur, India. Joshi, S. G. (2006) Medicinal Plants. (Repn. Edn.). Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India. Kirtikar, K R & Basu, B. D. (1991) Indian Medicinal Plants. 4 vols. (Repn. Edn.). Lalit Mohan Basu, Allahabad, India. Mishra, R.C (2004) Therapeutic uses of some seeds among the tribals of Gandhamardan hill range, Orissa. Indian J. Trad. Knowledge 3 (I.): 105-115. Mishra, RC, Panda, P.C & Das, P. (19q4) Lesser known medicinal uses of plants among the tribals of Gandhamardan hill range, Orissa. Higher plants of Indian subcontinent (Additional Series of Indian Journal of Forestry No.VI) 3: 135-142. Panigrahi, G. (1963) Gandhamardan Parbat, Orissa - A potential source of important indigenous drugs. Bull. Reg. Res. Lab., Jammu 1:111-116. Panigrahi, G., Choudhury, S., Raju, D.CS. & Deka, G. K. (1964) A contribution to the botany of Orissa. Bull. Bot. Sum India 6(2-4): 237-266. Paul, T.K. & Mudgal, V. (1985) Unreported medicinal uses of some plants recorded from the tribals of Koraput (Orissa). Bull. Bot. Sum India 26(1-4): 69-71. Pradhan, N. B., Pradhan, R. N., Sen, S. K & Sahu, P. (1999) Some threatened noteworthy medicinal plants of Bargarh district (Orissa). Neo Botanica 7: 97-100 Satpathy, KB. & Panda, P.C (1992) Medicinal uses of some plants among the tribals of Sundargarh District, Orissa. J.Econ. Tax. Bot. Addl. Ser 10: 241-249. Saxena, H.D. & Dutta, P.K (1975) Studies on the ethnobotany of Orissa. Bull. Bot. Suro. India 17(1-4): 124-131. Sen, S.K. & Behera, L. M. (2000) Ethnomedicinal plants used against jaundice at Bargarh district in Orissa. Adv. Plant Sci. 13:329-330. Sen, S.K. & Behera, L. M. (2001) Ethnomedicinal plants used against diabetes at Bargarh district in Orissa. Bull. Bot. Sum India 43: 195-197. Sen, S.K. & Behera, L. M. (2003) Ethnomedicinal plants used against skin diseases at Bargarh district in Orissa (India). Ethnobotany 15: 90-96. Sen, S.K. & Behera, L. M. (2005) Cordia macleodii (Ehretiaceae) : A wonderful wound healer-A case study at Bargarh District in Orissa. Ethnobotany 17: 90-96. Sen, S.K. & Pradhan, N.B. (1999) Conservation of ethnomedicinal plants of Bargarh district in Orissa. Adv. Plant Sci. 12(1): 207-213. Tripathy, B.K. (1995) States Economy in Figures (Orissa). Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Orissa, Bhubaneswar.
DOD
ETHNOBOTANICAL SURVEY IN WEST RARRH FOR NATURAL HEALTHCARE AND GREEN BELT MOVEMENT ASHIS GHOSH
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Materials and methods
3.
Results and discussion
4.
Summary
5.
References
1. INTRODUCTION The hill tribes and aborignials of west Rarrh are the Gonds, Kols, Mahali, Puraons Sabar (Kheria), Lodha, Munda, Santal, Oraon, Mahali, Bhumij, Mech and Bedia etc. The west Rarrh of W. Bengal mainly constituted the districts of Murshidabad, Bardwan, Birbhum, Bankura, Purulia and Midnapore. It is the extended part of Chhotonagpur plateau. The forests are distributed roughly in a triangle with the base running north and south, from the tip of Birbhum district to the southern part of Midnapore district. Forest lie scattered in small patches between latitude 21° 75' to 24° 33'N and longitudes 85° 70' to 87° 80'E. Here the hills are relict type. The remarkable hills are Beharinath and Sushunia lie among Bankura district. The forests are in the laterite soil through which main rivers like Ajay, Maurakshi, Damodar, Shilabati etc. run roughly west to east fall into Hoogly while the Subarnarekha flows independently and fall into the Bay of Bengal. In west Rarrh three types of soil (alluvial, red and laterite) are present. The dominant trees in the forest are Shorea robusta Gaertn. f, Madhuca indica Gmelin, Terminalia chebula Retz., Terminalia belliriea (Gaertn.) Roxb. etc.The denuded or blank areas have been afforested chiefly by Eucalyptus globosus, Tectona grandis Lf, Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. etc. Basically dominance of hot and humid climate alongwith a short duration of winter (December to January). Temperature reaches its maximum upto 39.45°C (in average) in
ETHNOBOTANICAL SURVEY IN WEST RARRH
333
the month of May and lowers down in the month of January upto 12.57°C, South west monsoon is the chief source of rains. Rainfall continues from the June to September. Major crops of this region are rice, maize, groundnut, potato etc. The total population of West Rarrh of West Bengal is 2,1967823 of which population of schedule tribes (ST) are 1,940 842 (Census-1991). Bhumij, Lodhas, Kherias, Mundas, Mahalies, Santa Is generally build small huts. Catching fish, crabs etc. by bamboo traps, nets, and palm fibers and creepers like Ichnocdrpus frutescens (L.) RBr. and also by different poisonous plants like Euphorbia, Antiquorum etc. Beside catching of tortoise, iguana, rat-snake, bat, squirrel, larva of red ants, cocoons is the general practices of the tribals. Tribals prepare traditional craft like bamboo based combs, basket, weaving of mats and brooms of different plants. Lodha, Sabar and Munda etc. have their some own traditional peculiarities such as the mother is given some Kurthi water (Dolichos bijlorus L.) just after her delivery. It is then both the new born baby and the mother are bathed in turmeric water (Curcuma Zonga L.) on the 9th day. Plants have been used as a source of medicine for living beings from ancient times. According to an estimate of WHO, approximately 80% of the people in developing countries rely chiefly on traditional medicines for primary healthcare. Ethnomedicinal surveys help mankind to search and develop new cures to treat various ailments. The inhabitants of those districts have rich heritage particularly in relation to plant utility. The region was largely untapped from this point of view. The present author, therefore, initiated in-depth studies on this line (Ghosh 2002, 2003). The present communication focussed some more plant species from this region.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Field study was carried out between the years 2001-2003. Information on foJkmedicinal use of plant was obtained through interview enquiring local plant name, parts used, other ingredients added (if any), method of preparation and mode of administration etc. for each species. Samples of all folk drugs were collected, preserved and housed in the herbarium of the institution. The ethnomedical information is presented in tabular form (Table-1).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Locally available plants are used by the people as their household remedies. The data has been accrued from the tribal and rural people of the 7 districts which still find place in their traditional therapy. However, isolution of active principles and pharmacological investigations are desired to validate the claims of the traditional healers. This may provide new sources of herbal drugs. The formulation of these effective phyto-medicines should be encouraged for their sustainable uses. Information for treating a particular aliment from different informants certainly reflects the accuracy and authenticity of the folk drugs employed. The villages of the region are rich in ethno-medicine knowledge owing to their close affinity with the surrounding plant cover. They obtain a variety of plant products from wild plants to fulfill their own needs as they are economically weaker sections
tIJ
TABLE
~
Ethnomedicinal plants of Rarrh (West Bengal) Ailments Malignant tumour
Local name Sasha
Botanical name & family
Cucumis sativus L.
Recipe
Administration
Fruit
One fresh fruit (100 gm) Fruit
Consumed raw once daily to prevent cancer. Consumed raw
Pedunele
Juice
Bark, root
Juice
Bark or latex
Juice
Fed 1 cup juice thrice daily immediately after bite Fed to the human and cows 1/2 cup juice twice daily till cure Fed it immediately
Root, leaf
Paste
Fed it immediately
Leaf
Juice
Leaf, husk
Juice
Root
Fresh root
Leaf, root
Crushed and made into tablet Crushed seed, with its latex Juice Juice
One teaspoonful fed daily for 45 days alongwith few drops of lemon (lime) juice One tea spoonful fed daily for 30 days Grind the root by the affected teeth 10 tablet in each cycle claimed to be contraceptive
Parts used Fruit
(Cucurbitaceae) Bilati Begun
Lycopersicum esculenum Mill. (Solanaceae)
Snake's bite (Boas)
Kantal
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. {Moraceae)
Snake bite
lswamul
Aristolochia indica L. {Aristolochiaceae)
Food poison
Arimed
Blood vomiting
Berela
Accumulation of fat
Nishinda
Accumulation of fat
Mangustan
Acada leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. (Mimpsaceae) Sida cordifolia L. (Malvaceae) Vitex negundo L. (Verbenaceae)
Cardnia mangostena L. (Guttiferae)
Pain in teeth (toothache) Anti-fertility
Gorap - Begun Solanum virginianum L. (Solanaceae) Nagdona Artimisia vulgaris L. (Asteraceae)
Impotence
Shialkanta
Argemone mexicana_ L.
Ramdatan Ulatkambal
(papaveraceae) Smilax indica {Liliaceae) Abroma augusta L. (Sterculiaceae)
Blood dysentery I Diarrhoeal Night wetting
Seed, plant latex Root Root
5 gm paste taken daily for 30 days to cure Drunk 1/2 cup juice twice daily till cure Drunk 1/2 cup juice once daily Contd...
> fIl
:= ....
fIl
~
:= 0 fIl :=
...Contd. Ailments
Local name
Wasp bite
B..'1ichi
Alopecia / Boils/ Wounds Blood Sugar
Karanj
Dandruff / Premature hair greying Mis-carriage
Karanj
Sikaki i) Anantamul ii) Daruchini
Acene
Ayapan
Alopecia
Datura
Acne/ Alopecia
i) White Sarisha
ii) Til
Miliaria rubra
Anantamul
Botanical name & family
Flacourtia indica_(Burm. f.) Merr. (Flacourtiaceae) Caesalpinia crista L (Caesalpiniaceae) Caesalpinia crista L (Caesalpiniaceae)
Parts used
Recipe
Stem, bark
Fresh bark
Seed
Oil extracted from seeds. Crushed 10 leaves and made into paste Juice
Leaf
Acacia concinna DC. (Leguminosae) Hemidesmus indicus_R.Br. (Asclepiadaceae) Cinnamomum zeylanica Breyn. (Lauraceae)
Leaf, seed
Eupatorium ayapana Vent. (Asteraceae) Datura metel L. (Solanaceae) Brassica campestris L. (Brassicaceae)
Leaf
21/2 gm roots of anantamul and 2 gm of daruchini boiled in a glass of cow's milk Juice
Leaf
Juice
Seed
Both seeds (1:1 ratio) crushed and made into paste
Sesamum indicum DC. (pedaliaceae) Hemidesmus indicus_R.Br. (Asclepiadaceae)
Root Bark
Administration Bark chewed and swallowed Hair, boils and wounds smeared with oil till cure Fed to the patient Once daily for 7 days
~ := Z 0
= S >
Z
n
> I"'
CIl
c:: ~ ~
Regular external applications administered. Administered to the patient once a day for 7 days
Z
~
Ul ~
~
:= :=
:=
Externally apply on the face Smear the juice in head for 30 minutes Externally applied on head and face
Seed Root
Juice
Smear on the body Contd ...
tIJ
~
tI) tI)
... Contd.
a'I
Ailments
Local name
Botanical name & family
Parts used
Recipe
t
Kidney stone
Mashkalai
Food poison
Iswarmul
Diarrhoea
Swarnalata
Cut
Bherenda
Cut
Kamini
Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper. (papilionaceae) Aristolochia indica L (Aristolochiaceae) Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. (Cuscutaceae) Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) Murraya paniculata (L.)
Cotyleden
Infusion
Bark, root
Juice
Stem
Juice
Latex
Fresh Latex
Leaf
Powder
Jack (Rutaceae) Weak nerve
Pan
Piper betle L. (piperaceae)
Leaf
Green leaves
Louse infestation
Bach
Rhizome
Infusion
Diabetes
Currypata
Leaf
Fresh leaves
Infertility
Bon-dhenros
Acorus calamus L. (Araceae) Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. (Rutaceae) Malachra capitata L. (Malvaceae)
Fruit
Fresh fruit
Ashma
Dayalu flower
Aeroa lanata (L.) Schult (Amaranthaceae)
Flower with leaf
Juice
Infertility
Swet-Iajjabati
Mimosa pudica L. (Mimosaceae) Clitoria ternnatea L. (Caesalpineae)
Root
Juice
Swet-aparajita
Root
Juice
Administration A cup of infusion drunk at morning Fed to the cows Fed to the cows thrice daily till curl. Latex smeared on the wound Apply powder to check bleeding. Fed one raw leaf daily alongwith honey for 30 days. Applied infusion in affected parts Fed 10 leaflets once daily before lunch Fed to the patient 5 raw fruits daily .during menstrual period for 3 months Drunk the 5 ml juice with few drops of honey for one month Drunk one tea spoonful juice along with a pepper for 20 days Do Contd ...
> fIl
=: .....
fIl
~ =: 0 fIl
=:
rTf
...Contd. Ailments
Local name
Low blood-pressure
Bon-kalmi
Enlargement of-Liver/ Dim sighted Small pox
Bon-charal
Hydrophobia
Swet Kantikari
Botanical name & family
Ipomoea paniculata R.Br. (Convolvulaceae) Desmodium gyrans DC. (Fabaceae) Solanum virginianum L (Solanaceae)
Parts used
Recipe
Leaf
Juice
Leaf
Juice
Aerial part
Crushed and made into paste
i) Bans
Bambusa vulgaris_ Schrad. (Poaceae)
Root
ii) Ankar
Alangium salviifolium (L:f.) Wang. (Alangiaceae) Rauvolfia canescens L. (Apocynaceae)
Root Root
Juice
Rauvolfia canescens L. (Apocynaeae) Gymmema sylvestre R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae)
Root
Juice
Leaf, fruit
Juice
Crushed in (1:1) ratio.
Administration Drunk 1/2 cup juice once daily for 15 days Drunk 2 spoonful juice daily 2 dry tablets consumed daily for 7 days as an antidote both in human and cow Orally use and externally applied on the wound as an antidote
;! Z
0
=
~
...n~
>
I'""
U'J
C
~
...Z~ ~ ~
~
~
Snake bite
Barachadar
Blood sugar
Barachadar
Diabetes
Gulmar, Meshsringi
Constipation
Golmorich
Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae)
Fruit
Powder
Flatulence
Kul
Leaf
Paste
High Bilirubin
BhuiAmla
Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. (Rhamnaceae) Phyllantltus amarus Schumach & Thonn. (Euphorbiaceae)
Entire plant
Juice
Drunk the 10ml juice and also smear the juice in the wound. Fed to patient along with Terminalia arjuna bark. Drunk 5 ml Juice once daily for 30 days before lunch. Powder mixed in a cup of lukewarm water drunk at night. Paste rubbed on abdomen.
"::r::
Drunk 5 ml. juice once daily for 10 days before lunch. Contd ...
~ ~
'I
til til
...Contd.
(X)
Ailments Jaundice Bedsore Alopecia
Burn, Rough skin Epilepsy
Local name
Botanical name & family
Trichosanthes anguina L. (Curcurbitaceae) Vitex negundo L. Nishinda (Verbenaceae) i) Ghritakumari Aloe vera L. (Liliaceae)
Chichinga
Parts used
Recipe
Leaf, seed
Juice
Leaf
Paste
Intact leaf juice
Methi Seeds germinated in leal Juice Seed Juice Juice Juice
ii) Methi
Trigonella foenum-graecum
Seed
Ghritakumari Shet Karabi
L. {Fabaceael Aloe vera L. (Liliaceae) Neirium indicum Mill. (Apocynaceae)
Fresh leaf Juice Root
Administration Drunk 5ml Juice once daily for 7 days Smear in affected region Smear the decoction of germinated seeds alongwith coconut oil
Smear in skin Drunk 5 ml juice once daily for 15 days
ETHNOBOTANICAL SURVEY IN WEST RARRH
339
of the society. In the tribal areas the rules and regulations by which the tribal people have been traditionally governed are now being gradually abolished by the young literature generations. Another crucial factor responsible for such change is the migration of youth from tribal areas to urban areas. This gap is further widened the adoption of modern medicine.Therefore, the importance of recording indigenous knowledge base related technology as described here become essential in view of rapid socio-economic and cultural changes and for high tech low cost solution. Religious and cultural faith, poor economy and lack of modern medical facilities in these villages seem to be the cause of utilisation of these plants. While conducting the survey the inhabitant revealed that most of the people were dependent on plants and they also preferred it, although the preparing methods are known only to local faith healers. Due to rapid increase in human population and biotic interference, some specious are dwindling from their natural habitats. It is , therefore, imperative that green medicines of the aborigines which are still in vogue should be documented for obvious reasons.
4. SUMMARY Traditional methods of treating human afflictions using plant drugs are obtained from tribal and rural folks in West Rarrh region, West Bengal. A total of 48 plant species belonging to 31 families of angiosperms are employed by the inhabitants in the form oa infusion, decoction, oil, paste, latex etc. either as a sole drug or in combination. The dose/ s, duration and method of administration are given alongwith correct botanical name, family, part! product used and local plant names. The folk uses however require further modern laboratory testing. REFERENCES
Ghosh, A. (2002) Ethnoveterinary medicines from the tribal areas of Bankura and Medinipur districts, West Bengal, lJTK 1: 93-95 Ghosh, A. (2003) Herbal folk remedies of Bankura and Medinipur districts, West Bengal. IJ.T.K 2 :393-396. Jain, S.K. (1991) Dictionary of Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany. Deep Publications, New Delhi, India.
000
ETHNOBOTANY IN CHHATTISGARH (INDIA) •• A GRAPHIC REVIEW AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS AMIA TIRKEY
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Analysis of papers
3.
Gaps in work and future directions
4.
Summary
5.
Acknowledgements
6.
Refefences
1. INTRODUCTION The sea-horse shaped Chhattisgarh state come into existence on 1st November 2000 by the Bill "Madhya Pradesh Reorganisation Act. 2000" passed in the parliament. Until then it was a part of Madhya Pradesh state. It is situated between 17046' to 24°05' North latitude and 80°15' to 84°26' east longitude. It measures 360 km from North to South and 140 kms, from West to East, comprising an area about 135194 sq.km, which is about 4.14% of India's total land area and 30% of its parent state "Madhya Pradesh". The southeastern districts of Madhya Pradesh, viz., Bastar, Bilaspur, Dantewara, Dhamtari, Durg, Janjgir-Champa, Jashpur, Kanker, Kawardha, Korba, Koria, Mahasamund, Rajnandgaon, Raigarh, Raipur, Sarguja etc. form Chhattisgarh. This state is surrounded by Orissa and Jharkhand on the East, Uttar Pradesh on the North, Madhya Pradesh and Maharastra, on the West and Andra Pradesh on the South. Geographically a large part of Chhattisgarh lies in the valley of rivers Mahanadi and Sheonath. The eastern part lies on the Chhota-Nagpur plateau and the southern part in the Deccan plateau. Chhattisgarh is abundantly endowed with natural resources. Its dense forest cover occupies about 41.42 percent of the area of the state with a number of wild life sanctuaries populated by tigers, leopards, bears, bisons, hyenas, wild bears etc. The state is rich for different tribes. According to the Census of 1991, the Scheduled
341
ETHNOBOTANY IN CHHATTISGARH (INDIA)
Caste people constitute about 12.19% of the total population and scheduled tribes are about 32.46%. It is four times more than that of national figure (8%). In other words it can be said that nearly every third person in the state is a tribal. The life style of tribal people depends upon the land. Their sustenance depends on agriculture, hunting, fishing, collection of forest products, bamboo work or labour of any kind. Scheduled Castes viz., are Chikwa, Ghasi, Mahar, Chamar, Mehtar and Scheduled tribes are viz., Oraon, Agria, Bhil, Gond, Bhungia, Bharia, Kol, Khairwar, Korwa, Manjhi, Muria, Saharia etc. Ethnobotany, as an organised discipline of study in India, is rather young, just about five decades old. The first bibliography of ethnobotany in India was published in the early eighties Gain et ai., 1984). Since the eighties, however, emphasis has been laid on more specific work on particular classes of indigenous uses, like plants in food, medicine, other material culture and even faith tradition selected to conservation of bioresources and on particular diseases or ethnic groups. A recent detailed bibliographic work on Indian ethnobotany Gain 2002) has brought out certain facts and also trends in research. The following analysis covers approximately the period 1902-2005. First book published was one century year ago by Wood (1902) on plants of Chota-nagpur including Jashpur and Surguja.
2. ANALYSIS OF PAPERS These are 315 references listed in a recent "Bibliography of Ethnobotany of e.G. state" (Minor research project submitted to IOE, Gwalior by Tirkey 2005). These references relate strictly to ethnobotanical work or very closely allied themes on Chhattisgarh. (A) ETHNIC GROUPS
Over 59 papers relate to specific ethnic groups. Studies on the different aspects of Oraons (Sahu 1980, Sen 1965, Tirkey 1992, Das 1959, Danda 1977, Roy 1915,1928,2004) c=::J
-I
Bharia
F==l
t:::::=J
Khairwar
t:::::::J
1::::=:J
Abujhmaria Kharia
10 Series 11
Korwa Baiga Maria Oraon
0
2
4
6
8
Fig. 1 : Numbers of Ttitles on ethnic groups
10
342
AMIA TIRKEY
Baiga, Gond and Sahariya of central India (Brij La11993, Elwin 1958, Jain 1965, Grigson 1949, Jain A.K. 1990), Bhils (Koppers et al., 1948, Ranade 1956, Shrivastava 1985), Munda, Nagas, Korwa, Khairwar (Basu 1932-33, Jamir 1990, Baghe11981, Bajpai 1997, Lakra 1997), Maria, Pahariya and Kharia (Elwin 1943, 1947, Sahay 1966, Roy et al., 1937) and the Abujhmaria and Bharia (Maheshwari 1989, 1985) have resulted in many publication (Fig.1). (B) ETHNOMEDICOBOTANY Though a very little publication of papers on ethnomedicobotany deal with some diseases. Only 12 kinds of ailments and injuries have been studied in 16 papers (Tirkey et.al., 2004, 2000, Jain 1987, Brij, 1988) on some topical themes like indigestion, dysentery, jaundice, bone fracture, rheumatism, ethnoveterinary, snake bite, skin disease and hair problems (Fig.2). Kala-Aur Antipyretic Antidabetic Snake bite Rheumetism
Bone fracture
1~=========:J
========:::::::J =========:J I CI
't:1
j
~=========:J ~=========:J
I~========:::::::J
Jaundice Dysentery J Indigestion Bhnoveterinary
I~========:::::::J
IOSeries 11
J~==================:J
Harr~~1================================~
Skin disease
oEE====~=============~~-----~ 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Fig. 2 : Numbers of titles on diseases or properties
(C) REGIONAL COVERAGE
The districts / regions in Chhattisgarh on which 65 or more publications have appeared are shown in Fig 3. This analysis is based on the name of district / tehsils appearing in title and can be only approximate, because many papers mention names of India and its parent state M.P. A number of papers deal with dozens of families and some plant species of ethnobotanical significance in any area. About 9 papers deal with only one or two particular species in detail. Few plants like Mahua (Roy et. al., 1959), Polypleurum dichotomum (Roy et. al., 1986), Water bottle Gain 1964), Bauhinia vahlii Gain et al., 1973), Nyctanthus arbor - tristis Gain et al., 1964), and Elephantopus scaber (Kumar et al., 2002) have been the subject of only one title. About 28 families of flowering plants namely: Asteraceae, Mimosaceae, Aizoaceae, Molluginaceae, Malvaceae Oleaceae, Burseraceae, Passifloraceae, Fabaceae, Leguminoseae, Ulmaceae, Moraceae, Opiliaceae, Elacegnaceae, Verbenaceae, Araliaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Polygonaceae, Cyperaceae, Commelinaceae, Orchidaceae, Ebenaceae, Convolvulaceae,
343
E11INOBOTANY IN CHHATTISGARH (INDIA)
rI!I Jashp~;--- -'
10Rajnandgaon I-Ourg IIl'IBiiaspur leRaipur
_Raigarh OSurguja
31
OBastar
Fig. 3 : Numbers of titles on various region,IDist. of state
Hydrocharitaceae, Eriocaulaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Bignoniaceae have known medicinal plants of Chhattisgarh. Fortunately, it is not only the Angiosperms which have attracted ethnobotanists, other groups of plants have also received attention of ethnobotanists, e.g. Brij Lal et al., (1995,1985) on lichenos. Lal & Anand (1998) on Pteridophytes and Rai et al. (1992) on fungus. 'UNTRODDEN PATHS'? A few interesting publications describe the journeys of their authors into 'untrodden paths', like Magico-religious beliefs about plants (Banerjee, 1974). A note on bidi leaf (Das et al., 1963), Plants used as fish Poison (Kumar et al., 2003), Ghirra mahotsav (GoeI1990), Musical instruments. (Elwin, 1955,a,b), Ranu- A tribal tablet (Chaudhuri et al., 1977), Cottage industries Gain, 1995, Brijlal et al., 1993), Observations on some energy plants (Singh et. al., 1999) Food plants Gain et al., 1990,1988, Rai 1925, Kumar 2003) short note on tribal folk (Chattopadhyaya, 1954) and Toys of tribal children (Elwin, 1953). WORKERS AND JOURNALS All 315 references shows that about 110 persons, mostly botanists and usually taxonomists, have been bublishing on ethnobotany in e.G. Published papers have appeared in over one hundred periodicalS. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany and Ethnobotany have published over 100 papers each during the period under review; other notable journalS in this respect are Economic Botany , Ancient science of life, Bulletin of Botanical Survey of India, Bulletin of Medicoethnobotanical Research, And Journal of Ethnophannacology.
3. GAPS IN WORK AND FUTURE DIRECfIONS Finally, the analysis brings out certain lacunae and possible directions for future work. On the basis of literature Bastar district and Surguja districts are particularly rich in plant diversity, including land races and wild relatives of crop plants. They are alSo home of varied ethnic groups. Yet, studies on these hilly regions have not been adequate;
344
AMIA TIRKEY
e.g. there are only about a dozen papers. Very little work has been done on district like Raigarh, Jashpur, Durg, Rajnandgaon, Raipur and Bilaspur. Rest of 8 districts have been not touched at all. Many important aspects of ethnobotany on which botanists, anthropologists, agriculture scientists, geographers and other naturalists are working and pubishing in other parts of the India, are hardly being studied in Chhattisgarh. Some such topics or themes desired are mentioned below : 1.
The impact of use of one or few specific plants for food, medicine, music, dyes, gums, house-building or other needs and trade on the population of these species or on biodiversity and ecosystem of the region;
2. The impact of faith and taboos associated with certain plants or sacred groves on conservation of those species and on the ecosystem and other conservation practices of the folk; 3. The concept of the folk about taxonomy of various kinds of plants of their surroundings, e.g. any notable system of classification into small or large groups, comparable in any manner with botanical families, genera or other taxa, and any expression of such knowledge in local names of plants; 4.
Any discernible gender, age, occupa.tion or other demarcations among the folk relating to knowledge about plants of their vicinity;
5.
Tribal arts like painting, tatooing and artifacts; many of the latter can be developed into cottage industries for souvenies, etc. and bring socia-economic benefits, 6. More tribe and plant specific studies. Alcorn (1995) studied the writings of several ethnobotanists in developing countries relating specially to problems of socioeconomic development. She laid emphasis on the question: What good is this plant? If this question can become the focus of field workers, the interviews, the data, and the intreprectations of ethnobotanical researches can become still more meaningful. The planners do need data on such natural wealth of a region, which can become an economic resource, directly or after some improvement and processing. Of particular interest and use in this respect should be critical studies and the way the local folk attempt to manage them.
4. SUMMARY This article reviews ethnobotany in Chhattisgarh state covering approximately the period 1902-2005. During this period about 315 publications have appeared on ethnobotany of e.G. and closely bordering topics. Papers have been published in about 50 journals in India and abroad. Some 110 persons have been writing on ethnobotanical themes ; most of these are plant taxonomists. Work has been published on over 16 ethnic groups. Only three or four ethnic groups have been the subject of more than five publications. Only two districts Bastar & Surguja have been well covered. Rest of the districts have been little worked or not worked at all. Ethnomedicine for over 12 diseases/ ailments and injuries figure in titles of papers. Based on this analysis, certain themes and areas are suggested for more intensive work.
ETHNOBOTANY IN CHHATTISGARH (INDIA)
345
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The autor thanks the HOD, School of Life Sciences, Pt. R.S.U., Raipur for facilities provided. She expresses her thanks to Dr.S.K. Jain for his cooperation, moral support, inspiration, affection and timely encouragement and the Director NBRI, Lucknow for providing their kind help and library staff, finally, gratefully express her sincere thanks to Dr.Asok Jain, Hon. Director, 10E, Jiwaji University, Gwalior for financial support.
REFERENCES Allcorn, J.B. (1995) The Scope and aim of Ethnobotany, In developing world p-23-29 in Schultes, R.E. & S.V. Reis. Ethnobotany, Evolution of a Discipline. Dioscorides press, Portland. Baghel, D.S. (1981) The Karma Dance of Korwas. Vanyajati 29 (4) : 26-31 Bajpai, H.R. & Mishra, M. (1997) Problem and prospective of primitive hill Korwa tribe. Vanyajati 45 (1) : 2-4 Banerjee, D.K.- Magico (1974) religious beliefs about plants among some Adibasis of India. Mythic. Soc., 65 (3) : 5-8
J.
Basu, P.G. (1932-33) The Racial affinities of the Mundas and Transactions of the Basu. Research Institute 8 :211-247 Brij, Lal (1988) Traditional remedies for bone fracture among the tribals of Madhya Pradesh, India. Aryavaidyan 1(3) : 190-195 Brij, Lal (1993) Ethnobotany of Baigas of Madhya Pradesh -a preliminary report. Arunachal Forest News 11(1) : 17-20 Brij, Lal & Maheshwari, J.K. (1993) Prospects of plant - Based cottage industries in tribal areas of Madhya Pradesh. J.Eco. Tax. Bot. 17(1) : 235-238 Brij, Lal & Upreti, D.K. (1995) Ethnobotanical notes on three Indian Lichens. Lichenologist, 21(1) : 77-79 Brij, La!., Upreti, D.K. & Kalakoti, B.S. (1985) Ethnobotnical utilization of Lichens by the tribals of Madhya Pradesh (India). J.Eco. Tax.Bot. 7:203-204. Chattopadhyaya, K.P. (1954) A short note on cultivation among tribal folk in India. Vanyajati 2(4) : 110-112 Chaudhuri, Rai, H.N., Banerjee, D.K. & Guha, A (1977) "Ranu" - A tribal tablet. Vanyajati 25:913 Danda, AK. (1977) Tribal situation in North east Surguja. Anthropological Survey of India, Calcutta. Das, AK. (1959) Food habits and dietaries of the Oraons and their nutritional efficiency. Vanyajati 7:53-58. Das, AK. & Sarkar, B.K. (1963) A note on bidi leaf (Diospyros melanoxylon) Indian For. 89:39-45 Elwin, V. (1943) Maria Murder and suicide. Bombay (2nd Edn. 1950). Elwin, V. (1947) Maria and their Ghotul. Oxford Uni. Press, London. Elwin, V. (1953) Toys of tribal children. Illustrated Weekly of India. Oct. 18, 74 (42) : 28-29. Elwin, V. (1955) The musical instruments of tribal India. (ii) Illustrated Weekly of India, Nov. 27, 1955,76(48) : 26-27 Elwin, V. (1955) The musical instruments of tribal bdia. (ii) Illustrated Weekly of India, Dec. 4, 76(49) : 48-49
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Goel, M.R. (1990) Chhattisgarh ke surguja ke Aadivasiyon ka Mahotsav 'Ghirra' Vanyajati 38(4) : 5-7 Grigson, W. (1949) The Maria Gonds of Bastar. Oxford University Press. London. 1949. Jain, A.K. (1995) Prospects of plantlore of Sahariya Tribe in the development of Cottage industries. Vanyajati, 3:11-14 Jain, A.K. & Sharma, H.O. (1990) Certain medicinal plants used by Sahariya tribals of northern M.P.Proc. Nat. Sem.Med. & Arm. Plants. Jabalpur. 2:155-165 Jain, S.K. (1964) An indigenous water bottle. Indian forester 90-709 Jain, S.K. (1965) Wooden musical instruments of the Gonds of Central India. Ethnomusicology 9(1) : 39-42 Jain, S.K. (1987) Plants in Indian medicine and folklore associated with healing of bones. Indian ,. Orthopaed. 1: 95-104 Jain, S.K. (2002) Bibliography of Indian Ethnobotany . Scientific Publisher, Jodhpur (India). Jain, S.K., Hanif, M.1. & Tarafder, CR. (1973) Bauhinia vahlii - A multipurpose plant in tribal area. Vanyajati 21(4) : 106-108 Jain, S.K., Mudgal, V., Banerjee, D.K., Guha,A., Pal,D.C & Das, D. (1984) Bibliography of Ethnobotany B.S'!. Calcutta. Jain, S.K., Sinha, B.K. & Gupta, R.c. (1991) Notable plants in Ethnomedicine of India pp. 1-219 Deep Publ. New Delhi. Jain, S.K., Sinha, B.K. & Saklani, A. (1990) Some lesser known food plants among oboriginals in India. In : Posey, D., Overal, W.L. (Eds) Ethnobiology Impliations and Applications, Goeldi Mus. Nat. Hist. Belem. Brazil. Jain, S.K. & Tarafder, CR. (1964) Observations on Nyctanthes arbor-tristis 101
L.J.
SOc. Indian For.4:97-
Jamir, N.S. (1990) Some interesting medicinal plants used by Nagas. ,ournal of Research and Education in Indian medicine. 9(2) : 81-87 Koppers, W.& Jungblut, L. (1948) Betrothal rites among the Bhils of north western Central India. Art. Asiac., 9:5-33. Kumar, Vivek (2003) Wild edible plants of Surguja District of Chhattisgarh State, India. ,.Eeo. Tax. Bot., 27(2) : 272-282 Kumar, V.& Rao, R.R. (2002) Elephantopus scaber L. An important medicinal plant used by tribals of Surguja. Tropical Medicinal Plant, Malaysia 3(2) : 219-221 Kumar, V.& Sikarwar, R.L.S. (2003) Plants used as fish poison by tribals of Surguja district in' Chhattisgarh State, India. Ethnobotany 15:87-89 Lakra, I. (1997) Health status of women of Khairwar tribe of Surguja District. Bulletin of the tribal research Institute, Bhopal, XXV (2) : 43-47 Lal, Jagdish & Kumar, Anand (1998) List of tax a of Pteridophytes not included in the flora of Madhya pradesh. Volume I .,.Eco.Tax.Bot. 22(3):657-660 Maheshwari (1989) Case studies of three primitive tirbes (Abujhmarhia, Baiga and Bharia) of Central India. In Methods and Approaches in Ethnobotany (ed. S.K. Jain) pp. 187-188 SOE, Lucknow, India. Maheshwari, J.K. & Dwivedi R.P. (1985) Ethnobotany of Abujhmarhia tribe of Bastar district, M.P.! ,.Indian Bot. Soc. Abstracts Vol.64 supplement, P-53
ETHNOBOTANY IN CHHATTISGARH (INDIA)
347
Rai, B.K. Rai, A. (1992) Use of fungus in, folk medicine for family planning among Baiga, Folklore 33:65 Rai, Bahadur, H. (1925) Some notes about marriage, food, drink and occupations of castes affecting Social Status in Central Provinces. Man in India. 5(1&2):56-68. Ranade, R. M. (1956) Oil Pressingas home industry among Bhils & Bailalas. Vanyajati 4 (1) : 40 - 41. Roy, G. P. & Dixit, S. K. (1986) Polypleurum dichotomum (Gardn.) J. B. Hall (Podostamaceae) A new record for central India. Indian J. For. 9(1): 87-89. Roy,
J. K.
Rao, R. K. & Roy, B. C. (1959) Mahua Spirit and the chemical composition of the raw material (Mahua flowers) J. Inst. Chem. 31 : 64.
Roy, S. C. (1915) The Oraon of Chotanagpur, Calcutta. The Brahmo mission press. Roy, S. C. (1928) Oraon Religion and Customs. The Industry Press. Ranchi. Roy, S. C. (2004) The Oraons of Chotanagpur. Crown Publications, Ranchi. Roy, S.
c.,
Roy, R. C. (1937) The Kharias. Man in India, Ranchi. 1937.
Sahay, B. N. (1966) Pahariyas and their customs. Ibid,14 (1) : 7 - 18. Sen, Gupta, A. K. (1965) Economic organisation of an oraon village. Vanyajati 13 (2):41 - 45. Shrivastava, R. K. (1985) Herbal remedies used by the Bhils of Madhya Pradesh. Oriental Med.
Kyoto, Japan, 389-395. Singh, K.K., Anand Prakash, & Polvi,S.K. (1999) Observations on some Energy plants Among the tribals of Madhya Pradesh. J. Econ. tax. Bot. 23 (2) : 291 - 296. Tirkey, Amia (2002) Ethnomedicinal investigation on plants of Dist. Raigarh (M. P.) Ph. D thesis submitted to Barkatullah University, Bhopal (Unpublished). Tirkey, Amia, Khan, F. & Khan 5.5. (2000) (Ed.)- Medicinal plants used in the treatment of hair in Raigarh District of Madhya Pradesh ( India) Vistas in Ethnobotany 1 : 104 - 110. Tirkey, Amia, Khan, S. S. & Khan, F. (2004) Ethnomedicinally important plants used in the treatement of skin afflictions by the tribals of Chhattisgarh. In: Ethnomedicine and Human Welfare 3:68 - 90 Tirkey, Amia (2005) "Bibliography of Ethnobotany of Chhattisgarlt State", India. Project report submitted to IOE, Gwalior (M.P.). Tirkey, Boniface (1992) The Smiling Uraon. Navjyoti Niketan, Patna. Verma, R. (1989) Madhya Pradesh District Gazetters Surguja. Directorate of Gazetters, Dept. of Culture, Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal. Wood, J.J. (1902) Plants of Chhota Nagpur including ]ashpur and Surguja. Rec. Bot. Surv. India, 2(1) : 1 - 170.
000
NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA
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PANACEA
PATIL, SHUBHANGI PAWAR AND
D.A.
PATIL
Chapter Outline 1. Introduction 2. 3. 4. 5.
Methodology adapted Discussion Summary References
1. INTRODUCTION Intimate relationship and familiarity with bio-resources has become an integral part of our traditions. Man, from his early times, thought the plants as his partners in collective management of the plant-wealth. Even he worshiped and respected them. Realizing this significance of traditional knowledge, the recently modified Convention on Biological Diversity lime-lighted their traditions. This also helped aware about our cultural practices, life-styles, economic measures and customary uses. This, in turn, enforced the biologists to look at plants and animals as sources of genes and chemicals for his benefit. There are very few plants which are held in great reverence. For example, Coconut tree in tropical coasts, Baobab tree in Africa and Mulberry tree in China are named /regarded as 'Tree of Heaven' (Kalpa Vriksh), 'Tree of Life' or 'Tree of Abundance'. To date, Neem (Azadirachta indica AJuss.) has not been revered so, although it has attained similar status. A review of literature, even in bird's eyeview, indicates that every part of it is used by Indian society for various needs. Although so, it is patented by a non-Indian in US, which is an eye opener instance for scientific community, nay, for entire Indian nation. This patent taught a lesson that traditional knowledge can be patented, if some value addition has been made to it. These circumstances attracted
NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA
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the attention of the present authors to shed light on the traditional knowledge, especially on ethnomedicine of this much discussed tree species.
2. METHOD ADAPTED Authors have tried to gather information particularly for Neem plant especially focusing traditional/folk medicines from Indian territory. It covers medicines for both - human and livestock. The result of our literature surveys is tabulated in the Table 1 and 2 with respect to part/product used, recipe, application, disease treated and literature source.
3. DISCUSSION In Latin, scientific name for 'Neem' is coined as Azadirachta indica. Its generic name 'Azadirachta' originated, in Arabic language, Azad-Dhirakat, meaning free growing, noble tree. Its specific epithet 'indica' suggests its nativity as India. This tree species has varied uses in Indian culture. It is a multipurpose species. Still it was/is not referred as 'Kalpavriksh'. It offered a large number uses as shown in Table-I & II. The traditional knowledge of Indian society when hammered upon scientific anvil, it turned out one of the important species for mankind. Although, majority of these uses/ applications were/ are in vogue, the modern scientific researches gave explanation for its wide applicability. It is the modern science that brought name/fame globally for this noble tree. There has been a great appreciation and awareness about investigation on traditional therapeutics to search out the leads for modern drugs during last few decades. It is also to be noted that the long traditions and accumulated wisdom appear transmitted into well classified systems. For example, curcumine (Curcuma longa), psoarlons (Psoralia corylifolia), guggulsterone (Commiphora wightil), reserpine (Rauvolfia serpentina), berberimec (Berberis aristata) etc. The 'Neem' is not lagging in this regard. It is also rich in azadirachtin. All these sprung from traditional folklores. It has became now obvious that information from traditional societies has played a vital role in the discovery of novel products from plants as chemotherapeutic agents. The traditional uses of Neem clearly warrant the potentiality for few more drug discovery. Some have been already revealed by recent researches. The great sages exploited the folk medicines of those days to enrich the Ayurvedic system. Thus they are responsible for the symbiotic relationship between Indian system of medicine like Ayurveda and folk medicine. The traditional knowledge of tribal'Ezhavas' of Kerala is integrated with Ayurveda. This is written in their regional language, e.g. 'Yogamrithnam' written by Uppot Kannan, 'Oushadhi Nighantu' by Thayyil Kumaran Krishnan, 'Keralaramam' by Itty and Achuthan (cf. Rajasekaran et al., 1996). This may be also the case of drugs of Neem mentioned in Ayurvedic literature which are so deeply rooted in Indian societies. Our review related particularly to Indian folk/ traditional medicine brought out state of the art. The bark is used for about 58 diseases, leaves for about 84 diseases, flowers for about 20 diseases, fruits for about 19 disease, seeds for about 40 and twigs or entire plants for about 28 diseases. The neem products like cake, toddy, gum, sap etc. are used for about 13 diseases, apart from its uses as adhesive, agricultural implements, house and hut construction, crop protection manure, cattle feed
350
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TABLE 1 Indian folk medicine for human-beings (A) Bark Sr. No.
7.
Recipe & Application (If anl) Decoction Bark powder mixed with turmeric powder applied over body Juice Juice with cow milk Infusion Bark ash mixed with coconut oil, Paste applied on body Extractor infusion
8. 9. 10.
Powder or infusion Dried powder taken orally Paste applied on body
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
Powder given orally Bark powder mixed with milk applied on face Decoction Decoction Extract Extract Powder
18.
Infusion
19.
22.
Slits of inner white bark bandaged on eyes at bed-time Infusion Ash mixed with coconut oil, paste applied on body Juice of root bark and fruits
23. 24.
Stem bark Infusion/ Decoction
25. 26. 27.
Bark Bark applied as ointment Juice mixed with cow milk
1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
20. 21.
Disease
Source of Literature
Malarial fever Scabies, ring worms
Sai Prasad Goud et al., 2000 Satpathy and Brahmam, 2000
Diabetes Diabetes Headache Scabies
Dash and Misra, 2000 Panda and Das, 2000 Saren et al., 2000 Saren et al., 2000
To regulate Menstruation Diarrhoea Cough and cold Elephantasis, backache, joint pains Cough, cold, dog bite Pimples
Saren et al., 2000
Stomach-ache Stomach-ache Chronic fever Skin disease, leprosy Skin disease, boils, tonic, also shows antifertility activity Abdominal pain, Diarrhoea, Purification of blood, Headache Cures sore eyes
Pawar and Patil, 2007 Pawar and Patil, 2007 Hussain et al., 2000 Hussain et al., 2000 Jain,1991.
Regulates menstruation Cures scabies
Marie D'Souza, 1993 Marie D'Souza, 1993
Fever, debility, nausea, vomiting, skin diseases Skin diseases Liver disorders, malaria, pyresis, dyspepsia, debility, skin diseases,. Fever, syphilitic Sores Cures skin diseases Diabetes
Watt, 1889-1895
Saren et al., 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Singh and Pandey, 1998 Pawar and Patil, 2007
Marie D'Souza, 1993
Marie D'Souza, 1993
Anonymous, 1948-1976 Chatterjee, 1994.
Vartak and Ghate, 1990 Shah et al., 1983 Das and Misra, 1988
Contd ...
NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA
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JUSS.) :
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351
PANACEA
... Contd. Sr. No.
Recipe & Application
Disease
28.
Paste
Wounds, skin disease
29.
Bark
30. 31.
Bark Bark
32.
Extract
33.
Extract given after menstruation period as contraceptive Root bark Root Bark Decoction with honey
Bitter tonic, astringent, alteative, antiperiodic, anthelmintic, antispasmodic and stimulant Jaundice Antipyretic, blood, purifying agent, paralysis and liver complaints Inflammatory stomatitis in children Contraceptive
34. 35. 36.
37. 38. 39.
40.
Bark ash with coconut oil Bark extract Bark, leaves and roots of Cissampelos pareira L. and Aristolochia indica L. are crushed and extract drop in nostrils. Bark
41. 42.
Root bark decoction Decoction of root bark
43.
Powder, extract or decoction of bark
44.
Bark ash with coconut oil Paste, applied over affected part at night
45.
Source of Literature
(If any)
Syphilis Fever Irregular menses, diarrhoea Scabies, ulcer wounds Boils, pimples Epileptic attacks
Ulcers, inflammation, leprosy, blood complaints, urinary discharges, fever, skin diseases, amenorrhoea, and as contraceptive Fever and as tonic Rheumatism, fever Intermittent fever, malarial fever, relieves thirst, nausea and vomiting, fever, general debility, convalescence after fevers, loss of appetite, skin diseases. Chronic, septics, ulcers. Gives relief from scabies
Shekhawat and Anand, 1984. Anand Kumar et al., 198C
Rao, 1981 Data, 1994
Lorenz, 1976 Pal and Jain, 1998 Pal and Jain, 1998 Pal and Jain, 1998 Beg et ai., 2006 Beg et aI., 2006 Soma-Sen and Batra, 1997 Kaushal Kumar and Goe~ 1998
D'Rozario et al., 2004
D'Rozario et aI., 2004 Nagendra Prasad et al., 1996 Nadnkarni,2000
Patil and Patil, 2005 Patil and Bhaskar, 2006
M.V.
352
PATIL, SHUBHANGI PAWAR AND
D.A.
PATIL
'(B) Leaves Sr. No.
Recipe &: Application (If any)
Disease
1.
Juice given orally
Against snake-bite
2. 3.
Decoction applied externally Paste applied
Against snake-bite Boils
4.
Paste applied
Chicken-pox
5.
Leaf paste with turmeric powder Scabies
6. 7.
Juice-two spoon taken internally Scabies Decoction Work infection and stomach pain Blood purification, Juice intestinal worms, wounds, sores, blisters and skin diseases Diabetes Paste mixed with pepper powder Extract and seed oil Hypoglycaemic activity Decoction Scabies Poultice Boils Decoction Dermatitis Stomachic Juice Slurry Fever in infants Extract Blood purification, cures boils and pimples Jaundice, skin diseases Juice with honey Decoction Skin diseases like eczema Extract taken orally Vomiting, cholera Bath water mixed with leaf Cures skin infection extract given to a pregnant woman Cures chicken pox, small Fresh leaves kept in room around bed pox Leaves burnt and fumes passed Against malarial fever over body Chronic Malarial fever Infusion Fresh leaves chewed Acts as antidote Extract Maintains blood pressure also useful in menstruation
8.
9. 10.
11. 12 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
21. 22. 23.
24. 25.
Source of Literature Painula and Maheshwari, 19% Anand Kumar, 1996 Hosagouder and Henry, 19% Hosagouder and Henry, 1996 Hosagouder and Henry, 1996 Mishra et al., 1996 Singh, et al., 1996 Siwakoti and Siwakoti, 2000
Rana et al., 2000 Rana et al., 2000 Singh,2ooo Singh, 2000 Dash and Misra, 2000 Banerjee, 2000 Saren et al., 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Nargas Nargas Nargas Nargas
and Trivedi, and Trivedi, and Trivedi, and Trivedi,
2000 2000 2000 2000
Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
Contd ...
NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA
A.
JUSS.) :
A
353
PANACEA
... Contd. Sr. No. 26.
27.
28. 29. 30. 31.
32.
33.
34. 35. 36. 37. 38.
39. 40.
41. 42. 43. 44. 45.
46. 47.
Recipe & Application (If any)
Disease
Against boils, chronic ulcers, syphilitic sores and glandular swellings, also used in gum swellings and dental ailments Blood purification and Extract given orally removal of intestinal worms Leaf paste Skin disease small pox Paste Useful against snake bite, scorpion sting Leaves warmed and tied on For easy expulsion stomach guinea worms Leaves and fruits mixture Against tuberculosis, heart disease and purification of blood Extract or juice taken orally Reduces body temperature avoids vomiting Swollen chicks in mumps Paste applied Extract taken orally Malaria Extract regularly applied on face Scars of measles Extract, Hair wash Preventive, premature hair fall Leaves boiled in water, vapours Cures ear-ache allowed to pass in ears Extract mixed with sugar, taken Syphilis orally Five to ten leaflets chewed Controls acidity regularly Reduces size of uterus Extract given to a delivered after pregnancy woman Extract with rock-salt diluted in Kill worms in digestive water system Leaves heated, alumn powdered Malaria and made into pills given orally Skin diseases, eczema Decoction used for bathing Gout and jaundice Decoction taken orally Against snakebite Juice taken orally Small pox and measles Extract applied on body or person lied down on leaves Boils, ulcers, and eczema Decoction, Poultice Paste applied externally
Source of Literature Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
Varma et al., 1999
Varma et al., 1999 Singh and Pandey, 1998 Singh and Pandey, 1998 Rao, 1981
Pawar and PatiI, 2007
Pawar and Pawar and Pawar and Pawar and
Patil, Patil, Patil, Patil,
2007 2007 2007 2007
Pawar and Patil, 2007 Pawar and Patil, 2007 Pawar and Patil, 2007 Pawar and Patil, 2007 Pawar and Patil, 2007 Hussain et al., 2000 Hussain et al., 2000 Hussain et al., 2000 Hussain et al., 2000 Hussain et al., 2000 Contd ...
M.V.
354
PATIL, SHUBHANGI PAWAR AND
D.A.
PATIL
...Contd. Sr. No.
48. 49.
so. 51. 52.
Redpe & Application (If any) Boiled in water for few minutes and used for bathing Juice Extract, Juice
55. 56. 57.
Smoke from dried leaves Crushed fine, rubbed in water to get foam and applied on body Infusion Dried leaves burnt and ash mixed with cow-ghee, externally applied against Juice with salt Juice with honey Pulp applied on breast
58. 59.
Poultice Infusion
60. 61. 62.
Boiled and applied in form of pC'ultice Decoction Poultice
63.
Hot infusion
64. 66.
Young leaves, fruits and seeds Leaves Leaves
67.
Leaves
53. 54.
65.
68.
Decoction
69. 70.
Leaves extract Leaves
71.
Leaves, twigs and bark
Disease Ring-works Fever Dysentery, diarrhea, heart complaints, scabies, against snake-bite Insect repellant Cures fever in infants
Snake-bite Psoraisis
Intestinal worms Skin disease and jaundice Increases secretion of milk Ulcerations, skin diseases formenting swollen glands, bruises, sprains Skin diseases
Source of Literature Hussain et al., 2000 Hussain et al., 2000 Hussain et al., 2000 Jain, 1991
Jain,l991 Marie-D'souza, 1993
Marie-D'souza, 1993 Watt, 1889-1895
Watt, 1889-1895 Watt, 1889-1895 Watt, 1889-1895 Watt, 1889-1895 Watt, 1889-1895 Anonymous, 1948-1976
Ulcers, eczema Boils, abscensses, adenitis, eczema, ulcers Formenting bruises, sprains, swollen glands Tuberculosis Snake-bite, wounds Carminative, expectorant, anthelmintic, insecticidal Blood purifying angent, antidibetic and in heart ailments Round worms and as antidote Antidote Antibiotic, used in tooth ache Malaria mumps, eczema, skin diseases
Anonymous, 1948-1976 Chaterjee, 1998 Chaterjee, 1998 Kothari and Moorthy, 1996 Rahizad and Bankar, 2002 Anand Kumar et al., 1980 Chopra et al., 1952
Chopra et al., 1952 Vaidya and Dhumal, 2004 Amit Tomar, 2007 Tri£ath[ et al.,2007 Contd ...
NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA
A.
JUSS.) :
A
355
PANACEA
...Contd. Sr. No. 72. 73.
74. 75. 76. 77.
Recipe & Application (If any) Extract of leaves taken orally against Leaf decoction Leaf extract Paste mixed with leaf paste of Eclipta alba L. Extract Leaves, extract, infusion, paste
79. SO.
Leave and rhizome of Curcuma domestica Veleton. are pounded and paste applied externally on Extract two drops applied in ear Infusion of fresh leaves
81.
Juice
82.
Leaves
78.
Disease Vomiting
Jadeja et aI., 2006 Septic, wounds Febrifuge and blood purifier Prevents hair falling and cures dandruft Controls diabetes Malarial fever, sunstroke, backbone decay swellings, pimples, itching, skin diseases as virmifuge Boils of chicken pox to dry up
85. 86.
Paste applied on infected sites Paste applied externally Decoction drunk
87. 88.
Paste applied Juice given internally
89.
Paste applied
90. 91.
Leaves boiled in bath water Poultice applied externally
Otalgia Malaria, intermittant fever Infacilitating the normal delivery Flatulence, phlegm, urine discharge, eruption of small-pox, glandular swellings, syphilis Skin diseases and wounds, kills lice, cure dandruff from hair Chickenpox and measles Cures itches Cholera, diabetes, and malaria Skin diseases Cures piles, jaundice, fever. Wounds, ringworms, eczema, scorpion sting Boils, itching Eczema
92. 93.
Extract taken with water Leaf powder mixed with dung
Constipation Boils, itching, dermatitis
83.
84.
Juice
Source of Literature
Pal and Jain, 1998 Pal and Jain, 1998 Pal and Jain, 1998 Pal and Jain, 1998 Harish Singh, 2006
Sarkar and Sarma, 2006
Kalita and Tamuli, 2006 Beg et al., 2006 Beg et aI., 2006 Beg et al., 2006
Vishwa Vihari, 1995
Verma et al., 1995 Soma Sen and Batra, 1997 Jamir,1997 Jamir, 1997 Bhatt and Mitaliya, 1996 Bhatt and Mitaliya, 1996 Sarma et al., 1999 Gogai and Bhorthakur, 2001 Khanna, 2002 Contd ...
356
M.V.
PATIL, SHUBHANGI PAWAR AND
D.A.
PATIL
... Contd. Sr. No.
94. 95.
96. 97. 98.
99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 10~.
106.
107. 108.
109.
110. 111.
Recipe & Application (If any) of goat, paste obtained applied against Powder of dried leaves applied externally Extract or decoction is used to wash skin Decoction Complete bath of decoction with bath water Fresh leave spread on bed of a child Leaves used to fumigate surroundings repels Extract sprinkeled on crops Fresh leaves eaten raw
Disease
Source of Literature Sarma et al., 2002
Wounds of ears Sarma et al., 2002 Skin disease
Panthi and Chaudhary, Skin diseases with itching 2003 Useful remedy against Pandey, 2003 skin diseases in children Pandey, 2003 Chicken-pox, cow-pox Ishnava Kalpesh et al., 2004 and mosquitoes Insects Ishnava Kalpesh et al., 2004 Kills pests Health vitalizer Ishnava Kalpesh et al., 2004 Nandankunjidam and Abirami, 2005 Skin diseases and smallPaste applied Pandey and Rout, 2006 pox Leaves boiled in rice-starch Purification of blood water and administered Bondya et al., 2006 Paste of leaves and bark applied Against skin disease Bondya et al., 2006 Glassful of leaf juice taken orally Prevention of Jadhav, 2006 miscarriages during menstruation period Insects and scorpion bite Young leaf decoction in oil of Kumar and Chauhan, 2006 Brassica compestris and applied externally Skin disease, eczema, Poultice D'Rozario, et al., 2004 leprosy Ulcers, relieves nasal Decoction of mature leaves problems heals wounds, D'Rozario, et al., 2004 good garglein stomatitis, bad gums. Snake-bite, scorpion Juice D'Rozario, et al., 2004 sting, also useful in rheumatism, earache, reduces inflammations used in syphilitic sores, boils, purifies blood. Dried leaves powder applied on Intestinal worms. D'Rozario, et al., 2004 annal opening of children Skin diseases Paste or poultice Contd ...
NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA
A.
JUSS.) :
A
357
PANACEA
... Contd. Sr. No.
Recipe & Application (If any)
112. 113. 114. 115.
Juice with edible oil Juice with honey Paste Soup of leaves
116. 117. 118.
Juice dropped in ears Decoction Leaves chewed
Disease Intestinal worms Jaundice Small-pox Convalscence after diarrhoea Ear-ache Fever Reduces poison after snake-bite
Source of Literature Nadkarni,2000 Nadkarni, 2000 Nadkarni, 2000 Nadkarni, 2000 Nadkarni, 2000 Patil and Patil, 2005 Patil and Patil, 2005 Patil and Patil, 2005
(C) Flowers
Sr. No. 1.
Recipe & Application (If any)
4.
Oil extracted from flowers, fruits and seeds, applied on body Fried or roasted, powder used Flowers dried, powder given Extract
5. 6.
Paste taken orally Juice
7.
Poultice
8.
Flowers dried, powder mixed with leaf juice Flowers
2. 3.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Flowers with leaves Flower powder Flowers Flowers fried, eaten with cow ghee Flowers
Disease As insect repellant, keeps skin soft Against diabetes Stomach ailments To suppress bile, and against intestinal worms, phlegm Malarial fever Stimulant, tonic, dyspepsia, debility Kids lice cures eruption of scalp Provides relief to malaria General weakness and dyspepsia Wounds Anthelmintic Itching, boils, blisters Purifies blood Anthelmintic, stimulant, stomachic, used in dyspepsia, debility
Source of Literature Banerjee, 1996 Balu et ai, 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
Singh and Pandey, 1998 Watt 1889-1895 Vartak and Ghate, 1990 Shekhawat and Anand, 1984 Arora, 1996 Arora, 1996 Pal and Jain, 1998 Harish Singh, 2006 Beg et ai., 2006 D'Rozaro et ai., 2004.
358
M.V.
PATIL, SHUBHANGI PAWAR AND
D.A.
PATIL
(0) Fruits Sr. No.
Recipe & Application (If any)
1.
Ripe fruits eaten
2.
4.
Fruits mixed with jaggery Ripe fruits mixed with common salt, and consumed Extract
5.
Juice
6.
Fruits
7. 8.
Fruits eaten Paste applied externally on forehead Unripe fruits
3.
9.
10.
11.
Ripe fruits Fruits
12.
Kernels with jaggery
Disease Phlegm, epistaxis, eye troubles and wounds Piles Improves digestion
Source of Literature Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Pawar and Paitl, 2007 Pawar and Paitl, 2007
Piles, leprosy, urinary Jain,1991 complaints Piles and urinary Chatterjee, 1994 complaints Cataneous, diseases Daga, 1994 urinary diseases and piles Purifies blood Beg et al.,2002 Khanna, 2002 Head-ache Urinary discharges, skin diseases, tumors, piles, tooth-ache Eye diseases Intestinal worms, leprosy, urinary discharge Piles
D'Rozario et al., 2004
D'Rozario et al., 2004 Nadkarni,2ooo N adkarni, 2000
(E) Seeds Sr. No.
Recipe & Application (If any)
1.
Oil applied externally
2. 3. 4.
Oil applied externally Oil applied externally Oil applied externally
5. 6.
Power mixed with coconut oil Oil applied externally
7.
Oil applied externally
8.
Kernels consumed
9.
Oil dropped in vagina before intercourse
Disease Give relief from headache Dermatitis Rheumatism Skin protection, and mosquito repellant Remove lice from hair Parasiticide, used against ringworms and scabies Leprosy, chronic skin disease, small pox, chickenpox, arthritis Leprosy and intestinal worms Controls birth
Source of Literature
Nagendra Prasad, 19% Mishra et al., 1996 Dash and Misra, 2000 Banerjee, 1996 Saren et ai., 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Singh and Pandey, 1998 Contd ...
NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA
A.
JUSS.) :
A
359
PANACEA
... Contd. Sr. No.
Recipe' & Application (If any)
10.
Powder taken orally with water
11.
Few drops of seed oil administered orally Oil applied externally
12.
14.
Powder mixed with coconut oil applied on fore-head Oil applied externally
15.
Oil applied externally
16.
Oil
17.
Kernel oil applied
18.
Warm oil
19. 20.
Oil mixed with coconut oil Oil applied externally
21.
Seed powder added in water
22.
Oil
23.
Seed oil externally applied
24. 25.
Oil
26. 27.
Seed powder with honey
13.
28. 29.
Neem oil
Oil
Paste with coconut oil Oil, mixed with powder to Terminalia chebula fruits and cow butter, pste applied externally
Disease Improves functions of uterus Cures piles
Source of Literature Pawar and Patil, 2007 Pawar and Patil, 2007
Controls debility, postJain, 1991 natal complaints, rheumatism, destroys lice Removes lice from hair Marie-D'Souza, 1993 Used as insecticide and anti-septic Ulcers, sores, ring-worm scrofula and rheumatism Used as antiseptic, eczema, leprosy, dermatitis, rheumatism Chronic skin diseases, leprosy ulcer, rheumatism sprains Relieves, ear, dental and gum troubles Prevents baldness Skin diseases, ulcers, leprosy Destroys lice Skin diseases, rheumatism Skin diseases, ulcers, rheumatism, leprosy, sprain Antifertility properties Scabies, promotes growth of hair Piles To prevent bleeding due to piles Removes head-lice Skin diseases
Watt, 1889-1895 Anonymous, 1948-1976 Chatterjee, 1994
Chatterjee, 1994
Chatterjee, 1994 Chatterjee, 1994 Vartak and Ghate, 1990 Shekhawat and Anand, 1984 Anandkumar et al., 1984 Anonymous, 1985
Koul et al., 1990 Pal and Jain, 1998 Harish Singh, 2006 Sarkar and Sarma, 2006 Beg et al., 2006 Panthi and Chaudhari, 2003 Contd ...
360
M.V.
PATIL, SHUBHANGI PAWAR AND
D.A.
PATIL
... Contd. Sr. No.
Recipe & Application (If any)
Disease
Oil
Skin diseases
31.
Oil applied on body
32.
Seed oil
33.
Oil taken internally by women
As mosquito repellent Skin diseases, leprosy, prevents baldness and graying of hair, rheumatisms, Contraceptive, antiseptic Pregrnancy
34.
Oil (maximum dose harmful)
30.
Source of Literature Nadanakunjidam and Abirami, 2005 Pandey and Rout, 2006 D'Rozario, Bera and Mukherji, 2004
D'Rozario, Bera and Mukherji, 2004 Dressings for ulcers, head Nadkarni,2ooo ache, leprosy, urticaris, eczema, erysipelas, scrofula, scabies, ring wounds
(F) Twigs or Entire Plants Sr. No.
Recipe & Application (If any)
1.
Fresh twigs
2.
Fresh twigs
3.
Fresh twigs
4.
Entire plant parts (PX)
5.
Entire plant parts
6.
Twigs
Disease Brushing teeth, against worms, flatulence, spermatorrhoea Brushing teeth, pyorrhoea Anti-pyrorrhoeal, crminative, digestive Cancer, cholera, measles, rheumatism, smallpox, spleen complaints syphilis, tumous, ulcers, inflammation of Gum Antiseptic in boils, ulcers, eczema, stomachic, anthelmintic, rheumatism, stimulant, catarrhal affections Eye disease, toothache, dog-bite, snakebite, scorpion sting
Source of Literature Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
Anonymous, 1948-76 Chatterjee, 1994 Jain, 1991
Kumar and Nagiyan, 2006
Singh, 2006
Contd ...
NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA
A.
JUSS.) :
A
361
PANACEA
... Contd. Sr. No. 7.
Recipe & Application (If any) Patient made to sit under plant to take rest for 3-4 days night and sharp blows given with twigs Young twigs
8.
Disease
Source of Literature
Cures rheumatism
Punjani, 2002
Asthma, cough, piles, tumors, and urinary discharge
D'Rozario et aI., 2004
(G) Neem Products
Sr. No.
Recipe & Application (If any)
1.
Neem cake
2.
Neem cake added in fields
3.
Timber
4.
Leaves
5. 6. 7.
Gum Toddy Gum
8.
Gum
9.
Gum
10.
Sap of Neem free if taken daily effective Gum dissolved in rice water and administered twice a day to .children Sap
11.
12.
Disease
Source of Literature
Livestock feed, source of organic manure Prevents soil diseases in crops and protects from termites Fencing, poles, cacts, doors, panels, agricultural implements, musical instruments, fire wood Camel and goat feed in scarcity Adhesives Alterative tonic Stimulant, useful in catarrh and spleenic enlargement Stimulant and demulcent tonic Blood purifier, stimulant, demulcent and useful in catarrahal applications Leprosy
Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
Controls diarrhoea
Mohanty and Padhy, 1996
Chronic leprosy, skin disease dyspepsia and debility
D'Rozario et aI., 2004
Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Chatterjee, 1994
Kumar et aI., 1980 Mohan Ram and Nair, 1996 Beg et al., 2006
Contd ...
362
M.V.
PATIL, SHUBHANGI PAWAR AND
D.A.
PATIL
... Contd. Sr. No. 13. 14. 15.
16. 17. 18.
Recipe & Application (If any) Toddy, (excudation obtained from upper parts some trees) Gum and oil cake/ seed cake Dried leaves or powder kept in clothes Gum Neem seed cake rubbed on body Gum useful
Source of Literature
Disease
Tonic, also cures skin D'Rozario et al., 2004 diseases like scabies Vermicide and insecticide, D'Rozario et al., 2004 fish poison Keeps away insects D'Rozario et al., 2004 Catarrhal affections Cures arthritis and paralysis Scabies, ringworms, ulcers, wounds and against snakebite
D'Rozario et al., 2004 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000 Nargas and Trivedi, 2000
TABLE 2 Indian ethno-veterinary medicine Sr. No.
Recipe & Application (If any)
1.
Leaf powder
2.
Leaf juice applied locally
3. 4.
Infusion given to cattle twice a day Ash mixed with butter oil
5.
Decoction of leaves
6.
Seed oil
Source of Literature
Disease
Naser and Vaikos, 2002 Effective against cuts, wounds, throat infection, useful as anthelmintic and indigestion Bhatt et al., 2001 Mostitis, eczema, ascariasis Patil and Merat, 2003 To cure fever Suresh Kumar et al., 2004
Applied boils to hasten suppuration Washing wounds Used as antiseptics, wounds, ulcers, removes maggots
Chitralekha Kadel and Jain, 2006 D'Rozario et al., 2004
etc. It is to be further noted that it is useful also as medicine for livestock. It is helpful in curing about 14 animal disease. Neem is known in India as 'Indian Herbal Doctor', Arishta' (meaning reliever of sickness) and 'Village Dispensary'. The above resume clearly justify the various names given to this tree. The Neem plant finds place in Ayurvedic and Unani systems. In Ayurveda, it is regarded as 'Sarva Roga Nivarini' (meaning a panacea). It also finds place in Amarkosa, Upavana Vinoda and Matsyapurana. Apart from its medicinal uses, Neem offers a great potential for agricultural and commercial exploitation. Various derivatives I
NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA
A.
JUSS.) :
A
PANACEA
363
from this plant are reported to act as insecticide, nematicide, insect antifeedant, pesticide adjuvant, fungicide, repellent, deterent, metamorphosis disrupter, molt or chitin inhibitor, ovicidal, male sterility agent, etc. It is a good source of organic manure, useful in soap making and as cattle feed. The blend of neem-oil with disel has be(;n suggested for use without any major engine modification and without drop in engine efficiency (Batra et al., 2001). Thus 'Neem' tree is, no doubt, a panacea but also can be regarded as 'Kalpvriksh' (wish fulfilling tree). It is why the neem has attracted attention of the scientists in India and abroad as well.
4. SUMMARY Neem, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. is a denizen of Indian subcontinent and one of the dominant tree species in this region. It is traditionally employed multipurposely, apart from medicine in traditional/classical systems or folk systems in India. Its patent granted to non-Indian made aware particularly Indians, the people of third world country and also world as a whole. India is rich repository of traditional medicines. The case of Neem is purposely selected for this communication to attract the attention of, researchers, readers and users of Neem in India. Neem patent taught us to develop value-added products based on our domestic natural products as early as possible. At the same time, it is also 'a necessary evil' to survey, document and to publish the results of studies on traditional knowledge on priority basis.
REFERENCES Anonymous (1985) The Wealth of India: Raw Materials Publication and Information Directorate CSIR, New Delhi, India. Arora, R.K. (1996) Genetic diversity and ethnGbotany In : Neem. (Ed. Rhandwa N.5. and Ramdas B.5.), New Age International (P) Ltd. Publ. New Delhi, India, pp. 33-37. Balu, S. Alagesaboopathi, C & Madhavan, S. (2000) Botanical remedies for diabetes from the Cuvery Delta of Tamilnadu. In : Ethnobotany and Medicinal plants of Indian sub-continent (Ed. J.K. Maheshwari) Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India, pp. 359-362. Banerjee, Archana (1996) Medicinal uses of some flowers by Santhals of West Bengal. In : Ethnobotany in South Asia (Ed. J.K.Maheshwari). Scientific Publishers Jodhpur, India. pp. 314-317. Banerjee, Archana (2000) Ethnobotany of some trees in Santhal villages of Birbhum, West Bengal. In : Ethnobotany and Medicinal Plants of Indian Sub-continent (Ed. J.K. Maheshwari), Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, India, pp. 531-534. Batra, Amla, Sharma, Mridula & Audichya, Mohita (2001) Neem : A tree with immense medicinal potential. In : Role of Biotechnology in Medicinal And Aromatic Plants. Vol.IV. (Ed. Irfan Ii Khan and Atiya Khanum) Ukaaz Publishers, Hyderabad, (A.P.), India, pp. 145-159. Beg, Jaish M. Beg, M.Z. & Ali, S.J. ( 2006) Ethnomedicinal studies on Sub-Himalayan forest of north eastern U.P. In : Medicinal Plants: Ethnobotanical Approaches (Ed. P.C Trivedi, Agrobios), Jodhpur, India. Bhatt, D.C & Mitaliya, K.D. (1999) Ethnomedicinal plants of Victoria Park (Reserved Forest) of Bhavnagar, Gujarat, India. Ethnobotany 11:81-84. Bhatt, D.C, Mataliya, K.D. & Mehta, S.K. (2001) Observations on ethnoveterinary herbal practices in Gujarat. Ethnobotany 13:91-95.
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Bondya, S.L. Khanna, K.K. & Singh, K.P. (2006) Ethnomedicinal uses of leafy vegetables from the tribal of Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve. Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Ethnobotany 18:145-148.
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Chapter Outline 1. Introduction 2. Chemical components of Calendula officinalis 3. Biological activities of C. officinalis 4. Summary 5.
References
1. INTRODUCTION The name 'Calendula' (Calendula officinalis 1.) is derived from the latin calens meaning "the first day of each month," since it can bloom every month of year in mild regions. Another common name 'pot marigold' came from the fact that calendulas were often grown in containers and marygold- the name early Chirstians gave as it as it bloomed at the time of all the festivals that celebrates the Virgin Mary. The plant is distributed from central and southern Europe to Asia and in North Africa (Anonymous 1948-1976). Calendula officinalis is an aromatic, erect, annual herb, up to 60 cm. in height. The stem about 30-45 cm., angular, glandular, corymbosely branched above. Leaves about 2.57.5 cm. long, acute, often hispid on both surfaces; lower leaves spathulate quite entire, upper lanceolate base cordate-amplexicaul toothed. Flowers heterogamous, ray florets fertile, 5 cm. diameter and under; involucral bracts 6 mm., incurved and appressed to the ripe achenes; ligules many, bright orange yellow, 3- toothed, tube (Kirtikar and Basu, 2000). The plant has been employed for a long time in folk medicine. More than 35 properties have been attributed to the decoction and tinctures from the plant, e.g. choleretic, anti-!"'tflammatory, antispasmodic, mild diaphoretic, anti-haemorrhagic, emmenagogue, bactericide (Duke, 1991). Traditionally, it has been used to treat gastric and duodenal ulcers amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea and epistaxis; crucial ulcers, varicose veins, haemorrhoids, anal eczema, proctitis, lymphadenoma, inflamed cutivaneous lesion (topically) and
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conjunctivitis (as an eye lotion). The German Comission E approved internal and external use for inflammation of oral and pharyngeal mucosa and external use in treatment of poorly healing sores (Barnes et. ai., 2002). Calendula extract were reviewed and the vasoprotective action of the extract was tested on the skin of rabbits by measuring the decrease of the capillary permeability (Russo, 1972). Industrial interest of the plant has developed from the discovery of calendic acid (60%) from its seed oil. Potential use of calendic acid includes paint, coatings and cosmetics (Muuse, 1992). In vitro cytotoxicity has been reported for calendula extracts (Boucard-Maitre, 1988). An uterotonic effect (in vitro) has been reported, and the triterpenoid constituents are reported to be effective as spermatocides and as antiblastocyst and abortion agents (Shipochliev, 1981).This review contains information from peroid 1960-2006.
2. CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS A. Triterpenes Compound 4p-methyl-cholest-20-en-12-o1-3p-olidel, Lanast20(22)-en-3p-ol, Stigmast-5,22-dien-3p-ol, Stigmast-5,24(28)-dien-3p-ol Cholest-7-en-3-p-ol, 24-methylcholest-7-en-3-p01, stigmast-7-en-3-p-ol, cholesterol, sitosterol, 24-methylcholesta-5, 22-dien-3p-ol, stigmasterol 4p-methylstigmasta-7,24(28)-dien-3p-ol, 41} methylergosta-7, 24(28)-dien-31l-01 Calendasaponins A, B, C, and 0 Officinoside A,B,C,O Heliantriol BOz, BP, B24, and A1 5, Longispinogenin6 Heliantriol C, Heliantriol Ps Manilladiol9 TaraxasterollO, a-amyrinll , LupeoPz
Part of plant
Reference
Flowers
Mukhtar et. al., 2003
Seedlings
Alder and Kasprzyk, 1975
Leaves
Pyrek,1969
Flowers
Yoshikawa et. ai., 2001; Marukami et. al., 2001 Pyrek,1979
Flowers Flowers Flowers Flowers
\If -taraxasterol13, p -amyrinH
Flowers, stems
CycloartenoPS, 24-methylene cycloartenol, Taraxerol, Tirucalla-7,24-dienol, Oammaradienol Taxastanol Faradiol-3-0-palmitate, Faradiol-3-0-myristate, Faradiol-3-0-laurate, Amidiol-3-0-palmitate, Arnidiol-3-0-myristate, Arnidiol-3-0-laurate, Calenduladiol-3-0-myristate, Calenduladiol-3O-palmitate
Flowers
Flowers Flowers Flowers
Pyrek,1977 Pyrek, 1979 and 1977 Akihisa et. al., 1996; Kasprzyk and Pyrek, 1968 Akihisa et. ai., 1996; Kasprzyk and Pyrek, 1968 Akihisa et. ai., 1996
Stevenson, 1961 Neukirch et. ai., 2004; Zitterl-Eglseer et. ai., 1997 and 2001
Contd ...
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...Contd. Compound
Part of plant
Calenduladiop6
Flowers
FaradioP7, ArnidioP8
Flowers
Calenduloside N9, Calenduloside B:o Calendulosides C21, Calendulosides D22 Calenduloside E23, Calenduloside F 24 Calenduloside G25, Calenduloside H Brein26 Urs-12-en3,16,21-trioP7
Roots Roots Roots Roots Stems Flowers
Ursadiol28
Flowers
Oleanolic acid 3-galactosyl-glucuronide29, Oleanolic acid 3-(galactosyl-glucuronide)-17glucoside-'ll, Oleanolic acid 3-(galactosyl(glucosyl)-glucuronide)31, Oleanolic acid 3(galactosyl-(glucosy I)-glucuronide)-17glucoside32
Leaves
Reference Kasprzyk and Pyrek, 1968; Kasprzyk et. al., 1970 Kasprzyk and Pyrek, 1968; Pyrek,1977 Vecherko et. al., 1969, 1971 Vecherko et. al., 1975 Vecherko et. al., 1973 Vecherko et. al., 1974 Kasprzyk,1973 Pyrek, 1977; Kasprzyk, 1973 Pyrek, 1977; Kasprzyk, 1973; Sliwoskies et. al., 1973 Kasprzyk, 1973; Vecherko et. al., 1973; Wojciechowski et. al., 1971
B. Carotenoids Compound Neoxanthin33, 9Z-Neoxanthin Violaxanthin34, Luteoxanthin35 Lutein36, 9/9?Z-Lutein 13/13?Z-Lutein, U -Cryptoxanthin~7 p -Cryptoxanthin38, p carotene39 Auroxanthin40, Flavoxanthin41 9Z-Antheroxanthin, Z-Cryptoxanthin, Lycopene 42,U carotene43 9Z Violaxanthin, Mutatoxanthin44
13Z Violaxanthin ,Antheroxanthin45
Part of plant
Reference
Petals Pollens Leaves Stems
Bako et. al., 2002
Petals Pollens
Bako et. al., 2002
Petals Pollens stems Leaves stems
Bako et. al., 2002
Bako et. al., 2002
Bako et. al., 2002
C. Phenolic acid Compound p-coumaric acid, Gentisic acid, Vanillic acid Caffeic acid, Syringic acid, O-hydroxy phenyl acetic acid, Salicylic acid, Ferulic acid, Protocatechuic acid
Part of plant Flowers
Reference Swiatek and Gora, 1978
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D. Volatile oil Compound Pedunculatine, a ionone ~ ionone, Trans-caryophyllene epoxide, Geranyl acetone, a ionone-5, Dihydroacetinidiolide, Oplopanone, Caryophyllene ketone, Cardinols
Part of plant Flowers
Reference Gracza and Szasz, 1968
E. Flavonoides Compound lsorhamnetin 3~ D glucopyranoside, Quercetin 3~ D glucopyranoside Isorhamnetin 3~ D glucopyranosyI (6~1) ~ L rhamnofuranoside, Isorhamnetin 3 rutinoside, isoquercitrin, neohesperidoside, rutin
Part of plant Flowers, leaves
Reference Vidal-oliver et. al., 1989 Khodzha, Janiszowska
F. Carbohydrate Compound
Part of plant
Carbohydrate
Flowers, stems
(1~3) linked ~-D-galactan backbone with branching points
Flowers
Reference Khodzhaeva and Turakhozhaev, 1993 Varjen et. al., 1989
G. Polyprenyl quinones Compound Plastoquinone, Ubiquinone, a-tocopherol, 8 tocopherol, y tocopherol
Part of plant Flowers Leaves
Reference Janiszowska et. al., 1976; Janiszowska and Korczak, 1980
H. Miscellaneous Compound Loliolide (Calendin)
46
Part of plant Flowers
Calendulin
Flowers, seeds
Calendic acid
Seeds
Phospholipid, glycolipid
Seeds
Amino acid
Leaves, stems, inflorescence
Reference Willuhn and Wethaus, 1987 Abasova UI'chenko Fleischner, 1985 Suchy and Herout, 1961 VI' chenko et. al., 1998
Superscripts number refer to chemical structure
Abasova et. al., 1994
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3. BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF C. OFFICINALIS Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antiviral activities have been ceported for Calendula (Russo, 1972). Calendula officinalis L. flowers showed low antibacterial activity against anaerobic and facultative aerobic periodontal bacteria (Iauk et. al., 2003). An aqueous ethanolic extract had mild dose dependent action in mouse croton oil test with 20% inhibition being reached at dose of 1200 ~g/ ear, where as a carbon dioxide extract exhibited 70% inhibition at the same concentration (Della et. al., 1994). The activity was shown to be due to triterpenoids, the most active being a monoester of faradiol. Further separation of triterpenoids has shown that the three most active compounds in the croton oil mouse test are faradiol-3-myristic acid, faradiol-3-palmitic acid ester and 4-taraxosterol (Zitterl-Eglseer et. al., 1997). The flavonoid skeleton with the phenol group probably contributes to this inhibitory effect. The isorhamnetin flavonoid glycosides are suggested as one of the antiinflammatory principles of C. officinalis (Bezakova et. al., 1996). A proprietary cream containing a combination of plant extracts, including calendula, has been reported to be effective in dextran and burn oedemas and in acute lymphoedema in rats. Activity against lymphoedema was primarily attributed to an enhancement of macrophage proteolytic activity (Casley-Smith, 1983).The trichomonacidal activity of calendula has been associated with the essential oil terpenoid i fraction (Gracza, 1987). Crude extract of the plant showed antihelminthic and molluscicidal activity (Rawi et al., 1996). An in vitro uterotonic effect has been described for calendula extract on rabbit and guinea pig preparations (Shipochliev, 1981).
In vitro cytotoxic activity and in vitro antitumour activity (against mouse ehrlich carcinoma) have been documented for calendula extract. The most active. fraction in vivo (saponin rich) was not the most active in vitro (Boucard-Maitre, 1988). Calendula is highly effective for the prevention of acute dermatitis of grade 2 or higher and should be proposed for patients undergoing postoperative irradiation for breast cancer (Pommier et. al., 2004).Calendula extract were evaluated for anti-hepatoma activity on five human livercancer cell lines. The effects of crude drugs on hepatitis B virus genome-containing cell lines were different from those against non hepatitis B virus genome-containing cell lines (Liang-Tzung et. al., 2004). Extracts of dried flowers from Calendula officinalis were examined for their ability to inhibit the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-l) replication. Both organic and aqueous extracts were relatively nontoxic to human lymphocytic Molt-4 cells, but only the organic one exhibited potent anti-HIV activity in an in vitro MIT / tetrazolium-based assay (Kalvatchev et. al., 1997). Immnunostimulant activity, assayed using granulocyte and carbon clearance tests, of calendula extracts has been attributed to polysaccharide fractions of high molecular weight (Wagner et. al., 1985). C. officinalis showed a complete inhibitory effect on the proliferation of lymphocytes in the presence of PHA (SI range 0.01-0.49). Treatment of mixed lymphocytes with 0.1-10 microg/ml of C. officinalis (SI range 1.34-1.80) strongly increased the cell proliferation (Amighofran et. al., 2000). Both, methanolic and wate~ extract of Calendula officinalis flower showed good scavenging activity (Cetkovic et. al., 2004).
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Aqueous ethanolic extract containing 0.0075% mass extracted from Calendula offidnalis was applied to mice to show average 96% hair growth stimulation 5 week later (lnamoto et. al., 2004). The methanolic extract and its I-butanol-soluble fraction from the flowers of Calendula offidnalis were found to show a hypoglycemic effect, inhibitory activity of gastric emptying, and gastroprotective effect. The principal saponin constituents, glycosides A, B, C, D, and F, exhibited potent inhibitory effects on an increase in serum glucose levels in glucose-loaded rats, gastric emptying in mice, and ethanol- and indomethacin-induced gastric lesions in rats (Yoshikawa et. al., 2001). Acyclovir with the plant extract from Calendula offidnalis, Actium lappa and Geranium robertianum were studied on 52 patients suffering of herpetic keratitis. Better results in resolving complain and faster healing of ulceration wa!7 obtained using the associated treatment then the usual acyclovir treatment only (Corina et. al., 2001).The antidiarrheal activity of decoctions of Loeselia mexicana, Teloxys graveolens, Oenothera roseae, Castilleja tenuiflora and Calendula offidnalis were tested on diarrheic mice induced with castor oil. With C. offidnalis the antidiarrheal activity was not statistically significant (Matev et. al., 1981). Calendula with other plant extracts was proved to be potent laxative (Matev et. al., 2001), antiulcer, help in reducing non specific colitis (Chakurski et. al., 1981). Calenduloside B-trioside of oleanolic acid, isolated from rhizomes of Calendula offidnalis, Fam. Compositae, used per orally in doses of 5, 10, 20 and 50 mg/kg exerted an antiulcerous action in 3 experimental ulcer models of different genesis (Iatsyno et. al., 1978). Saponin, isolated and identified from Calendula offidnalis were investigated for antimutagenic activity. Few saponin from the plant showed antimutagenic activity with dose depentdent manner (Elias et. al., 1990). Calendula offidnalis flower extract showed both, dual and opposite effect (as chemoprotector and promoter) in rat hepatocarcinogenesis model (Barajas-Farias et. al., 2006). CH2
o Pedunculatine
(l
ionone
""
CH2 ~
ionone
'cH CH3 3
. Trans-caryophyllene epoxide
374
MADHURIMA, S.H. ANSARI, MD. SOHAIL AKHTAR AND PRAWEZ ALAM
CH3
Geranyl acetone
Carvone
o CH3
CH3
6-epoxide oxide
Dihydroacetinidiolide HO
o~,,' CH3
HA CH3
CH3
Oplopanone
Caryophyllene ketone HO
CH3
Cardinol
PHYTOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS
L.
375
CH3 Faradiol
H3 C
CH3 OH
I
CH3 HO H3 C
CH3 Aradinol
)~~
)~~
CH3
CH3
H3 C
H3 C
CH3
CH3 ,
OH
CH3
. H3C
CH3
.
,
H3C Calenduladiol
Lupeol
376
MAOHURIMA,
S.H. ANSARI, Mo. SOHAIL AKHTAR AND PRAWEZ ALAM
I
CH3 HO
'I'-taraxasterol
Taxasterol
I
CH3
a-amyrin
l3-amyrin
COOR'
RO
Calenduloside B R= Glu(4~1)Gal, R'= Glu
PHYTOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS
L.
Calenduloside C R= Glu[(2~1)Glu] Calenduloside D
(3~1)Gal,
R'= H
R= Glu[(2~1)Glu] Calenduloside E
(3~1)Gal,
R'= Glu
R= Glue. acid, R'= H Calenduloside F R= Glue.acid, R'= Glu Calenduloside G R= Glue.acid
(3~1)Gal,
R'= H
Ursadiol
Brein
COOR'
Oleanolie acid 3-galaetosyl-glueuronide R= Glue.add-Gal, R'=H
377
378
MADHURIMA, S.H. ANSARI, MD. SOHAIL AKHTAR AND PRAWEZ ALAM
Oleanolic acid 3-(galactosyI-glucuronide)-17-glucoside R= Gluc.add-Gal, R'=Glu Oleanolic acid 3-(galactosyl-(glucosyl)-glucuronide) R= Gluc.acid (Glu)-GaI, R'=H Oleanolic acid 3-(galactosyl-(glucosyl)-glucuronide)-17-glucoside R= Glue.acid (Glu)-GaI, R'=Glu Calenduloside A R= Glu-Gal, R'=H CH3
.,1'
.1 CH
CH3
CH3
",I
~ ..... · CH 3
.,'
3
~ ..... -
a
CH
3
b CH3
IICH
.'
"I
3
~
,,-
CH
3
HO
OH
c
d
.'
"", CH 3
,,
, CH 3
HO
HO
e
f
... ...
CH 3 CH3
OH
CH3 OH g
h
PHYTOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS
,, R
,
L.
379
~
Structures of carotenoids: antheraxanthin: R= e, Q= Ci auroxanthin: R =Q= fi acarotene: R= a, Q= hi hcarotene: R =Q= ai a-cryptoxanthin: R= c, Q= h; h-cryptoxanthin: R= c, Q= ai flavoxanthin/ chrysanthemaxanthin: R= f, Q= di lutein: R= c, Q= di lutein 5,6-epoxide: R= e, Q= di luteoxanthin: R= e, Q= fi lycopene: R=Q= hi mutatoxanthin: R= f, Q= Ci neoxanthin: R = g, Q= ei neochrome: R = g, Q= fi violaxanthin: R =Q= ei zeaxanthin: R =Q= c. OH
OR
R= H Quercetin R= Rhamno-glucosyl Rutin R= CH3 Isorhamnetin BI, B2, and Al
Heliantriol BO
Heliantriol BI
380
1
MADHURIMA, S.H. ANsARI, MD. SOHAIL AIarrAR AND PRAWEZ ALAM
Heliantriol B2 R= H Manilladiol R= OH longispinogenin
Heliantriol Al
Heliantriol C R = H, Z = ?-OH, ?-H; Heliantriol F R = OH, Z = H2
HO
o
. H H CH3 4~-methy1cholest-20-en-12a-ol-3~-olide
Calendin
PHYTOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS
HO
Stigmasterol
HO
Cholesterol
HO
Cydoartenol
L.
381
382
MADHURIMA, S.H. ANSARI, MD. SOHAIL AKHTAR
AND
PRAWEZ ALAM
Sitosterol
CH3
CH3
Urastriol
4. SUMMARY Variety of constituents have been isolated and chracterized from Calendula officinaIis. These include terpenoids, carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, carbohydrate and volatile oil. The crude extract and pure isolates were found to possess anticytotoxic, immunostimulant, hypoglycaemic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and different pharmacological activity.
REFERENCES Abasova, R. L.; Aslanov,
s.
M. & Mawedova, M. E. (1994) Amino acid of Calendula officinalis.
Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii 5: 690. Adler, G. & Kasprzyk, Z (1975) Free sterols, steryl esters, glucosides, aclylated giucosides and water soluble complexes in Calendula officinalis. Phytochemistry 14: 627-631.
PHYTOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS
L.
383
& Tamura, T. (1996) Triterpene alcohols from the flowers of Compositae and their antiinflammatory effects. Phytochemistry 43(6): 1255-1260.
Amirghofran, Z.i Azadbakht, M. & Karimi, M. H. (2000). Evaluation of the immunomodulatory effects of five herbal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72(1-2): 167-172. Anonymous (1948-1976). Wealth of India, Raw Material (Publication and information Directorate,CSIR, New Delhi), 10: 55-58. Bako, E.i Deli, J. & Toth, G. (2002). HPLC study on the carotenoid composition of calendula products. Journal of biochemical and biophysical methods. 53: 241-250. Barajas-Farias, 1.M.i Perwez-Carreen, J.I.i Arec-Popoca, E.i Fattel-Fazenda, C.i Heman-Lazarini, 1.i Hemander-Garcia, S.i Salcido-Neyay, M.i Gir-Jimens, F.G. & Villa-Trevino, S. (2006) A dual and opposite effect of Calendula officinalis flower extract chemoprotector and promoter in rat hepatocarcinogensis model. Planta Medica 72: 217-221. Barnes, J; Anderson, 1. A & Phillipson, J. D. (2002) Herbal Medicine (A Guide for healthcare professional), 2nd Ed., Pharmaceutical Press, 103-106. Bezakova, 1.i Masterova, I.i Paulikova, I. & Psenak, M. (1996) Inhibitory activity of isorhamnetin glycosides from Calendula officinalis on the activity of lipoxygenase. Pharmazie 51(2): 126127.
Boucard-Maitre Y (1988) Cytotoxic and Antitumoral activity of Calendula officinalis extract. Pharmazie 43: 220. Casley-Smith, J.R (1983) The effect of Unguentum lymphaticum on acute experimental lymphedema and other high-protein edemas. Lymphology 16: 150-156. Cetkovic G.S.i Djilas, S. M.i.Canadanovic-Brunet, J. M. & Tumbas, V. T. (2004) Antioxidant properties of marigold extracts. Food Research International 37: 643-650. Chakurski, I.i Matev, M.i Koichev, Ai Angelova, I. & Stefanov, G. (1981) Treatment of chronic colitis with an herbal combination of Taraxacum officinale, Hipericum perforatum, Melissa officinaliss, Calendula officinalis and Foeniculum vulgare Vutreshni bolesti 20(6): 51-54. Corina, P.i Dimitris, S.i Emanuil, T. & Nora, R (1999) Treatment with acyclovir combined with a new Romanian product from plants. Oftal mologia 46(1): 55-57. Della Loggia, Ri Tubaro, Ai Sosa, S.i Becker, H.i Saar, S. & Issac, O. (1994) The role of triterpenoids in topical antiinflammtory activity of Calendula officinalis extracts. Planta Medica 60: 516-520. Duke, J.A. (1991) Handbook of medicinal herbs. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 87-88. Elias, Ri De Meo, M.i Vidal-Ollivier, E.i Laget, M.i Balansard, G. & Dumenil, G. (1990) Antimutagenic activity of some saponins isolated from Calendula officinalis 1., C. arvensis 1. and Hedera helix 1. Mutagenesis 5(4):327-331. Fleischner, A N. (1985) Plant extracts: to accelerate healing and reduce inflammation. Cosmet toilet 100: 45. Gracza, 1. (1987) Oxygen-containing terpene derivatives from Calendula officinalis. Planta Medica 53: 227.
Gracza,1. & Szasz, X. (1986) Examination of active agents of marigold petals Calendula officinalis. Acta pharmacetuica Hungaria 38: 118-125. Iatsyno, A. I.i Belova, 1. F.i Lipkina, G. 5.; Sokolov, S. I. & Trutneva, E. A (1978) Pharmacology of calenduloside B, a new triterpene glycoside from the roots of Calendula officinal is. Farmakologiia i toksikologiia 41(5): 556-560.
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MADHURIMA, S.H. ANSARI, MD. SOHAIL AKHTAR AND PRAWEZ ALAM
Iauk, 1.; Lo Bue, A M.; Milazzo, I.; Rapisarda, A & Blandino, G. (2003) Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant extracts against periodontopathic bacteria. Phytotherapy Research 17(6): 599-604.
Inamoto, Y.; Tanaka, M. & Tanaka, H. (2005) Nonirritating hair growth promoters containing terthiophene and their products. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 12: 231-232. Janiszowska, W. & Korczak, G. (1980) The intracellular distribution of tocopherols in Calendula officinalis leaves. Phytochemistry 19: 1391-1392. Janiszowska, W.; Michalski, W. & Kasprzyk, z. (1976) Polyprenyl quinones and a- tocopherol in Calendula officinalis. Phytochemistry 16: 125-127. Kalvatchev, Z.; Walder, R. & Garzaro, D. (1997) Anti-HIV activity of extracts from Calendula officinalis flowers. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 51(4): 176-180. Kasprzyk, Z. (1973) Structure of a new triterpene triol from Calendula officinalis flowers. Phytochemistry 12: 2299-2300. Kasprzyk, Z. & Pyrek, J. (1968) Triterpenic alcohols of Calendula officinalis flowers. Phytochemistry 7(9): 1631-1639.
Kasprzyk, Z.; Turowska, G.; Grygiel, E. & Kanabus, M. (1970) Variations in the content of triterpenoids in the developing flowers of Calendula officinalis. Acta Biochimica Polonica 17(4): 253-258.
Khodzhaeva, M. A & Turakhozhaev, M. T. (1993) Carbohydrates of Calendula officinalis. Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii 4: 606-607. Kirtikar K.R. & Basu B.D. (2000) Indian Medicinal Plants. 3 rd Ed., 6, 1950-1951. Liang-Tzung, 1.; Li-The, 1.; Lien-Chai, C. & Chun-Ching, 1. (2002) In vitro anti-hepatoma activity of fifteen natural medicines from Canada. Phytotherapy Research 16(5): 440-444. Marukami, T.; Kishi, A; Yoshikawa & M. Medicinal flowers. IV (2001) Marigold. (2): Structures of new ionone and sesquiterpene glycosides from Egyptian Calendula officinalis. Chemical & pharmaceutical bulletin 49(8): 974-978. Matev, M.; Chakurski, I.; Stefanov, G.; Koichev, A & Angelov, I. (1981) Use of an herbal combination with laxative action on duodenal peptic ulcer and gastroduodenitis patients with a concomitant obstipation syndrome. Vutreshni bolesti, 20(6): 48-51. tAukhtar, H.M.; Ansari, S.H.; Naved, T. & Ali, M (2003) Journal of medicinal and aromatic plant sciences 25: 968-970. Muuse, B.G.; Cuperus, F.P. & Derksen, J.T.P (1992) Composition and physical properties of oils from new oil seed. Crops production 1: 57-65. Neukirch, H.; D'Ambrosio, M.; Dalla, V. J. & Guerriero, A (2004) Simultaneous quantitative determination of eight triterpenoid monoesters from flowers of 10 varieties of Calendula officinalis 1. and characterisation of a new triterpenoid monoester. Phytochemical Analysis 15(1): 30-35.
Pommier, P.; Gomez, F.; Sunyach, M. P.; D'Hombres, A.; Carrie, C. & Montbarbon, X. (2004) Phase III randomized trial of Calendula officinalis compared with trolamine for the prevention of acute dermatitis during irradiation for breast cancer. Journal of clinical oncology 22(8): 1447-1453. Pyrek, J. (1969) 4 p-Methyl sterol from marigold flowers. Chemical Communications 3: 107-108. Pyrek, J. (1977) Triterpene alcohol from Calendula officinalis flower. Acta Biochimica Polonica 51: 2331-2342.
PHYfOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS
L.
385
Pyrek, J. S. (1979) Terpene of compositae plants. Part IX. Structure of two new ljI-taraxene derivatives: heliantriols C and F. Mass spectrometry of 16-substituted 0-taraxenes. Polish Journal of Chemistry 53(5): 1071-1084. Rawi, S. M.; EI-Gindy, H. & Abd-EI-Kader, A (1996) New possible molluscicides from Calendula officinalis and Ammi majus. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 35(3): 261-267. Rosario, V. S.; Miguel, A; Zavala, S.; Cuauhtemoc, P. G.; Rosa, M.; Perez, G. & Sa Iud, P. G. (1998) Preliminary study of antidiarrheic activity in five mexican plant species. Phytotherapy Research 12: 547-548. Russo, M (1972) Use of Calendula extracts (Calendula officinalis) in cosmetology. Aerosol 54(10): 740-743. Shipochliev T (1981) Extract from a group of medicinal plant enhancing the uterine tonus. Vet Med Nauki 4: 94-98. Sliwowski, J.; Dziewanowska, K & Kasprzyk, Z. (1973). Ursadiol. New triterpene diol from Calendula officinalis flowers. Phytochemistry 12(1): 157-160. St. Pyrek, (1979) J. Terpenes of Compositae plants Part Xl (1979) Structures of heliantriols Bo, Bl, B2 and AI, new pentacyclic triterpenes from Helianthus annuus L. and Calendula officinalis L. Polish Journal of Chemistry 53(12): 2465-2490. Stevenson, R (1961) Some constituents of Calendula officinalis. Journal of Organic Chemistry 26: 52285230. Suchy, M. & Herout, V. (1961) Plant substances. Xl. Calendin, the bitter principle from Calendula officinalis. Chemical Communications 26: 890-892. Swiatek, L. & Gora, J. (1978) Phenolic acids in the inflorescences of Arnica montana and Calendula officinalis. Herba Polonica 24(4): 187-192. Ul'chenko, N. T.; Glushenkova, A 1. & Mukhamedova, K S. (1998) Lipids of Calendula officinalis. Chemistry of Natural Compounds 34(3): 272-274. Varjen, J.; Liptak, A & Wagner, H. (1989) Structural analysis of a rhamnoarabinogalactan and arabinogalactans with immunostimulating activity from Calendula officinalis. Phytochemistry 28(9): 2379-2383. Vecherko, L. P.; Kabanov, V. S. & Zinkevich, E. P. (1971) Structure of calenduloside B from Calendula officinalis roots. Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii 7(4): 533. Vecherko, L. P.; Sviridov, A. F.; Zinkevich, E. P. & Kogan, L. M. (1975) Structure of Calendulosides C and D from Calendula officinalis roots. Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii 11(3): 366-373. Vecherko, L. P.; Sviridov, A F.; Zinkevich, E. P. & Kogan, L. M. (1974) Structure of Calendulosides G and H from Calendula officinalis root. Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedznenii 4: 532-534. Vecherko, L. P.; Zinkevich, E. P. & Kogan, L. M. (1973) Structure of calenduloside F from Calendula officinalis roots. Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii 9(4): 561-562. Vecherko, L. P.; Zinkevich, E. P.; Libizov, N. 1. & Ban'kovskii, A 1. (1969) Calenduloside A from Calendula officinalis. Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii, 5(1): 58-59. Veeherko, L.P.; Zinkevich, E. P. & Kogan, L. M. (1973) 3-0-a-D-Glucuronopyranoside of oleanolic acid from Calendula officinalis roots. Khimiya Prirodnyklz Soedinenii 9(4): 560-561. Vidal-oliver, E.; Elias, R; Faure, F.; Babadjamian, A; Crespin, F.; Balansard, G. & Boudon, G(1989) Flavonol glycosides from Calendula officinalis Flowers. Planta Medica 55: 73-75. Wagner, H.; Proksch, A; Riess-Maurer, 1.; Vollmar, A; Odenthal, S.; Stuppner, H.; Jureic, K;
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MADHURIMA, S.H. ANSARI, MD. SOHAIL AKIrrAR AND PRAWEZ ALAM
Le Turdu, M. & Fang, J. N. (1985) ImmunostimuIating action of polysaccharides (heteroglycans) from higher plants. Arzneimittel-Forschung 35(7): 1069-1075
Willuhn, G. & Wethaus, RG. (1987) Loliolide (Calendin) from Calendula officinalis. Planta Medica 304.
Wojciechowski, Z.; Jelonkiewicz-Konador, A.; Tomaszewski, M.; Jankowski, J. & Kasprzyk, Z. (1971) Structure of glycosides of oleanolic acid isolated from the roots of Calendula officinal is. Phytochemistry 10(5): 1121-1124. Yoshikawa, M.; Muraka~i, T.; Kishi, A.; Kageura, T. & Matsuda, H (2001) Medicinal flowers. III. Marigold. (1): Hypoglycemic, gastric emptying inhibitory, and gastroprotective principles and new oleanane-type triterpene oligoglycosides,calendasaponins A, B, C, and D, from Egyptian Calendula officinalis. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 49(7): 863-870. Zitterl-Eglseer, K; Reznicek, G.; Jurenitsch, J.; Novak, J.; Zitterl, W. & Franz, C. (2001) Triterpenoids from calendula flowers. Phytochemical Analysis 12(3): 199. Zitterl-Eglseer, Ki Sosa, S.; Jurenitsch, J.; Schubert-Zsilavecz, M.i Della Loggia, R; Tubaro, A.; Bertoldi, M. & Franz, C. (1997) Anti-edematous activities of the main triterpendiol esters of marigold (Calendula officinalis L.) Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57(2): 139-144.
000
METHODS OF PURIFICATION OF TRIBAL DRUGS IN INDIA D.C.
PAL AND
C.R.
PAUL
C)lapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Methods of de-toxification and purification
3.
Discussion and conclusion
4.
Acknowledgements
1. INTRODUCTION Though the tribal medicine is not considered as traditional system of medicine as it is not considered as codified medicine i.e. due to lack of proper written document but it had has age-old tradition and long unwritten historical background. In India, tribal medicine, both single drug and compound preparations are used for various therapeutic purposes. These compound reparations contain several ingredients, of which vegetable products, animal products and minerals are very much common. Sometimes salt(s) are also used in it. Some of these ingredients are toxic in nature such as Aconite, Nux, Abrus, Cannabis, Zanthoxylum etc. These toxic ingredients are detoxicated and purified for use with the recipes. These processes have been developed through long experience of the tribal communities. The main purpose of such combinations are : (a) To obtain quicker effects
(b) To produce some specific action The various aims of such process are: (i) To make the recipes easily digestible, (ii) To make the recipes tasteful, (iii) To make the recipes easily assimilable, (iv) to make the recipes easily therapeutically more effective, (v) To make the recipe free from toxicity and more tolerable, (vi) To make the recipe preservable for a longer period.
388
D.C.
PAL AND
c.R.
PAUL
In this paper, a few tribal methods of detoxication and purification of toxic vegetable products are used in the recipes have been discussed which may help in standardization of toxic ingredients added to the various recipes used in therapeutic purposes.
2. METHODS OF DETOXICATION AND PURIFICATION 1.
Aconte: (Aconihlm spp.) Ranuculaceae :
The poisonous roots of Aconihml spp. are washed with warm water to clean the external impurities like sand, mud etc. Thereafter, the roots are cut into pieces of pea-sized and soaked in cow urine for a week. This urine is replaced by fresh cow urine at an interval of 24 hours and the container (preferably earthen) is exposed to sun during day time. Then the roots are thoroughly washed again with warm water. Thereafter, the outer bark of epidermal portion of the treated root pieces are carefully removed and the roots are dried in the bright sun. To ensure the de-toxication and purification of the roots by the adopted process, the Physican or expert in the community is asked are peeled out using a knife. The seed kernels are cut into small pieces and boiled in cow milk (seed and milk 1:4) for four hours duration. The process is repeated consecutively for three days. The milk is replaced on every-day after boiling. Then, the seeds are washed with warm water and dried in bright sun. The treated seed kernels are fried in clarified butter (cow). The fried kernels are made into a powder and stored in clean dry ground shell for use as medicine. 2.
Nux seed: (StnJchnos nux-vomica L.) Loganiceae :
The dried mature seeds are washed with warm water and put in boiled cow milk for more than 24 hours. Then the hard outer coats of the treated seeds are peeled out using a knife. The seed kernels are cut into small pieces and boiled in cow milk (seed and milk 1:4) for four hours duration. The process is repeated consecutively for three days. The milk is replaced one every-day after boiling. Then, the seeds are washed with warm water and dried in bright sun. The treated seed kernels are fried in clarified butter (cow). The fried kernels are made into a powder and stored in clean dry ground shell for use as medicine. 3.
Abrus: (Abrus precatorius L.) Fabaceae : (i) The nature seeds of white variety are soaked overnight in a fresh cow milk for detoxication of its poisonous effect.
(ii) The mature seeds of white, red or brown variety are washed with warm water, dried in sun and crushed. The crushed seeds are tied in a clean white piece of cloth hanged by wooden rod in a jar, half-portion of which is filled with cow milk to make it ready for boiling. As the milk starts boiling, more fresh milk is added slowly. The process is continued for about three hours. Thereafter the milk is allowed to cool. Then the crushed seeds in cloth are collected, washed with warm water and dried in sun. Thus the drug is detoxicated, purified and made ready for internal use.
METIIODS OF PuRIFICATION OF TRIBAL DRUGS IN INDIA
389
3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS It is worthy to note that the alkaloids of Aconitum nepellus, Aconitum cashmanthum Aconitum ferox, Aconitum balfourii, Aconitum falconeri, Aconitum falconeri, Aconitum lacianthum, Aconitum spicatum and Strychnos nux-vomica seeds are mentioned in Indian literature. These records are the validation of tribal medicine used both in traditional and modem system of medicine.
Some vegetable produces are minerals used in the tribal recipes are toxic. These toxic substances are added to the recipes after purification and detoxication only. They are made suitable for digestion, absorption and assimilation in the body. These are added to the various traditional methods. The methods of purification of drugs are also being found in the traditional system like Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha systems and in Tantra Therapy in India. In this paper, the purification methods of a few toxic vegetable products like Aconite roots, Nux seeds, Abrus seeds etc. have been discussed. This may help to physicians, pharmacologists, scientists and research scholars of modern medicines for standardization and commercializ~tion of recipes which contain toxic substances. 4.ACKNO~EDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the tribals for disclosing the fact during the ethnobotanical studies among the tribal community. 000
ETHNOBOTANICAL HERITAGE ON TRADITIONAL DRUG PRACTICES RELATING TO DIABETES IN MAGADH REGION (BIHAR) R.K. GOEL, RAJUL GOEL, B.K. PRASAD AND O.K. YADAv Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2. 3.
Materials and methods Discussion and conclusions
4.
Summary
5.
References
1. INTRODUCTION Diabetes or madhumeha (Raj Rog) is the most common disorder of the endocrine system. The number of individuals suffering fromdiabetes doubles every fifteen years. Though it is an alarming statement of the World Health Organization (WHO), still we do not pay serious attention towards the morbidity and mortality of this diseases. Diabetes mellitus has become the most c;ommon metabolic disorder among the human ailment in recent times. The modern trends of luxurious and comfortable living along with lack of exercise, yoga and irregularities of diet tendered the people more susceptible towards this disease. In spite of the gift of the mother nature, we are still unable to garner the hidden treasurer of herbs that can be judiciously used to combat this disease. They provide the human beings with natural cures through their medicinal properties. A number of known herbs are available which can keep away the morbidities of disease in general and diabetes in particular, if they are utilized for the benefit of human race (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935; Jain, 2001; Anomymous, 1973, 1976, Bhattacharjee, 1999). Medicinal plants that can be used to treat this disease have been presented category-wise in this paper along with measures for its prevention in future. Ayurvedic literature reveals, since the time of Charak and Sushrut, many herbal medicines in different formulations for the treatment of Madhumeh (Diabetes mellitus). A number of crude drugs extracted from plants such as garlic (Allium sativum), Neem
ETHNOBOTANICAL HERITAGE ON TRADmONAL DRUG PRACTICES RELATING
391
(Azadirachta indica), Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), Nayantara (Catharanthus roseus) and Gurmar (Gymnema sylvestre) have been reported to process hypoglycemic activity on experimental animals, Subsequently these have been validated by modern researches (Arora, 1989; Manilal, 1989; Ved Praksh, 1997; Natesh and Ram, 1999; Goel et al., 1999 and Varrier et al. 1994). The present paper enlists some of the locally used plants for the treatment of diabetes. in this context it is worth nothing that Magadh region is well known for its excellence during Maurya period during which legendary Vaidas like Jiwak exerted and worked out on the utility of plants growing around the area. The local people have inherited these facts from their ancestors.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS The present study is based on personal interviews with tribals of various age groups in the area. The local medicine-men from the villages were requested to accompany us to collect the plants in the forests. Visits were also made to Parasnath forest range which is known for its plant biodiversity in the eastern part of the country. The medicinal plant materials were shade dried and herbarium specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of Department of Botany, Magadh University, Bodh-Gaya. Therapeutic uses plants against diabetes and verified using flora (Haines, 1981-25).
3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION From the above list and the Table-1, it is clear that so many plants such as Aegle marmeios, Azadirachta indica, Catharanthus roseus, Emblica officinalis, Gymnema sylvestre, Momordica charantia and Syzygium cuminis have used from the time antiquity. Out of 51 plant species, 31 plants are perennials and are always always available round the year. Some of the are herbaceous (20), although they are used found during rainy and winter season. They are also available in the shop of Kanhai Sao, a prominent Vaidya of Gaya district of Bihar. The botanical of the plant including Bel, Neem, Sadahahar, Amla, Gurmar, Karela, Jamun etc. have been worked out scientifically at CDRI, CIMAP, and NBRI Lacknow. Other plants, however, need further investigation with respect to their active ingredients and their optimality at the different ontogenic stages of the growth.
3. SUMMARY This paper presents survey and enumeration of medicinal plants commonly used against diabetes by tribal and local people of Magdh region of Bihar. The tribal area lies on the southern side of the Magdh University Campus. The local vaidyas and village headman have recommended different plants to be used against diseases including diabetes. Out of total 51 plant species collected, twelve are more common. They are Annona squamosa L., Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr., Capsicum annuum L., Catheranthus roseus (L.) G. Don, Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult, Helicteris isora L., Hibiscus rosa-sinensis r,.., Momordica chamtia L., Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook., Trigonella foenum-graecum L., Syzygium cuminis (L.) Skeels, Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. They include 20, 13 and 18 herbs, shrubs and trees respectively. There are 35, 12 and 4 mesophytes, xerophytes, hydrophytes respectively. There different life form classes are: Phanerophytes-31, chamaephytes-OO, Hemicryptophytes-01, cryptophytes-05 and therophytes-14. There therapeutic uses include decoction, juice and powders or latex of plantj plant parts.
t.IJ
TABLE-l
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Survey, enumeration and ecotaxonomical study of some medicinal plants used against diabetes in Bihar Plant species
Local name
Family
Acacia catechu Muell. Acacia niloticia (L.) Del.
Kattha Babul
Mimosaceae Mimosaceae
Tree Tree
X X
Life forms Ph Ph
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.
Bel
Rutaceae
Tree
X
Ph
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd. Allium cepa L.
Siris Pyaz
Mimosaceae Alliaceae
Herb Herb
M M
Ph Ph
Allium sativum L. Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Boerhaavia diffusa L. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don Capsicum annuum L.
Citrus aurantifolia (Chrishn.) Sw. Curcuma longa L. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Lehsun Neem
Aliaceae Meliaceae
Habit
Herb
Habitat
M
Th
Tree
M
Ph
Punernava Sadabahar
Nyactaginaceae Herb Apocynaceae Herb
M M
Ph Ph
Mirch
Solanaceae
M
Th
Herb
Kagji Nimbu
Rutaceae
Shrub
M
Ph
Haldi
Zingiberaceae
Herb
M
Cr(Geo)
Dub
Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf. Kush
Poaceae
Herb
X
Hemi
Poaceae
Shrub
X
Ph
Part used
Therapeutic uses
Heart wood Tender leaves Five tender leaves Seed Bulb
Heart wood, decochon Tender leaves consumed
Bulb
Leaves consumed early in the morning Seed powder used Immature and mature bulbs consumed Bulb extensively used against diabetes Decoction of powder of the entire plant
Bark, leaves, seeds Whole plant Fresh juice effective Five leaves consumed Leaves early in the morning Dry fruits powder in Fruit meal lowers down the sugar level Use of fruit juice Fruit controls the sugar level Rhizome powder used Rhizome with water Whole plant Fresh juice of the plant effective Whole plant Fresh juice of the tender plant effective Contd ...
N
~
~ G'1 0
1!1
.r ~
2:c:: I:"'
G'1
?il
.r
=
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...Contd. Plant species
Local name
Family
Habit
Habitat
Diospyros malabarica Desv.
Tendu
Ebenaceae
Tree
M
Life forms Ph
Dolichos biflorus L.
Kulthi
Fabaceae
Herb
M
Th
Part used Fruits
Seed
Therapeutic uses Fruits used for controlling the sugar level Used as a pulse
::t:
Z 0 0...,
=
> Z .... n > t"'
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Emblica oficinalis Gaertn. Elettaria cardamom Maton
AmIa Elaichi
Euphorbiaceae Tree Zingibiheraceae Shrub
M Hydr
Ph Cr
Euruale ferox Salisb.
Makhana
Euryalaceae
Herb
M
Ph
Root, Stem, Leaves and Latex Fruit, Pull Capsule fruit Fruit
Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeuch Gmelina arborea Roxb.
Paniamla
Flacourtiaceae
Shrub
M
Ph
Fruit
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia neriifolia L.
Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult.
Herb
Gambhar
Verbenaceae
Tree
Gumar
Asclepiadaceae Shrub
M
Ph
X
Ph
Fruit
X
Ph
Leaves
Avertni
Helicteres isora L. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Jamminum officinale L.
Anantmool Motiya
Lawsonia inermis L.
Mehndi
StercuHaceae Shrub Asclepiadaceae Shrub (Climber) Oleaceae Shrub (Climber) Lythraceae Shrub
X X
Ph Ph
Fruits Fruits
X
Ph
M
Ph
Roots and Leaves Leaves
Powder of plant parts or latex effective Fruit more effective Fruits lower down the sugar level Unripe fruits used to control the sugar level Fruits consumed by the patients Fruits powder in small quantit-j used Leavs destroy the sweetness of the substances Fruit powder used only Root powder effective Powder of roots or leaves effective Dry leave powder with water used Contd ...
::j
>
C'l t!I
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:=
> 0
::j .... 0 Z
> t"'
0 c::
:= C'l
~
:=
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C'l
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Momordica charantia 1.
Karela
Cucurbitaceae
Herb
Hydr
Life forms Ph
Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f.
Kamal
Nympheaceae
Herb
X
Cr
All parts
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Paspalum scobiculatum 1. Pistia stratiotes 1. Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.
Jungli Jalebi
Mimosaceae
Tree
M
Ph
Seed
Kodon Jalkumbhi Kajur
Poaceae Araceae Arecaceae
Herb Herb Shrub
Hyder M
Th Cr Ph
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre
Karanj
Fabaceae
Tree
M
Ph
Pterocarpus santalinus 1.
Fabaceae
Tree
M
Ph
Rubia cordifolia 1.
Rakt Chandan Majistha
Rubiaceae
Herb
M
Th
Semecarpus anacardium 1. f.
Bhilawa
Anacardiaceae
Tree
M
Ph
Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.
Sal Sakhua
Dipterocarpaceae Tree
M
Ph
Grains Boiled seed used as meal Whole plant Plant juice used Fruit Fruits and plant juice used Kernel of Fruits juice used Fruits Seed Seed powder used by the patients Leaves and Decoction of leaves used Roots Fruits Processed seeds used by the patients Heart wood Decoction of heart wood effective Seed Process seeds used by the patients. Fruits, Leaf Equal part of fruits of Fruits Harr and Behera mixed Fruits with the same quantity of Amla form a Triphala which can cure diabetes
Plant species
Local name
Family
Habit
Habitat
X
Strychonos nux-vomica 1.
Kuchla
Strychnaceae
Tree
M
Ph
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. Terminalia chebula Retz. Terminlia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.
Jamun Harr Bahera
Myrtaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae
Tree Tree Tree
M M M
Ph Ph Ph
Part used Fruits
Therapeutic uses
~
Fresh juice of the fruits more effective All parts of the plant used by the patient Seed powder used
Contd ...
::r::I
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.r ::r::I
~r"'
~ 0
p
0::1
~
~
:=
> CIl > ~ > Z ~
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... Contd. Plant species
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight. and Am. Tinospora cordifolia (Wild.) Miers. ex Hook f & Thorn. Trapa natans L. Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
~
Local name
Family
Habit
Habitat M
Part used Bark
Powdered barks used
= Q
Dry stem powder effective Fruits used Seeds more effective
....~~
Combreataceae Tree
Guruch
1)\
Green stem
Singara Maithia
Menispennaceae Climbing Hydr shrub Trapaceae Herb M Fabaceae Herb M
Cr Th
Tribulus terrestris L.
Gokhuru
Zygophyllaceae Herb
M
Th
Trachispermum ammi (L.) Sprague Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.
Ajwain
Apiaceae
Herb
M
Th
Fruit Shoot and seeds Fruits and Roots Fruit
Parwal
Cucurbitaceae
Herb
M
Th
Poaceae
Shrub
M
Ph
Fruit and leave Roots
Herb
X
Th
Roots
Withana somnifera (L.) Dunal Woodfordia fruticosa (L.)
Ashwagandha Solanaceae Dawi
Lytharaceae
Shrub
Z 0
Life forms Ph
Atjun
Vetivera zizanioides (L.) Nash Khukhus
Therapeutic uses
:x:
Ph
Flower
> Z .... (') > t"'
ttl ==
> C'l ttl
Powder of fruits or roots cure the diabetes Decoction of fruits used Fruits used as vegetable Roots powder prescribed by Vaidyas Roots powder water used Powder of dry flowers a effective
0 Z ~ ~
> 0 ::j .... 0 Z
> t"'
0~ c:: C'l
""tl ~
> q .... (') ttl
Cr : Cryptophyte, Geo : Geophytes, Hemi : Hemicryptophytes, Hydr : Hydrophyte, M : Mesophyte, Ph : Phanerophyte, Th : Therophyte, X : Xerophyte
CIl
~
ttl t"'
~ ....
Z
C'l
396
R.K. GOEL, RAJUL GOEL, B.K. PRASAD AND D.K. YADAV
REFERENCES Anonymous (1973) Wild plants for food, medicines, fiber, fodder and other purposes. In: Ethnobotany: Chapter 6, Status report on All India Coordinated Research Project on Ethnobiology, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Govt. of India, New Delhi. Anonymous (1976) Wealth of India (Vol. 1-11), CSIR, New Delhi, India. Arora, R.K. (1989) Ethnobotany and plant domestication. In : Global Perspective, Method and Application in Ethnobotany, pp. 49-57. Bhattacharjee, S.K. (1999) Handbook of Medicinal Plants. Pointer Publishers, Jaipur, India. Goel, Raju, Goel, R.K., Pandey, B.N. & Yadav, D.K (1999) Medicinal Plants used for Jaundice in Magadh Region (Central Bihar), India, In : Prof.K.S.Manilai. Commemoration Volume on Biodiversity, Conservation and Taxonomy of Flowering Plants. (Eds. M. Sivadasan & . Mathew), Mentor Books, Calicut, pp. 349-355. Haines, H.H. (1921-25) Flora of Bihar and Orissa. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun (1978), India. Jain, S.K. (2001) Human aspects of plant diversity. Distinguished Economic Botanist Award Lecture, The Society of Economic Botany. 54C, pp. 459-470, New York Botanical Garden Pressm, Brous, USA. Kirtikar, KR. & Basu B.D. (1935) Indian Medicinal Plants (Vol.1-4) 2nd Ed. Periodical Expert, Delhi, India. Manilal, KS. (1989) Linkage of botany with other sciences and disciplines. In: Resources, Persons, Methods and Approaches in Ethnobotany (Ed. S.K. Jain), NBRI. Lucknow, India. Natesh, S. & Mohan Ram, H.Y. (1999) An update on green medicine. J.lndian Bot. Soc. 78(1-11):1323. Pushpagadon, P. (2000) The Role of Ethnobotany in 21 Century. In : National Seminar on Plant Biodiversity, Systematic, Conservation and Ethnobotany, p. 63, 10th Annual General Body Meeting of IAAT, Department of Botany, Siliguri, West Bengal, India. Ved Prakash (1998) Indian Medicinal Plants: Current Status. J.Ethnobotany 10:112-121. Varrier, P.K., Nambiar, V.P.K. & Kutty, c.R. (1994) Indian Medicinal Plants (Vol.1-5). Orient Longman Ltd., Madras, India.
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